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Type: Prelims Only

  • Parliament – Sessions, Procedures, Motions, Committees etc

    Vice-President (VP) of India

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Parliament & State Legislatures

    Why in the News?

    The Vice-President of India, Jagdeep Dhankhar resigned citing health reasons, creating a rare mid-term vacancy in India’s second-highest constitutional office.

    What happens if VP resigns?

    • The Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha presides in his absence. No provision exists for an “acting” Vice-President.
    • Unlike the President, whose vacancy must be filled within six months, the VP election must be held “as soon as possible.”
    • The Election Commission will notify the schedule.
    • Election governed by the Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952.
    • The elected candidate will serve a full 5-year term, not the remainder of Dhankhar’s term.

    About Vice-President (VP) of India

    • Position: Second-highest constitutional post; deputy to the President.
    • Parliamentary Role: Serves as ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
    • Succession: Ranks second in order of precedence and first in line to become President.
    • Membership: Is a member of Parliament, not directly elected by the people.
    • Qualifications:
      • Citizenship: Must be a citizen of India.
      • Age: Minimum 35 years.
      • Office of Profit: Should not hold any.
      • Parliamentary Eligibility: Must qualify for election to Rajya Sabha (unlike President, who must qualify for Lok Sabha) due to the VP’s role in the Upper House.
    • Roles and Responsibilities:
      • Rajya Sabha Chairmanship: Presides over sessions and ensures order.
      • Bill Classification: Refers money bills to the Lok Sabha Speaker.
      • No Independent Powers: Has no executive or legislative powers unless acting as President.

    Election Procedure:

    • Constitutional Basis: Governed by Article 66.
    • Electoral College: Comprises 543 Lok Sabha MPs, 233 elected Rajya Sabha MPs, and 12 nominated Rajya Sabha members.
    • Voting Method: Proportional representation by single transferable vote and secret ballot.
    • No Whip Allowed: Parties cannot issue voting whips.
    • Conduct: Managed by the Election Commission; Returning Officer is the Secretary-General of either House (on rotation).
    • Winning Quota: Requires 50% of valid votes + 1; votes are transferred in rounds if no candidate secures majority in the first round.

    Resignation and Removal:

    • Resignation
      • Article 67(a): VP submits his/her resignation to the President. Parliamentary approval is NOT needed, and the resignation takes effect immediately upon receipt.
      • No Acting VP: Constitution doesn’t provide for an acting Vice-President.
      • Presiding in Absence: Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha presides in VP’s absence (currently Harivansh Narayan Singh).
      • Example: Dhankhar, who took office in 2022, is only the third VP in Indian history to resign before completing his term, after V.V. Giri and R. Venkataraman.
    • Removal
      • Article 67(b): Removal process begins in Rajya Sabha with 14 days’ notice.
      • Voting Requirement: Needs effective majority in Rajya Sabha and simple majority in Lok Sabha.
      • No Grounds Specified: Constitution doesn’t list specific removal grounds.
      • Judicial Immunity: Article 122 bars courts from questioning parliamentary proceedings related to removal.
      • No Precedent: No VP has been removed so far.
    [UPSC 2013] With reference to Parliament, consider the following statements:

    1.The Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha are not the members of that House.

    2.While the nominated members of the two Houses of the Parliament have no voting right in the presidential election, they have the right to vote in the election of the Vice President.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

    In news: King Rajendra Chola I

    Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister will attend a function in Tamil Nadu marking 1000 years since King Rajendra Chola I’s conquest of the Gangetic plains.

    In news: King Rajendra Chola I

    About Rajendra Chola I:

    • Reign & Dynasty: Ruled from 1014 to 1044 CE, succeeding his father Rajaraja Chola I.
    • Titles:
      • Gangaikonda Cholan (“Bringer of the Ganges”) – adopted after his victorious northern campaign.
      • Kadaram Kondan (“Conqueror of Kedah (Malaysia)”) – earned following his Southeast Asian naval expeditions.
    • Capital Foundation: Established Gangaikonda Cholapuram, shifting the capital from Thanjavur to the Kollidam River area.
    • Temple Building: Built the Gangaikondacholeshwaram (Shiva) Temple to commemorate his conquests.
    • Succession: Succeeded by his son, Rajadhiraja I.
    • Religious Policy:
      • Devout Shaivite, but practiced religious pluralism—patronised Buddhism, including building stupas in South India and Southeast Asia.
    • Diplomacy & Trade: Strengthened international ties with Song Dynasty China and Arab merchants.
    • Administration: Pioneered local self-governance, showcasing notable administrative sophistication.

    chola

    His Legend:

    • Northern Conquest: Rajendra led a military campaign to the Gangetic plains, defeating the Pala ruler Mahipala of Bengal and Bihar, and commemorated this victory by bringing Ganga water to his capital.
    • Overseas Expeditions: He commanded what is considered the largest blue-water navy in Indian history. Successfully conducted naval expeditions to:
      • Srivijaya Empire (covering parts of modern-day Sumatra, Java, and Malaysia)
      • Burma, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Maldives, and Pegu Islands
      • Extracted tribute from Thailand and the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia.
      • First Indian king to undertake large-scale overseas military campaigns.
    • Trade and Diplomacy: Established trade and diplomatic links with Song China and Arab merchants.
    • Administration: Promoted local self-governance, showcasing the Cholas’ administrative efficiency.
    • Wealth and Power: Under his reign, the Chola Empire became one of the wealthiest and most powerful empires of the time.
    [UPSC 2025] Who among the following led a successful military campaign against the kingdom of Srivijaya, the powerful maritime state, which ruled the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring islands?

    Options: (a) Amoghvarsha (Rashtrakuta) (b) Prataprudra (Kakatiya) (c) Rajendra I (Chola) * (d) Vishnuvardhana (Hoysala)

     

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  • Parliament – Sessions, Procedures, Motions, Committees etc

    Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India 

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Why in the News?

    The Comptroller and Auditor General of India’s (CAG) audit has flagged ₹573 Crore irregularities in Indian Railways.

    About Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India:

    • Foundation: Established under Article 148 of the Constitution of India.
    • Independence: A constitutional authority, not subject to executive control.
    • Appointment: Appointed by the President of India.
    • Tenure: Holds office for 6 years or until the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.
    • Removal: Can be removed by the President in the same manner and on the same grounds as a judge of the Supreme Court of India.
    • Post-Retirement Bar: Ineligible for further office under the Government of India or any State after demitting office.
    • Funding: Administrative expenses are charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India, ensuring financial autonomy.
    • Parliamentary Independence: No minister can represent the CAG in Parliament.
    • Role: Known as the guardian of the public purse and a key pillar of Indian democracy.

    Powers and Functions:

    • Audits:
      • Fund Audits: Audits expenditures from the Consolidated Fund of India, State Consolidated Funds, and Union Territory funds.
      • Other Fund Audits: Audits Contingency Fund and Public Account at both Central and State levels.
      • Departmental Audits: Reviews profit and loss accounts, balance sheets, and subsidiary accounts of government departments.
      • Authority Audits: Audits bodies and authorities substantially financed by the government.
      • Company Audits: Examines accounts of government-owned companies and corporations.
      • Special Audits: Audits other authorities when requested by the President or Governor.
    • Parliamentary Role: Acts as a guide, friend, and philosopher to the Public Accounts Committee of Parliament.
    • Public Accountability: Exposed major scams such as the 2G spectrum and coal block allocation cases.
    • Sectoral Reviews: Highlighted inefficiencies in defence, railways, and other public enterprises.

    Limitations of the office of CAG:

    • Lack of Real-Time Control: Cannot stop or approve withdrawals from the Consolidated Fund; cheques can be issued without CAG’s prior clearance.
    • Opaque Appointment: No prescribed qualifications or transparent procedure for selection; appointment is entirely executive-controlled.
    • Limited Audit Scope:
      • Excludes certain public entities like Life Insurance Corporation and public sector banks.
      • Cannot audit public-private partnerships and funds like Prime Minister’s Citizen Assistance and Relief in Emergency Situations Fund and Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund.
      • Off-budget borrowings (e.g., through National Investment and Infrastructure Fund) remain outside audit scope.
    • Post-Facto Nature: Audits occur after expenditure, limiting preventive or real-time oversight.

     

    [UPSC 2012] In India, other than ensuring that public funds are used efficiently and for intended purpose, what is the importance of the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)?

    1. CAG exercises exchequer control on behalf of the Parliament when the President of India declares national emergency/financial emergency.

    2. CAG reports on the execution of projects or programmes by the ministries are discussed by the Public Accounts Committee.

    3. Information from CAG reports can be used by investigating agencies to press charges against those who have violated the law while managing public finances.

    4. While dealing with the audit and accounting of government companies, CAG has certain judicial powers for prosecuting those who violate the law.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

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  • Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

    In news: Mangal Pandey (1827-1857)

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister paid tribute to the great freedom fighter Mangal Pandey on his birth anniversary.

    Who was Mangal Pandey?

    • Birth: Born on 19 July 1827 in Nagwa village, Ballia district, Uttar Pradesh.
    • Military Service: Joined the British East India Company’s army in 1849 as a sepoy in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry at Barrackpore.
    • Trigger of Revolt: Opposed the use of Enfield rifle cartridges greased with cow and pig fat, offensive to religious beliefs.
    • Rebellion: On 29 March 1857, attacked British officers and encouraged sepoys to rise in revolt.
    • Punishment: Arrested, tried, and executed by hanging on 8 April 1857.
    • Legacy: Regarded as the “Hero of the First War of Indian Independence” and a symbol of resistance.

    Back2Basics: 1857 War of Independence

    • Overview: The First War of Indian Independence or the Great Rebellion of 1857.
    • Sepoy Composition: Indians made up over 87% of the British Indian Army but faced severe discrimination.
    • Root Causes:
      • Military Discontent: Unequal pay, poor promotion prospects, denial of allowances.
      • Religious Insensitivity: Use of animal fat-greased cartridges insulted Hindu and Muslim beliefs.
      • Economic Hardship: Heavy land taxes, decline in traditional crafts, and rising unemployment.
      • Political Grievances: Annexation of Indian states and enforcement of oppressive laws.
    • Outbreak:
      • Barrackpore: Mangal Pandey’s defiance on 29 March 1857 marked the beginning.
      • Meerut: On 10 May 1857, sepoys rebelled after refusing cartridges and were imprisoned.
      • Delhi: Rebels marched to Delhi and declared Bahadur Shah II as Emperor.
    • Spread of Revolt: Uprising expanded to Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bihar, Bareilly, Faizabad, and beyond.
    • Mass Participation: Involved sepoys, peasants, landlords, and regional rulers.

    Suppression and Its Aftermath:

    • Brutal Suppression: Rebellion was crushed by 1859; Delhi was recaptured in September 1857.
    • Administrative Shift: British East India Company was dissolved; India came under direct British Crown rule, initiating the British Raj.
    • Military Reorganization: Indian representation in the army was reduced and reorganized to prevent future revolts.
    • Increased Repression: Racial discrimination and harsh policies intensified post-revolt.

     

    [UPSC 2006] Who was the Governor-general of India during the Sepoy Mutiny?

    Options: (a) Lord Canning* (b) Lord Dalhousie (c) Lord Hardinge (d) Lord Lytton

     

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    Gujarat’s Tribal Genome Sequencing Project

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Gujarat has launched India’s first Tribal Genome Sequencing Project to map tribal genetic data, contributing to the national Genome India Project (GIP).

    About the Gujarat Tribal Genome Project:

    • Launch & Duration: Announced in Gujarat’s 2025–26 budget; spans 5 years under Gujarat Biotechnology Research Centre (GBRC).
    • Target Population: Focuses on genome sequencing of tribal communities forming ~15% of Gujarat’s population (~1 crore).
    • Objective: Addresses under-representation in Genome India Project (GIP), which had only ~100 tribal samples from Gujarat.
    • Sample Size: Involves 4,158 individuals, including 378 trio families, to create a 2,000-sample reference genome panel.
    • Data Collection: Includes blood, stool, genealogical, physiological, and lifestyle information.

    Key Features:

    • Precision Medicine Applications
      • Early Detection: Enables screening for sickle cell anaemia, G6PD deficiency, BRCA-linked cancers.
      • Gene-Trait Mapping: Explores genetic links to traits like agility and archery.
    • Genomic Sampling Protocol
      • Filtering: Uses SNP genotyping to remove closely related samples.
      • Sequencing: Conducts Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) on 2,000 diverse samples via Illumina NovaSeq 6000.
      • Data Security: Employs double encryption for privacy and anonymity.

    About the Genome India Project (GIP):

    • Launch: Initiated in January 2020 by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
    • Structure: Multi-institutional consortium involving top Indian research bodies.
    • Objectives
      • Diversity Mapping: Decode genetic variation across Indian population.
      • Reference Panel: Build Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) -based haplotype database for Indian genomes.
      • Biobank Creation: Establish DNA reserves for research and therapy development.
    • Key Achievements
      • Sequencing Scale: 10,074 genomes sequenced from 99 ethnic groups.
      • Data Storage: Securely stored at Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC), Faridabad.
      • Insights: Revealed rare traits aiding affordable diagnostics and predictive tools.
    • Significance
      • Global Impact: Offers India-specific insights to global genomics research.
      • Healthcare Value: Enables evidence-based, genetically informed policy and diagnosis.
    [UPSC 2017] With reference to agriculture in India, how can the technique of ‘genome sequencing’, often seen in the news, be used in the immediate future?

    1. Genome sequencing can be used to identify genetic markers for disease resistance and drought tolerance in various crop plants

    2. This technique helps in reducing the time required to develop new varieties of crop plants

    3. It can be used to decipher the host-pathogen relationships in crops

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

    BioEmu AI tool for Protein Flexibility Modelling

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    In a breakthrough, scientists have developed BioEmu—an AI tool that predicts the full range of protein shapes, offering faster and scalable insights into protein dynamics.

    BioEmu AI tool for Protein Flexibility Modelling

    What is BioEmu?

    • Overview: It is a deep learning tool that predicts the equilibrium ensemble of a protein — meaning all the different shapes a protein can naturally take.
    • It works like diffusion models, starting with random/noisy inputs and learning to rebuild protein shapes.
    • Training: It was trained on-
      • AlphaFold structures (millions of predicted proteins)
      • Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation data (200 ms)
      • 500,000 mutant sequences from lab experiments
    • Speed: Once trained, BioEmu can quickly create thousands of 3D protein structures on a single GPU in just minutes to hours.

    Key Features of BioEmu:

    • Flexibility Capture: Shows how proteins change shape, fold/unfold, or form hidden binding pockets.
    • Accuracy:
      • Detects 83% of large and 70–81% of small shape changes.
      • Predicts open/closed forms of enzymes like adenylate kinase.
    • Mutation Analysis: Helps see how mutations affect protein structure and stability.
    • Fast & Scalable: Much faster than traditional MD simulations; works on thousands of proteins using less computing power.
    • Snapshots Only: Gives static 3D shapes, not full motion timelines.
    • Limitations: Can’t handle membrane proteins, drug molecules, or multi-chain complexes.

    Why is BioEmu Important?

    • Improves Protein Modelling: Adds to what AlphaFold does by showing how proteins move, not just what they look like.
    • Helps Drug Discovery: Finds hidden drug binding sites — speeding up the search for new medicines.
    • More Accessible: Works on basic hardware, making advanced protein modelling available to more researchers.
    • Combines with Other Tools: Can be used with molecular dynamics for deeper study.
    • Future of Research: Encourages students and scientists to learn a mix of AI, biology, and physics.
    [UPSC 2020] Which of the following statements are correct regarding the general difference between plant and animal cells?

    1. Plant cells have cellulose cell walls whilst animal cells do not.

    2. Plant cells do not have plasma membrane unlike animal cells which do.

    3. Mature plant cell has one large vacuole vacuoles.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only, (b) 2 and 3 only, (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    International Moon Day

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Observed every year on July 20, the International Moon Day marks the historic first human landing on the Moon by the Apollo 11 mission in 1969.

    moon day

    About International Moon Day:

    • Date & Purpose: Observed annually on July 20 to mark the Apollo 11 Moon landing in 1969.
    • UN Recognition: Declared by the UN General Assembly in 2021 on the recommendation of COPUOS.
    • First Observance: Officially celebrated for the first time on July 20, 2022.
    • Activities: Includes sky-gazing, science outreach, and student competitions to promote space awareness.
    • Date Controversy: While the lunar module landed on July 20, Neil Armstrong stepped onto the Moon at 2:56 UTC on July 21—yet July 20 remains the official date.

    Significance:

    • Historic Milestone: Celebrates Apollo 11 and humanity’s first step on the Moon by Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin.
    • Peaceful Space Use: Promotes the Moon as a shared heritage and fosters international cooperation in outer space.
    • Sustainability Focus: Encourages responsible and eco-friendly exploration of lunar resources.
    • Global Unity: Reflects the UN’s vision of peaceful space collaboration under themes like “One Moon, One Vision, One Future”.
    [UPSC 2009] India has recently landed its Moon Impact Probe on the Moon. Among the following countries, which one landed such probe on the Moon earlier?

    Options: (a) Australia (b) Canada (c) China* (d) Japan

     

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    Piezo- Photocatalytic Water Filter

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Why in the News?

    Indian scientists from INST Mohali, IIT-Dharwad, and IIT-Kharagpur have developed a low-cost, reusable water filter that removes toxic industrial dyes using a process called piezo-photocatalysis.

    About the Light-Induced Water Filter:

    • Material Used: Built using 3D-printed polylactic acid (PLA) sheets (a biodegradable plastic); Sheets coated with bismuth ferrite (BFO) nanoparticles.
    • Working: It works in two ways. Together, this is called piezo-photocatalysis.
      • Photocatalysis: Uses sunlight to break dye molecules.
      • Piezoelectric effect: Uses vibrations (ultrasound) to work even in the dark.
    • Reusable: Can be used 5 times with only 3% loss in performance.
    • Lab tests showed:
      • 99% Congo Red removal
      • 74% Methylene Blue removal (in 90 minutes)

    Significance:

    • Eco-Friendly Solution: Removes harmful dyes without harmful chemicals or electricity.
    • Cost-Effective: Cheaper and safer than ozone or chemical-intensive treatments.
    • Green Energy Use: Operates using sunlight and mechanical vibrations—no external power needed.
    • Policy Alignment: Supports Namami Gange, Jal Nigam, and Aatmanirbhar Bharat missions.
    • Scalability: Ideal for deployment near textile treatment plants as a sustainable technology.
    [UPSC 2023] With reference to the role of biofilters in the Recirculating Aquaculture System, consider the following statements:

    1. Biofilters provide waste treatment by removing uneaten fish feed

    2.Biofilters convert ammonia present in fish waste to nitrate

    3.Biofilters increase phosphorus as nutrient for fish in water

    How many of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None

     

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  • Indian Navy Updates

    [pib] INS Nistar Diving Support Vessel

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

    Why in the News?

    Indian Navy commissioned INS Nistar, the country’s first indigenously designed and constructed Diving Support Vessel (DSV).

    [pib] INS Nistar Diving Support Vessel

    About INS Nistar:

    • Project Origin: First of two Diving Support Vessels (DSVs) ordered by the Navy in 2018.
    • Developer: Built by Hindustan Shipyard Ltd with input from 120 Indian MSMEs.
    • Commissioning: Inducted at Naval Dockyard, Visakhapatnam.
    • Legacy Name: Named after the Soviet-origin INS Nistar (1971–1989).
    • Indigenization: Over 80% indigenous content, in line with Aatmanirbhar Bharat.
    • Sister Ship: INS Nipun, launched in 2022, will join soon.

    Key Features:

    • Rescue Depth: Supports diving and submarine rescue operations up to 300 metres.
    • Rescue Equipment: Equipped with ROVs, Hyperbaric Lifeboats, and Diving Chambers.
    • DSRV Role: Functions as mothership for Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicles.
    • Size: 120 metres long with a displacement of ~10,500 tonnes.
    • Endurance: Can stay at sea for over 60 days.
    • Utility Gear: Fitted with a 15-tonne subsea crane and helipad facilities.
    • Medical Support: Includes OT, ICU, hospital beds, and hyperbaric treatment units.

    Significance for India:

    • Submarine Rescue: Provides independent submarine rescue capability.
    • Operational Autonomy: Ends reliance on leased rescue platforms.
    • Strategic Status: Places India among 12 countries with full submarine rescue capability.
    • Regional Role: Strengthens India’s position as Net Security Provider in the Indian Ocean.
    [UPSC 2016] Which one of the following is the best description of ‘INS Astradharini’, that was in the news recently?

    Options: (a) Amphibious warfare ship (b) Nuclear-powered submarine (c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel* (d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier

     

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    In news: Reykjanes Peninsula

    Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

    Why in the News?

    Recently a volcano erupted in south-west Iceland, continuing a pattern of recurring geological activity on the Reykjanes Peninsula.

    In news: Reykjanes Peninsula

    About the Reykjanes Peninsula:

    • Location: Situated in southwest Iceland along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where tectonic plates diverge.
    • Volcanic Reawakening: Dormant for centuries until 2021; now sees recurring eruptions.
    • Eruption Type: Known for fissure eruptions—lava flows from cracks, not a central crater.
    • Key Sites: Includes Grindavik (evacuated), Blue Lagoon spa, and Svartsengi power plant.
    • Volcanic Importance: Part of Iceland’s 30+ active volcanic zones.

    Key Features:

    • Eruption Style: Produces steady lava flows with minimal ash output.
    • Flight Safety: Air traffic remains unaffected due to lack of stratospheric ash.
    • Evacuation Impact: Grindavik largely abandoned after 2023 lava threat.
    • Long-Term Activity: Eruptions may persist for decades or longer.
    • Iceland Snapshot: Population ~400,000; similar in size to Kentucky.
    • Tourism Appeal: Attracts visitors like other volcanic hotspots—Mexico, Indonesia, Sicily, and New Zealand.
    [UPSC 2014] Consider the following geological phenomena:

    1. Development of a fault 2. Movement along a fault

    3. Impact produced by a volcanic eruption 4. Folding of rocks

    Which of the above cause earthquakes?

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4*

     

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