Why in the News?
The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) delayed a vote on its 2027 carbon pricing plan under the 2023 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Strategy after U.S. pressure, stalling efforts for net-zero shipping by 2050.
What the IMO is trying to achieve?
- Decarbonisation Goal: Targets net-zero emissions in global shipping by 2050, aligning with the Paris Agreement’s 1.5 °C limit; shipping contributes 2–3 % of global CO₂.
- Carbon Intensity Reduction: Implements fuel-efficiency standards and CIIs to cut CO₂ per tonne-mile of cargo transported.
- Fuel Transition: Promotes shift from heavy fuel oil to green ammonia, methanol, hydrogen, and biofuels, supported by a global carbon pricing framework.
- Equitable Transition: Upholds common but differentiated responsibilities, offering financial and technological aid to developing and island nations.
- Market-Based Mechanisms: Developing carbon-pricing and fuel-levy systems to internalise environmental costs and fund innovation.
- Regulatory Uniformity: Seeks to avoid fragmented regional rules (e.g., EU ETS) by maintaining global maritime emission standards.
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About IMO’s 2023 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Strategy:
- Adoption: Finalised in July 2023 at MEPC 80 (London) under the MARPOL Annex VI framework.
- Carbon Intensity Targets: Cut 40 % by 2030 (vs 2008) and strive for 70 % by 2040.
- Net-Zero Timeline: Achieve full sectoral decarbonisation by 2050.
- Zero/Low-Emission Fuels: Ensure 5 % (aspire 10 %) of shipping energy from near-zero-GHG fuels by 2030; expand hydrogen and electrified propulsion.
- Fuel & Emission Standards: Introduce Global Fuel Standard (GFS) and Global Pricing Mechanism (GPM) by 2027, covering ships above 5,000 GT (~85 % of emissions).
- MRV Framework: Strengthen monitoring, reporting, and verification with emission databases and compliance audits.
- Support Mechanisms: Establish GHG Fund to assist developing states in retrofits, technology adoption, and port upgrades.
Significance:
- Global Climate Milestone: First binding, worldwide roadmap for a high-emission transport sector outside aviation.
- Regulatory Shift: Moves from voluntary action to enforceable standards in maritime law.
- Strategic Impact: Positions the IMO as a key climate-governance body, linking trade regulation and environmental responsibility.
| [UPSC 2024] According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which one of the following is the largest source of sulphur dioxide emissions?
Options: (a) Locomotives using fossil fuels
(b) Ships using fossil fuels
(c) Extraction of metals from ores
(d) Power plants using fossil fuels* |
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Why in the News?
A recent study has revealed that the composition of microbial communities in rice paddies critically determines the buildup of arsenic compounds in rice grains.
Arsenic Toxicity in Agriculture:
- Overview: Arsenic (As) is a potent carcinogen and phytotoxin, bioaccumulating in rice and posing severe health and agronomic risks in Asian paddies.
- Mechanism in Flooded Fields: Under anaerobic conditions, microbes convert arsenic into soluble, bioavailable forms that rice roots readily absorb.
- Toxic Compounds: Organic forms like dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) and dimethylated monothioarsenate (DMMTA) cause straighthead disease, producing sterile, erect panicles and yield losses up to 70 %.
- Speciation vs. Concentration: Toxicity depends on arsenic speciation, not total soil As levels, even low-As soils may cause poisoning.
- Geographic Hotspots: Severe in West Bengal, Bihar, and Bangladesh, where arsenic-laden groundwater is used for irrigation.
About Soil Age and Microbial Composition:
- Research Insight: Study by Peng Wang (Nanjing Agricultural University) shows soil age dictates microbial dominance and arsenic behaviour.
- Young Soils (< 700 yrs): Dominated by arsenic-methylating bacteria that convert inorganic As into toxic organic forms (DMA, DMMTA).
- Old Soils (> 700 yrs): Rich in demethylating archaea that detoxify As by breaking down methylated compounds.
- Global Microbiome Survey: Across 801 paddy soils, identified 11 methylators and 6 demethylators as key toxicity predictors.
- Risk Threshold: When methylator: demethylator ratio > 1.5, probability of straighthead disease rises sharply.
How does Microbial balance govern Arsenic toxicity?
- Biological Equilibrium: Arsenic toxicity depends on balance between methylating bacteria (risk) and demethylating archaea (detoxification).
- Environmental Triggers: Flood duration, oxygen, temperature, and hydrological shifts can tilt this balance toward higher toxicity.
- Mitigation Measures: Mid-season drainage, silicon fertilisation, and microbial community management restore redox balance and reduce As uptake.
| [UPSC 2013] Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India?
1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol 3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde 5. Uranium
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 4 and 5 only (c) 1, 3 and 5 only* (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 |
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court of India has temporarily permitted the sale and bursting of green crackers in the Delhi–NCR region from October 18 to 21 for Diwali celebrations.
Background and Judicial Origin:
- Trigger: Severe air pollution episodes during Diwali (2016–2017) pushed Delhi’s Air Quality Index (AQI) beyond 500, creating a public-health emergency.
- Supreme Court Intervention (2018):
- Affirmed that cultural freedom cannot override the Fundamental Right to Life (Article 21).
- Banned conventional firecrackers containing heavy metals such as barium, lead, and mercury.
- Directed CSIR to develop less-polluting alternatives, with PESO (Petroleum and Explosives Safety Organisation) tasked to test and certify them.
- Outcome: Introduction of green crackers as a compromise solution balancing festive traditions with public-health protection.
- Legal Oversight: The Supreme Court continues to monitor compliance, permitting use only within fixed time windows and under strict emission-control standards.
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About Green Crackers:
- Overview: Green crackers are eco-friendly fireworks developed by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research – National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI) to curb air pollution during festive celebrations.
- Chemical Composition: Manufactured using modified formulations that exclude barium nitrate and significantly reduce sulphur and aluminium content, thereby cutting toxic emissions.
- Emission Reduction: These crackers emit about 30 % less particulate matter (PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀) and 10 % less sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NO₂) than conventional firecrackers.
- Identification & Legality: Each authorised packet carries the Green Fireworks logo and a QR code verifiable through the CSIR-NEERI Green QR Code App; crackers without codes are illegal.
- Purpose: Designed to retain the cultural and festive appeal of fireworks while mitigating health and environmental impacts in pollution-prone regions such as Delhi-NCR.
Types of Green Crackers:
- SWAS (Safe Water Releasable): Releases water vapour during combustion to reduce dust and temperature, lowering particulate emissions.
- STAR (Safe Thermite Cracker): Uses thermite-based reactions instead of conventional oxidisers, producing bright light and sound with reduced toxic output.
- SAFAL (Safe Minimal Aluminium): Limits metallic fuel content, maintaining luminosity and sound intensity while reducing aluminium and sulphur emissions.
All three maintain sound levels around 100–120 dB, comparable to traditional fireworks but with a cleaner emission profile and shorter atmospheric residence time.
| [UPSC 2024] What is the common characteristic of the chemical substances generally known as CL-20, HMX and LLM-105, which are sometimes talked about in media?
(a) These are alternatives to hydro- fluorocarbon refrigerants
(b) These are explosives in military weapons *
(c) These are high-energy fuels for cruise missiles
(d) These are propulsion fuels for rocket |
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Why in the News?
Defence Minister inaugurated the third production line of Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Mk1A at Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), Nashik.
About Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (LCA)-Mk1A:
- Overview: Single-engine, 4.5-generation, supersonic multirole fighter aircraft developed indigenously under India’s LCA programme.
- Developers: Designed by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) of DRDO and produced by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
- Purpose: Conceived in the late 1980s to replace the ageing MiG-21 and Su-7 fleets of the Indian Air Force.
- Operational Induction: Entered production for the Indian Air Force (IAF) in 2024 after extensive flight trials and certification.
- Roles: Designed for air superiority, ground attack, close air support, and interception missions.
- Manufacturing Hubs: Produced at HAL Bengaluru and HAL Nashik, with parallel assembly lines to meet IAF delivery targets.
Key Features of Tejas LCA-Mk1A:
- Design: Tailless compound delta-wing configuration ensuring high agility, aerodynamic efficiency, and reduced radar cross-section.
- Engine: Powered by General Electric F404-GE-IN20 turbofan, enabling speeds up to Mach 1.8.
- Avionics: Equipped with Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, Electronic Warfare Suite, and Onboard Oxygen Generation System (OBOGS).
- Flight Control: Features Digital Fly-by-Wire System for enhanced stability and pilot control.
- Weapons Integration: Can carry air-to-air, air-to-ground, and precision-guided munitions, including Beyond Visual Range (BVR) missiles.
- Cockpit: Modern glass cockpit with Helmet Mounted Display (HMD) and Hands-On-Throttle-And-Stick (HOTAS) controls.
- Payload & Range: Payload capacity over 4,000 kg across eight external hardpoints; combat radius around 500 km, ferry range up to 1,700 km.
- Network Capability: Integrated with secure data link systems for real-time communication and situational awareness.
- Maintenance: Modular design allowing easy servicing, high turnaround rate, and improved mission readiness for sustained operations.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following aircraft:
1. Rafael 2. MiG-29 3. Tejas MK-1
How many of the above are considered fifth-generation fighter aircraft?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None* |
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Why in the News?
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) reported that India’s gold reserves surpassed $100 billion for the first time in history, reaching $102.365 billion in the week ending October 10, 2025.
India’s Gold Reserves and Composition (2025):
- Total Holdings: As of March 31, 2025, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) held approximately 879.58 metric tonnes of gold.
- Valuation Milestone: In October 2025, the value of India’s gold reserves crossed USD 100 billion, reaching about USD 102.36 billion, the highest in history.
- Forex Share: Gold’s share in India’s total foreign exchange reserves rose to 14.7 %, the highest since 1996–97, driven by valuation gains and steady accumulation.
- Yearly Rise: Early in 2025, gold comprised 12.5 % of reserves, indicating a sharp increase through the year amid global market volatility.
- Repatriation Move: During FY 2024–25, the RBI repatriated 100.32 tonnes of gold from overseas vaults to India, expanding domestic holdings.
Distribution of Gold Holdings (March 2025):
- Domestic Holdings: About 200 metric tonnes held within India.
- Overseas Holdings: Around 367 metric tonnes stored abroad.
- Deposits with Foreign Institutions: Approximately 19 metric tonnes.
- Trend Evolution: Gold share in reserves rose from 5.9 % (2021) to 11.7 % (2025) due to strategic diversification and valuation gains.
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What are Gold Reserves?
- A gold reserve is the gold held by a country’s central bank, acting as a backup for financial promises and a store of value.
- India, like other nations, stores some of its gold reserves in foreign vaults to spread out risk and facilitate international trading.
- India’s Gold Reserves:
- As of the end of March 2024, the RBI held 822.10 tonnes of gold, with 408.31 tonnes stored domestically.
- The share of gold in the total forex of India is around 7-8% as of 2023.
Where does the RBI store its gold?
- India’s gold reserves are primarily stored in the Bank of England, which is known for its stringent security protocols.
- The RBI also stores a portion of its gold reserves at the:
-
- Bank for International Settlements (BIS) in Basel, Switzerland, and the
- Federal Reserve Bank of New York in the United States.
| During India’s foreign exchange crisis in 1990-91, the country pledged some of its gold reserves to the Bank of England to secure a $405 million loan, according to reports.
Even though the loan was paid back by November 1991, India decided to keep the gold in the UK for convenience. |
Why does the RBI store its gold in foreign banks?
- Convenience: Storing gold overseas makes it easier for India to trade, engage in swaps and earn returns.
- Averting Risks: There are risks involved, especially during times of geopolitical tensions and war.
- The recent freezing of Russian assets by Western nations has raised worries about the safety of assets kept abroad and the RBI decision to shift a portion of the gold reserve to India could be prompted by these concerns.
- Stable Prices: Unlike fiat currencies, which can be subject to inflation or devaluation due to various economic factors, the value of gold tends to be relatively stable over time, which makes it an attractive asset for central banks to hold as a reserve.
Benefits Offered by Gold Reserves
- Control domestic gold prices: With its big stash of gold, the RBI can help control local gold prices by using some of it in India. Last financial year, the RBI added about 27.47 tonnes of gold to the total reserve, bringing it to 794.63 tonnes.
- Security buffer: The increased gold reserve works as a hedge against any financial crisis and to take measures to control inflation as well as currency devaluation.
| [UPSC 2015] The problem of international liquidity is related to the non-availability of:
(a) Goods and services
(b) Gold and silver
(c) Dollars and other hard currencies *
(d) Exportable surplus |
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Why in the News?
New satellite data in Geophysical Research Letters (October 2025) shows Iran’s Taftan volcano, dormant for 710,000 years, is reactivating.
About Taftan Volcano:
- Location: Situated in southeastern Iran, about 56 km from the Pakistan border, within the Makran continental volcanic arc.
- Elevation: Rises to 3,940 metres (12,927 feet), Iran’s only active volcano in the Makran arc.
- Tectonic Origin: Formed by subduction of the Arabian oceanic plate beneath the Eurasian continental plate.
- Volcanic Type & Composition: A stratovolcano composed mainly of andesitic and dacitic lava, with pyroclastic flows and volcanic breccias.
- Structure: Features two summits, Narkuh and Matherkuh, and extensive ignimbrite and lava fans stretching over 30 km.
- Hydrothermal Activity: Hosts sulfur-emitting fumaroles, visible from up to 100 km, sustained by an active hydrothermal system.
- Eruptive History: Major activity phases around 8 Ma, 6 Ma, and 0.7 Ma; last lava flow dated to about 6,950 years ago.
- Recent Observations: 2023–24 satellite data detected 9 cm ground uplift, indicating subsurface pressure buildup and reclassification from extinct to dormant.
Scientific Interpretation and Outlook:
- Magma Dynamics: Uplift linked to gas accumulation or shallow magma intrusion at 490–630 m depth, possibly fed by deeper chambers (~3.5 km).
- Current Status: No imminent eruption expected; likely pressure release via degassing or minor eruptions.
- Monitoring Gap: Lack of ground-based GPS or seismic sensors; reliance on satellite InSAR data for deformation tracking.
- Scientific Recommendations: Call for establishing a volcano observatory in southeastern Iran for real-time monitoring and gas analysis.
- Regional Significance: Highlights Makran arc tectonic activity and underscores the need for international geophysical collaboration.
- Research Importance: Taftan’s reawakening demonstrates the role of remote sensing in detecting hidden volcanic unrest and stresses continuous monitoring to assess eruption potential and regional hazard mitigation.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following:
1. Pyroclastic debris 2. Ash and dust 3. Nitrogen compounds 4. Sulphur compoundsHow many of the above are products of volcanic eruptions?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) only four* |
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Why in the News?
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) reported that carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations reached a record 423.9 ppm in 2024, marking the highest annual increase (3.5 ppm) since global measurements began in 1957.
About WMO Report 2025:
- Publisher: Issued by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the UN specialised agency for weather, climate, and water systems.
- Document: The 2025 Greenhouse Gas Bulletin presents global atmospheric data for carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O).
- Global Record: Confirms 2024 as the warmest year ever, with average temperatures 1.55 °C above pre-industrial (1850–1900) levels.
- Context & Timing: Released ahead of COP30 (Belém, Brazil) to guide mitigation policies and national climate commitments.
- Key Warning: Notes a record surge in CO₂ and the weakening of natural carbon sinks such as oceans and forests.
Key Highlights about Greenhouse Gases:
- Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Global mean reached 423.9 ppm in 2024, up 3.5 ppm from 2023, the largest annual rise since 1957. Concentrations are 152 % above pre-industrial (278.3 ppm); land and ocean sinks are declining in efficiency.
- Methane (CH₄): Climbed to 1,942 ppb, 166 % above pre-industrial levels; ~60 % of emissions stem from livestock, fossil fuels, and rice cultivation.
- Nitrous Oxide (N₂O): Reached 338 ppb, 25 % higher than pre-industrial; emitted mainly from fertiliser use, biomass burning, and industry; the third major long-lived GHG.
- Drivers of Increase: Human emissions, El Niño-linked droughts and wildfires, and reduced oceanic absorption, especially from the Amazon and southern Africa in 2024.
Implications and Risks:
- Warming Acceleration: CO₂ causes ~66 % of total warming and 79 % over the last decade; persistent buildup locks in long-term temperature rise.
- Weakening Carbon Sinks: Warmer seas and drought-stricken lands absorb less CO₂, reinforcing a feedback loop of accumulation.
- Extreme Events: Intensified heatwaves, floods, droughts, and wildfires signal proximity to irreversible tipping points like ice-sheet loss and coral die-off.
| [UPSC 2012] The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, because it absorbs
Options: (a) the water vapour of the air and retains its heat.
(b) the UV part of the solar radiation.
(c) all the solar radiations.
(d) the infrared part of the solar radiation. * |
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Why in the News?
The Chhattisgarh High Court has dismissed a petition challenging the cancellation of Community Forest Rights (CFRs) granted to villagers of Ghatbarra in the Hasdeo Arand forest, an area where Adani Enterprises–linked coal mines operate.
Background of the Case:
- Dispute Origin: The District-Level Committee (DLC) revoked CFR titles in 2016, citing that the area had already been diverted for mining in 2012 with MoEF clearance.
- Petitioners’ Claim: The Hasdeo Arand Bachao Sangharsh Samiti argued that the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 provides no revocation clause and that villagers were not given a fair hearing before cancellation.
- Court’s View: The High Court upheld the State’s decision, calling the 2013 CFR grant a “mistake” void ab initio, and legally cancellable.
Key Judicial Findings:
- Legality of Revocation: FRA lacks explicit revocation provision, but erroneous grants may be rectified; hence cancellation was valid.
- Prior Approvals Prevail: 2012 MoEFCC mining clearance overrode subsequent CFR grants.
- State Mineral Ownership: FRA does not affect the State’s control over minerals beneath forest land.
- Locus Standi: Petitioners lacked standing after the Forest Rights Committee withdrew; no authorised village representation remained.
- Suppression of Facts: Petitioners had earlier challenged land acquisition (case dismissed in 2022) but failed to disclose it.
Significance:
This ruling marks the first judicial interpretation of whether forest rights granted under the Forest Rights Act, 2006 (FRA) can be revoked or cancelled, despite the Act containing no explicit provision for cancellation. |
About the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006:
- Overview: The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, commonly called the Forest Rights Act (FRA).
- Purpose: Enacted to correct historical injustices faced by forest-dwelling communities deprived of traditional land and resource rights during colonial rule.
- Core Objective: Ensures tenurial security, livelihood protection, and ecological stewardship of forest-dependent populations.
- Beneficiaries: Covers Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs) who have lived in and depended on forests for generations.
- Scope: Recognises both individual and collective rights over forest land and produce, extending to cultivation, habitation, and minor forest produce use.
- Governance Principle: Empowers Gram Sabhas as the central authority for recognising and managing forest rights, reinforcing local autonomy.
- Integration Goal: Aligns forest governance with tribal self-rule, complementing the Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA).
Key Features of the FRA:
- Individual & Community Rights: Legal recognition for occupation, cultivation, residence, and use/sale of minor forest produce.
- Community Forest Resource (CFR) Rights: Grants Gram Sabhas control to protect, regenerate, and manage community forests.
- Habitat Rights: Protects Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) and pre-agricultural forest communities.
- Governance Structure: Multi-level verification, Gram Sabha → Sub-Divisional Committee → District-Level Committee, for rights adjudication.
- Development Provisions: Allows limited diversion of forest land for public utilities with Gram Sabha consent.
- Eviction Safeguard: No eviction until claims are fully processed and rights recognised.
- Decentralised Oversight: Empowers Gram Sabha as the final decision-making authority on forest rights and management.
- Legal Integration: Reinforces PESA’s participatory governance and community-led conservation in Scheduled Areas.
| [UPSC 2021] At the national level, which ministry is the nodal agency to ensure effective implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006?
Options: (a) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(b) Ministry of Panchayati Raj
(c) Ministry of Rural Development
(d) Ministry of Tribal Affairs* |
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Why in the News?
The SAIME Initiative, developed by the Nature Environment and Wildlife Society (NEWS) in the Sundarbans of West Bengal, has been conferred Global Technical Recognition by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
What is SAIME Initiative?
- Concept: A multi-stakeholder partnership model integrating shrimp aquaculture with mangrove restoration in the Sundarbans.
- Implementing Agencies: Developed by the Nature Environment and Wildlife Society (NEWS) with support from the Global Nature Fund (Germany), Naturland, and Bangladesh Environment & Development Society (BEDS).
- Purpose: Promotes climate-adaptive, conservation-linked livelihoods balancing ecological health with local economic growth.
- Implementation: Covers 29.84 hectares with 42 fish farmers, achieving 100% rise in net profits through low-input, eco-friendly methods.
- Target Group: Focuses on climate-vulnerable coastal communities, encouraging chemical-free shrimp farming to build coastal resilience.
Core Features and Approach:
- Ecosystem Integration: Maintains 5–30% mangrove cover within aquaculture ponds, directly linking productivity with ecosystem restoration.
- Community Participation: Adopts a bottom-up co-management model, involving local farmers in planning, monitoring, and benefit-sharing.
- Sustainable Practices: Utilises mangrove litter as shrimp feed, cutting chemical dependence and improving natural nutrient cycles.
- Climate Resilience: Mitigates cyclones, salinity intrusion, and erosion, functioning as a nature-based adaptation system.
- Economic Efficiency: Promotes low-input, high-yield aquaculture, enhancing smallholder profitability and resource efficiency.
- Environmental Benefits: Supports carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, and blue carbon economy objectives.
- Global Alignment: Advances SDG-13 (Climate Action), SDG-14 (Life Below Water), and SDG-15 (Life on Land) through integrated coastal sustainability.
About the Sundarbans:
- Location: Situated in the South and North 24-Parganas districts of West Bengal, at the southern tip of the Gangetic Delta, where the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers meet the Bay of Bengal.
- Area: Currently spans 2,585.89 sq km, with an expansion proposal to 3,629.57 sq km, making it the largest mangrove forest in the world.
- Status: Designated as a Tiger Reserve, National Park, Biosphere Reserve, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 1987).
- Topography: Characterised by a dense network of tidal creeks, estuaries, and 105 mangrove-covered islands, influenced by daily tidal inundation.
- Flora and Fauna:
- Flora: Dominated by Avicennia, Rhizophora, Sonneratia, and Heritiera species.
- Fauna: Includes Royal Bengal Tiger, Fishing Cat, Estuarine Crocodile, Irrawaddy Dolphin, King Cobra, and several endangered bird species.
- Boundaries:
- East: Bangladesh border (Raimangal & Harinbhanga rivers)
- South: Bay of Bengal
- North/West: Matla, Bidya, and Gomdi rivers
- Ecological Importance: Acts as a natural shield against cyclones and tsunamis, a carbon-rich ecosystem, and a vital nursery ground for fisheries — forming the ecological heart of India’s blue economy and coastal resilience framework.
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| [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following is the best example of repeated falls in sea level, giving rise to present-day extensive marshland?
Options: (a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves
(b) Marakkanam Salt Pans
(c) Naupada Swamp
(d) Rann of Kutch* |
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Why in the News?
India has pitched for the supply of the Akash missile system to Brazil.
About Akash Missile System:
- Overview: Developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and manufactured by Bharat Dynamics Ltd (BDL).
- Type: A short-range Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) designed to defend against aircraft, UAVs, and helicopters.
- Operational Users: Inducted by both the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force, forming part of India’s layered air defence grid.
- Purpose: Protects vital assets from aerial threats within the short to medium range segment.
- Deployment Mode: Mounted on mobile launchers for rapid positioning, flexibility, and operational agility.
- Comparison: Functionally comparable to Israel’s Iron Dome, though Akash focuses on intercepting larger aerial targets rather than small projectiles.
Key Features:
- Range & Altitude: Effective range 4.5–25 km; altitude coverage 100 m–20 km.
- Engagement Capacity: A single firing unit can engage four targets simultaneously in both autonomous and group modes.
- Speed & Accuracy: Capable of high-speed interceptions with radar-guided precision.
- Propulsion & Dimensions: Length 5.87 m, diameter 350 mm, weight 710 kg; powered by solid-fuel propulsion.
- Automation: Fully automated system ensuring rapid reaction time from detection to neutralization.
- ECCM Capability: Built-in Electronic Counter-Counter Measures (ECCM) to resist enemy jamming
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.
2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2* |
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Why in the News?
Indian space-tech start-up GalaxEye, based in Bengaluru, has announced the upcoming launch of Mission Drishti, the world’s first multi-sensor Earth Observation (EO) satellite, in the first quarter of 2026.
About Mission Drishti:
- Objective: To provide high-resolution, real-time geospatial intelligence for governments, defence, and industries across critical domains such as disaster management, infrastructure, agriculture, and national security.
- Developer: Conceived by Bengaluru-based GalaxEye Space, an Indian space-tech start-up founded by IIT Madras alumni.
- Nature: World’s first multi-sensor Earth Observation (EO) satellite, capable of integrating multiple imaging technologies on a single platform.
- Launch Timeline: Scheduled for first quarter of 2026, serving as the first step in GalaxEye’s plan to deploy a constellation of 8–12 satellites by 2029.
- Innovation: Combines Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and optical sensors for multi-dimensional imaging across all weather and lighting conditions.
- Significance: Marks India’s largest privately built satellite and establishes India’s position in the global EO market with indigenous, high-precision imaging technology.
Key Features:
- Multi-Sensor Payload: Integrates SAR and optical imaging systems on one platform, a first in global satellite technology.
- Resolution and Capacity: Offers 1.5-metre resolution, providing ultra-clear imagery for tactical and analytical applications.
- All-Weather Operation: SAR enables imaging day and night, through cloud cover and adverse weather, ensuring continuous monitoring capability.
- Satellite Specifications: Weighs 160 kg, making it India’s heaviest privately developed EO satellite, designed for spatial, spectral, and temporal precision.
- Constellation Vision: Part of GalaxEye’s long-term plan to deploy 8–12 satellites by 2029 for near-real-time global coverage.
- Applications: Defence surveillance, disaster management, infrastructure auditing, agriculture analytics, and environmental monitoring.
| [UPSC 2019] For the measurement/estimation of which of the following are satellite images/remote sensing data used?
1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location 2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location 3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is developing an extended-range variant of the Astra Mark 2 beyond-visual-range (BVR) air-to-air missile.
Astra Mark 2 Missile:
- Overview: An indigenously developed Beyond Visual Range (BVR) air-to-air missile by the DRDO, enhancing the Indian Air Force’s long-range interception capability.
- Lineage: Successor to Astra Mark 1 (range ~100 km); marks a leap in India’s self-reliance in advanced air combat systems.
- Integration: Compatible with Su-30 MKI and LCA Tejas, with future integration planned for Rafale, AMCA, and TEDBF.
- Industry Collaboration: Co-developed with over 50 industries, including Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) and Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL).
Key Features:
- Dual-Pulse Propulsion: Incorporates dual-pulse solid rocket motor (vs. single-pulse in Mk-1) for sustained thrust and high terminal energy.
- Range & Speed: Operational range of 150–200+ km, speed up to Mach 4.5, enabling engagement of fast aerial targets.
- Guidance & Seeker: Equipped with indigenous RF seeker and Electronic Counter-Countermeasures (ECCM) for precision and survivability.
- All-Weather & Agile: Works in day/night, adverse conditions; supports off-boresight targeting and mid-course data-link updates.
- Stealth & Safety: Uses smokeless propulsion for reduced detectability during launch.
Recent Upgrade:
- Extended Range Variant: DRDO developing version exceeding 200 km, beyond initial 160 km design.
- Strategic Parity: Comparable to Chinese PL-15 and US AIM-120D AMRAAM, reinforcing India’s deterrence capability.
- Future Roadmap: Forms baseline for Astra Mark 3, featuring solid-fuel ducted ramjet propulsion, under Atmanirbhar Bharat in advanced missile systems.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements
1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of fight.
2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 * |
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Why in the News?
The Naying Hydroelectric Project (1000 MW), proposed on the Siyom (Yomgo) River in Shi-Yomi district, Arunachal Pradesh, represents a major addition to India’s clean energy expansion under the Decade of Hydro Power (2025–35).
About Siyom (Yomgo) River:
- Geography: A right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra, flowing entirely within Arunachal Pradesh.
- Origin & Course: Arises in West Siang, travels ~170 km, and joins the Brahmaputra near Assam.
- Ecology: Basin supports rich biodiversity, agro-pastoral livelihoods, and lies within the Eastern Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot.
- Protected Areas: Mouling National Park lies on its eastern bank, part of the Dibang–Siang biosphere landscape.
- Hydrological Role: Ensures irrigation, microclimate regulation, and provides run-of-the-river potential for clean energy, though demanding careful ecosystem balance.
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About Naying Hydroelectric Project:
- Overview: A proposed 1,000 MW (4×250 MW) run-of-the-river project located in Shi-Yomi district, Arunachal Pradesh.
- Developers: Jointly undertaken by North Eastern Electric Power Corporation (NEEPCO) and Arunachal Pradesh Hydropower Corporation Ltd (APHCL).
- Design & Output: Features a concrete dam, underground powerhouse, and diversion tunnels, expected to generate 4,966.77 GWh annually.
- Regulatory Approval: Received Central Electricity Authority (CEA) concurrence in 2013; progress slowed by environmental and social concerns.
- Public Consultation: Environmental hearing scheduled for 12 November 2025 at Yapik Community Hall to assess ecological and community impacts.
- Timeline: Construction targeted to start by 2028, with commissioning by 2032.
- Policy Context: Forms part of the state’s Decade of Hydro Power (2025–2035), aiming for 19 GW capacity addition to support India’s net-zero goals.
- Regional Linkages: Among five key hydel projects in the region – Heo (240 MW), Hirong (500 MW), Tato-I (186 MW), and Tato-II (700 MW).
| [UPSC 2022] Consider the following pairs:
Reservoirs – States
1. Ghataprabha — Telangana
2. Gandhi Sagar — Madhya Pradesh
3. Indira Sagar — Andhra Pradesh
4. Maithon —Chhattisgarh
Options:
(a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs” |
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Why in the News?
The Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) has invoked Stage I of the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) across the Delhi–NCR as air quality slipped into the ‘poor’ category (AQI 211) after more than three months.
What is Air Quality Index (AQI)?
- Purpose: Quantifies pollution levels and health impact using major pollutants — PM₂․₅, PM₁₀, SO₂, NO₂, CO, O₃, NH₃, Pb.
- Scale:
-
- 0–50 = Good
- 51–100 = Satisfactory
- 101–200 = Moderate
- 201–300 = Poor
- 301–400 = Very Poor
- 401–450 = Severe
- >450 = Severe Plus
- Interpretation: Higher AQI ⇒ greater exposure risk, particularly for children, elderly, and respiratory patients.
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About Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP):
- Objective: To ensure anticipatory, graded, and region-wide responses that reduce PM₂․₅ and PM₁₀ concentrations, controlling emissions from vehicles, dust, and industries.
- Coverage: Applies across Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and other NCR districts, ensuring uniform regional implementation.
- Legal Mandate: Issued under Section 5 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, binding on all NCR states and agencies.
- Genesis: Approved by the Supreme Court in 2016 (M.C. Mehta vs. Union of India) and notified in Jan 2017 by MoEFCC under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
- Implementation: Initially enforced by EPCA (till 2020); now implemented by the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) established via ordinance in Oct 2020.
- Functioning: CAQM works with CPCB, IMD, and IITM Pune, which provide forecast-based modelling for pre-emptive action.
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- Stage I (Poor: 201–300): Road sweeping, water sprinkling, dust control at sites, solid-waste removal, old-vehicle enforcement.
- Stage II (Very Poor: 301–400): Hotspot regulation, DG set restrictions, enhanced public transport.
- Stage III (Severe: 401–450): Ban on BS-III petrol & BS-IV diesel cars, construction halt, school closures.
- Stage IV (Severe+ >450): Complete construction ban, truck entry restriction (essentials exempted), curbs on non-essential vehicles.
| [UPSC 2024] According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which one of the following is the largest source of sulphur dioxide emissions?
Options: (a) Locomotives using fossil fuels
(b) Ships using fossil fuels
(c) Extraction of metals from ores
(d) Power plants using fossil fuels* |
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Why in the News?
The Department of Legal Affairs, Ministry of Law and Justice, inaugurated the “Live Cases” Dashboard under the Legal Information Management and Briefing System (LIMBS) at Shastri Bhawan, New Delhi.
About LIMBS Portal:
- Overview: A centralised, web-based litigation management platform developed by the Department of Legal Affairs, Ministry of Law & Justice, under the Digital India initiative.
- Purpose: Enables real-time monitoring, coordination, and analysis of court cases involving the Union of India, covering all ministries, PSUs, and autonomous bodies.
- Design & Function: Serves as a single digital interface connecting nodal officers, legal cells, and advocates for streamlined case management and reduced duplication.
- Policy Alignment: Implements the Prime Minister’s directive to minimise government litigation, improve inter-ministerial coordination, and enhance transparency and efficiency.
- Scale (2025): Tracks 7.23 lakh live cases from 53 ministries/departments; over 13,000 ministry users and 18,000 advocates actively update records.
- Integration: Linked with national judicial databases for automated case updates and status tracking.
Key Features:
- Dashboard Monitoring: Real-time visual dashboard showing ministry-wise pending, disposed, and contempt cases for trend analysis.
- Court Connectivity: Integration with the Supreme Court, 25 High Courts, District Courts, and 9 Tribunals for live order retrieval.
- Advanced Search: Multi-parameter filtering by court, advocate, ministry, judgment date, or financial value.
- User Hierarchy: Tiered access for Nodal Officers, Admins, and Advocates ensuring accountability and data integrity.
- Document & Fee Management: Digital upload of pleadings, notices, and advocate bills for secure, paperless workflow.
- Accessibility & Security: 24×7 open-source platform with cybersecurity compliance and uninterrupted access.
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Why in the News?
The Crew Escape System is ISRO’s most critical safety innovation for Gaganyaan. This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.
Back2Basics: Gaganyaan Mission:
- Overview: India’s first human spaceflight mission, initiated in 2007, to send 3 astronauts into Low Earth Orbit (400 km) for 3 days, followed by Arabian Sea splashdown.
- Rocket: Human-Rated LVM3 (HLVM3), adapted from GSLV Mk3, certified in 2025 for safe human use.
- Significance: India to become the 4th nation (after US, Russia, China) with crewed spaceflight capability.
- Latest Timeline (as of Sept 2025):
- Dec 2025: First uncrewed mission (G1) with humanoid Vyommitra.
- 2026: Two more uncrewed flights for life-support, avionics, and escape tests.
- Early 2027: First crewed mission – 3 astronauts in orbit for 3 days.
- Progress so far:
- 80–85% development complete: avionics, parachutes, crew safety systems validated.
- Integrated Air Drop Test (Aug 2025): Confirmed crew module deceleration.
- Crew Escape System: Multiple ground and flight tests successful.
- Recovery: Indian Navy and Australian Space Agency conducting splashdown drills.
- Four IAF test pilots shortlisted: Shubhanshu Shukla, Prasanth Balakrishnan Nair, Angad Pratap, Ajit Krishnan.
- All trained in Russia, now in advanced Indian training. Final crew of three will be chosen for maiden flight.
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What is Crew Escape System (CES)?
- Purpose: A critical safety mechanism in ISRO’s Gaganyaan Mission, enabling astronaut rescue in case of launch vehicle failure during the atmospheric ascent phase.
- Placement & Function: Mounted atop the Human-Rated LVM3 (HLVM3) rocket; rapidly separates the crew module and propels it to safety using high-thrust solid motors.
- Performance: Escape motors generate acceleration up to 10 g, using high burn-rate propellants for faster thrust than the launcher. Astronauts withstand this briefly in a “child-in-cradle” posture.
- Safety Systems: Incorporates redundant subsystems, heritage-based design, and real-time health monitoring through the Integrated Vehicle Health Management (IVHM) network for millisecond-level response.
- Types of CES:
-
- Puller-Type: Used in Gaganyaan; solid-fuel motors pull the crew module away. Also adopted by Russia’s Soyuz, China’s Long March, and US Saturn V missions.
- Pusher-Type: Used in SpaceX Crew Dragon (Falcon 9); liquid-fuel thrusters push the capsule away.
- Comparison: Puller systems suit high-thrust, short-duration extractions; pusher systems integrate better with reusable modules.
Operational Sequence & Recovery:
- Automatic Activation: On anomaly detection, IVHM triggers CES instantly; escape motors fire, propelling the crew module clear of the rocket.
- Separation & Descent: After reaching safe distance, CES detaches and the module descends under multistage parachutes, drogue, main, and reserve, ensuring controlled speed and stability.
- Splashdown & Safety: The module lands in the sea, impact forces within safe physiological limits, allowing quick recovery.
- Significance: Serves as the core life-saving system of India’s human spaceflight programme, ensuring crew survival during catastrophic launch failures.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following space missions:
I. Axiom-4 II. SpaDeX III. Gaganyaan
How many of the space missions given above encourage and support microgravity research?
(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three* (d) None |
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Why in the News?
The Global Tipping Points Report (2025), authored by 160 scientists from 23 countries, warns that warm-water coral reefs have already crossed their thermal tipping point, triggering irreversible dieback.
About Tipping Points:
- Overview: Tipping Points are critical thresholds in Earth’s natural and climate systems beyond which self-reinforcing and often irreversible changes occur.
- Mechanism: Once crossed, feedback loops accelerate transformation — e.g., melting permafrost releases methane, which increases warming and causes more melting.
- Irreversibility: Even if greenhouse gas emissions are later reduced, many systems cannot revert to their original stable state.
- Significance: Tipping Points determine long-term planetary stability, climate predictability, and biosphere resilience.
Important Definitions:
- Climate Tipping Point (IPCC): A critical threshold at which small changes in temperature or forcing cause a large, often irreversible shift in a climate subsystem.
- Feedback Loop: A process where an initial change triggers further effects that amplify the original disturbance (positive feedback).
- Hysteresis: The property of a system where reversing to its prior state requires conditions much different from those that caused the initial change.
- Cascade Effect: A phenomenon where crossing one tipping point triggers others in connected Earth systems, leading to compounded impacts.
- Thermal Tipping Point (for Coral Reefs): The temperature threshold (~1.2°C above pre-industrial) beyond which coral survival and recovery become impossible.
Key Global Tipping Points Identified:
- Ice Sheets: Collapse of Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, committing the planet to multi-metre sea-level rise.
- Coral Reefs: Permanent dieback of warm-water reefs due to ocean warming and acidification, destroying marine biodiversity.
- Amazon Rainforest: Shift toward a savannah ecosystem, reducing carbon storage and regional rainfall.
- Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC): Potential shutdown below 2°C, disrupting global heat distribution and monsoon patterns.
- Permafrost Thaw: Release of methane and CO₂, reinforcing global warming.
- Boreal Forests & Mountain Glaciers: Increased risk of widespread dieback and loss of freshwater reserves.
- Sub-Polar Gyre (SPG): Destabilization in North Atlantic circulation, altering marine ecosystems and heat flow.
Highlights from the Latest Reports (Global Tipping Points 2025):
- Study Scale: Conducted by 160 scientists from 23 countries, assessing multiple Earth-system thresholds.
- Coral Crisis: Since January 2023, 84.4% of coral reefs across 82 nations have suffered bleaching — marking the fourth global mass event, the worst on record.
- Temperature Thresholds: Exceeding 1.5°C global warming risks triggering multiple tipping points; 1.2°C already breached for warm-water reefs.
- AMOC Collapse Risk: Could occur below 2°C, potentially plunging northwest Europe into severe winters and disrupting global food and water systems.
- Amazon Dieback: Widespread collapse possible below 2°C, directly affecting 100+ million people dependent on its ecosystem.
- Interconnected Risk: Earth’s systems form a tipping network — crossing one threshold may accelerate others, creating a domino-like cascade.
- Policy Warning: Current Paris Agreement pledges and net-zero targets are inadequate to limit warming below 2°C.
| [UPSC 2024] One of the following regions has the world’s largest tropical peatland, which holds about three years’ worth of global carbon emissions from fossil fuels, and the possible destruction of which can exert a detrimental effect on the global climate.
Which one of the following denotes that region?
Options: (a) Amazon Basin (b) Congo Basin* (c) Kikori basin (d) Rio De La Plata Basin |
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Why in the News?
The Delhi government has decided to declare 41 sq. km of the Southern Ridge as a reserved forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, following long-pending directions from the National Green Tribunal (NGT).
About Delhi Morphological Ridge:
- The Delhi Ridge is the northern extension of the ancient Aravalli Range, stretching approximately 35 km from Tughlaqabad to Wazirabad, along the Yamuna River.
- It is composed mainly of quartzite rock, is over 1.5 billion years old, and significantly older than the Himalayas.
- It functions as Delhi’s green lungs, aiding in carbon sequestration, temperature regulation, and air pollution reduction.
- It acts as a natural barrier against desert winds from Rajasthan and supports rich biodiversity, making Delhi one of the world’s most bird-rich capitals.
- It is divided into four zones: Northern Ridge, Central Ridge, South-Central Ridge, and Southern Ridge.
- Key conservation areas include the Northern Ridge Biodiversity Park and the Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary.
Land Use Regulation in the Ridge:
- Although the area shares ecological features with the Delhi Ridge, it is NOT officially notified as forest land, but it enjoys judicial protection.
- A 1966 directive prohibits any NON-forest use or encroachment without court approval.
- Any change in land use must be cleared by the Ridge Management Board (RMB) and the Supreme Court-appointed Central Empowered Committee (CEC).
- The area is mapped using data from the Delhi Forest Department and the 2006 Seismic Zonation Map.
- Formal notification as a Reserved Forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, is pending due to the absence of ground-truthing.
- In revenue records, it is often marked as “gair mumkin pahad”, meaning uncultivable rocky hill.
- The terrain is ecologically fragile, with shallow soil and rocky outcrops, making it unsuitable for construction.
| [UPSC 2001] The approximate age of the Aravalli range is-
Options: (a) 370 million years (b) 470 million years (c) 570 million years (d) 670 million years |
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Why in the News?
The 2025 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences (Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Memory of Alfred Nobel) was awarded to Joel Mokyr (Northwestern University, US), Philippe Aghion (Collège de France, INSEAD, LSE), and Peter Howitt (Brown University, US) for their pioneering explanations of innovation-driven economic growth.
What is the Nobel Economics Prize?
- Officially called the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, established in 1968.
- It is NOT part of the original Nobel Prizes created by Alfred Nobel in 1895.
- Created by the Swedish central bank to honor Alfred Nobel’s legacy.
- Although not an original Nobel Prize, it is presented alongside the other Nobel Prizes on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel’s death.
- Includes a diploma, gold medal, and a one-million-dollar prize for the laureates.
Who are the Nobel Laureates for 2025?
- Joel Mokyr (Northwestern University, USA): An economic historian, renowned for studying how scientific knowledge, cultural openness, and institutional change during the Enlightenment triggered the Industrial Revolution.
- Philippe Aghion (Collège de France, INSEAD, LSE): A leading growth theorist, known for advancing the Schumpeterian model of innovation-driven growth and the economics of creative destruction.
- Peter Howitt (Brown University, USA): Collaborator of Aghion, co-developer of the Aghion–Howitt growth model, integrating firm-level innovation dynamics into macroeconomic theory.
Their Contributions:
- Joel Mokyr:
- Demonstrated that before the 18th century, societies possessed “prescriptive knowledge” (how things worked) but lacked “propositional knowledge” (why they worked).
- Showed that the Scientific Revolution merged science with craftsmanship, turning discovery into applied innovation.
- Highlighted that the Enlightenment’s intellectual openness enabled acceptance of “creative destruction,” allowing new technologies to replace old ones without institutional backlash.
- Philippe Aghion & Peter Howitt:
- Developed the 1992 Schumpeterian Growth Model, mathematically linking innovation, competition, and economic growth.
- Explained that constant firm turnover—where new innovators replace old incumbents—creates long-term, stable growth.
- Introduced the idea of “general equilibrium in innovation”, connecting household savings, financial markets, R&D investment, and production into a single dynamic framework.
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Why in the News?
RBI Governor has unveiled the Unified Markets Interface (UMI) a next-generation financial market infrastructure developed by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
What is Unified Markets Interface (UMI)?
- Overview: The UMI is a next-generation financial market infrastructure conceptualized by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to tokenize financial assets and settlements using the wholesale Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC).
- Purpose: It aims to modernize India’s financial markets by enabling blockchain-based asset transactions, improving market transparency, and streamlining settlements through digital automation.
- Significance: The UMI represents India’s entry into asset tokenization, the conversion of real-world financial instruments into digital tokens, thereby integrating CBDC, smart contracts, and digital public infrastructure within a single interoperable ecosystem.
Features of UMI:
- CBDC-Enabled Settlement: Uses the wholesale Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) to execute high-value settlements instantly and securely.
- Asset Tokenization: Converts traditional financial assets into digital tokens on blockchain, allowing fractional ownership and seamless transferability.
- Unified Infrastructure: Creates an integrated, interoperable market interface linking banks, investors, and financial intermediaries on a single digital framework.
- Smart Contract Automation: Employs programmable contracts for real-time clearing, settlement, and compliance, reducing manual intervention.
- Transparency and Efficiency: Blockchain ensures immutable transaction records and enhances traceability, reducing fraud and settlement delays.
Back2Basics: Asset Tokenization
- Definition: The process of converting real-world assets, such as bonds, real estate, commodities, or equities, into digital tokens stored on blockchain networks.
- Mechanism: Each token represents fractional ownership, enabling smaller investors to participate in high-value assets traditionally limited to institutions.
- Technology Base: Built on blockchain and smart contracts, ensuring transparent, secure, and automated transactions.
- RBI’s Application: Tokenized financial assets under UMI will settle through wholesale CBDC, providing real-time, tamper-proof, and traceable transactions.
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