From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ubinas Volcano
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Peru declared a state of emergency for sixty days in areas around the Ubinas volcano.
The volcano has been spewing ash and gas and is probably set to erupt.
Ubinas Volcano
Ubinas is an active stratovolcano located in the Moquegua Region of southern Peru, approximately 60 kilometers east of the city of Arequipa.
It is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes and stands at an elevation of 5,672 meters above sea level.
Geological Characteristics
Stratovolcano Formation: Ubinas is characterized by its stratovolcano structure, comprising layers of hardened lava, ash, and other volcanic materials.
Caldera and Crater: The volcano’s summit contains a 1.4-kilometer-wide and 150-meter-deep caldera, within which lies a smaller crater. This distinct feature adds to the volcano’s geological significance.
Ubinas I and Ubinas II: The volcano exhibits an upwards-steepening cone shape, with a notable notch on its southern side. The lower part is referred to as Ubinas I, while the steeper upper section is known as Ubinas II, representing different stages in the volcano’s geological history.
Volcanic Activity
Active Volcanic History: Ubinas is recognized as the most active volcano in Peru, displaying a history of small to moderate explosive eruptions and persistent degassing.
Notable Eruptions: The volcano has experienced notable eruptions throughout history, including the 2006–2007 event that resulted in eruption columns, ash fall, health concerns, and evacuations in the region.
Recent Activity: From 2013 to 2017, Ubinas exhibited lava flow within the crater, accompanied by ash falls, leading to further evacuations in nearby towns.
Eruption and Impact
Ash and Gas Emissions: The Ubinas volcano has been actively spewing ash and gas.
Smoke Cloud and Affected Areas: The smoke cloud generated by the eruption has reached towns located up to 10 kilometers away from the volcano. This has raised concerns for the well-being of approximately 2,000 people residing in the affected areas.
The “Ring of Fire”: The region where Ubinas is situated falls within the “Ring of Fire,” an area around the Pacific Ocean known for its high volcanic and seismic activity.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
Debrigarh, a wildlife sanctuary in Odisha’s Bargarh district, has achieved a significant milestone by becoming completely free of any human settlement.
Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary
Geographic Position: The Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary is located in the Bargarh district of Odisha, near the city of Sambalpur and adjacent to the Hirakud Dam.
Total Area: The sanctuary spans a total area of 346.91 km2, providing ample space for the preservation of wildlife and their natural habitats.
Flora and Fauna: The sanctuary boasts a diverse range of flora and fauna, including over 40 species of mammals, 200 species of birds, 40 species of reptiles, 12 species of amphibians, 42 species of fishes, 39 species of odonates, 85 species of butterflies, and 38 species of spiders.
Aquatic Biodiversity: The sanctuary’s unique feature is its support for both terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. The presence of the Hirakud reservoir contributes to the sanctuary’s appeal, attracting numerous migratory waterfowl during winter.
Medicinal flora: The sanctuary is home to over 250 plant species, many of which hold significant ethnobotanical and medicinal value.
Why in news?
Peaceful rehabilitation: Debrigarh stands out as one of the few wildlife sanctuaries in Odisha where human settlements have been completely removed.
Voluntary Relocation: The relocation of 400 families was carried out through a series of consultations, without the use of force.
Exceptional Cases: Debrigarh joins Nalabana Bird Sanctuary in Chilika Lake as an exceptional example of wildlife sanctuaries without permanent human settlements.
Positive Impact on Wildlife Conservation
Reduction in Conflict: The relocation has immediately resulted in a tangible drop in man-wildlife conflicts within the 353.81 sq. km Debrigarh wildlife sanctuary.
Tiger Incursion Example: The sanctuary’s inviolability was recently demonstrated when a tiger from neighboring Chhattisgarh crossed over into Debrigarh.
Preservation of Habitat: Removing human settlements from critical wildlife sanctuaries ensures the preservation and protection of biodiversity.
Benefits to Villagers and Sanctuary
Improved Living Conditions: The relocation was necessary as the villagers lacked access to basic facilities such as electricity, healthcare, and education.
Compensation: Each eligible family received ₹15 lahks as compensation for their voluntary relocation, ensuring their well-being in new settlements.
Win-Win Situation: The relocation serves the interests of both the villagers, who gain access to better facilities, and the sanctuary, which is now free from human settlements.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Brahmani Natural Arch
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
The Geological Survey of India (GSI) plans to declare the ‘Brahmani Natural Arch’ in Kanika range of Sundargarh forest division of Odisha as a Geo Heritage Site.
This natural arch is believed to date back to the Jurassic period and would be the largest natural arch in India with the Geo Heritage tag.
Brahmani Natural Arch
The oval-shaped arch has a base length of 30 meters and a height of 12 meters.
The alcove of the arch has a maximum height of 7 meters and a width of 15 meters.
India currently has two other natural arches, located at Tirumala hills in Tirupati and Andaman and Nicobar, but both are smaller than the one in Sundargarh.
Its formation
The natural arch is composed of ferruginous sandstone from the Upper Kamthi formation.
It dates back to the lower to middle Jurassic age, approximately 184 to 160 million years old.
Research on the geological significance of the site began in 2017 after its discovery during coal exploration in the district.
Awareness and Preservation Efforts
The GSI state unit and Sundargarh forest division conducted an awareness drive in the district to promote the protection of the natural arch.
Steps are being taken to promote the proposed geo-heritage site as a cultural pride and potentially name it ‘Brahmani natural arch.’
The site could be promoted and preserved as an eco-tourism destination.
Back2Basics:
Geological Heritage Sites in India
Andhra Pradesh
Mangampeta Volcanogenic bedded Barytes (Cuddapah Dist.), Eparchaean Unconformity (Chittor Dist.), Natural Geological Arch in Tirumala Hills (Chittor Dist.), Erra Matti Dibbalu located between Vishakhapatnam and Bhimunipatnam.
Maharashtra
Lonar Lake (Buldana Dist.)
Kerala
Laterite near Angadipuram PWD rest house premises (Malapuram Dist.), Varkala Cliff Section (Thiruvanatapuram Dist.)
Chattisgarh
Lower Permian Marine bed at Manendragarh (Surguja Dist.)
Tamil Nadu
Fossil wood near Tiruvakkarai (South Arcot Dist.), National fossil wood park in Sattanur (Tiruchirapalli Dist.), Charnockite in St. Thomas Mount (Madras), Badlands of Karai Formation with Cretaceous fossils along Karai – Kulakkalnattam Section (Perambalur District)
Karnataka
Columnar Lava in St. Mary Island (Udupi Dist.), Pillow lavas near Mardihalli (Chitradurga Dist.), Peninsular Gneiss in Lalbagh (Bangalore), Pyroclastics & Pillow lavas in Kolar Gold fields (Kolar Dist.)
Gujarat
Sedimentary Structures – Eddy Markings in Kadan Dam (Panch Mahals Dist.)
Himachal Pradesh
Siwalik Fossil Park (Saketi, Sirmur dt.)
Rajasthan
Sendra Granite (Pali Dist.), Barr Conglomerate (Pali Dist.), Stromatolite Fossil Park near Jharmarkotra Rock Phosphate deposit (Udaipur Dist.), Gossan in Rajpura-Dariba Mineralised belt (Udaipur Dist.), Akal Fossil Wood Park (Jaisalmer Dist.)
Odisha
Pillow Lava in iron ore belt at Nomira (Keonjhar dist.)
Jharkhand
Plant Fossil bearing Inter-trappean beds of Rajmahal Formation around Mandro (Sahibganj dist.)
Nagaland
Nagahill Ophiolite Site near Pungro
Sikkim
Stromatolite bearing Dolomite/Limestone of Buxa Formation at Mamley, near Namchi (South district), Stromatolite bearing Dolomite / Limestone of Buxa Formation, Sikkim
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cyclone Biparjoy
Mains level: Naming of cyclone
PC: windy.com
Central Idea: A cyclonic storm, named Biparjoy, has developed in the Arabian Sea.
Cyclone Biparjoy
It was stationed about 850 km west of Goa and 900 km southwest of Mumbai.
The cyclone is predicted to gain in strength over the next three days and develop into a very severe cyclonic storm by June 13.
It would result in squally weather with wind speeds reaching 35-45 kmph along the coastline of Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra
The IMD has not yet predicted any major impact on countries adjoining the Arabian Sea, including India, Oman, Iran, and Pakistan.
How it was named?
Origin of Cyclone Biparjoy’s Name: ‘Biparjoy’ was suggested by Bangladesh and the word means ‘disaster’ or ‘calamity’ in Bengali. The next cyclone after Biparjoy will be named ‘Tej’ based on India’s suggestion.
Rotational Basis for Naming: The naming of cyclones is done by countries on a rotational basis, following certain existing guidelines.
Responsibilities of RSMCs and TCWCs: Worldwide, there are six regional specialized meteorological centers (RSMCs) and five regional Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers (TCWCs) mandated for issuing advisories and naming of tropical cyclones.
IMD’s Role: IMD is one of the six RSMCs providing tropical cyclone and storm surge advisories to 13 member countries under the WMO/Economic and Social Commission for Asia-Pacific (ESCAP) Panel.
Naming Authority of IMD: RSMC, New Delhi, is also mandated to name the tropical cyclones developing over the north Indian Ocean, including the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
Guidelines for Naming: Some rules are to be followed while naming cyclones, such as being neutral to politics, religious beliefs, cultures, and gender, avoiding offensive or cruel names, and keeping the name short and easy to pronounce.
Next Cyclone Name: After Bangladesh, the next cyclone will be named ‘Tej’ based on India’s suggestion.
Cyclones in the Arabian Sea: A quick recap
Frequency of Cyclones: It is not rare for cyclones to develop in the Arabian Sea. There are fewer cyclones compared to the Bay of Bengal, but it is not uncommon.
Favorable Months: June is one of the favorable months for the formation of cyclones in the Arabian Sea.
Factors Influencing Cyclone Formation: Cyclones form due to low-pressure systems over warm waters. The Bay of Bengal is slightly warmer, but the Arabian Sea is also getting warmer due to climate change, leading to an increase in cyclones.
Coriolis Effect and Weather Systems: In a depression or low-pressure situation, the air blows in an anticlockwise direction in the northern hemisphere, influenced by the Coriolis Effect.
Role of Climate Change
Historical data indicates that the frequency of extremely severe cyclonic storms has increased over the Arabian Sea since 1990, while it has remained the same over the Bay of Bengal.
A 2021 study highlighted the increasing intensity, frequency, and duration of cyclonic storms in the Arabian Sea.
The warming is indicated by the nearly tripled accumulated cyclone energy, reflecting the extent of warming in recent years.
Back2Basics:
Tropical Cyclones
Definition
Intense circular storm over warm oceans with low pressure, high winds, and heavy rain.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Solomon Islands
Mains level: Read the attached story
A Chinese state-backed company has won a contract to develop Honiara, a key port in the Solomon Islands. This is a major victory for China, which is seeking to gain a strategic foothold in the South Pacific.
Why discuss this?
The Solomon Islands have become a focal point in the diplomatic tussle between China and the US, following the signing of a secret security pact between the Solomons and Beijing in 2022.
This has raised concerns that China may be establishing a permanent naval base in the country.
About Solomon Islands
The Solomon Islands is a sovereign country consisting of six major islands and over 900 smaller islands in Oceania, to the east of Papua New Guinea and northwest of Vanuatu.
Its capital, Honiara, is located on the largest island, Guadalcanal.
It is part of the ethnically Melanesian group of islands in the Pacific and lies between Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu.
The country takes its name from the Solomon Islands archipelago, which is a collection of Melanesian islands that also includes the North Solomon Islands (a part of Papua New Guinea).
It excludes outlying islands, such as the Santa Cruz Islands and Rennell and Bellona.
Quick recap of its past
The islands, which were initially controlled by the British Empire during the colonial era, went through the hands of Germany and Japan.
It then went back to the UK after the Americans took over the islands from the Japanese during World War II.
The islands became independent in 1978 to become a constitutional monarchy under the British Crown, with a parliamentary system of government.
Nevertheless, its inability to manage domestic ethnic conflicts led to close security relations with Australia, which is the traditional first responder to any crisis in the South Pacific.
How did China enter the picture?
Earlier this year, the Solomon Islands established a security agreement with China, saying it needed Beijing’s assistance with its domestic security situation.
But the announcement had rattled the west, esp. the US, Australia and others in the Indo-Pacific region.
The concerns were that the agreement could potentially lead to a Chinese military base on the island nation and a gain in power-projection capabilities.
At that time, following intense scrutiny, the Solomon Islands had denied that the agreement would allow China to establish a naval base.
What is the Solomon Islands’ stance?
The government has asked all partner countries with plans to conduct naval visits or patrols to put them on hold until a revised national mechanism is in place.
The revised national mechanism applied to all foreign vessels seeking access to the country’s ports.
The nation wanted to build up itsown naval capacity.
It has some unfortunate experiences of foreign naval vessels entering its waters without any diplomatic clearance.
What is behind China’s growing influence in the region?
There is no dispute that China has been rapidly increasing its presence and influence in the region for over three decades, particularly in the South Pacific.
Certainly Beijing views the Pacific Island region as an important component of its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
Specifically, it sees the region as a critical air freight hub in its so-called Air Silk Road, which connects Asia with Central and South America.
Concerns of the West
The port project could open the door to a Chinese naval base, which would significantly extend China’s military reach in the South Pacific.”
It is likely that this security agreement between China and the Solomon Islands has been driven by, what the CFR calls, Beijing’s “sense of vulnerability” in the region.
What is the rationale for the Solomon Islands’ increasing proximity to China?
The Solomon Islands had cultivated strong ties with Taiwan, which ended with the emergence of the current government in Honiara.
In 2019, the regime change switched Taiwan for China.
This was supposedly after Beijing offered half a billion US dollars in financial aid, roughly five times what Taiwan spent on the islands in the past two decades.
It has been alleged by the pro-Taiwan Opposition that the incumbent government has been bribed by China.
Why is China interested in the Solomon Islands?
Isolating Taiwan: The Solomon Islands was one among the six Pacific island states which had official bilateral relations with Taiwan.
Supporter in UN: The small Pacific island states act as potential vote banks for mobilising support for the great powers in international fora like the United Nations.
Larger EEZ: These states have disproportionately large maritime Exclusive Economic Zones when compared to their small sizes.
Natural resources: Solomon Islands, in particular, have significant reserves of timber and mineral resources, along with fisheries.
Countering US: But more importantly, they are strategically located for China to insert itself between America’s military bases in the Pacific islands and Australia.
What does this mean for the established geopolitical configuration in the region?
Diminishing western influence: The Pacific islands, in the post-World War II scenario, were exclusively under the spheres of influence of the Western powers, in particular, the US, UK, France and Australia and New Zealand.
Inserting into western hegemony: All of them have territorial possessions in the region, with the three nuclear powers among them having used the region as a nuclear weapons testing ground.
Shifting of dependencies: The smaller island nations of the region are heavily dependent on them, especially Australia as it is a resident power.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Silent Valley National Park
Mains level: NA
A bird survey conducted at the Silent Valley National Park identified 141 species, of which 17 were new. So far, 175 species of birds have been spotted in Silent Valley.
Silent Valley National Park
It is located in the border of Mannarkkad Taluk of Palakkad district, Nilambur Taluk of Malappuram district, Kerala, and Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu.
This national park has some rare species of flora and fauna. This area was explored in 1847 by the botanist Robert Wight.
It is located in the rich biodiversity of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
Mukurthi peak, the fifth-highest peak in South India, and Anginda peak are also located in its vicinity.
Bhavani River, a tributary of Kaveri River, and Kunthipuzha River, a tributary of Bharathappuzha river, originate in the vicinity of Silent Valley.
The Kadalundi River has also its origin in Silent Valley.
New species spotted
Brown wood owl, Banded bay cuckoo, Malabar woodshrike, White-throated kingfisher, Indian nightjar, Jungle nightjar, and Large cuckooshrike were among the 17 species newly identified in the Silent Valley.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Great Lakes
Mains level: Not Much
Scientists are building a sensor network to detect the trends in the water chemistry of Lake Huron, one of the five Great Lakes of North America.
What is the Acidification of water bodies?
Acidification of oceans or freshwater bodies takes place when excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere gets rapidly absorbed into them.
Scientists initially believed this might be a good thing, as it leaves less carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
But in the past decade or so, it has been established that absorption of carbon dioxide leads to a lowering of the pH, which makes the water bodies more acidic.
What are Great Lakes?
The Great Lakes are a series of large interconnected freshwater lakes in the mid-east region of North America that connect to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence River.
There are five lakes, which are Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario and are in general on or near the Canada–US border.
Hydrologically, lakes Michigan and Huron are a single body joined at the Straits of Mackinac.
By itself, Lake Huron is the world’s third largest freshwater lake, after Lake Superior and Lake Victoria.
The Great Lakes Waterway enables modern travel and shipping by water among the lakes.
Why are they significant?
The Great Lakes contain a fifth of the world’s total freshwater, and is a crucial source of irrigation and transportation.
They also serve as the habitat for more than 3,500 species of plants and animals.
Acidification of Great Lakes
Scientists are developing a system that would be capable of measuring the carbon dioxide and pH levels of the Great Lakes over several years.
It is known that the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide has caused the world’s oceans to turn more acidic.
Recently, it has been observed that by 2100, even the Great Lakes — Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario — might approach acidity at around the same rate as the oceans.
Researchers hope the data from the Lake Huron project would add to scientific information on the subject.
Consequences of acidification
The Great Lakes are believed to have been born some 20,000 years ago, when the Earth started to warm and water from melting glaciers filled the basins on its surface.
However, this rich ecosphere is under threat as the five lakes would witness a pH decline of 0.29-0.49 pH units — meaning they would become more acidic — by 2100.
This may lead to a decrease in native biodiversity, create physiological challenges for organisms, and permanently alter the structure of the ecosystem, scientists say.
It would also severely impact the hundreds of wooden shipwrecks that are believed to be resting at the bottom of these lakes.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Arittapatti, Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS)
Mains level: Not Much
The Tamil Nadu Government has issued a notification declaring Arittapatti in Melur block, Madurai district, a biodiversity heritage site.
About Arittapatti
Arittapatti village, rich in ecological and historical significance, houses around 250 species of birds including three important raptors -birds of prey, namely the Laggar Falcon, the Shaheen Falcon and Bonelli’s Eagle.
It is also home to wildlife such as the Indian Pangolin, Slender Loris and pythons.
The biodiversity-rich area is surrounded by a chain of seven hillocks or inselbergs that serve as a watershed, charging 72 lakes, 200 natural springs and three check dams.
The Anaikondan tank, built during the reign of Pandiyan kings in the 16th century is one among them, the government notification said.
Several megalithic structures, rock-cut temples, Tamil Brahmi inscriptions and Jain beds add to the historical significance of the region.
What is a Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS)?
Biodiversity Heritage Sites are rich Biodiversity Areas and are important components of local ecosystems which are being conserved and managed by the society.
BHS are declared as per provision under Section 37(1) of Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
The State Government may, from time to time in consultation with the local bodies, notify the areas of biodiversity importance as biodiversity heritage sites under this Act.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sahel Region
Mains level: NA
French President Emmanuel Macron announced the end of the decade-long Operation Barkhane in Africa’s Sahel Region.
Note the nations falling in Sahel Region.
Sahel Region
The Sahel is the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition in Africa between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south.
Having a semi-arid climate, it stretches across the south-central latitudes of Northern Africa between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea.
The name is derived from the Arabic term for “coast, shore”; this is explained as being used in a figurative sense in reference to the southern edge of the vast Sahara.
The Sahel part includes from west to east parts of northern Senegal, southern Mauritania, central Mali, northern Burkina Faso, the extreme south of Algeria, Niger, the extreme north of Nigeria, the extreme north of Cameroon and the Central African Republic, central Chad, central and southern Sudan, the extreme north of South Sudan, Eritrea and the extreme north of Ethiopia.
What is Operation Barkhane?
France began its military operations in Sahel in January 2013.
Titled Operation Serval, it was limited to targeting Islamic extremists linked to al-Qaeda who took control of northern Mali.
However, in 2014, the mission was scaled up, renamed Operation Barkhane and was aimed at counter-terrorism.
The objective was to assist local armed forces to prevent the resurgence of non-state armed groups across the Sahel region.
Around 4,500 French personnel were deployed with the local joint counter-terrorism force.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kherson from mapping perspective
Mains level: Russia's retreat in Ukraine
Ukraine’s defence and intelligence unit has reported on the withdrawal of Russian troops from Kherson but predicts it to be a delusion for a retreat.
Where is Kherson?
Geographically, Kherson is a strategic location for Russia and Ukraine.
Situated in the northwest of the Dnipro River, the province shares borders with Donetsk, Crimea and the Black Sea.
Why is it important for Russia?
With Moscow capturing Crimea in 2014, the occupation of Kherson in March 2022 has benefited Russia in transferring its military from Crimea to counter Ukraine.
It provides access to Odesa and Black Sea ports in the west and serves as the main route to secure southern Ukraine.
Implications of regaining for Ukraine
For Ukraine, regaining Kherson is significant to protect its population in Kalanchak and Chaplynka districts and also to recapture Crimea.
Kherson is also an important agricultural region, with irrigation channels.
How did Kherson come under Russia’s control?
In early March 2022, Kherson was captured by Russia through intense fighting.
The battle of Kherson proved to be the starting point to capturing and occupying the southern part of Ukraine while the battles for Kharkiv and Kyiv in the north progressed.
Russia’s hold over Kherson since March 2022 enabled Moscow to capture the key port cities — Mariupol in the Sea Azov, and Odesa, thus expanding control.
Kherson’s irrigation canals were used as defence positions, creating a strong line preventing Ukraine’s counter-attacks.
Russia also had positioned its soldiers in Kherson and stockpiled the ammunition.
Why has Moscow announced its withdrawal from Kherson?
Mobilisation failure: When Russia was advancing rapidly in capturing the southern and northern cities of Ukraine, its military personnel and weapon systems started to run thin.
Unexperienced troops: The failure of new recruits added an additional challenge to Russia to keep its hold against the Ukraine counter-offensive in Kherson.
Inability of Russia to govern Kherson: Despite imposing martial law, Russia could not effectively rule Kherson; the three-level security in the occupied areas could not enforce Russia’s control on the ground.
Ukraine’s expanding counter-offensive: Until August, Ukraine was supplied only with short-range and low-grade weapons by the West. On the other hand, Russia has been facing challenges in augmenting its military hardware on the battleground.
Is the withdrawal final, or a tactical move by Russia?
Ukraine is advancing: Russia’s new mobilisation has failed to stop the advancing of Ukraine forces.
Russia is weakening: The challenges to remobilise its defence systems and the shortage of weapons must have played a role in Russia’s withdrawal.
Inevitable western intervention: With Ukraine strengthening its military capacity through support from the west, upgrading from land-based to air-based to heavy battle tanks, Russia is facing a challenge to hold its occupied territories in Ukraine.
Conclusion
Withdrawal from Kherson exposes a serious gap in Russia’s strategy to hold southern Ukraine.
However, it also underlines its strategy — to withdraw under serious attack or resistance by the Ukrainian forces — as it happened in Kyiv and Kharkiv.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Khangkhui Cave
Mains level: NA
A colony of bats was evicted from a Khangkhui Mangsor cave system in Manipur with a Palaeolithic past to make it tourist-friendly.
Khangkhui Mangsor
The Khangkhui, locally called Khangkhui Mangsor, is a natural limestone cave about 15 km from Ukhrul, the headquarters of Ukhrul district.
Excavations carried out by Manipur’s archaeologists had revealed the cave was home to Stone Age communities.
The cave was also used as a shelter by the local people during the Second World War after the Japanese forces advanced to Manipur and the adjoining Nagaland.
Why in news?
The cave housed large roosting populations of bats belonging to the Rhinolophidae and Hipposideridae families.
They were however killed and evicted from the Khangkhui cave after 2016-17 purportedly to make it more tourist-friendly.
Do you know?
The longest is Krem Liat Prah in the Jaintia Hills, which is 30.957 km long. The word “Krem” means cave in the local Khasi language
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lothal, Indus Valley Civilization
Mains level: Heritage tourism
Prime Minister has reviewed the construction of the National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC) site at Gujarat’s Lothal via video conferencing.
Where is Lothal?
Lothal was one of the southernmost sites of the Indus Valley civilization, located in the Bhal region of what is now the state of Gujarat.
The port city is believed to have been built in 2,200 BC. Lothal was a thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems and ornaments reaching West Asia and Africa.
The meaning of Lothal (a combination of Loth and (s) thal) in Gujarati is “the mound of the dead”.
Incidentally, the name of the city of Mohenjo-daro (also part of the Indus Valley Civilisation, now in Pakistan) means the same in Sindhi.
In the region, it can be compared with other Indus port towns of Balakot (Pakistan), Khirasa (in Gujarat’s Kutch) and Kuntasi (in Rajkot).
When was it discovered?
Indian archaeologists started the search for cities of the Harappan Civilisation post-1947 in Gujarat’s Saurashtra.
Archaeologist SR Rao led the team which discovered a number of Harappan sites at the time, including the port city of Lothal.
Excavation work was carried out in Lothal between February 1955 and May 1960.
Adjacent to the excavated areas stands the archaeological site museum, where some of the most prominent collections of Indus-era antiquities in India are displayed.
How was it identified as port city?
The National Institute of Oceanography in Goa discovered marine microfossils and salt, gypsum crystals at the site, indicating that sea water once filled the structure and it was definitely a dockyard.
It had the world’s earliest known dock, connecting the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river.
A metropolis with an upper and a lower town had in on its northern side a basin with vertical wall, inlet and outlet channels which has been identified as a tidal dockyard.
Satellite images show that the river channel, now dried, would have brought in considerable volume of water during high tide, which would have filled the basin and facilitated sailing of boats upstream.
What heritage value does it hold?
Lothal was nominated in April 2014 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and its application is pending on the tentative list of UNESCO.
It is the only port-town of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Its heritage value is comparable to following ancient port-towns around the world-
Xel Ha (Peru)
Ostia (Port of Rome)
Carthage (Port of Tunis) in Italy
Hepu in China,
Canopus in Egypt
Gabel (Byblos of the Phoenicians),
Jaffa in Israel,
Ur in Mesopotamia
Hoi An in Vietnam
Building up of Heritage Complex
The project began in March 2022, and is being developed at a cost of Rs 3,500 crore.
It will have several innovative features such as Lothal mini-recreation, which will recreate Harappan architecture and lifestyle through immersive technology.
It has four theme parks – Memorial theme park, Maritime and Navy theme park, Climate theme park, and Adventure and Amusement theme park.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ranipur Tiger Reserve
Mains level: Not Much
The UP cabinet approved the notification of Ranipur Tiger Reserve under Section 38(v) of the Wild life (Protection) Act of 1972.
About Ranipur WS
Ranipur WS, was founded in 1977, is one of the attractions of Chitrakoot district in Uttar Pradesh.
It is spread over 230 sq.km and is noted for its diverse wildlife, but is not very frequently visited by tourists because of the difficult access.
The Ranipur TR has tropical dry deciduous forests and is home to fauna such as tigers, leopards, sloth bears, spotted deer, sambhar, chinkara and a number of birds and reptiles, the statement added.
The Ranipur TR will be the fourth in UP, after Dudhwa, Pilibhit and Amangarh (buffer of Corbett Tiger Reserve).
It will also be the first in the state’s portion of the Bundelkhand region, which it shares with neighbouring Madhya Pradesh.
Why make it a tiger reserve?
RWS has no tigers of its own.
But pugmarks of the animals are frequently seen there as tigers from nearby Panna frequent it.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ram Setu
Mains level: NA
A movie has once again generated buzz around the chain of shoals off the southeast coast of India that many believe is the Ram Setu or the bridge to Lanka mentioned in the Ramayana.
The Ram Setu
The Ram Setu, also known as Adam’s Bridge, is a 48-km chain of limestone shoals between Rameswaram on India’s southeast coast and Mannar Island near Sri Lanka’s northwest coast.
The structure has significance in both Hindu and Muslim mythology – while Hindus believe this is the bridge (Setu) built by Lord Ram and his army to cross to Lanka and fight Ravan.
As per Islamic legend, Adam used this bridge to reach Adam’s Peak in Sri Lanka, where he stood on one foot for 1,000 years in repentance.
Factual details of the bridge
Scientists believe Ram Setu is a natural structure formed due to tectonic movements and sand getting trapped in corals.
However, over the years, evidence has been offered to claim that the bridge is man-made.
The bridge is not entirely natural, Hindu right wing outfits argue, which proves that it was indeed built by Lord Ram.
When was the structure came into highlights?
The Ram Setu issue snowballed into a major controversy when the Sethusamudram Project, flagged off during the UPA I government.
The project aimed to reduce travel time between the eastern and western coasts of India, as ships would no longer have to circle Sri Lanka to travel between the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
The project was perceived as an attack on Hindu sentiments.
Various studies have been proposed on the Ram Setu, with the most recent being in 2021, when the government approved an underwater research project to ascertain its origins.
Ecological arguments against the project
The Sethusamudram project has been opposed on environmental grounds.
Some claims that it will harm marine life, and that dredging of the line of shoals will make India’s coast more vulnerable to tsunamis.
In March 2018, the Centre told the Supreme Court that the Ram Setu will not be affected in the execution of the Sethusamudram Shipping Canal project.
NASA images, and other proofs
Images of the Ram Setu clicked by NASA have been used over and over again to claim that this proves the existence of a man-made bridge.
NASA has repeatedly clarified that it does not agree with these claims.
Remote sensing images or photographs from orbit cannot provide direct information about the origin or age of a chain of islands.
It certainly cannot be determined whether humans were involved in producing any of the patterns seen.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Batken Region
Mains level: Not Much
Nearly 100 people have been killed and scores injured in violent border clashes between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan over the last week.
What is the Kyrgyzstan-Tajikistan Conflict?
The clashes are replaying old pre- and post-Soviet era legacies.
The borders of the two republics were demarcated under Joseph Stalin’s leadership.
Historically, the Kyrgyz and Tajik populations enjoyed common rights over natural resources.
The issue of the delimitation of the border is a relic of the Soviet era.
While regular talks have tried to resolve the issue, one of the crucial points of disagreement remains over the map which should be used for demarcation purposes.
Almost half of its close to a 1000 km border is disputed.
Genesis of the dispute
The creation of the Soviet Union saw the large-scale redistribution of livestock to collective and state farms, which upset the existing status quo.
Unfortunately, there was only so much land to go around.
The Tajik territory of Batken saw their livestock increase, and with scarce grazing land, agreements were signed between the two populations over the utilisation of Kyrgyz territory by the Tajiks’ livestock.
What is happening now at the border?
The last few weeks have seen constant shelling, violent confrontations by local communities, and active engagement by security forces on either side.
The Batken region of Kyrgyzstan is seeing families being moved out and getting relocated.
According to Kyrgyzstan, close to 1,50,000 people out of the 5,50,000 odd population of the Batken region have either fled the area or have been relocated by the state.
The situation in Osh, Kyrgyzstan, is no different. The highly militarised borders also add to tensions.
Significance of Batken
The Batken region, bordering Tajikistan and Uzbekistan in the south of the country, is one of the seven regions of Kyrgyzstan with its natural underground and water resources, natural beauty, smooth transit routes and a population of around 500,000.
Located 750 kilometers (466.02 miles) from Bishkek, the capital of Kyrgyzstan, and in the southwest of the country, the Batken region is located on the edge of the famous Fergana Valley in Central Asia.
Fergana Valley includes Fergana, Namangan, Andijan in Uzbekistan, Hocand in Tajikistan, Osh, Jalalabad and Batken in Kyrgyzstan.
The Batken region borders the Republic of Uzbekistan in the northeast and the Republic of Tajikistan in the southwest and north.
Covering 8.5% of Kyrgyzstan’s land, the region has agricultural, underground, water and energy resources, as well as oil and natural gas resources, albeit small.
What led to the current flare-up?
The ideological basis of the current set of clashes is reinforced by developmental issues, thus providing a fertile ground for the entire geopolitical space to become a hotbed of multiple minor conflicts and clashes.
The groups from either side planted trees in disputed areas and engaged in a physical confrontation using agricultural equipment as weapons.
Why are the clashes occurring now?
The collapse of the Soviet Union and the subsequent dissolution of the then-existing water and land agreements saw the creation of multiple smaller independent farms.
This has led to a marked increase in water consumption patterns among the farmers.
Both countries share multiple water channels with undulating trajectories and flow, which upset equitable access to water on both sides.
As a result, small-scale conflicts occur practically every year during the crucial irrigation period.
What is the road ahead?
The path to resolution of the conflict will require groups to agree upon a common map.
Russia often brokers between the two.
The international community will have to make efforts to solve the dispute by involving elders in the communities, as historically, elders have been used to resolve conflicts.
The informal small-scale governance mechanisms would also have to be further strengthened through a concerted effort by the respective countries to stabilize the geopolitical dynamics.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ramsar wetlands in India
Mains level: Not Much
India has added five more Ramsar sites, or wetlands of international importance, bringing the number of such sites in the country to 54.
Newly added Ramsar Sites
Karikili Bird Sanctuary, Pallikaranai Marsh Reserve Forest and Pichavaram Mangrove in Tamil Nadu,
Sakhya Sagar in Madhya Pradesh
Pala Wetlands in Mizoram
What are Wetlands?
A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally, where oxygen-free processes prevail.
The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other landforms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants, adapted to the unique hydric soil.
Significance of Wetlands
Wetlands provide a wide range of important resources and ecosystem services such as food, water, fibre, groundwater recharge, water purification, flood moderation, erosion control, and climate regulation.
They are, in fact, are a major source of water and our main supply of freshwater comes from an array of wetlands that help soak rainfall and recharge groundwater.
They provide many societal benefits: food and habitat for fish and wildlife, including threatened and endangered species; water quality improvement; flood storage; shoreline erosion control; economically beneficial natural products for human use; and opportunities for recreation, education, and research, etc.
India and Ramsar Wetlands
India’s Ramsar wetlands are spread over 11,000 sq.km — around 10% of the total wetland area in the country — across 18 States.
No other South Asian country has as many sites, though this has much to do with India’s geographical breadth and tropical diversity.
The UK (175) and Mexico (142) — smaller countries than India — have the most Ramsar sites, whereas Bolivia spans the largest area with 1,48,000 sq.km under the Convention protection.
The National Wetland Inventory and Assessment compiled by the ISRO estimates India’s wetlands to span around 1,52,600 square kilometres.
What makes Ramsar designation significant?
Being designated a Ramsar site does not necessarily invite extra international funds.
Acquiring this label helps with a locale’s tourism potential and its international visibility.
Criteria for Ramsar site designation
To be Ramsar site a place must meet at least one of the criteria as defined by the Ramsar Convention of 1961, such:
Supporting vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities or,
If it regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds or,
Is an important source of food for fishes,
Spawning ground,
Nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks are dependent upon.
Static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres
Does not include river channels, paddy fields, human-made water bodies/ tanks specifically constructed for drinking water purposes
Back2Basics: Ramsar Convention
The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (better known as the Ramsar Convention) is an international agreement promoting the conservation and wise use of wetlands.
It is the only global treaty to focus on a single ecosystem.
The convention was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975.
Traditionally viewed as a wasteland or breeding ground of disease, wetlands actually provide fresh water and food and serve as nature’s shock absorber.
Wetlands, critical for biodiversity, are disappearing rapidly, with recent estimates showing that 64% or more of the world’s wetlands have vanished since 1900.
Major changes in land use for agriculture and grazing, water diversion for dams and canals, and infrastructure development are considered to be some of the main causes of loss and degradation of wetlands.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Paracel Islands
Mains level: Not Much
A US destroyer sailed near the disputed Paracel Islands in the South China Sea, drawing an angry reaction from Beijing, which said its military had “driven away” the ship.
About Paracel Islands
The Paracel Islands, also known as the Xisha Islands and the Hoang Sa Archipelago are a disputed archipelago in the South China Sea.
The archipelago includes about 130 small coral islands and reefs, most grouped into the northeast Amphitrite Group or the western Crescent Group.
What is the South China Sea Dispute?
It is a dispute over territory and sovereignty over ocean areas, and the Paracels and the Spratlys – two island chains claimed in whole or in part by a number of countries.
China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Taiwan, Malaysia, and Brunei all have competing claims.
Alongside the fully-fledged islands, there are dozens of rocky outcrops, atolls, sandbanks, and reefs, such as the Scarborough Shoal.
China claims by far the largest portion of territory – an area defined by the “nine-dash line” which stretches hundreds of miles south and east from its most southerly province of Hainan.
Beijing says its right to the area goes hundreds of centuries to when the Paracel and Spratly island chains were regarded as integral parts of the Chinese nation.
It showed the two island groups falling entirely within its territory. Those claims are mirrored by Taiwan.
Spat over Chinese claims
China has backed its expansive claims with island-building and naval patrols.
The US says it does not take sides in territorial disputes but has sent military ships and planes near disputed islands, calling them “freedom of navigation” operations to ensure access to key shipping and air routes.
Both sides have accused each other of “militarizing” the South China Sea.
There are fears that the area is becoming a flashpoint, with potentially serious global consequences.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Singalila National Park, Red Panda
Mains level: NA
The Singalila National Park, the highest protected area in West Bengal, will soon wild Red Panda.
Singalila National Park
Singalila National Park is located on the Singalila Ridge at an altitude of more than 7000 feet above sea level, in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal.
It is well known for the trekking route to Sandakphu that runs through it.
The Singalila area in Darjeeling was purchased by the British Government from Sikkim Durbar in 1882, and notified a Reserve Forest under the Indian Forest Act 1878.
It was notified as a National Park in 1992 and was also officially opened up for tourism.
Why introduce Red Panda?
The number of red pandas has been declining in the wild, even in the Singalila and Neora Valley National Parks, the two protected areas where the mammal is found in the wild in West Bengal.
Recent studies estimate that there are 38 of them in Singalila and 32 in Neora.
The zoological park who is at the centre of the Red Panda Augmentation Programme.
Conservation breeding of red pandas is only one part of the programme.
About Red Panda
IUCN Red List: Endangered
The red panda (Ailurus fulgens), also known as the lesser panda, is a small mammal native to the eastern Himalayas and southwestern China.
It was first formally described in 1825.
The red panda inhabits coniferous forests as well as temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, favouring steep slopes with dense bamboo cover close to water sources.
It is solitary and largely arboreal.
It feeds mainly on bamboo shoots and leaves, but also on fruits and blossoms.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Snake Island
Mains level: Not Much
Ukraine has said it has caused “significant losses” to the Russian military in airstrikes on Zmiinyi Island, also known as Snake Island, in the Black Sea.
Snake Island
Zmiinyi Island, also known as Snake or Serpent Island, is a small piece of rock less than 700 metres from end to end, that has been described as being “X-shaped”.
It is located 35 km from the coast in the Black Sea, to the east of the mouth of the Danube and roughly southwest of the port city of Odessa.
The island, which has been known since ancient times and is marked on the map by the tiny village of Bile that is located on it, belongs to Ukraine.
Why does Russia seek to control the Black Sea?
Domination of the Black Sea region is a geostrategic imperative for Moscow.
The famed water body is bound by Ukraine to the north and northwest, Russia and Georgia to the east, Turkey to the south, and Bulgaria and Romania to the west.
It links to the Sea of Marmara through the Bosporus and then to the Aegean through the Dardanelles.
It has traditionally been Russia’s warm water gateway to Europe.
For Russia, the Black Sea is both a stepping stone to the Mediterranean as well as a strategic buffer between NATO and itself.
Cutting Ukrainian access to the Black Sea will reduce it to a landlocked country and deal a crippling blow to its trade logistics.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP)
Mains level: Not Much
Activists surrounding the Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP) in Manipur have now taken up the cudgels to ensure that the government does not shift the proposed heritage park from the approved site.
Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP)
The KLNP is a national park in the Bishnupur district of the state of Manipur in India.
It is 40 km2 in area, the only floating park in the world, located in North East India, and an integral part of Loktak Lake.
The national park is characterized by floating decomposed plant material locally called Phumdi at the south–eastern side of the Loktak Lake, which has been declared a Ramsar site.
It was created in 1966 as a wildlife sanctuary to preserve the natural habitat of the endangered Eld’s deer.
In 1977, it was gazetted as national park.
Key faunas
KLNP is home to the last of the brow-antlered deer (Rucervus eldii eldii), one of the most endangered deer in the world.
It is locally called as Sangai.
The animal is, in fact, in danger of losing its home—most of the phumdis, or floating swamps, are unable to sustain its weight.
In 1951, it was reported extinct, but British tea planter and naturalist Edward Pritchard Gee rediscovered it in 1953.
