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Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

[12th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Relief for Refugees (Foreign (Exemption) Order, 2025)

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Ministries & Departments Of The Government

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] India is an age-old friend of Sri Lanka. Discuss India’s role in the recent crisis in Sri Lanka in the light of the preceding statement.

Linkage: The issue of Sri Lankan Tamil refugees directly ties to India’s longstanding friendship with Sri Lanka. While India has consistently extended humanitarian aid during Sri Lanka’s crises, the 2025 Immigration Order reflects another dimension of this support by protecting refugees from forcible repatriation. It highlights how India balances compassion for vulnerable groups with its broader role as a stabilising partner in Sri Lanka’s recovery

Mentor’s Comment

The recent Immigration and Foreigners (Exemption) Order, 2025, marks a turning point in India’s refugee policy, particularly concerning Sri Lankan Tamil refugees. While it offers legal relief, many gaps remain in ensuring citizenship, dignity, and durable solutions. This article explores the issue through a UPSC lens, connecting it with governance, international relations, and humanitarian concerns.

Introduction

The Union Ministry of Home Affairs notified the Immigration and Foreigners (Exemption) Order, 2025, exempting specified groups from passport and visa requirements for entering, staying, and exiting India. For the first time, Sri Lankan Tamil refugees, who have lived in Tamil Nadu since the 1990s, find explicit mention, gaining protection from forcible repatriation. However, questions of legal status, citizenship, and long-term rehabilitation remain unresolved, making this both a humanitarian and policy challenge.

Why in the News

For over three decades, Sri Lankan Tamil refugees have lived in India without a clear roadmap for citizenship or repatriation. The 2025 Order gives them temporary relief but does not resolve their “illegal migrant” status. This is significant because, unlike the six religious minorities from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan who received relief under the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), the Sri Lankan Tamils had been left out earlier. The recognition in 2025 is thus both a success and a reminder of unaddressed policy gaps.

What Does the New Immigration Order Provide?

  1. Exemption Granted: Nationals of Nepal and Bhutan, Tibetan refugees, six religious minorities from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lankan Tamils are exempted from strict passport and visa rules.
  2. Historical Reference: Refugees must have entered India before January 9, 2015, and registered themselves to avail of the benefit.
  3. Protection from Forcible Return: This safeguards Sri Lankan Tamils from involuntary repatriation after decades of uncertainty.

Why Are Sri Lankan Tamil Refugees a Special Case?

  1. Civil War Displacement: Many fled to Tamil Nadu in the 1990s during Sri Lanka’s civil war.
  2. Post-war Welfare: Both Union and Tamil Nadu governments provided welfare after the civil war ended in 2009.
  3. Exclusion from CAA 2019: Unlike refugees from Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, Sri Lankan Tamils were excluded from citizenship benefits.

What Legal Hurdles Do Refugees Still Face?

  1. Illegal Migrant Tag: Despite the order, they remain classified as “illegal migrants” under Indian law.
  2. Citizenship Barriers: They cannot easily apply for citizenship under Section 5 (registration) or Section 6 (naturalisation) of the Citizenship Act, 1955.
  3. Long Term Visa (LTV) Gap: Exclusion from LTV eligibility blocks access to gainful employment and higher education.
  4. Missed Precedent: Tibetan refugees receive certificates of identity, which could serve as a model for Sri Lankan Tamils.

What Are the Policy Options Ahead?

  1. Liberalisation of LTVs: Extending LTVs to Sri Lankan Tamil refugees would facilitate education and jobs.
  2. Voluntary Repatriation: India and Sri Lanka can collaborate on structured assistance for safe return.
  3. Local Integration: For those unwilling to return, gradual local integration with a humane approach can be considered.
  4. Model Replication: Certificates of identity, as given to Tibetan refugees, can help provide dignity and legal standing.

Conclusion

The 2025 Immigration Order is a step forward, but it leaves critical questions unresolved. Sri Lankan Tamil refugees deserve a humane, durable solution, whether through voluntary repatriation with assistance, or integration with rights and dignity. India, while balancing domestic concerns and foreign relations with Sri Lanka, must craft a policy that reflects compassion, legality, and long-term stability.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Sri Lanka

[11th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The Way Forward on Katchatheevu, Palk Strait disputes

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2013] In respect of India — Sri Lanka relations, discuss how domestic factors influence foreign policy.

Linkage: The Katchatheevu and Palk Strait disputes show how domestic pressures from Tamil Nadu, fishing community demands, political rhetoric, and cultural ties with Sri Lankan Tamils, directly shape India’s diplomatic posture with Colombo. Balancing these domestic concerns with treaty obligations and ecological imperatives defines the contours of India’s foreign policy. This reflects how internal politics often intersect with external relations in South Asia.

Mentor’s Comment

The Katchatheevu and Palk Straits disputes highlight the fine balance India must strike between diplomacy, livelihood, and ecological sustainability. While political rhetoric often overshadows the nuanced reality, the recent revival of dialogue between India and Sri Lanka offers an opportunity to convert conflict into cooperation. This article unpacks the legal, ecological, and humanitarian dimensions of the issue and offers insights useful for UPSC Mains aspirants.

Introduction

India’s neighbourhood diplomacy has been historically guided by Panchsheel, the Non-Aligned Movement, SAARC, and now the Neighbourhood First Policy. Yet, challenges with Sri Lanka, notably the fisheries dispute in the Palk Straits and the sovereignty of Katchatheevu island, continue to test this vision. Prime Minister Modi’s April 2025 visit to Colombo revived discussions on these long-standing issues, calling for a “humane approach” that reconciles livelihoods and ecological imperatives. The stakes are high: peace in the Palk Straits is not just about maritime boundaries but about human security, sustainability, and regional goodwill.

The Katchatheevu and Palk Strait Issue

Katchatheevu Island Dispute

  • Katchatheevu island: A tiny, uninhabited islet (under 0.5 sq. miles) situated in the Palk Strait, legally ceded to Sri Lanka under the 1974 India-Sri Lanka Maritime Boundary Treaty.
    • Fishing rights vs sovereignty: While sovereignty is settled in Sri Lanka’s favour, Indian fishers, especially from Tamil Nadu, continue to demand access, leading to periodic clashes.
  • Palk Strait: A narrow stretch of sea separating Tamil Nadu from Sri Lanka’s Northern Province, rich in marine resources but ecologically fragile.
    • Conflict drivers: Indian bottom trawlers crossing the maritime boundary deplete fish stocks, harming both Indian artisanal fishers and Sri Lankan Tamil fishers.
    • Core issue: More than territory, it is a livelihood and ecological crisis, complicated by political rhetoric around Katchatheevu’s status.

Livelihood and conservation at odds

  1. Shared history: Fishing communities of Tamil Nadu and Northern Sri Lanka have relied on the Palk Straits for centuries.
  2. Destructive practices: Indian mechanised bottom trawlers enter Sri Lankan waters, violating conservation norms.
  3. Legal framework: UNCLOS and FAO’s 1995 Code of Conduct prohibit destructive fishing; Sri Lanka banned bottom trawling in 2017.
  4. Ecological damage: Coral beds and shrimp habitats are destroyed; fish stocks are depleted.
  5. Internal conflict: Traditional Tamil Nadu artisanal fishers also lose out, creating intra-community livelihood clashes.

Clearing the misconceptions around Katchatheevu

  1. Tiny territory: Katchatheevu is less than half a square mile, barren except for St. Anthony’s church.
  2. Treaty status: The 1974 India-Sri Lanka Maritime Boundary Treaty gave it to Sri Lanka; under international law, such treaties are binding.
  3. Legal precedents: Minquiers and Ecrehos (UK vs France, 1953) and Rann of Kutch (India-Pakistan, 1968) show administrative control outweighs historical claims.
  4. Clarification: Myths such as “Indira Gandhi gifting the island” are misleading; historical records supported Sri Lanka’s claim.
  5. Key point: Fishing rights are separate from sovereignty, and Katchatheevu is not the root of the dispute.

Towards cooperative fisheries management

  1. Historic waters: Indian and Sri Lankan law recognise the Palk Straits as historic waters, giving stronger sovereign rights.
  2. UNCLOS Article 123: Mandates cooperation in semi-enclosed seas.
  3. Models for India-Sri Lanka:
    1. Baltic Sea Fisheries Convention (quota-sharing).
    2. Possible steps: Joint research station on Katchatheevu, regulated quotas, seasonal access, promotion of deep-sea fishing in India’s EEZ.

Building empathy and fraternity

  1. Shared suffering: Sri Lankan Tamil fishers lost decades of livelihood during the civil war due to military restrictions.
  2. Goodwill memory: Tamil refugees were welcomed in Tamil Nadu during the conflict.
  3. Role of Tamil leaders: MPs and media in Sri Lanka can sensitise Tamil Nadu fishers to hardships across the strait.
  4. Narrative shift: Sri Lankan Tamils are not aggressors but fellow victims of history.

India’s neighbourhood policy in action

  1. Diplomatic tradition: Panchsheel, NAM, SAARC, Neighbourhood First Policy.
  2. Way forward: Prioritise livelihood security, ecological sustainability, and treaty respect over populism.
  3. Multi-level engagement: Government-to-government, State/Provincial dialogue, community interaction.
  4. Larger vision: Transform Palk Straits from a zone of conflict to a symbol of cooperation.

Conclusion

The Katchatheevu issue is legally settled and should not distract from the real crisis, sustainable fisheries management in the Palk Straits. Balancing artisanal livelihoods, ecological imperatives, and regional goodwill requires cooperative frameworks and empathy. If pursued with prudence, India and Sri Lanka can convert disputes into opportunities, strengthening the Neighbourhood First Policy and ensuring that smaller conflicts do not overshadow South Asia’s collective future of peace and prosperity.

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Make in India: Challenges & Prospects

[10th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The long march ahead to technological independence

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] What is the status of digitalization in the Indian economy? Examine the problems faced in this regard and suggest improvement.

Linkage: The article highlights that while India has rapidly digitalised its economy, dependence on foreign software, cloud, and hardware exposes vulnerabilities. This reflects the structural problems of inadequate indigenous technology and lack of sovereignty. Achieving technological independence through open-source and hardware self-reliance is a crucial improvement pathway.

Mentor’s Comment

On India’s 79th Independence Day, Professor P.J. Narayanan reminds us that freedom today is no longer defined by political borders alone, but by technological sovereignty. As cyber wars, AI dependency, and cloud vulnerabilities reshape geopolitics, India must undertake its own “long march” towards self-reliance in both software and hardware. This article critically explores the risks of dependence, the promise of open source, and the urgent need for collective will to achieve true independence.

Introduction

India’s hard-won political freedom was achieved through decades of struggle, but in the 21st century, sovereignty extends beyond flags and constitutions. Technology is now the true battlefield, with wars fought in cyberspace, economies run by software, and critical infrastructure dependent on a handful of global corporations. This dependence poses a strategic vulnerability. The call for technological independence, therefore, is not just a matter of pride but of survival and security.

The renewed urgency of technological sovereignty

India’s 79th Independence Day has highlighted a pressing reality: while politically independent, the nation remains technologically dependent on foreign companies that control critical digital infrastructure. With modern conflicts increasingly fought through cyberspace, and with real incidents of cloud service disruptions causing harm, the vulnerability is no longer hypothetical. For the first time, technology dependence is being discussed in terms of national sovereignty, marking a paradigm shift from past concerns that were limited to strategic sectors.

The Geopolitical Risks of Technology Dependence

  1. Cyber wars: Modern conflicts are less about bombs and more about software, drones, and cyberattacks.
  2. Critical infrastructure: Banks, trains, and power grids are run on ICT largely controlled by a few foreign firms.
  3. National diktat risks: If cloud/AI services are switched off under pressure from foreign governments, India’s economy and security could face paralysis.
  4. Real precedent: A recent stoppage of cloud services to a company proved this is not a theoretical danger.

Defining technological sovereignty in the Indian context

  1. Lack of foundational software: India has no indigenous operating system, database, or foundational software it can fully trust.
  2. Open-source pathway: Linux, Android, and Hadoop show that community-driven, transparent solutions are possible.
  3. Challenge of sustainability: Success requires long-term support, continuous updates, and a large user base.
  4. Role of IT professionals: India’s tech community must unite to develop, maintain, and secure indigenous systems.

Hardware sovereignty as the bigger challenge

  1. Semiconductor fabs: Require massive, long-term investments and expertise in design, manufacturing, and supply chains.
  2. Strategic prioritisation: India should start with specific hardware components, chip design, and assembly even if fabrication remains outsourced.
  3. Global lessons: Countries like Taiwan and South Korea built expertise over decades through patient national strategies.

Open-source solutions for technological independence

  1. Gift of society: Open-source is not about opposition, but about self-support and resilience.
  2. Current limitations: Even though Android, Linux, and Hadoop are open-source, control lies with centralised cloud companies.
  3. Social movement: Just as India’s freedom was driven by collective will, a people-led movement for open-source adoption is needed.
  4. Business viability: The model must go beyond government/private funds and become self-sustaining, with people explicitly paying for trusted software.

Immediate steps towards technological sovereignty

  1. Assemble crack teams: Develop client-side tools (database, email, calendar) and server-side tools (cloud, web, email).
  2. Product model: Teams must function like professional product-development units, not academic research groups.
  3. Mission approach: A dedicated national mission should be set up for implementation, backed by strong engineers and project managers.
  4. Enabling role of government: Focus on building a self-sustaining ecosystem with business incentives and regulatory support.

Conclusion

The 20th century saw India march towards political freedom; the 21st century demands a march towards technological freedom. Dependence on foreign systems is a strategic vulnerability that could cripple the nation in times of crisis. With its talent pool, thriving IT ecosystem, and democratic will, India has both the capacity and urgency to achieve technological sovereignty. The call of the hour is collective resolve, sustained investment, and a mission-driven approach.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Iran

[9th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Iran and India, ancient civilizations and new horizons

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?

Linkage: The article’s emphasis on Iran’s resilience against Western domination, its right to peaceful nuclear energy, and India–Iran civilisational partnership directly connects to the US–Iran Nuclear Pact controversy. Sanctions and U.S. pressure affect India’s energy security, INSTC access, and strategic autonomy. Thus, India’s calibrated diplomacy in balancing ties with both Iran and the West becomes central to safeguarding its national interest.

Mentor’s Comment

In the midst of global flux, Ambassador Iraj Elahi’s reflections on Iran–India relations remind us that ancient civilisations have the potential to shape modern geopolitics in profound ways. This piece dissects his arguments, from the erosion of Western dominance to the rise of South-South cooperation, and places them in the larger canvas of India’s foreign policy and civilisational outreach. For UPSC aspirants, it offers deep insights into international relations, civilisation studies, and contemporary global order debates.

Introduction

The global order is in transition. Once dominated by Western powers, especially the United States, the world now witnesses a shift toward multipolarity. The unchecked use of force, sanctions, and manipulation of global institutions by the West has weakened its legitimacy. In this changing landscape, ancient civilisations such as India and Iran are being called upon to offer not only an alternative but a humane, participatory and just global order. Their shared values of spirituality, peace, and cultural resilience form the foundation of this partnership.

The Crisis of the Western-led Order

  1. Declining dominance: The West, especially the U.S., is losing control over its classic instruments, global finance, technological monopoly, human rights discourse, and global media.
  2. Crisis indicators: Blatant violations of international law, unchecked use of force, trade wars, and environmental destruction signal deep systemic decay.

Why the Global South is Rising

  1. Civilisational awakening: Countries are resisting domination and discrimination by relying on local models and indigenous technology.
  2. Strategic autonomy: Defence and security strengthening in Global South nations marks a push against dependence on external powers.
  3. India and Iran as torchbearers: Both ancient civilisations embody resilience — from India’s Non-Aligned Movement to Iran’s Islamic Revolution.

Civilisational Wisdom and Shared Values

  1. Cultural resilience: Despite military defeats, both India and Iran influenced their conquerors with governance, literature, and art.
  2. Shared ethos: Belief in the triumph of good over evil, respect for diversity, spiritual growth, and commitment to peace.
  3. Historical struggles: India’s anti-colonial resistance and Iran’s oil nationalisation highlight their fight against domination.

Palestine and the Question of Justice

  1. Central issue: The Palestinian struggle is projected as the frontline battle of the Global South against Western hypocrisy.
  2. Iran’s stance: Defence of Palestine and its right to nuclear energy are framed as defences of sovereignty and law.
  3. Global South solidarity: Palestine becomes a metaphor for resistance against occupation and expansionism.

India–Iran in Multilateral and Regional Frameworks

  1. BRICS potential: Seen as a counterweight to Western economic dominance, sanctions, and dollar hegemony.
  2. INSTC: More than a trade corridor; envisioned as a civilisational bridge linking Eurasia, Africa, and South Asia, with stabilising effects on West Asia.
  3. Opposition to U.S. role: Iran critiques American interventions in West Asia and South Asia for fuelling instability and terrorism.

Conclusion

As the world transitions into multipolarity, the call for civilisational powers such as India and Iran to lead is both symbolic and strategic. Their partnership, rooted in resilience, peace, and spiritual values, has the potential to redefine the Global South’s trajectory. By working through BRICS, INSTC, and other platforms, they can craft a participatory global order, one that replaces domination with dignity, and hierarchy with equality.

Value Addition

India-Iran Relations

Historical & Civilisational Links

  1. Ancient ties: Both are among the world’s oldest civilisations, with exchanges in philosophy, art, architecture, and literature.
  2. Cultural influence: Persian language, miniature painting, Sufi traditions, and Mughal architecture in India reflect deep Iranian impact.
  3. Shared values: Spirituality, diversity, peace, and civilisational resilience.

Strategic & Economic Cooperation

  1. Energy security:
    • Iran was once India’s second-largest crude oil supplier.
    • Post-U.S. sanctions, imports dropped, but Iran remains vital for India’s energy diversification.
  2. Chabahar Port:
    1. India’s first overseas port project.
    2. Provides access to Afghanistan and Central Asia, bypassing Pakistan.
    3. Part of the larger International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).
  3. INSTC:
    1. Connects India to Russia and Europe via Iran.
    2. Cuts transport cost by ~30% and time by ~40%.

Geopolitical & Regional Significance

  1. Balancing act: India walks a fine line between the U.S.–Iran rivalry and its ties with Israel and the Gulf States.
  2. Afghanistan: India and Iran cooperated closely for stability, particularly post-U.S. withdrawal.
  3. West Asia: Iran acts as a counterbalance to Sunni-dominated Gulf powers; India’s diaspora and trade interests lie across the region.

Multilateral Engagement

  1. BRICS: Iran is a member of BRICS and became a full member along with other countries starting January 1, 2024, following an expansion agreement at the 2023 Johannesburg Summit.
  2. SCO membership: Both nations share platforms for regional security and connectivity.
  3. NAM legacy: Shared anti-colonial and non-aligned credentials.

Challenges in the Relationship

  1. U.S. sanctions: Reduced oil imports, halted investments in Chabahar and other projects.
  2. Strategic competition: Iran–China 25-year pact and deepening Tehran–Beijing ties raise concerns for India.
  3. Regional volatility: Palestine, Syria, Yemen conflicts complicate India’s balancing approach.

Ethical & Civilisational Diplomacy Dimension

  1. Civilisational diplomacy: Both countries advocate a just, humane, participatory order in contrast to Western domination.
  2. Palestine issue: Shared concern in Global South solidarity, though India has nuanced its position due to ties with Israel.
  3. Spiritual diplomacy: Shared heritage in Sufi and mystical traditions strengthens people-to-people bonds.

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FDI in Indian economy

[8th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: A complex turn in India’s FDI story

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2016] Justify the need for FDI for the development of the Indian economy. Why there is gap between MOUs signed and actual FDIS? Suggest remedial steps to be taken for increasing actual FDIs in India.

Linkage: The article highlights that although India records high gross inflows ($81 bn in FY 2024–25), massive repatriations and outward FDI reduce net retained capital, weakening industrial growth, directly reflecting the gap between headline FDI figures and actual developmental impact, just like the MOU–FDI gap in the question. Structural barriers such as regulatory opacity, policy unpredictability, and weak infrastructure explain why capital commitments don’t translate into long-term projects. The remedial steps suggested, simplified regulations, policy consistency, and infrastructure upgrades, align with the measures demanded in the UPSC 2016 question.

Mentor’s Comment

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) has long been celebrated as one of the most powerful engines of India’s growth since the reforms of 1991. It brought in capital, technology, and global linkages. Yet, beneath the shining surface of record inflows lies a disquieting reality, unprecedented outflows, disinvestments, and a shift away from long-term industrial commitments. This article explores the nuanced challenges in India’s FDI ecosystem, the divergence between inflows and outflows, and the urgent need for reforms.

Introduction

FDI has been central to India’s growth story, particularly after liberalisation in 1991, modernising industries and integrating India into global markets. While e-commerce and IT saw transformative capital inflows, recent years mark a complex shift. Despite India recording $81 billion in gross FDI inflows in FY 2024–25, net retained capital fell drastically due to massive repatriations and rising outward investments by Indian firms. This has profound implications for industrial growth, job creation, and long-term economic resilience.

Divergence Between Inflows and Outflows

  1. Gross inflows: $81 billion in FY 2024–25, up 13.7% from last year.
  2. Sharp withdrawals: Disinvestments surged by 51% in FY 2023–24 to $44.4 billion and further to $51.4 billion in FY 2024–25.
  3. Net retained capital: Fell to just $0.4 billion after accounting for outflows, a stark erosion of confidence.
  4. Investor behaviour shift: From long-term commitments to short-term tax arbitrage and profit-seeking.

The Decline of Manufacturing in FDI Trends

  1. Declining share: Manufacturing’s share in FDI dropped to a mere 12% of total inflows.
  2. Short-term focus: Preference for rent-seeking sectors such as financial services, hospitality, and energy distribution.
  3. Weak multiplier effects: Unlike manufacturing or infrastructure, these sectors do not create broad-based industrial or technological growth.

The Surge of Indian Capital Abroad

  1. Outward FDI: Rose from $13 billion in FY 2011–12 to $29.2 billion in FY 2024–25.
  2. Reasons cited: Regulatory inefficiencies, infrastructure gaps, and unpredictable policies.
  3. Destinations: Nearly half of outflows directed toward developed economies with stable tax regimes and strategic resources.

Structural Barriers in India’s Investment Climate

  1. Regulatory opacity: Complex compliance requirements discourage investors.
  2. Legal unpredictability: Frequent policy shifts undermine confidence.
  3. Governance inconsistencies: Contrast between reforms on paper and actual execution.
  4. Dominance of tax havens: Mauritius and Singapore continue to account for bulk inflows, driven by treaty-based tax strategies.

Why the Long Term Matters

  1. FDI as stability cushion: Supports balance of payments, currency stability, and external accounts.
  2. Declining net inflows: Curtails India’s monetary policy flexibility.
  3. RBI’s concern: Outflows align with global emerging market trends but pose systemic risks if unchecked.
  4. Need for committed capital: Advanced manufacturing, clean energy, and technology sectors require sustained inflows.

What Needs to Be Done

  1. Simplify regulations: Reduce compliance burden and procedural delays.
  2. Ensure policy consistency: Long-term clarity to build investor trust.
  3. Upgrade infrastructure: Logistics, energy, and digital backbones to attract manufacturing FDI.
  4. Strengthen institutions: Predictable legal frameworks and efficient governance.
  5. Invest in human capital: Education and skilling to meet industry demands.

Conclusion

India’s FDI story is at a crossroads. Gross inflows remain high, but capital is no longer staying long enough to catalyse industrial growth. The rising tide of disinvestment by foreign firms and outward FDI by Indian companies reflects systemic inefficiencies, weak confidence, and policy unpredictability. If India aspires to be a global investment hub, reforms must focus on quality, durability, and alignment of capital with national developmental goals.

Value Addition

Official Definition of FDI

  • IMF/UNCTAD definition: A cross-border investment where a resident entity in one economy obtains a lasting interest and a significant degree of influence in the management of an enterprise in another economy.
  • India (RBI): “Investment by a person resident outside India in the capital of an Indian company under Schedule 1 of FEMA Regulations, 2000.”

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Routes in India

  • Automatic Route: No prior approval required; investor only informs RBI after investment.
    • Examples: 100% FDI in e-commerce marketplace model, renewable energy, and computer software.
  • Government Route: Prior approval of the Government of India required.
    • Examples: FDI in multi-brand retail, defence beyond 74%, and print media.

Regulation of FDI in India

  • Ministry of Commerce and Industry: Frames FDI policy, announced via Consolidated FDI Policy Circular.
  • Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT): Nodal body for policy formulation and coordination.
  • RBI: Governs reporting, inflows, and compliance under FEMA, 1999.
  • Sectoral Regulators: Defence, Insurance, Banking, Telecom, etc. may impose additional conditions.

Barriers to FDI in India

  • Regulatory opacity: Complex rules and compliance increase transaction costs.
  • Policy unpredictability: Frequent changes in taxation (e.g., retrospective tax) weaken investor trust.
  • Infrastructure gaps: Logistics bottlenecks, power shortages, and urban congestion raise costs.
  • Legal uncertainties: Contract enforcement and dispute resolution remain weak.
  • Governance challenges: Land acquisition, bureaucratic delays, and inconsistent state-level policies.

Global Comparative Analysis

  • China: Strong manufacturing-centric FDI policies, large SEZs, predictable incentives, and world-class infrastructure helped it emerge as the world’s largest FDI recipient.
  • Vietnam: Stable policy frameworks, competitive labour costs, and integration into global supply chains (electronics, textiles) made it a hub for relocated investments.
  • Singapore & Mauritius: Dominant sources of FDI into India, largely due to tax treaty advantages rather than productive investment.
  • India: Despite being among the top FDI destinations (UNCTAD report), outflows and repatriations remain high, reflecting weak long-term retention.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-United States

[6th Spetember 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: India’s Strategic autonomy in a multipolar world

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2014] With respect to the South China Sea, maritime territorial disputes and rising tension affairs the need for safeguarding maritime security to ensure freedom of navigation and even flight throughout the region. In this context, discuss the bilateral issues between India and China.

Linkage: India’s stance on the South China Sea highlights strategic autonomy — upholding freedom of navigation under UNCLOS while resisting China’s expansive claims. Bilateral tensions persist, from border clashes (2020) to disputes over India’s oil exploration with Vietnam in contested waters. Yet, India balances deterrence through the Quad and cooperation via BRICS/SCO, reflecting a cautious but autonomous approach.

Mentor’s comment

Strategic autonomy is more than just a diplomatic catchphrase for India, it is the lifeline of its foreign policy in an era of multipolar flux. As India seeks to balance ties with the United States, China, and Russia, while also positioning itself as the voice of the Global South, the concept is no longer theoretical but a daily practice. For UPSC aspirants, understanding this evolving doctrine is essential to connect historical continuities with present-day challenges of geopolitics, economy, and technology.

Introduction

Strategic autonomy, once confined to the academic realm of international relations, has become a core principle of India’s foreign policy. Rooted in India’s colonial history and first institutionalized through Nehru’s Non-Alignment Movement, it has today evolved into a doctrine of multi-alignment, pragmatism, and resilience. In a world where U.S. unipolarity is waning, China is rising, and Russia is recalibrating its global role, India faces both opportunities and constraints. The essence of strategic autonomy lies in navigating this turbulent multipolarity while safeguarding sovereignty, growth, and global aspirations.

The Evolution and Relevance of Strategic Autonomy

  1. Historical roots: Emerged from India’s colonial subjugation and Nehru’s vision of non-alignment.
  2. Cold War practice: Balanced ties with both blocs while retaining independence.
  3. Contemporary shift: Modi-era “multi-alignment” emphasizes flexibility with powers like the U.S., Russia, and China.
  4. Core principle: Not isolationism but adaptability in safeguarding national interests.

How the Global Order Shapes India’s Autonomy

  1. Fragmented multipolarity: Decline of U.S. dominance, rise of China, Russia’s revisionism, and West’s internal divisions.
  2. Volatility in partnerships: U.S. unpredictability under Trump strained trade ties and increased pressure on India over Russia.
  3. Fluid environment: India must recalibrate ties to secure territorial integrity, economic growth, and regional stability.

India’s Engagement with the United States

  1. Deepened partnership: Defence cooperation, intelligence sharing, joint exercises, and technology transfers.
  2. New initiatives: Quad, Indo-Pacific dialogues, I2U2, and IMEC reflecting shared concerns about China.
  3. Friction points: Trade tariffs, sanctions, and pressure to reduce Russia ties.
  4. India’s stance: Balanced engagement, cooperative yet assertively independent.

India’s Balancing Act with China

  1. Security challenge: Border clashes of 2020 ended the façade of benign coexistence.
  2. Dual reality: China remains India’s major trading partner despite tensions.
  3. Strategic response: Strengthened border infrastructure, deepened Indo-Pacific ties, and indigenous defence push.
  4. Diplomatic engagement: Continued participation in BRICS, SCO to balance rivalry with dialogue.

India’s Enduring Partnership with Russia

  1. Historical solidarity: Long-standing defence cooperation rooted in Cold War ties.
  2. Ukraine conflict test: Continued oil imports and weapons purchases despite Western criticism.
  3. Autonomous approach: Diversification of defence imports without abandoning Russia.
  4. Core principle: Refusal to choose sides in binary contests.

Strategic Autonomy in the Global South Context

  1. Voice of the Global South: Asserted during India’s G20 presidency in 2023.
  2. India’s stance: “Non-West” but not “anti-West”, balancing pragmatism with plural democracy.
  3. Resonance abroad: Other rising powers too seek agency, not vassalage, in global politics.

Domestic and Technological Dimensions of Autonomy

  1. Internal constraints: Political polarisation, economic vulnerabilities, institutional weaknesses.
  2. Modern domains: Cyber threats, AI warfare, space competition, data sovereignty.
  3. Recent steps: Indigenous platforms, critical minerals security, global tech governance participation.

Conclusion

Strategic autonomy is not about standing alone, but about standing tall. It requires balancing ties with major powers, investing in national capacity, and adapting to new-age domains of competition. India’s rise as a sovereign pole in the multipolar order rests on maintaining autonomy without succumbing to bloc politics. The essence is not isolation, but resilience, the art of walking the tightrope with clarity, confidence, and conviction.

Value Addition

Definition of Strategic Autonomy

General Definition:

  • Strategic autonomy is a nation’s ability to pursue independent foreign and security policies, making sovereign decisions without being bound by external pressures, alliances, or blocs.
  • MEA perspective: It is about “maximizing national interest through diversified engagements” — not neutrality, not isolation, but flexibility and resilience.

Evolution of Strategic Autonomy in India

  • Colonial Context: India’s colonial past created a deep-rooted desire to preserve independence in foreign policy.
  • Nehruvian Non-Alignment (1950s–1970s)
    • Core principle: India would not align with any Cold War bloc.
    • 1955 Bandung Conference and NAM (1961 Belgrade) institutionalized this vision.
    • Quote (Nehru, 1946): “We propose, so far as we can, to keep away from the power politics of groups, aligned against one another.”
  • Indira Gandhi Era (1970s–1980s)
    • Tilt towards USSR (1971 Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation).
    • Still claimed non-alignment, but practice became more pragmatic.
  • Post-Cold War Recalibration (1990s–2000s)
    • Unipolar U.S.-dominated world; India liberalised economy and sought closer U.S. ties while keeping Russia engaged.
    • “Strategic autonomy” re-emerged as India avoided being a U.S. ally despite growing partnership.
  • 21st Century: Multi-Alignment
    • India now engages multiple powers simultaneously: U.S. (Quad, I2U2, IMEC), Russia (defence, energy), China (BRICS, SCO), EU (trade), Global South (voice in G20).
    • Current doctrine: “Autonomy through diversification”, maintaining flexibility across issues.

Multi-Alignment in India’s Foreign Policy

  • Overview: Instead of non-alignment (staying out of blocs), India today practices multi-alignment — engaging with all major powers, often simultaneously, without exclusive commitment.
  • Examples:
    • Quad (U.S., Japan, Australia, India) → Indo-Pacific security.
    • BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) → financial/strategic cooperation.
    • SCO (Russia, China, Central Asia) → security & regional stability.
    • I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE, U.S.) → technology, infrastructure, food security.
    • IMEC → new economic corridor connecting India–Middle East–Europe.

Key Quotes for Value Addition

  • Jawaharlal Nehru (1946): “We propose, so far as we can, to keep away from the power politics of groups, aligned against one another.” (Origin of non-alignment).
  • Atal Bihari Vajpayee (2003, as PM): “India and the United States may disagree on some issues, but as sovereign countries, we have the right to pursue our national interests.” (Strategic autonomy in U.S. ties).
  • Dr. Manmohan Singh (2005, PM): “Our strategic autonomy does not mean isolation. It means engaging all major powers on equal terms.”
  • S. Jaishankar (External Affairs Minister):
    • “Multi-alignment is the call of the day. Strategic autonomy in today’s multipolar world means engaging America, Russia, China, Europe, and others — each on its own merit.”
    • “Partnerships must be based on interests, not sentiment, not inherited obligations.”
    • “We are non-West, but not anti-West.” (G20 context, 2023).
  • Shivshankar Menon (Former NSA & diplomat):
    • “Strategic autonomy is not a slogan. It is the art of being flexible in a world where alliances are rigid, and sovereignty is contested.”
    • “For India, autonomy lies in not choosing sides but choosing our interests.”

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Goods and Services Tax (GST)

[5th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: GST 2.0 is a landmark in India’s Tax Journey

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2020] Explain the rationale behind the Goods and Services Tax (Compensation to States) Act of 2017. How has COVID-19 impacted the GST compensation fund and created new federal tensions?

Linkage: The GST (Compensation to States) Act, 2017 was meant to assure states of revenue stability post-GST rollout, but COVID-19 strained the fund, creating federal tensions over delayed compensation. In contrast, GST 2.0 reflects cooperative federalism, with consensus on slab rationalisation, inverted duty correction, and GSTAT. This marks a shift from fiscal disputes to collaborative reform, strengthening trust in India’s tax federalism.

Mentor’s Comment

The 56th meeting of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council has ushered in a decisive set of reforms, marking a new chapter in India’s fiscal federalism. By moving towards a simplified two-rate structure and addressing long-standing distortions, GST 2.0 promises to reshape consumption patterns, boost competitiveness, and build a fairer system. For UPSC aspirants, this development offers lessons on economic governance, cooperative federalism, social security, and inclusive growth.

Introduction

The 56th GST Council meeting (September 3, 2025) has been hailed as a watershed in India’s taxation history. For the first time since the rollout of GST in 2017, the complex multi-slab structure has been significantly rationalised. The new structure introduces just two core slabs, 18% (Standard Rate) and 5% (Merit Rate), with a 40% demerit rate for a few goods, while several essentials are exempt. These reforms are not limited to technical tax changes; they are a “people’s reform” with direct impact on households, farmers, industries, and the healthcare sector.

The significance of GST 2.0 reforms

  1. Historic simplification: Earlier GST had 5%, 12%, 18%, and 28% slabs. The new 2-rate system with exemptions marks the biggest simplification since 2017.
  2. People-centric relief: Daily-use goods like soap, shampoo, bicycles, and kitchenware now taxed at 5%; essentials like milk, paneer, parathas exempt. This makes taxation citizen-friendly.
  3. Social security boost: All life and health insurance products are exempted from GST for the first time, improving affordability and raising insurance penetration.
  4. Correcting distortions: Long-pending inverted duty structures, particularly in textiles and fertilizers, have been corrected.
  5. Institutional strengthening: The announcement of GST Appellate Tribunal (GSTAT) by year-end promises faster dispute resolution.

Impact of reforms on households and social security

  1. Cheaper essentials: Items like soap, shampoo, toothpaste, bicycles, and kitchenware moved to the 5% slab.
  2. Exemptions on food: UHT milk, paneer, chapatis, and parathas exempt, easing burden on middle and low-income families.
  3. Insurance relief: GST exemption on life and health insurance makes coverage accessible to senior citizens and low-income groups.
  4. Healthcare affordability: Cancer drugs, medicines for rare diseases, and critical devices made cheaper through exemptions and cuts.

Benefits of GST 2.0 for farmers and rural India

  1. Lower cultivation cost: Fertilisers, sulphuric acid, and ammonia shifted from 18% to 5%.
  2. Cheaper farm equipment: Tractors and machinery brought to 5% slab, improving productivity and rural income.
  3. Structural correction: By rationalising inputs and outputs, GST 2.0 reduces price distortions and supports agricultural sustainability.

Implications for industries and employment

  1. Labour-intensive sectors: Handicrafts, marble, granite, and leather goods get rate reductions, boosting employment.
  2. Textile competitiveness: GST on man-made fibres and yarn reduced to 5%, resolving a major inverted duty issue. This is expected to improve exports and domestic value-addition.
  3. Infrastructure multiplier: Cement rate cut from 28% to 18% to spur housing and infrastructure.
  4. Green economy boost: Cuts on renewable energy devices and auto components support sustainable growth.

Institutional reforms under GST 2.0

  1. Operationalisation of GSTAT: To be functional by year-end, ensuring quicker dispute resolution and taxpayer confidence.
  2. Process reforms: Provisional refunds for inverted duty structures, risk-based compliance, and harmonised valuation rules reduce business uncertainty.
  3. Ease of doing business: These reforms align India’s tax system with global best practices and make compliance less cumbersome.

Phased rollout and implementation strategy

  1. Gradual rollout: Effective from September 22, 2025, reforms are phased to balance fiscal stability and consumer benefits.
  2. Revenue neutrality: Phasing prevents sudden fiscal shocks while stimulating demand and investment.
  3. Stakeholder partnership: Council’s decisions reflect responsiveness to industry, consumers, and state governments.

Conclusion

GST 2.0 represents not just a fiscal reform but a societal shift. By rationalising slabs, correcting distortions, and easing compliance, it strengthens the foundation for a Viksit Bharat 2047. The reforms are inclusive, covering farmers, workers, households, and industries alike, while building institutions like GSTAT. The success of these reforms will ultimately depend on smooth implementation and sustained cooperative federalism.

Value Addition

Economic Reforms: GST 2.0 and Global Best Practices

Two-rate model adoption: GST 2.0 moves from a complex four-slab structure (5%, 12%, 18%, 28%) to a simplified two-rate system (5% Merit Rate and 18% Standard Rate), with a 40% demerit rate for select goods. This mirrors global practices where most advanced economies prefer fewer slabs for simplicity.

International parallels:

  1. Canada follows a dual rate Goods and Services Tax/Harmonized Sales Tax model, with exemptions for essentials like food and healthcare.
  2. Australia operates a uniform GST at 10% but exempts basic food, health, and education, similar in spirit to India’s exemptions on milk, paneer, chapati, and healthcare.
  3. Singapore maintains a single GST rate (currently 9%) with targeted exemptions.

Benefits of convergence:

  1. Ease of compliance: Fewer slabs reduce classification disputes and litigation.
  2. Predictability for businesses: Encourages investment by aligning India’s tax structure with global investors’ expectations.
  3. Revenue neutrality with inclusivity: Exemptions for essentials ensure equity while maintaining fiscal stability.

Reform trajectory: GST 2.0 represents a shift towards global standards without fully copying them, adapting the model to India’s socio-economic realities — balancing growth, inclusion, and fiscal prudence.

 

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Judicial Reforms

[3rd September 2025] India needs more women judges in the Supreme Court

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Disucss the desirability of greater representation to women in higher judiciary to ensure equity and inclusiveness.

Linkage: The acute gender imbalance in the Supreme Court, with only 11 women judges since 1950, directly reflects the inequity in higher judiciary appointments. Greater representation of women is not only about fairness but also about inclusiveness, diversity of perspectives, and legitimacy of justice delivery. This makes the 2021 UPSC question highly relevant as it highlights why institutionalising gender as a criterion in judicial appointments is essential.

Mentor’s Comment

The issue of women’s representation in the higher judiciary has resurfaced sharply after the recent appointments to the Supreme Court overlooked senior women judges and lawyers. Despite being the guardian of constitutional morality and equality, the apex court itself reflects a glaring gender imbalance. This article explores the extent of underrepresentation, the opacity in the appointment process, and why diversity on the Bench is not merely symbolic but essential for justice delivery.

Introduction

The retirement of Justice Sudhanshu Dhulia in August 2025 created an opportunity to address the deep gender imbalance in India’s Supreme Court. However, with the appointments of Justices Vipul Pancholi and Alok Aradhe, the Court continues to have only one woman judge—Justice B.V. Nagarathna. This exposes both a structural problem in the judicial appointment system and the reluctance to institutionalise gender as a criterion for higher judiciary appointments.

The significance of gender imbalance in the Supreme Court

  1. Striking underrepresentation: Only 11 women judges out of 287 since 1950 (3.8%).
  2. Missed opportunity: Despite two vacancies in August 2025, no woman judge was appointed.
  3. Historical first ignored: The 2021 Collegium decision appointing three women judges at once raised hope of change, but the momentum has not continued.
  4. Symbolic contradiction: The Court upholds gender equality but does not reflect it internally.

The historical trajectory of women judges in the Supreme Court

  1. First woman judge: Justice Fathima Beevi (1989).
  2. Trail of appointments: Only 11 till date, with short tenures limiting their influence.
  3. Tenure disparity: Women often appointed at a late stage in career, reducing chances of reaching the Collegium or CJI position.
  4. Upcoming first woman CJI: Justice B.V. Nagarathna, but for only 36 days (Sept–Oct 2027).
  5. Lack of caste and minority representation: Only Justice Fathima Beevi represented a minority faith; no SC/ST woman judge was ever appointed.

Gender disparity in direct elevation from the Bar

  1. Male dominance: Nine men have been directly elevated from the Bar.
  2. Single woman appointee: Justice Indu Malhotra (2018) was the only woman elevated directly.
  3. Systemic discrimination: Despite women Senior Advocates being present, elevation remains blocked.
  4. Global comparison: Worldwide, the Bar is a major route to the higher judiciary, India lags in enabling women lawyers.

The opacity of the judicial appointment process

  1. Collegium secrecy: No clarity on criteria or names under consideration.
  2. Inconsistent transparency: Collegium resolutions briefly made public in 2017 under CJI Dipak Misra, but not institutionalised.
  3. Regional and caste factors considered: Yet gender is ignored as a formal category.
  4. Violation of merit claims: Recent appointments skipped senior women High Court judges despite “seniority” being cited in the past as a hurdle.

The importance of women’s representation on the Bench

  1. Unique perspectives: Women judges bring experiential diversity that shapes judicial outcomes.
  2. Public trust: Greater representation builds confidence in judicial impartiality.
  3. Truly representative court: The SC must reflect India’s social and gender diversity to strengthen legitimacy.
  4. Judicial precedents: The Court itself has mandated 30% reservation for women in Bar Association elections, but has no such rule for its own appointments.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s gender imbalance undermines its constitutional commitment to equality and inclusivity. Unless women are institutionalised as a criterion for judicial appointments, alongside caste, religion, and region, the credibility of India’s top court will remain in question. Representation is not tokenism; it is a constitutional necessity to ensure justice is dispensed through the lens of diversity, fairness, and lived realities.

Value Addition

Committees & Reports

  1. Law Commission 230th Report (2009): Recommended adequate representation of women and minorities in higher judiciary.
  2. Justice Verma Committee (2013): Strongly stressed the need for gender diversity in judiciary to handle women-related cases with sensitivity.

International Comparisons & Norms

  1. Beijing Platform for Action (1995): Calls for women in decision-making positions, including judiciary.
  2. Canada & UK: Women form 40–50% of higher judiciary in recent years.
  3. South Africa: Institutionalised diversity (race + gender) as a mandatory criterion in judicial appointments.

 

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

[2nd September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The rise and risks of health insurance in India

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Investment Models

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent this has been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth?

Linkage: The expansion of Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY) and State Health Insurance Programmes (SHIPs) shows rising public expenditure on health but largely towards insurance reimbursements rather than strengthening primary health infrastructure. This trend benefits private hospitals and tertiary care but fails to reduce out-of-pocket costs or enhance inclusivity, as utilisation remains low. Thus, the expenditure pattern reflects growth without true inclusiveness, misaligned with the objectives of inclusive growth.

Mentor’s Comment

The debate on health insurance in India has intensified in recent years, especially with the expansion of State-sponsored schemes like Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY). While these initiatives provide some relief, the core question remains: can insurance-driven models substitute for robust public health infrastructure? This article unpacks the illusion of universal health coverage (UHC) through insurance, its systemic risks, and the urgent need for course correction.

Introduction

The Bhore Committee Report (1946) defined UHC as guaranteed access to quality health care for every citizen irrespective of their ability to pay. Eight decades later, India still falls far short of this goal. Instead of strengthening public health infrastructure, India has leaned heavily on health insurance schemes like the PMJAY and State Health Insurance Programmes (SHIPs). Though they provide relief to some, these schemes have created new distortions, risks, and inequities in the health system.

The Surge of Health Insurance Schemes

  1. PMJAY Launch (2018): Landmark scheme under Ayushman Bharat with ₹5 lakh annual cover per household for in-patient care.
  2. Massive Coverage: In 2023–24, PMJAY covered 58.8 crore individuals with an annual budget of ₹12,000 crore.
  3. Parallel SHIPs: State-level schemes cover a similar number with a budget of at least ₹16,000 crore.
  4. Rising Budgets: SHIP allocations grew at 8–25% annually (2018–19 to 2023–24) in States like Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra.

Commercialisation of Healthcare under Insurance

  1. Two-thirds of the PMJAY budget flows to private hospitals, often profit-oriented.
  2. Study findings: Minimal change in hospitalisation rates, but rise in private hospital use.
  3. Weak regulation: India’s poorly regulated profit-seeking providers dominate the system.

Hospitalisation Bias in Insurance Models

  1. Bias towards hospitalisation: Insurance covers only in-patient care, neglecting primary and outpatient care.
  2. Ageing challenge: Expanding coverage to elderly (70+) risks disproportionate spending on tertiary care.

Challenges in Effective Utilisation of Coverage

  1. High theoretical coverage: 80% of the population enrolled under PMJAY + SHIPs.
  2. Low effective use: Only 35% of insured patients could utilise benefits (2022–23 HCES).
  3. Barriers: Lack of awareness, procedural hurdles, and discrimination by providers.

Discrimination in Healthcare Delivery

  1. Private hospitals: Prefer uninsured patients for higher commercial charges.
  2. Public hospitals: Prefer insured patients for reimbursement incentives.
  3. Result: Discriminatory treatment and pressure on patients to enrol immediately.

Financial Strains Leading to Hospital Withdrawals

  1. Pending dues: PMJAY arrears reached ₹12,161 crore, more than its annual budget.
  2. Provider dissatisfaction: Low reimbursement, long delays.
  3. Hospital exits: 609 hospitals opted out of PMJAY since inception.

Corruption and Irregularities in PMJAY and SHIPs

  1. Fraudulent practices: NHA flagged 3,200 hospitals for irregularities.
  2. Common issues: Overcharging, denial of treatment, unnecessary procedures.
  3. Weak safeguards: No evidence of effective audits or transparency in scheme portals.

The Systemic Risk of Insurance-Led Health Care

  1. Profit over patients: Insurance reinforces commercial medicine rather than correcting it.
  2. Underfunded public health: India spends only 1.3% of GDP on health (World Bank, 2022), vs world average of 6.1%.
  3. Comparative failure: Unlike Canada and Thailand, India’s schemes lack universal coverage and non-profit focus.
  4. Result: Insurance becomes a “painkiller”, not a cure for India’s broken public health system.

Conclusion

Health insurance in India has expanded rapidly, but it remains a fragile foundation for UHC. It fosters profit-driven medicine, neglects primary care, suffers from poor utilisation, and is riddled with corruption. Without massive investment in public health infrastructure, primary care, and regulation, India cannot hope to achieve universal health coverage. Insurance schemes, at best, provide temporary relief, not sustainable health security.

Value Addition
  1. National Health Policy, 2017: Targets increasing government health expenditure to 2.5% of GDP by 2025, but current levels remain at ~1.3%.
  2. High Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE): As per NSSO 2017–18, OOPE in India still accounts for over 50% of total health expenditure, one of the highest in the world.
  3. Lancet Commission on Global Surgery (2015): Highlighted that nearly 5 billion people worldwide lack access to safe, affordable surgery, underscoring the gaps in India’s insurance-driven, hospitalisation-focused approach.
  4. WHO Recommendation: For effective Universal Health Coverage (UHC), countries need to strengthen primary health systems — India still lags here, with sub-centres and PHCs facing severe staff shortages.
  5. National Health Accounts (NHAI) 2019–20: Show that private sector spending dominates health financing in India, with households bearing the brunt, unlike in OECD nations where governments fund the majority.
  6. Insurance Penetration vs. Health Security: India’s insurance penetration (life + non-life) is about 4.2% of GDP, but penetration does not automatically translate to healthcare access or financial protection.
  7. Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres (AB-HWCs): Intended to provide comprehensive primary healthcare (preventive + promotive), yet remain underfunded compared to PMJAY, skewing priorities.
  8. Equity Gap – Rural vs. Urban: Rural populations face doctor-population ratio deficits, with most PMJAY empanelled hospitals concentrated in urban centres, worsening regional disparities.
  9. Digital Health Mission (NDHM 2020): Aims to create digital health IDs and improve transparency, but challenges include digital divide and privacy concerns.
  10. Economic Survey 2020–21: Stressed that public health investment has high multiplier effects on productivity and human capital formation — much higher than insurance subsidies.

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Economic Indicators and Various Reports On It- GDP, FD, EODB, WIR etc

[1st September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: India’s economic churn, the nectar of growth

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] Do you agree with the view that steady GDP growth and low inflation have left the Indian economy in good shape? Give reasons in support of your arguments.

Linkage: India’s steady GDP growth of 7.8%, coupled with broad-based sectoral performance, reflects macroeconomic stability, while effective fiscal and monetary discipline underpins low inflation. The sovereign rating upgrade after 18 years validates external confidence in India’s fundamentals. These trends, along with inclusive poverty reduction, highlight that the economy is indeed in good shape.

Mentor’s Comment

India’s economy is once again at the centre of global attention. From being dismissed as a “dead economy” by sceptics, the latest economic data, sovereign rating upgrade, and energy security achievements have painted a powerful picture of resilience and renewal. This article unpacks the recent developments in India’s economic and energy story, their significance, and what they mean for aspirants of Viksit Bharat.

Why is this issue in the news?

India’s Q1 FY 2025-26 GDP figures revealed 7.8% real growth, the fastest among major economies, coupled with a historic sovereign rating upgrade by S&P Global after 18 years. Simultaneously, India has consolidated its position as the world’s third-largest energy consumer and is spearheading a green transition. These milestones are striking because they overturn the “dead economy” narrative, highlight India’s growing share in global growth, and showcase a balance between growth, reform, and welfare, all while maintaining democratic values in contrast to authoritarian models of fast-paced growth.

Introduction

Indian civilisation has always embraced the philosophy that turbulence precedes triumph, like the Samudra Manthan, where chaos yielded nectar. Similarly, India’s economic journey has turned crises into opportunities, from the liberalisation of 1991 to the digital surge during COVID-19. Today, India stands at another inflection point. Despite global headwinds and doubts, the country is demonstrating robust growth, deepening reforms, and a secure energy base, shaping the narrative of resilience and inclusive progress.

Broad-based economic growth

  1. GDP expansion: Real GDP grew 7.8% in Q1 FY 2025-26, while GVA rose 7.6%, supported by manufacturing (7.7%), construction (7.6%), and services (9.3%).
  2. Global standing: India is the world’s fourth-largest economy and the fastest-growing major one, projected to overtake Germany by decade’s end.
  3. Global contribution: Independent estimates suggest India contributes 15% of incremental world growth, with ambitions to raise it to 20%.

Why the sovereign rating upgrade matters

  1. S&P recognition: First upgrade in 18 years, citing robust growth, fiscal consolidation, and monetary credibility.
  2. Lower borrowing costs: Improves India’s access to cheaper capital and widens the investor base.
  3. Narrative shift: Counters the label of a “dead economy,” giving credibility to India’s reforms.

Growth with inclusion

  1. Poverty reduction: 24.82 crore Indians moved out of multidimensional poverty between 2013-14 and 2022-23.
  2. Last-mile delivery: Success through bank accounts, clean cooking fuel, health cover, tap water, and direct benefit transfers (DBT).
  3. Democratic model: Built on consensus, competitive federalism, and digital rails, contrasting authoritarian growth models.

Energy security as a growth driver

  1. Global role: India is the third-largest energy consumer, fourth-largest refiner, and fourth-largest LNG importer.
  2. Capacity expansion: Refining capacity of 5.2 mb/d with plans to cross 400 MTPA by 2030.
  3. Exploration reforms: Sedimentary basin coverage expanded to 16% in 2025 (from 8% in 2021), with 1 million sq km target by 2030.
  4. Gas reforms: New pricing linked to Indian crude basket; 20% premium for deepwater wells boosting investment.

India’s energy transition

  1. Ethanol blending: Surged from 1.5% (2014) to 20% today, saving ₹1.25 lakh crore forex and paying ₹1 lakh crore to farmers.
  2. Green fuels: 300 compressed biogas plants under SATAT, targeting 5% blending by 2028.
  3. Hydrogen push: Oil PSUs driving the green hydrogen mission.

Responding to global criticism on Russian oil

  1. Compliance: India operates fully within G-7/EU price cap systems; every transaction uses legal, audited channels.
  2. Global stabiliser: Purchases prevented oil shocks and stabilised prices, aligning with Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.
  3. Export reality: India has been a top petroleum exporter for decades, not a “laundromat” for Russia.

India’s digital-industrial revolution

  1. Semiconductors: Four new projects cleared under the India Semiconductor Mission; strengthened by Japan collaborations.
  2. Digital economy: India leads in real-time payments; UPI enhances small-business productivity and exports of solutions.
  3. Synergy: Gati Shakti logistics & digital rails reduce costs, formalise the economy, and spur consumption.

Conclusion

India’s recent performance is more than statistics, it is the reaffirmation of resilience, reform, and inclusion. The world’s doubters labelled it a “dead economy,” yet growth, energy security, digital leadership, and poverty reduction tell a different story. As reforms deepen, India is on track not just to become the world’s third-largest economy soon but also to build a model of democratic, inclusive, and sustainable growth. For India, Viksit Bharat is not aspiration, it is delivery in motion.

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Oil and Gas Sector – HELP, Open Acreage Policy, etc.

[30th August 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: In an unstable world, energy sovereignty is the new oil

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2017] The question of India’s Energy Security constitutes the most important part of India’s economic progress. Analyze India’s energy policy cooperation with West Asian countries.

Linkage: India’s past dependence on West Asia for over 60% of crude made energy security central to its economic stability, but the share has now reduced to under 45% through diversification. The article highlights how geopolitical flashpoints and chokepoints like Hormuz expose the risks of over-reliance on West Asia. Thus, India’s emerging doctrine of energy sovereignty through five domestic pillars complements but does not replace the strategic need for balanced cooperation with West Asian suppliers.

Mentor’s comment

Energy defines the destiny of nations. While oil shaped the geopolitics of the 20th century, uninterrupted, affordable, and indigenous energy will decide the balance of power in the 21st. For India, a country importing over 85% of its crude and more than 50% of its natural gas,  energy dependence is not just an economic statistic but a national security liability. In an era of wars, fragile supply chains, and volatile prices, the debate is no longer about transition versus fossil fuel dependence. It is about energy sovereignty as the foundation of survival and strategic autonomy.

Introduction

India’s dependence on imported energy is a national vulnerability, with crude oil and natural gas alone forming nearly one-fourth of merchandise imports. While discounted Russian oil has provided temporary relief, heavy reliance on any single source magnifies strategic risks. In a fragile global environment, energy sovereignty is no longer an economic choice but a survival imperative.

Energy Sovereignty as India’s New National Imperative

  • Import Dependence: Over 85% crude oil and 50% natural gas imports expose India’s economy to global shocks.
  • Economic Burden: Energy imports worth $170 billion (25% of total imports) destabilise the rupee and worsen the trade deficit.
  • Geopolitical Vulnerability: Russian oil now forms 35–40% of India’s imports, compared to just 2% pre-2022. Overdependence on one partner creates strategic risks.
  • Global Flashpoints: Near-conflict between Israel and Iran in June 2025 threatened 20 million barrels/day of global oil flows enough to push Brent crude above $103/barrel within days.
  • Fragile Transition: Despite global rhetoric, fossil fuels still supply 80% of primary energy; premature phase-outs, like Spain-Portugal’s 2025 blackout, prove the risks of over-reliance on intermittent renewables.

Global Energy Shocks and the Lessons for India

  • 1973 Oil Embargo: Quadrupling of oil prices exposed Western overdependence on OPEC, prompting strategic reserves and diversified sourcing.
  • 2011 Fukushima Disaster: A nuclear meltdown stalled nuclear expansion, but the rise of coal/gas revived emissions. Nuclear energy is now regaining ground as a zero-carbon baseload.
  • 2021 Texas Freeze: Pipeline freezes and turbine failures highlighted the danger of cost-driven systems lacking resilience and weather-proofing.
  • 2022 Russia-Ukraine War: Europe’s 40% gas dependence on Russia ended abruptly, forcing record LNG prices and coal revival.
  • 2025 Iberian Blackout: Grid collapse in Spain-Portugal proved the risk of over-reliance on renewables without dispatchable backup.

The Five Pillars of India’s Energy Sovereignty

  1. Coal Gasification for Indigenous Energy:
    • India has 150 billion tonnes of coal reserves, long sidelined due to high ash content.
    • Technologies like carbon capture and gasification can convert coal into syngas, methanol, hydrogen, and fertilizers.
    • Unlocking this potential ensures domestic supply security while reducing import dependence.
  2. Biofuels: Rural Empowerment Meets National Security:
    • Ethanol blending programme transferred over ₹92,000 crore to farmers, reduced crude imports, and saved foreign exchange.
    • With the E20 blending target, rural incomes will expand further.
    • SATAT scheme supports compressed biogas (CBG) plants, producing clean fuel and bio-manure with 20–25% organic carbon.
    • Vital for restoring soils in North India where organic carbon has dropped to 0.5% (vs healthy 2.5%).
  3. Nuclear Power for Dispatchable Zero-Carbon Future:
    • India’s nuclear capacity remains stagnant at 8.8 GW.
    • Thorium roadmap, uranium partnerships, and Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are essential to create a baseload backbone for a renewable-heavy grid.
  4. Green Hydrogen as Strategic Technology:
    • Target: 5 million metric tonnes annually by 2030.
    • Requires domestic electrolyser manufacturing, catalysts, and storage systems.
    • The goal is not just production, but sovereign hydrogen value chains.
  5. Pumped Hydro as Grid Inertia Backbone:
    • Complements solar/wind by offering storage and grid balancing.
    • India’s topography provides vast potential for durable, scalable pumped hydro projects.

India’s Shift Towards a Diversified Energy Strategy

  1. Reduced West Asia dependence: Crude sourcing from West Asia fell from 60% to under 45%, as per S&P Global.
  2. Diversification of partners: Russia has emerged as a key supplier, but long-term strategy aims at broad-based imports plus indigenous production.
  3. Energy Realism: India recognises transition as a pathway, not a switch. Security and resilience are prerequisites to climate ambition.

Conclusion

The 20th century was dominated by oil politics; the 21st will be shaped by energy sovereignty. India’s vulnerability due to high imports, volatile supply chains, and geopolitical risks makes domestic capacity building non-negotiable. Coal gasification, biofuels, nuclear, green hydrogen, and pumped hydro form the sovereign spine of a resilient energy future. The Israel-Iran ceasefire is a reminder: India must act during stability, not after a crisis. Energy sovereignty is no longer a policy choice, it is the foundation of survival, resilience, and strategic autonomy.

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Labour, Jobs and Employment – Harmonization of labour laws, gender gap, unemployment, etc.

[27th August 2025] The gender angle to India’s economic vulnerabilities

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Inclusive Growth & Issues

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Examine the role of ‘Gig Economy’ in the process of empowerment of women in India.

Linkage: The article highlights that India’s economic vulnerabilities are aggravated by its failure to integrate women into the workforce. While traditional women-dominated export sectors face instability due to tariff shocks, the gig economy offers a new pathway for empowerment. Platforms like Urban Company demonstrate how women can earn sustainable incomes (₹18,000–25,000/month) with safety, insurance, and skill development. Thus, the gig economy is not just an employment option but a structural enabler of women’s empowerment, mobility, and autonomy. However, as the article stresses, formalisation of gig work, targeted policy support, and social protections are vital to make this empowerment sustainable.

Mentor’s Comment

India’s economic rise is undeniable, valued at $4.19 trillion, it is poised to be the world’s third-largest economy. Yet, the proposed 50% U.S. tariffs on Indian exports highlight an uncomfortable truth: India’s growth story is fragile because it has failed to empower half its population. This article unpacks how gender imbalance in labour markets is no longer a social concern but an economic vulnerability.

Introduction

India’s ascent as a global economic power is being tested by external shocks such as U.S. tariff hikes targeting $40 billion worth of Indian exports. Unlike China, which diversified and scaled its manufacturing, India’s labour-intensive sectors, textiles, gems, leather, footwear, remain exposed. These are precisely the industries that disproportionately employ women. The looming disruption reveals a deeper structural weakness: India’s persistently low female labour force participation rate (FLFPR). What was once viewed as a social development challenge is now a core economic liability threatening the sustainability of India’s demographic dividend.

The U.S. tariff shock and its economic implications

  1. Targeted exports: U.S. tariffs at 50% could shave off nearly 1% from India’s GDP, directly hitting sectors employing 50 million workers, many of them women.
  2. Comparative disadvantage: India could face a 30–35% cost disadvantage against competitors like Vietnam.
  3. Dependency: The U.S. absorbs 18% of India’s exports, exposing India’s lack of diversification.
  4. Employment vulnerability: An export decline of up to 50% could destabilise women-dominated industries.

Women’s participation as India’s strategic liability

  1. Persistently low FLFPR: Stuck at 37–41.7%, far below China’s 60% and the global average.
  2. Lost GDP potential: IMF estimates closing the gender gap could boost India’s GDP by 27%.
  3. Cultural and systemic barriers: Patriarchal norms, unpaid care work, safety issues, poor public transport, and sanitation gaps keep women away from education and jobs.
  4. Urban stagnation: Urban female labour participation shows little improvement despite rising education levels.

The ticking clock of India’s demographic dividend

  1. Demographic window: India’s working-age population outnumbers dependents, but this will close by 2045.
  2. Historical lessons: China, Japan, and the U.S. capitalised on their demographic peak to fuel growth; Southern Europe failed due to low female participation, resulting in stagnation.
  3. Risk of lost opportunity: Without women’s integration, India risks a slowdown before fully realising its demographic advantage.

Lessons from global experiences in women’s empowerment

  1. U.S. during WWII: Women’s labour mobilised with equal pay and childcare.
  2. China’s post-1978 reforms: FLFPR at 60%, backed by state-supported childcare and education.
  3. Japan’s reforms: FLFPR rose from 63% to 70%, boosting GDP per capita by 4%.
  4. Netherlands model: Flexible part-time work with full benefits, relevant for India’s context.
  5. Common thread: Institutional investments in legal protections, skills, and care infrastructure.

Emerging solutions and policy innovations within India

  1. Karnataka’s Shakti Scheme: Free bus travel boosted female ridership by 40%, improving access to jobs, education, and autonomy.
  2. Targeted fiscal policies: Tax incentives for female entrepreneurs, digital inclusion drives, and gender-skilling programmes.
  3. Gig economy empowerment: Urban Company employs 15,000+ women, offering ₹18,000–25,000/month along with maternity benefits and insurance.
  4. Public schemes: Rajasthan’s Indira Gandhi Urban Employment Guarantee Scheme generated 4 crore person-days of work, with 65% jobs for women, enabling many to work for the first time.

Conclusion

The U.S. tariff threat is a wake-up call, India’s economic fragility lies not just in external shocks but in internal neglect of women’s potential. Empowering women is no longer a matter of social justice but a strategic necessity for sustaining growth, harnessing the demographic dividend, and achieving global competitiveness. The choice is stark: invest in women and rise as a resilient power, or ignore them and remain vulnerable to shocks and stagnation.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Japan

[26th August 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: India-Japan Ties, Old Partners, New Priorities

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC GS II] The time has come for India and Japan to build a strong contemporary relationship, one involving global and strategic partnership that will have a great significance for Asia and the world as a whole. Comment.

Linkage: The question calls for examining India–Japan relations as a global and strategic partnership. The current visit, with Japan’s ¥10 trillion investment, defence cooperation, and Indo-Pacific focus, shows this vision materialising. It highlights how the partnership now goes beyond economics to shape Asian stability and world geopolitics.

Mentor’s Comment

PM Modi’s Japan visit signals India’s strategic clarity amid global flux. Japan’s unprecedented investment pledge, technology transfer, and defence cooperation position it as India’s most reliable Indo-Pacific partner when U.S. unpredictability and China’s mistrust loom large.

Introduction

India–Japan ties are deepening at a crucial juncture. With a ¥10 trillion ($68 billion) Japanese investment plan and renewed security cooperation, the partnership goes beyond economics. It reflects India’s balancing act between Tokyo, Beijing, and Washington, showcasing strategic autonomy in an uncertain world.

Why is this visit significant?

  • Historic Japanese pledge: A ¥10 trillion ($68 billion) investment plan, among Tokyo’s most ambitious commitments to New Delhi.
  • Technology transfer: Includes next-generation E10 series Shinkansen for the Mumbai–Ahmedabad high-speed rail, reflecting economic plus technological collaboration.
  • Timing amid flux: Visit comes just before Modi’s participation in the SCO Summit in China, showcasing strategic balancing.
  • U.S. uncertainty: With Trump’s erratic second term, the visit highlights India’s recalibration of partnerships, reinforcing Japan as a dependable anchor.

Japan’s Investment and Economic Partnership

  • Massive infrastructure push: ¥10 trillion investment spread across infrastructure, manufacturing, clean energy, and technology.
  • High-speed rail corridor: Japan’s E10 Shinkansen trains for Mumbai–Ahmedabad project symbolise trust and long-term collaboration.
  • Supply chain resilience: Economic Security Initiative expands cooperation on semiconductors, critical minerals, pharmaceuticals, and clean energy.
  • Digital partnership: Upgradation to cover artificial intelligence and startup ecosystems, placing India-Japan ties at the cutting edge of innovation.

Strategic and Defence Cooperation

  • Security framework revision: 2008 Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation to be updated in line with today’s realities.
  • Indo-Pacific commitment: Reinforces shared vision of a free, open, and rules-based Indo-Pacific.
  • Maritime security and resilience: Japan remains central to India’s Indo-Pacific strategy amid an uncertain Quad trajectory.

The China Factor and Strategic Balancing

  • Dual engagement: Modi’s Tokyo visit followed by Beijing trip reflects India’s ability to compartmentalise relations.
  • Confidence-building with China: Resumption of flights, visa relaxations, and trade measures post-Galwan.
  • Message of balance: India signals that deepening ties with Japan need not preclude dialogue with China.

The U.S. Factor and Quad Challenges

  • Unpredictability under Trump 2.0: Threatens to erode years of steady New Delhi–Washington cooperation.
  • Quad dilution: U.S. disengagement risks weakening the grouping’s strategic coherence.
  • India-Japan partnership: Emerges as ballast to sustain Indo-Pacific momentum even when U.S. commitment wavers.

Broader Political and Diplomatic Significance

  • Beyond economics: Japan’s engagement shows that consistent, long-term cooperation delivers real outcomes.
  • Diplomatic flexibility: India demonstrates ability to pursue multiple alignments without losing clarity.
  • Anchor role of Japan: Unlike Washington’s inconsistency or Beijing’s mistrust, Tokyo provides stability, resources, and shared values.

Conclusion

The Prime Minister’s Japan visit reflects one of the enduring features of Indian diplomacy, flexibility with clarity. By securing massive investment, strengthening defence ties, and reinforcing Indo-Pacific strategies, India positions Japan as its anchor partner in uncertain times. The visit sends a broader signal: India is capable of balancing great power politics while advancing its economic and strategic priorities. For UPSC, it is a live example of strategic autonomy in action.

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Parliament – Sessions, Procedures, Motions, Committees etc

[25th August 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The new Constitution Bill, the need for a balancing act

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Mentor’s Comment

The Constitution (One Hundred and Thirtieth Amendment) Bill, 2025 has sparked intense debate in Parliament and across the country. While it appears to be a strong step toward cleaner politics, it also raises deep constitutional and democratic concerns. For UPSC aspirants, this issue is important not only for its immediate political relevance but also for its intersection with constitutional morality, criminalisation of politics, separation of powers, and due process. This article breaks down the Bill, its context, judicial linkages, and its broader implications for democracy.

Introduction

India has long grappled with the paradox of demanding clean politics while being governed by leaders facing serious criminal charges. The Constitution (130th Amendment) Bill, 2025, introduced in the Lok Sabha on August 20, seeks automatic resignation or removal of Ministers, Chief Ministers and even the Prime Minister if they remain in custody for over 30 days in offences punishable with five years or more. While aimed at restoring public trust, the Bill risks undermining due process and democratic safeguards.

Why is this Bill in the news?

The Bill marks the first time Parliament has proposed automatic removal of top executive leaders on mere detention without conviction. This is in sharp contrast with the current legal position under the Representation of the People Act, where disqualification begins only upon conviction. The stakes are high: India already faces a staggering rise in criminalisation of politics, with 46% of MPs in 2024 declaring criminal cases, up from 30% in 2009. Against this backdrop, the Bill seeks to restore public trust but also risks political misuse, raising concerns of democratic erosion.

Judicial foundations and constitutional morality

  1. Articles 75, 164, 239AA: Provide for ministerial tenure “at the pleasure” of President/Governor, limited by constitutional morality.
  2. S.R. Bommai case: Stressed that integrity and accountability are core to constitutional morality.
  3. Manoj Narula case: Warned against entrusting power to those with serious criminal charges.
  4. Lily Thomas case: Held that disqualification of legislators must occur upon conviction, striking down earlier appeal window.
  5. Tension: While courts upheld high ethical standards, they stopped short of mandating automatic removal before conviction, the Bill goes further, creating friction with Article 21 (right to life and liberty).

Risk of Bill being misused as a political weapon

  1. Executive discretion: PM/CM advice governs removal; if withheld, automatic removal applies after 30 days. This dual mechanism may be exploited politically.
  2. Selective shield or target: PM may protect allies temporarily, while hostile leaders may allow rivals to fall under automatic removal.
  3. Politicisation of accountability: Instead of insulating governance, it may embed accountability in partisan strategies.

Inconsistency in the treatment of legislators and Ministers

  1. RPA framework: Legislators disqualified only on conviction.
  2. Ministerial paradox: A Minister under arrest is removed after 30 days, but a legislator convicted of corruption may still technically hold ministerial office until disqualification proceedings.
  3. Asymmetry: Creates harsher standards for Ministers than legislators, risking deterrence for capable leaders.

Political instability and the “revolving door”

  1. Reappointment clause: Once released, Ministers can be reinstated.
  2. Cycle of instability: Arrest → resignation → release → reinstatement may lead to political uncertainty without improving accountability.
  3. Tactical misuse: Legal proceedings could be manipulated to weaken opponents through timed arrests.

Why do critics demand a more nuanced model?

  1. Criminalisation of politics: Rising trend demands reform, 251 MPs (46%) with criminal cases in 2024.
  2. Judicial milestone approach: Removal linked to framing of charges by a competent court rather than arrest alone ensures judicial scrutiny.
  3. Independent review: Tribunal/judicial panel could prevent executive misuse.
  4. Interim suspension: Instead of removal, suspension of ministerial functions during trial could balance governance and accountability.
  5. Scope refinement: Apply only to corruption and moral turpitude offences, not all crimes with five years’ punishment (which may include minor offences).

Conclusion

The 130th Amendment Bill embodies India’s long-standing demand for clean politics. However, its blunt approach risks weakening constitutional safeguards like presumption of innocence, creating political instability, and enabling misuse of arrest as a weapon. The Joint Parliamentary Committee must recalibrate the Bill with judicially tested safeguards, narrowing its scope to serious offences and ensuring impartial mechanisms for enforcement. Only then can India achieve the delicate balance where power is exercised with integrity without sacrificing fairness.

UPSC Relevance:

[UPSC]: “There is a need for simplification of procedure for disqualification of persons found guilty of corrupt practices under the Representation of Peoples Act.” Comment.

Linkage: “The 130th Amendment Bill echoes the long-standing concern flagged in the 2020 PYQ on RPA disqualification: India needs clearer and fairer procedures to ensure accountability in politics. While the PYQ emphasised simplification post-conviction, the Bill risks moving the trigger point too early (mere custody), thereby complicating rather than simplifying the disqualification process.”

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Judicial Pendency

[23rd August 2025] Set the guardrails for AI use in courtrooms

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary,Statutory, Regulatory & Various Quasi-Judicial Bodies

Mentors Comment

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is steadily entering the Indian judiciary, promising efficiency in a system burdened with nearly five crore pending cases. However, without proper guardrails, it risks undermining the very foundation of justice. The recent Kerala High Court guidelines mark India’s first attempt at framing policy around AI use in judicial processes. This is a critical juncture where technology and justice intersect demanding careful balance between innovation and accountability.

Introduction

The integration of Artificial Intelligence into courts represents a paradigm shift in India’s judicial landscape. While AI tools such as transcription, translation, and defect detection offer solutions to systemic inefficiencies, their unregulated use could lead to serious ethical and legal risks. From mistranslations of legal terminology to hallucinations in Large Language Models (LLMs), the challenges are real. The need of the hour is a structured framework that ensures AI strengthens, rather than weakens, the judiciary’s integrity and human-centric decision-making.

The Growing Relevance of AI in Courts

  • First policy initiative: In July 2025, the Kerala High Court released the “Policy Regarding Use of Artificial Intelligence Tools in District Judiciary,” the first of its kind in India.
  • Case Management & Reducing Pendency: AI can assist in case listing, tracking, and prioritization to improve efficiency. Eg: The Supreme Court Portal for Assistance in Court’s Efficiency (SUPACE) developed by the Supreme Court helps judges analyze case facts quickly.
  • Enhancing Transparency & Access to Justice: AI chatbots and online portals assist litigants in understanding procedures, filing cases, and accessing justice without middlemen. Eg: The Supreme Court’s AI-driven translation project ‘SUVAS’ (Supreme Court Vidhik Anuvaad Software) translates judgments into regional languages to empower citizens.

Why are AI-enabled court processes risky?

  • Mistranslation risks: In India, the Supreme Court’s AI-based translation initiative SUVAS once mistranslated “leave granted” as “chhutti manzoor” (holiday approved) in Hind
  • Hallucinations in AI: LLMs such as Whisper generate fictitious phrases when encountering pauses, leading to unreliable records.
  • Bias in legal research: AI search results may amplify user patterns, invisibilising relevant precedents, impacting fair adjudication.
  • Reductionist adjudication: AI risks turning nuanced judicial reasoning into mere rule-based inference, undermining human judgment.

How is AI being used in courts today?

  • Pilot tools: Market tools are in test use for transcription of oral arguments and witness depositions, though without timelines or safeguards.
  • Manual checks: Current safeguards include retired judges and translators manually vetting AI-generated judgments.
  • Risk of dependency: Courts adopting AI pilots without frameworks risk becoming dependent on vendors without sustainable adoption plans.

What are the guardrails necessary for responsible AI use? 

  • Critical AI literacy: Judges, lawyers and staff need capacity-building to understand both potential and limitations of AI.
  • Transparency rights: Litigants should be informed if AI is used in research or judgment-writing; they should also have the right to opt out.
  • Procurement standards: Courts need standardised procurement guidelines to assess reliability, explainability, data handling, and vendor compliance.
  • Dedicated tech offices: The Vision Document for Phase III of the eCourts Project suggests creating technology offices to guide courts in evaluating and adopting AI tools.

The way forward for AI in judiciary

  • Balanced adoption: AI must serve the ends of justice, not replace human reasoning.
  • Infrastructure readiness: Reliable internet and hardware are prerequisites before full-scale deployment.
  • Oversight and accountability: Independent monitoring systems and ethical review frameworks must be built into adoption.

Conclusion

AI can be a transformative force in India’s judiciary, addressing inefficiencies in a system struggling under massive case pendency. But technology without guardrails risks introducing new layers of error, bias, and opacity. The ultimate purpose of judicial reform must remain the same, to deliver fair, timely, and human-centred justice. Clear guidelines, transparency, and ethical oversight will determine whether AI strengthens or weakens the rule of law in India.

Value Addition
AI is already being deployed in judicial systems worldwide to improve efficiency, accessibility, and decision-making.

  1. Legal Interpretation Aid: Judges in the U.S. used AI to clarify the meaning of complex legal terms during sentencing appeals.
  2. Victim Impact Statement: Arizona courts allowed AI to recreate a victim’s voice for delivering impact statements.
  3. Affordable Legal Services: Garfield AI in the UK provides cheap legal documents, reducing case backlog.
  4. Responsible AI Use Rules: California courts framed formal guidelines for safe AI adoption in judicial work.
  5. Transcription & Translation (India): Supreme Court uses AI for live transcription and translation of hearings.
  6. Case Summarization (India): Nyay-Darpan delivers summaries and similar case retrieval in consumer law disputes.
  7. Case Classification (Brazil): AI model routes Supreme Court cases, cutting delays in document handling.
  8. AI Judge for Small Claims (China): Smart Courts handle repetitive small cases via AI systems.
  9. Judicial Summaries (Brazil): AI tools assist in generating summaries, easing court management.
  10. Access to Justice (Canada): Botler AI chatbot helps citizens understand rights in harassment cases.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] E-Governance is not only about utilization of technology but also about the ‘use value’ of information. Explain.

Linkage: The 2018 UPSC question on E-Governance and ‘use value’ of information directly links to AI in judiciary: while AI can speed up translations, research, and transcription, its real worth lies in enhancing accessibility, transparency, and fairness in justice delivery—not just technological adoption.

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Electoral Reforms In India

[22nd August 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Poll integrity and self-sabotage, parties and the ECI

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] On what grounds a people’s representative can be disqualified under the Representation of People Act, 1951? Also mention the remedies available to such person against his disqualification.

Linkage: The Representation of People Act, 1951 provides the legal foundation for ensuring free and fair elections, including grounds for disqualification such as corrupt practices, electoral offences, and irregularities. The issue of flawed electoral rolls and voter fraud, as highlighted in this article, connects directly with the broader framework of the RPA. While the Act prescribes remedies against wrongful disqualification, its effectiveness depends heavily on accurate voter lists, active oversight by parties, and neutrality of the ECI. Thus, the credibility of electoral rolls is not only an administrative concern but also a legal and constitutional safeguard under the RPA, 1951.

Mentor’s comments

India’s democracy depends not just on strong institutions but also on the integrity of political actors. The ongoing debate around flawed electoral rolls, the role of the Election Commission of India (ECI), and political parties’ complicity exposes serious challenges. This article unpacks how poll integrity is being compromised and how both parties and the ECI are shaping voter trust.

Introduction

Electoral rolls are the backbone of free and fair elections, yet duplicate entries, ghost names, and ineligible voters continue to mar them. These flaws enable impersonation and multiple voting, weakening public faith in the system. While the ECI faces criticism, political parties too are responsible for neglecting local structures and prioritising short-term electoral wins.

The contrast is sharp: In the 1990s under T.N. Seshan, the ECI was hailed as a global model of electoral probity. Today, suspicion surrounds the institution, raising doubts about whether both the ECI and political parties are failing in their constitutional roles.

The Fall of the Election Commission’s Credibility

  1. From Trust to Suspicion: Once among India’s most trusted institutions, the ECI’s opacity and lack of accountability now fuel mistrust.
  2. Contrast with the Past: T.N. Seshan’s tenure saw strict enforcement of the Model Code of Conduct, monitoring of expenses, and the EPIC system to curb bogus voting.
  3. Present Decline: Instead of fixing flawed rolls, the ECI made inspections harder, deepening suspicion over its neutrality.

How Political Parties Weakened Themselves

  1. Shift from Ground to Tech: Local campaigns with house visits and meetings are being replaced by social media, phone calls, AI tools, creating an illusion of connection.
  2. Reliance on Consultants: Campaign strategy and candidate selection now rest with professional consultants, centralising power and weakening grassroots.
  3. Neglect of Local Cadres: Once the backbone of political parties, local workers are sidelined, leaving little vigilance against electoral fraud.

The Booth Level Agent System and Its Vulnerabilities

  1. Role of BLAs: Booth Level Agents (BLAs) are meant to be the vital link between voters, parties, and the ECI by verifying draft rolls.
  2. Safeguards in Place: Rules cap BLAs at 10 applications a day; exceeding 30 requires personal verification by officers.
  3. Failures in Practice: Cases like Mahadevapura (Karnataka) reveal inactive BLAs, manipulations, and possible bias, showing safeguards are poorly enforced.

Opportunities for Political Redemption

  1. Reviving Local Units: The crisis is a chance for parties to strengthen grassroots structures, not just depend on consultants.
  2. Kerala’s Example: Parties there are now diligently flagging duplicate voters and multiple IDs during local elections.
  3. Historical Warning: Weak grassroots units once undermined land reforms post-Independence; neglect today risks hollowing out democracy again.

The Deeper Democratic Implications

  1. Beyond Elections: Roll revisions, though routine, are crucial to maintaining democratic fairness.
  2. Erosion of Trust: Prioritising short-term electoral gains over constitutional values leaves institutions hollow.
  3. Democracy at Risk: Weak local organisations and complicit institutions together may end up surrendering democracy itself.

Conclusion

The integrity of India’s democracy depends not just on robust institutions but also on vigilant political participation at the grassroots. The ECI must reclaim its credibility by ensuring transparency, while political parties must revive their local cadres to safeguard electoral rolls. Without these corrective steps, the erosion of trust may reach a tipping point where democracy is hollowed out from within.

Value Addition

T.N. Seshan’s Reforms in the 1990s

  1. Strict Enforcement of MCC – First CEC to rigorously implement the Model Code of Conduct (MCC), curbing misuse of official machinery.
  2. Curbing Electoral Malpractices – Took action against bribery, muscle power, and use of religion/caste in campaigns.
  3. Electoral Photo Identity Card (EPIC) – Introduced voter ID cards to check bogus voting.
  4. Monitoring Poll Expenditure – Set strict limits on candidate expenses and ensured scrutiny of accounts.
  5. Independent Authority of ECI – Asserted autonomy of the Election Commission, making it a powerful guardian of free and fair elections.
  6. Public Trust Restored – Citizen surveys during the 1990s ranked ECI among the most credible institutions.

Why it matters: T.N. Seshan’s tenure is often cited as the “gold standard” of electoral probity, offering a benchmark against which today’s decline in trust and credibility is judged.

Mapping Microthemes

  1. GS Paper II (Polity & Governance): Electoral integrity, role of ECI, political accountability.
  2. GS Paper I (History & Society): Weakening of grassroots political movements.
  3. GS Paper III (Technology): Impact of AI-driven campaigns and professional consultants.
  4. GS Paper IV (Ethics): Institutional neutrality, self-restraint, erosion of trust.

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Electoral Reforms In India

[21st August 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: India’s democracy is failing the migrant citizen

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in the light of the evolution of the Model Code of Conduct.”

Linkage: Just as the Model Code of Conduct (MCC) evolved as a tool by the Election Commission of India (ECI) to ensure free and fair elections in a changing political landscape, the present crisis of migrant disenfranchisement in Bihar shows the need for the ECI to evolve its mechanisms to safeguard inclusivity similarly. The deletion of 3.5 million migrant voters highlights that electoral integrity today is not only about regulating political behaviour (through MCC) but also about ensuring universal participation by adapting to realities of circular migration, dual belonging, and portable identities. Strengthening ECI’s role in creating mobile and flexible voter registration systems, like Kerala’s migration surveys or cross-State verification, would be a natural extension of its democratic mandate.

Mentor’s Comment

The article highlights a silent but serious crisis unfolding in Bihar, where nearly 3.5 million voters, largely migrants, have been deleted from electoral rolls due to the Special Intensive Revision (SIR). This not only exposes flaws in India’s electoral infrastructure but also deepens the democratic deficit in migrant-heavy States. For UPSC aspirants, this issue links to democracy, citizenship, federalism, migration, and social justice, making it highly relevant for GS 2 (Polity & Governance) and GS 1 (Society).

Introduction

In a democracy of 1.4 billion citizens, every vote matters. Yet, millions of India’s migrant workers are quietly being left out of the democratic process. In Bihar, where migration is both an economic lifeline and a survival strategy, the recent mass deletion of 3.5 million voters (4.4% of the total electoral roll) raises critical questions about representation, inclusivity, and the design of India’s electoral system. The crisis is not an isolated administrative lapse but a systemic failure rooted in an outdated model of citizenship tied to permanent residence, ignoring the realities of circular and seasonal migration.

The disenfranchisement of Bihar’s migrants in the news

  1. Mass deletion: Nearly 3.5 million voters were deleted under the Special Intensive Revision (SIR).
  2. Reason given: “Permanently migrated”, migrants absent during house-to-house verification.
  3. Permanent loss of rights: These voters cannot vote either in host States (where they work) or in home States (where their names are deleted).
  4. Democratic rupture: Bihar’s voter turnout is already low, 53.2% in the last four Assembly elections, compared to 66.4% in Gujarat and 70.7% in Karnataka.
  5. Scale of migration: 7 million annual outflow from Bihar, of which 4.8 million migrate seasonally. Around 2.7 million return during October–November festivals, yet many will be unable to vote this year.

Electoral system and the migrant challenge in India

  1. Sedentary citizen model: Voter registration tied to proof of residence and in-person verification.
  2. Documentation barriers: Migrants often live in rented rooms, construction sites, or slums with no accepted address proof.
  3. Regionalism & exclusion: Migrants in host States are seen as “outsiders” with fears of electoral influence discouraging registration.
  4. Dual belonging demonised: Migrants contribute economically in host States but are denied political identity both at origin and destination.

Studies revealing migrant exclusion in electoral participation

  1. TISS Study (2015): “Inclusive Elections in India” (funded by ECI) confirmed marginalisation of migrants.
  2. Triple burden: Administrative barriers, digital illiteracy, social exclusion.
  3. Correlation: Higher migration = Lower voter turnout in source States.
  4. Mobile data estimates: 7 million circular migrants annually from Bihar, proving large-scale exclusion.

Welfare exclusions and the migrant voting crisis

  • One Nation One Ration Card Scheme (2019):
    1. Limited uptake: only 3.3 lakh households from Bihar availed portability by May 2025.
    2. Barriers: Dual residency, bureaucratic hurdles, fear of losing entitlements.
    3. Parallel with voter IDs: migrants keep origin-based documents for security.
  • Cross-border complexities: Along the 1,751 km India-Nepal border, traditional “roti-beti” ties now face exclusion due to restrictive documentation, disproportionately affecting women.

Reforms to safeguard migrant voting rights

  1. Portable voter identity: Mobile, flexible, and portable voter ID system.
  2. Cross-verification model: Coordination between origin and destination States to prevent disenfranchisement.
  3. Local bodies’ role: Panchayats and civil society to aid migrant re-registration.
  4. Kerala model of migration surveys: Replicate in high-migration States like Bihar and UP.
  5. Immediate halt to blanket deletions: Safeguard against the “largest silent voter purge in post-Independence India.”

Conclusion

Migrants embody India’s paradox, economic backbone but political invisibility. The deletion of millions of voters from Bihar is not just an administrative failure; it is a systemic denial of democratic rights. If India’s electoral infrastructure does not adapt to the realities of migration, democracy risks leaving behind its most hard-working and vulnerable citizens. Ensuring portable electoral rights is not charity, it is the essence of a living democracy.

Value Addition

Constitutional and Legal Angle

  • Article 326: Provides for universal adult suffrage — any exclusion of migrant workers undermines this fundamental principle.
  • Representation of People Act, 1950 & 1951: While they govern electoral rolls and voting procedures, they are silent on portable voting rights for internal migrants.
  • Supreme Court in PUCL vs Union of India (2003): Declared the right to vote as part of freedom of expression under Article 19(1)(a). Denial to migrants raises constitutional concerns.

Scale of the Problem – National Context

  • Census 2011: 45.6 crore internal migrants in India (37% of the population).
  • Economic Survey 2017: ~9 million people migrate annually for work, education, or marriage.
  • Migrants form a huge electoral constituency, yet remain politically invisible.

Policy/Election Commission (EC) Initiatives Beyond Bihar

  • EC’s Remote Voting Machine (RVM) Proposal, 2023: Aimed to allow migrants to vote from remote locations, but postponed after opposition from political parties.
  • E-EPIC (Electronic Voter Photo ID Card), 2021: Step toward portability but lacks full integration across States.

Comparative Global Insights

  • Philippines: Overseas absentee voting law enables migrants abroad to vote in national elections.
  • Mexico: Postal voting rights for citizens abroad.
  • South Africa: Mobile registration and voting stations in migrant-dense areas.
  • India lags in creating portable political rights for its massive migrant population.

Democratic & Governance Implications

  • Political alienation → weakens democratic legitimacy in migrant-heavy States (Bihar, UP, Odisha).
  • Rise of sub-nationalism → exclusion in host States deepens identity politics.
  • Urban governance: Migrants in cities are tax contributors (indirectly via consumption) but lack political representation → urban policies ignore their needs.

Ethical & Social Justice Dimension

  • Ambedkar’s warning: “Political democracy cannot last unless… social democracy is its foundation.” Excluding the poor migrants fractures this balance.
  • Gandhian perspective: True Swaraj is when “the last man” (Antyodaya principle) participates in democracy — migrant exclusion violates this ethic.

Mapping Microthemes

  • GS Paper I (Society): Migration, regionalism, exclusion of vulnerable groups.
  • GS Paper II (Polity & Governance): Electoral reforms, federal coordination, democratic rights.
  • GS Paper III (Economy): Migration as economic survival strategy.
  • GS Paper IV (Ethics): Justice, fairness, and democratic inclusivity.

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

[20th August 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Making India’s climate taxonomy framework work

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.

Linkage: If such a theme on international climate governance and mechanisms can be asked, then India’s Climate Finance Taxonomy also becomes a significant area. It connects global agreements like the Paris Agreement (Article 6.4) with India’s domestic instruments such as the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme and green bonds.

Mentors Comment

In May 2025, the Ministry of Finance released the draft Climate Finance Taxonomy, India’s first attempt to formally define what counts as climate-aligned investment. The framework seeks to mobilise green finance, prevent greenwashing, and give clarity to investors. Its success, however, depends on strong review systems, accountability, and stakeholder engagement.

Introduction

The draft taxonomy marks a turning point in India’s climate governance. This is India’s first unified framework for climate finance, introduced amid rising greenwashing risks and investor uncertainty. Arriving alongside the operationalisation of the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme and the rise of green bonds, it comes at a moment of growing pressure to align finance with net-zero goals. As a “living framework,” it promises adaptability to evolving national and global priorities. But without transparency, legal coherence, and institutional accountability, the taxonomy risks undermining India’s climate finance ecosystem instead of strengthening it.

The Review Architecture for a Living Framework

  1. Two-tier review system: Suggestion of annual reviews for short-term corrections and five-year reviews for deep reassessment.
  2. Annual reviews: Triggered by implementation gaps, international obligations, or stakeholder feedback, with structured timelines, documentation protocols, and public consultation.
  3. Five-year reviews: Linked with India’s NDC cycle and global stocktake under the UNFCCC; ensures long-term resilience in a changing climate finance ecosystem.

Key aspects of the Substantive Review

  1. Legal coherence: Taxonomy must align with Energy Conservation Act, SEBI norms, Carbon Credit Trading Scheme, and India’s international commitments.
  2. Harmonisation: Review should remove overlaps, clarify redundancies, and integrate with green bonds, blended finance, and environmental risk disclosures.
  3. Content clarity: Definitions must remain readable, coherent, and technically precise. Quantitative thresholds (e.g., emissions reduction, energy efficiency benchmarks) must be regularly updated with empirical data.
  4. Inclusivity: Framework must remain accessible to MSMEs, informal sector, agriculture, and small manufacturing with staggered compliance timelines and proportionate expectations.

Strengthening Governance through Accountability Structures

  1. Standing unit in the Ministry of Finance: Dedicated body within the Department of Economic Affairs or an expert committee involving financial regulators, climate science institutions, civil society.
  2. Public dashboards: Mechanisms to receive inputs, document experiences, and publish reports.
  3. Transparency: Annual review summaries and five-year revision proposals should be made public in consolidated formats to enhance investor trust and policy coherence.

Significance of the Climate Finance Taxonomy for India’s Green Transition

  1. Carbon Credit Trading Scheme: Soon to be fully operational, requiring clear rules for market credibility.
  2. Green bonds: Entering mainstream portfolios and stock exchanges, need alignment with taxonomy standards.
  3. Public investment flows: Rising pressure to align fiscal spending with long-term climate goals.
  4. Risk of failure: A weak or opaque taxonomy could undermine India’s net-zero transition by encouraging greenwashing and eroding investor trust.

Conclusion

India’s climate taxonomy is more than a definitional exercise, it is a governance tool that can determine the credibility of India’s climate finance system. A “living document” is meaningful only if it is kept alive through active review, structured revision, and transparent engagement. By embedding legal coherence, inclusivity, and accountability, India can ensure the taxonomy becomes a reliable foundation for mobilising investments, reducing greenwashing, and achieving its climate goals.

Value Addition
  • Article 6.4 of the Paris Agreement: Provides a framework for carbon market instruments with legal and editorial review mechanisms; offers a model for India’s taxonomy to ensure transparency, credibility, and alignment with global norms.
  • Carbon Market Types:
    • Compliance Markets: Mandated by law (e.g., EU ETS, upcoming India’s Carbon Credit Trading Scheme).
    • Voluntary Markets: Corporate/individual offsetting of emissions beyond legal requirements.
  • Green Bonds in India:
    • First Sovereign Green Bonds issued in 2023 worth ₹16,000 crore.
    • Used for renewable energy, clean transport, and climate adaptation projects.
    • Support India’s target of net-zero by 2070 and deepen climate finance flows.

Mapping Microthemes

  • GS Paper II: Governance, public consultation, accountability mechanisms.
  • GS Paper III: Climate finance, carbon markets, sustainable development, green bonds, energy efficiency.
  • GS Paper IV: Ethical finance, transparency, preventing greenwashing.

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Hunger and Nutrition Issues – GHI, GNI, etc.

The path to ending global hunger runs through India

op-ed snap | Social Justice | Mains Paper 1: Poverty & Development Issues

UPSC Mains Relevance

[UPSC 2017] Hunger and Poverty are the biggest challenges for good governance in India still today. Evaluate how far successive governments have progressed in dealing with these humongous problems. Suggest measures for improvement.

Linkage: India’s recent success in reducing undernourishment by 30 million people and transforming its PDS shows definite progress in tackling hunger and poverty, aligning with welfare-driven governance. Yet, challenges of affordability, malnutrition, and nutrition security highlight that while gains are visible, deeper reforms in agrifood systems and social protection are still required.

Mentor’s Comment

The world is finally seeing a decline in hunger after years of setbacks. At the centre of this shift is India, whose food security programmes have reduced undernourishment at an unprecedented scale. For UPSC aspirants, this story reflects governance, technology, and welfare delivery working together.

Introduction

The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2025 report shows undernourishment fell to 673 million people globally in 2024, down from 688 million in 2023. India has been decisive in this progress, reducing hunger for nearly 30 million people in just two years. The Public Distribution System (PDS) alone supports over 800 million beneficiaries with digital efficiency unmatched in scale. This progress stands in sharp contrast with the bleak COVID-era surge in hunger and makes India a global anchor in the journey towards SDG 2 – Zero Hunger.

India’s Pathway to Ending Hunger:

Transformation of the Public Distribution System (PDS)

  1. Digital shift: Aadhaar-based targeting, real-time tracking, and biometric authentication improved delivery.
  2. Portability: One Nation One Ration Card enabled migrants and vulnerable households to access entitlements anywhere.
  3. Rapid Scale of support: Over 800 million people received subsidised food grains during the pandemic.

Shifting of Focus from Calories to Nutrition

  1. High Cost of Healthy Diets: Over 60% of Indians cannot afford nutrient-rich foods due to inflation, poor cold chains, and weak market linkages.
  2. Nutrition-Centric Schemes: PM POSHAN (2021) and ICDS are addressing dietary diversity and nutrition sensitivity.
  3. Dual Challenge: Even as hunger declines, malnutrition, obesity and micronutrient deficiencies are rising.

Need for Agrifood System Structural Reforms

  1. Boosting Production of Nutrient-Rich Foods: Pulses, fruits, vegetables, and animal products must be scaled for affordability.
  2. Reducing Post-Harvest Losses: About 13% of food is lost between farm and market due to weak cold storage and logistics.
  3. Supporting Women-Led Enterprises and Farmer Producer Organization: Promoting climate-resilient crops enhances both nutrition and livelihoods.

Digital governance drives agrifood transformation

  1. AgriStack & e-NAM: Enhance planning, digital logistics, and market access for farmers.
  2. Geospatial Tools: Enable better agricultural mapping and nutrition-sensitive targeting.
  3. Data-Driven Agriculture: Improves service delivery and strengthens supply-demand alignment.

Why is India’s success globally significant?

  1. Leadership in Global South: India’s digital and governance innovations can be replicated in developing nations.
  2. Global SDGs: With only five years left for 2030 SDGs, India’s example shows that hunger reduction is possible with political will and smart investments.
  3. Symbol of Hope: FAO calls India’s progress not just a national achievement but a contribution to global food security.

Conclusion

India’s recent performance marks a historic pivot in the fight against hunger. The country has shown that scale, digital governance, and targeted welfare can turn crisis into opportunity. Yet, the journey forward must emphasise nutrition, resilience, and inclusivity not just calories. If sustained, India will not only feed itself but also light the path for global hunger eradication.

Value Addition

Reports & Indices

  • State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2025 (SOFI Report) – Global undernourishment fell from 688 million (2023) to 673 million (2024); India reduced undernourishment from 14.3% to 12% (30 million fewer hungry people).
  • FAO Food Loss Report – Around 13% of food is lost between farm and market in India, affecting affordability.

SDG Linkage

  • SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) – Ending hunger by 2030.
  • SDG 3 (Good Health & Wellbeing) – Tackling malnutrition, obesity, micronutrient deficiencies.
  • SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption & Production) – Reducing food loss and wastage.

Keywords with UPSC Relevance

  • Calorie-to-Nutrition Shift – Moving beyond staple food security to nutrient-rich diets.
  • Hunger Paradox – Coexistence of undernourishment and obesity/micronutrient deficiency.

Examples for Enrichment in Answers

  • COVID-19 Response – India’s rapid PDS scale-up fed 800+ million people, one of the largest welfare interventions globally.
  • Digital Governance – ONORC portability cited as a global best practice by the World Bank and FAO.
  • Women-led FPOs – Strengthening climate-resilient crops while improving local nutrition outcomes.

Microtheme Mapping:

  • GS Paper I – Hunger and poverty, demographic vulnerabilities.
  • GS Paper II – Governance, digital welfare, social justice, schemes.
  • GS Paper III – Agrifood systems, logistics, cold chains, technology in agriculture.

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Judicial Reforms

[18th August 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: A case for judicial introspection

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People's Act

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2017] To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful?

Linkage: The 2016 ECI reforms sought to strengthen electoral transparency and fairness, while the current debate on the 2023 Act vs. Baranwal judgment highlights how the independence of ECI itself is under threat. Together, they show that both institutional autonomy and procedural reforms are essential for improving the quality of democracy.

Mentor’s Comment:

The credibility of elections is the lifeline of any democracy. Recent controversies around the appointment of Election Commissioners and the weakening of institutional safeguards have put India’s electoral integrity under the spotlight. This article unpacks the constitutional debates, judicial interventions, legislative countermeasures, and comparative global experiences to help aspirants understand the stakes involved in preserving the Election Commission of India (ECI) as an independent constitutional body.

Introduction

The Election Commission of India (ECI) ensures that elections are free, fair, and impartial. In 2023, the Supreme Court’s Anoop Baranwal case gave more independence to the ECI by including the Chief Justice of India (CJI) in the appointment process. But Parliament quickly passed a law removing the CJI and putting a Cabinet Minister in his place. The Court did not stop this change, and elections in 2024 were conducted under this new system. This has raised doubts about whether the ECI can act independently from the government.

Current debate over who controls ECI appointments

  1. Nullification of Baranwal judgment: The Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023. replaced the CJI with a Cabinet Minister (nominated by the PM) in the selection panel, reversing judicial attempts to ensure independence.
  2. Supreme Court’s refusal to stay the law: In Dr. Jaya Thakur v. Union of India (2024), the SC upheld the Act’s validity for the time being, allowing the government’s version to prevail in the 2024 Lok Sabha elections.
  3. Failure of judicial vigilance: A potentially independent ECI could have overseen elections more impartially, but judicial reluctance meant the executive retained control.
  4. Global parallels: Scholars like Landau and Dixon (2020) warn how courts sometimes legitimize authoritarian regimes by siding with executive dominance in electoral matters.

Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India (2023): The Supreme Court’s big step for ECI independence

  1. Article 324 interpretation: The Court held that appointments to the ECI must be insulated from the executive’s exclusive control.
  2. Role of CJI: Inclusion of the Chief Justice in the selection committee was seen as a safeguard against partisanship.
  3. Warning against pliability: The judgment noted that a “pliable ECI” could become a tool for perpetuating power, undermining free and fair elections.

The Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023: Parliament’s counter to the Court

  1. Executive dominance: By excluding the CJI and including a Cabinet Minister, the law tilted the balance back towards government control.
  2. Presumption of validity: The SC’s refusal to strike down or stay the Act demonstrated a conservative approach, prioritizing legislative supremacy over constitutional safeguards.
  3. Practical implications: The 2024 Lok Sabha and Assembly elections were conducted under an ECI shaped by this executive-heavy framework.

Global lessons on electoral manipulation

  1. Authoritarian strategies: According to Landau & Dixon, regimes in Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia used courts and electoral commissions to legitimize manipulated outcomes.
  2. Pre-election manipulation: Autocrats often consolidate institutions (courts, ECs) well before elections, creating a tilted playing field.
  3. Positive global model: South Africa’s Chapter Nine institutions, including its Electoral Commission, provide a framework for independent, fourth-branch institutions to safeguard democracy.

Fourth pillar of democracy: Autonomous Institutions

  1. Beyond traditional separation: Modern democracies recognize institutions beyond Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary such as independent ECs, CAGs, Information Commissions.
  2. Imaginative interpretation: In the Baranwal case, the Court attempted to evolve the ECI into such a fourth branch institution, enhancing checks on executive power.
  3. Legislative reversal: The 2023 Act effectively nullified this innovation, raising questions about India’s commitment to electoral impartiality.

The road ahead for electoral reforms: Restoring faith in Democracy

  1. Reinstating CJI in the selection panel: This would revive the spirit of the Baranwal verdict.
  2. Fresh appointments through a reformed process: Ensuring a genuinely independent ECI could require re-selection of commissioners.
  3. Truth Commission role: A reformed ECI could investigate alleged instances of electoral fraud, restoring voter confidence.

Conclusion

The ECI is not just another administrative body, it is the custodian of the democratic process. The dilution of judicial safeguards in its appointment mechanism risks eroding the integrity of elections, thereby weakening the very foundation of democracy. Restoring the spirit of Baranwal by reinstating the CJI’s role in appointments and insulating the ECI from executive control remains the most urgent democratic reform.

Mapping Microthemes (GS relevance)

  • GS-II (Polity & Governance): Electoral reforms, Independence of constitutional bodies, Separation of powers.
  • GS-I: Role of institutions in shaping democratic practices.
  • GS-III: Impact of political manipulation on governance outcomes.
  • GS-IV (Ethics): Constitutional morality, impartiality, institutional integrity.

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