Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Why in the News?
A recent petition in the Supreme Court has sought the invocation ofArticle 355in West Bengal by deploying central armed forces, citing violence in Murshidabad.
Recent Case:
Following violent protests in Murshidabad district against the Waqf (Amendment) Act, a petition was filed to invoke Article 355 in West Bengal.
The petitioner argued that the state was experiencing internal disturbances warranting Union intervention.
The Court declined to pass immediate directions but allowed the petitioner to file a detailed application for further consideration.
What is Article 355?
Article 355 mandates that the Union Government has the duty to protect every state against external aggression and internal disturbances and ensure that the state governments function in accordance with the Constitution.
It places responsibilities on the Union Government to maintain constitutional governance in all states.
It is often used alongside Article 356 to declare President’s Rule in a state.
It does NOT grant separate powers; instead, it operates in conjunction with Article 356 and Article 357.
Initially introduced as Article 277A in the Draft Constitution (1949), it clarified the Union’s role in intervening in state matters during exceptional circumstances.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar emphasised that such intervention should not be arbitrary but based on constitutional obligations.
Judicial Interpretations:
H.S. Jain v. Union of India (1996): The Supreme Court held that the Union is obligated under Article 355 to ensure state governments operate in line with the Constitution, quashing a state emergency declared under Article 356.
S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994): The Court ruled that President’s Rule under Article 356 should be used sparingly and only when Union intervention is justified.
Sarbananda Sonowal v. Union of India (2005): The Court upheld Union intervention under Article 355 due to illegal migration but cautioned against its use without substantial evidence.
Note: Article 355 does NOT grant separate powers; instead, it operates in conjunction with Articles 356 and 357.
Article 356 allows the President to impose President’s Rule in a state if the governance in that state is not in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.
Article 357 authorizes the President to extend the powers of the Union government to a state under President’s Rule and allows the Union government to exercise executive authority in the state.
[UPSC 2003] Which one of the following Articles of the Indian Constitution provides that ‘It shall be the duty of the Union to protect every State against external aggression and internal disturbance’?
NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope recently discovered the Bullseye Galaxy (LEDA 1313424), which contains 9 rings, an unprecedented number.
This finding offers new insights into galaxy evolution and the possibility of the galaxy evolving into a Giant Low Surface Brightness (GLSB) galaxy.
About the Bullseye Galaxy (LEDA 1313424):
The Bullseye Galaxy is unique for containing 9 rings, an unprecedented number in the study of ringed galaxies.
Most ringed galaxies typically have 2 or 3 rings, making this discovery significant.
The rings are believed to have formed after acollision with a blue dwarf galaxy about 50 million years ago, causing ripples in the gas and creating star-forming regions that became the rings.
While individual stars’ orbits stayed the same, groups of stars gathered, forming distinct rings over time.
This discovery offers valuable insights into galaxy interactions and the rare formation of multiple rings.
What are Giant Low Surface Brightness (GLSB) Galaxies?
GLSB Galaxies are large, diffuse galaxies with low surface brightness and fewer stars than typical galaxies, making them appear dimmer.
These galaxies contain vast hydrogen disks, the fuel for star formation, but their low hydrogen density prevents many stars from forming.
GLSB galaxies are believed to contain significant amounts of dark matter, affecting their mass distribution.
They have less dense inner regions and challenge current cosmological models due to their hydrogen content and low surface brightness.
Bullseye Galaxy and Its Possible Evolution into a GLSB Galaxy:
It shares traits with GLSB galaxies, such as its extended diskand hydrogen content.
Researchers suggest that the Bullseye Galaxy might evolve into aGLSB galaxy, providing insights into the formation of such galaxies and the distribution of dark matter in the universe.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following phenomena:
1. Light is affected by gravity. 2. The Universe is constantly expanding. 3. Matter warps its surrounding space-time.
Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in the media?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
NASA scientists have proposed using quantum technology to study gravitational changes on Earth by deploying a quantum gravity gradiometer (QGG) on a satellite in low-Earth orbit.
About Gravity Gradiometer & Quantum Gravity Gradiometer (QGG):
A gravity gradiometer measures small variations in gravitational force over short distances.
How It Works: It detects differences in the acceleration of falling objects, indicating the density of materials below the surface, such as hydrocarbon deposits or geological structures.
Applications:
Oil Exploration: Detects underground hydrocarbon deposits by measuring gravitational differences.
Geological Studies: Used to explore subterranean features like minerals and fault lines.
A Quantum Gravity Gradiometer (QGG) uses quantum technology to achieve much higher precision than traditional gravity gradiometers.
How It Works: Atoms are cooled to near absolute zero and manipulated with lasers. The phase shifts of these atoms, proportional to gravitational force, detect tiny changes in gravitational acceleration.
It can detect changes as small as 10^-15 m/s² over just 1 meter, offering much finer measurements than traditional instruments.
Specifications: Weighs 125 kg, has a volume like a 250-liter oil drum, and consumes 350 watts of power (comparable to an older Intel CPU).
Applications of QGG in Space:
Studying Gravitational Variations: Measures small changes in Earth’s gravitational field, aiding climate change studies, such as melting ice caps and shifting water reserves.
Earth’s Gravitational Field Mapping: Improves understanding of Earth’s internal structure and seismic activities.
Dark Matter Research: Provides insights into dark matter by detecting gravitational anomalies.
Satellite Navigation: Enhances space navigation and satellite positioning.
Mapping Underground Features: Used to map structures like mineral deposits and fault lines.
Security: Detects underground structures like military bunkers and natural disasters, offering valuable security information.
[UPSC 2003] If the radius of the Earth were to shrink by one per cent, its mass remaining the same, the value of ‘g’ on the Earth’s surface would:
Options: (a) Increase by 0.5% (b) Increase by 2% (c) Decrease by 0.5% (d) Decrease by 2%
India has marked a significant achievement in its railway infrastructure development with the “tunnel breakthrough” of Tunnel No. 8 on the Rishikesh-Karnaprayag Railway Line.
About Rishikesh-Karnaprayag Railway Tunnel:
Tunnel No. 8 is a major part of the Rishikesh-Karnaprayag railway project, spanning 14.58 km, making it the longest transport tunnel under construction in India.
The tunnel is the first railway tunnel in the Himalayan region to use a Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) (combining with the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM)) which reduces environmental disruption and increases efficiency compared to traditional blasting methods.
It is located on the Devprayag to Janasu stretch, which is part of the larger Rishikesh-Karnaprayag railway line project in Uttarakhand.
It is part of a larger plan to build a 125.20 km rail link, with 83% of the line to be tunnelled.
It will feature 12 new stations, 16 tunnels, and 19 bridges across five districts of Uttarakhand.
Safety measures include 12 escape tunnels and 7.05 km of cross passages to ensure passenger safety in case of emergencies.
This link will significantly improve connectivity to Uttarakhand’s hilly areas, reduce travel time, and boost economic activity in the region.
[UPSC 2005] Consider the following statements concerning the Indian Railways:
1. The Head Quarters of the North Western Railway are located at Jodhpur.
2. ‘Indrail pass’ – a travel-as-you-please ticket has been created especially for freedom fighters and sportspersons who have represented India in any game/sport.
3. Fairy Queen is a train using the world’s oldest working engine and the Indian Railways conduct a journey of wildlife and heritage sites on it.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 (d) None*
The ISRO through its CROP remote sensing framework, has estimated that the total wheat production from eight major wheat-growing states will reach 122.724 million tonnes by March 31, 2025.
About CROP:
CROP is a semi-automated and scalable framework developed by ISRO’s National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC).
The primary goal of CROP is to provide a real-time view of the sowing, growth, and harvest progress of crops, especially wheat during the Rabi season.
CROP utilizes data from multi-source remote sensing satellites to monitor agricultural areas across India.
Technological Components of CROP:
EOS-04 (RISAT-1A): Provides Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data for crop monitoring, especially under varied weather conditions.
EOS-06 (Oceansat-3): Offers optical remote sensing data for agricultural monitoring.
Resourcesat-2A: Used for high-resolution optical imaging, focusing on agricultural areas for precise crop monitoring.
Key Features of the Study:
The study used a combination of SAR and optical data to accurately assess crop progress during the 2024-25 Rabi season.
The wheat sown area, as of March 31, 2025, stands at 330.8 lakh hectares, which is in line with the figures reported by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (324.38 lakh hectares as of February 4, 2025).
Wheat production in the eight major wheat-growing states is estimated to be 122.724 million tonnes by March 31, 2025, based on the data gathered through the remote sensing method.
[UPSC 2019] For the measurement/estimation of which of the following are satellite images/remote sensing data used?
1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location
2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location
3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*
Uterine transplant surgery offers a groundbreaking solution for women with absolute uterine infertility, as seen in the recent birth of the first child in the U.K. born to a mother who received a donated uterus.
About Uterine Transplants:
Uterine transplantation is a surgical procedure where a woman who lacks a functional uterus receives a donor uterus, enabling her to carry and give birth to a child.
The transplant is typically temporary, allowing for one or two pregnancies, after which the uterus is usually removed to avoid complications.
Donor Criteria:
Age: Between 30 to 50 years.
Health: Must be in good overall health, with a BMI under 30, and no history of diabetes, cancer (within 5 years), or STIs.
Exclusions: Women with HIV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, or other complications.
The procedure requires gynecological transplant surgeons with specific training. A 6-month recovery period is needed before attempting pregnancy.
Indian Scenario:
India’s first transplant was performed on May 18, 2017, at Galaxy Care Hospital in Pune. The recipient was a 26-year-old woman who received her mother’s uterus.
In October 2018, India’s first baby was born via Caesarean section, weighing 1.45 kg and healthy.
This success story reflects India’s growing capabilities in reproductive medicine, providing hope to women with uterine infertility, offering them an opportunity for biological motherhood.
[UPSC 2020] In the context of recent advances in human reproductive technology, “Pronuclear Transfer” is used for:
Options: (a) fertilization of egg in vitro by the donor sperm (b) genetic modification of sperm producing cells (c) development of stem cells into functional embryos (d) prevention of mitochondrial diseases in offspring
Indian Air Force (IAF) contingent has recently departed for the Desert Flag-10 exercise, being held at the Al Dhafra air base in the UAE.
About Exercise Desert Flag:
Exercise Desert Flag is a multi-nation air combat exercise held at Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE.
It offers participating air forces the opportunity to engage in complex fighter operations and enhance combat capabilities in a collaborative environment.
Focus Areas: Fighter engagements, interoperability, and the exchange of operational knowledge.
Participants: Air forces from United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Germany, France, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Turkey, and India.
Significance of the Exercise:
Improving Interoperability: Enhances the ability of air forces from different nations to work together seamlessly, sharing information and responding to regional security challenges.
Learning from Global Air Forces: Provides the IAF with exposure to advanced combat tactics and air defence technologies from the world’s top air forces.
Diplomatic and Strategic Influence: India’s participation underscores its role in global security and enhances its defence diplomacy.
[UPSC 2008] Hand-in-Hand 2007’, a joint anti-terrorism military training was held by the officers of the Indian Army and officers of the Army of which one of the following countries?
The 2024 European State of the Climate Report shows Europe warming nearly twice as fast as the global average, with significant regional variations due to human-driven climate change.
European State of the Climate Report: Key Highlights
2024 as the Warmest Year: The year 2024 was recorded as the warmest year ever, not just globally but for Europe as well, with Eastern Europe experiencing particularly high temperatures.
East-West Contrast: While Eastern Europe enjoyed sunny and warm conditions, Western Europe was cloudier and wetter, highlighting the regional differences in climate impact.
Southeastern Europe Heatwave: Countries like Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia, Kosovo, and Serbia faced their longest heatwave on record, adding to the already extreme conditions.
Reasons Behind Europe’s Higher Rate of Warming:
Proximity to the Arctic Region: A large part of Europe lies within the Arctic region, where warming is three to four times faster than the global average, driving higher temperatures in Europe.
Albedo Effect: The melting of Arctic ice exposes darker surfaces (land and water) that absorb more solar radiation, accelerating warming in Europe.
Reduction in Aerosols: Decreasing aerosol emissions in Europe allow more solar radiation to reach the Earth’s surface, contributing to faster warming.
Land-Based Warming: Europe’s land areas warm faster than oceans, triggering extreme weather like heatwaves, heavy rainfall, and flooding.
Global Climate Dynamics: Europe’s geographical and atmospheric conditions make it more susceptible to climate change effects compared to other regions.
[UPSC 2014] The scientific view is that the increase in global temperature should not exceed 2 0 C above pre-industrial level. If the global temperature increases beyond 30 C above the pre-industrial level, what can be its possible impact/impacts on the world?
1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon source.
2. Widespread coral mortality will occur.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only * (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
A recent paper published in Nature by a team from the Chinese Academy of Sciences explored the genetic modification of rice plants to increase Coenzyme CoQ10 production.
What are Coenzymes and CoQ?
Enzymes are biological catalysts made of proteins that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms without being consumed in the process.
Coenzymes are organic molecules that assist enzymes in catalyzing biochemical reactions, making cellular metabolism more efficient.
Coenzyme Q (CoQ) is a lipid-soluble antioxidant that helps stabilize cells under stress. It is crucial for cellular energy production.
CoQ exists in 10 forms (CoQ1 to CoQ10), all present in the respiratory chain within cells.
Importance of CoQ9 and CoQ10
CoQ9: It is found in cereal crops (wheat, rice, oats, barley, etc.), bamboo, and flowering plants like cinnamon, avocado, and pepper. It is rich in daily foods, making it an accessible nutrient.
CoQ10: It is vital for mitochondrial energy production. Concentrated in high-energy organs like the heart. CoQ10 is crucial for health, especially in those with neurological issues or age-related deficiencies.
Health Benefits of CoQ10:
2008: CoQ10 supplementation helped patients with neurological disorders, improving their health (Montini et al., Milan).
2012: Infants with CoQ10 deficiency benefitted from ubiquinone analogues (Shamima Ahmed, London).
CoQ10-based supplements are now commonly prescribed by healthcare professionals.
[UPSC 2007] Question: Which one of the following is not a digestive enzyme in the human system?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Aryabhata
Why in the News?
50 years ago on April 19, 1975, India marked a major milestone in its space history with the successful launch of Aryabhata, its first satellite.
About Aryabhata
Aryabhata, India’s first satellite, was launched on April 19, 1975, with Soviet assistance from the Kapustin Yar Cosmodrome.
Named after the ancient Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata, the satellite was a significant milestone in India’s space journey.
It had a unique 26-sided polyhedron design, measuring 1.4 meters in diameter and weighing 360 kg.
The satellite’s faces were covered with solar panels, except for the top and bottom.
Aryabhata orbited the Earth every 96.3 minutes with an inclination of 50.7 degrees, and its apogee and perigee were 619 km and 563 km, respectively.
Its mission was to conduct experiments in solar physics and X-ray astronomy.
Despite experiencing a power failure after 5 days, Aryabhata continued transmitting data for several more days, completing a remarkable 17 years in orbit.
This success was pivotal for India, establishing the country’s space capabilities.
Inception of India’s Space Program:
India’s space program began in the 1960s, led by Vikram Sarabhai, the founder of ISRO.
Sarabhai envisioned a space program to advance technological and scientific progress in India.
Initial efforts included developing sounding rockets under the Rohini rocket program for atmospheric research.
In 1972, India partnered with the Soviet Union for the launch of Aryabhata, marking the nation’s entry into space.
[UPSC 2007] Consider the following statements:
1. In the year 2006, India successfully tested a full-fledged cryogenic stage in rocketry.
2. After USA, Russia and China, India is the only country to have acquired the capability for use of cryogenic stage in rocketry.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
A hidden landmass, called the Davis Strait proto-microcontinent, has been discovered beneath the icy waters between Canada’s Baffin Island and Greenland.
About the Davis Strait Proto-Microcontinent:
The Davis Strait Proto-Microcontinent is a hypothesised landmass located in the Davis Strait, believed to have existed during the Paleozoic era.
It is composed of 19–24 km thick thinned continental crust, surrounded by two narrow bands of 15–17 km thick continental crust.
It is thought to have broken apart due to tectonic movements.
Geological evidence, including similarities in rock formations and tectonic features found in Greenland and parts of the Canadian Arctic, supports the idea of this ancient landmass.
While its exact nature and extent remain debated, the proto-microcontinent is crucial for understanding the tectonic processes that shaped the Atlantic Ocean and surrounding regions.
About Davis Strait:
The Davis Strait is a large body of water located between southeastern Baffin Island (Canada) and southwestern Greenland, serving as part of the Northwest Passage.
It separates the Baffin Bay (to the north) from the Labrador Sea (to the south), and it connects the Atlantic Ocean and Arctic Ocean through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.
It is an important maritime route for shipping and trade.
Named after John Davis, the English explorer who navigated the area in the late 16th century, the Davis Strait plays a significant role in the tectonic evolution of the Arctic region.
[UPSC 2013] Consider the following:
(1). Electromagnetic radiation (2). Geothermal energy (3). Gravitational force (4). Plate movements (5). Rotation of the earth (6). Revolution of the earth
Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None*
Recent advancements in recycling perovskite solar cells have led to a new water-based solution, offering a more sustainable and efficient approach to solar energy production.
About Perovskite Solar Cells:
Perovskite solar cells are made using a perovskite crystal structure, offering high power conversion efficiencies and low manufacturing costs compared to traditional silicon-based panels.
They are lightweight, flexible, and made from inexpensive materials, making them a promising alternative in the solar energy market.
While efficient, they have a shorter lifespan and contain toxic materials like lead, posing environmental risks during disposal.
Used in solar power generation, electric vehicles, and energy storage systems due to their affordability and performance.
The New Recycling Method:
Researchers have developed a water-based recycling solution, replacing harmful organic solvents with a non-toxic approach.
The process uses three salts: sodium acetate, sodium iodide, and hypophosphorous acid, to dissolve and regenerate perovskite crystals, recovering high-quality material for reuse.
This method maintains nearly the same efficiency as fresh materials, even after five rounds of recycling, recovering 99% of the layers.
It promotes a circular economy, reducing waste and supporting the environmentally friendly recycling of perovskite solar cells.
[UPSC 2014] With reference to technologies for solar power production, consider the following statements:
1. ‘Photovoltaics’ is a technology that generates electricity by direction conversion of light into electricity, while ‘Solar Thermal’ is a technology that utilizes the Sun’s rays to generate heat which is further used in electricity generation process.
2. Photovoltaics generate Alternating Current (AC), while solar Thermal generates Direct Current (DC).
3. India has manufacturing base for Solar Thermal technology, but not for Photovoltaics.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
Options:
(a) 1 only* (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
India has signed a Headquarters Agreement with the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA), officially establishing its headquarters in India.
About International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA):
IBCA is a multi-country, multi-agency group of 96 big cat range and non-range countries focused on conserving 7 big cats and their habitats.
It was proposed by PM Modi in 2019, officially launched in April 2023 for Project Tiger’s 50th anniversary.
It aims to protect and conserve Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Cheetah, Jaguar, and Puma; restore habitats and reduce human-wildlife conflict.
Key activities include- Advocacy, knowledge sharing, eco-tourism promotion, and resource mobilization for big cat conservation.
Currently, India, Nicaragua, Eswatini, and Somalia are members. Though membership is open to 96 range countries with big cat habitats.
Governance: Includes a General Assembly, elected Council, and Secretariat with a Secretary-General.
India’s Role:
India is home to 5 (tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, and cheetah) of the 7 big cats and 70% of the world’s tiger population, playing a leading role in global wildlife protection.
₹150 crore from the Indian government (2023-2028) with additional contributions from global partners.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.
2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.
3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 2
The Kailash Mansarovar Yatra, a significant religious pilgrimage for Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Bon followers, is set to resume after a halt since 2020.
About Kailash Mountain and Kailash Mansarovar Yatra
Kailash Mountain is situated in the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR) of China, near India and Nepal, standing at 6,638 meters (21,778 feet).
Religious Significance:
Hinduism: Abode of Lord Shiva and Parvati, believed to bring moksha (liberation).
Buddhism: Home of Buddha Demchok, symbolizing bliss.
Jainism: Lord Rishabhanatha attained Nirvana here.
Bon Religion: Center of the universe in Bon faith.
Mansarovar Yatra is the pilgrimage to Mount Kailash and Mansarovar Lake at 4,556 meters (14,950 feet).
This lake is believed to be created by Lord Brahma, bathing here is believed to cleanse sins.
The Yatra is managed by India’s Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) for Indian pilgrims.
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Routes to Kailash Mansarovar
Lipulekh Pass: Located at 5,115 meters, this route is 200 km of trekking and has been suspended since 2020 due to geopolitical tensions.
Nathu La Pass: Positioned at 4,310 meters, this 1,500 km motorable route requires 35-40 km of trekking. It has been operational since 2015.
Nepal Route: Available since 2023, this route is managed by private operators, with challenges related to visa and permit requirements.
[UPSC 2007] Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around in the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?
(a) Chang La (b) Jara La (c) Nathu La* (d) Shipki La
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)
Why in the News?
The Union Environment Ministry’s 2015 policy mandating the installation of Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) equipment in all of India’s 537 coal-fired plants has been scrutinised by a recent study commissioned by the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser.
Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)
About Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) in Power Plants
FGD is used to remove sulfur dioxide (SO₂) from flue gases in coal-fired power plants.
The process involves passing exhaust gases through a scrubbing system using absorbents like ammonia, sodium sulfite, or limestone.
Methods:
Wet Limestone Scrubbing: Gases pass through a scrubber tower with a slurry of water and limestone.
Dry Sorbent Injection: Uses a dry alkaline agent to neutralize SO₂.
Sea Water-Based Systems: Utilizes seawater’s natural alkalinity to absorb SO₂.
FGD can remove up to 95% of sulfur dioxide, reducing SO₂ emissions significantly.
Reduces sulfur emissions, major contributors to acid rain and air pollution.
FGD Gypsum, a byproduct, can be used in industries like cement manufacturing.
Recent Study on FGD in Power Plants
A study by NIAS critiques India’s FGD policy, recommending limited FGD installations for plants using imported or high-sulfur coal.
92% of coal in Indian plants has low sulfur content (0.3%-0.5%), meaning FGD may not significantly improve local air quality.
Widespread FGD installation could increase power and water consumption, and result in 69 million tonnes of additional CO₂ emissions by 2030.
Removing SO₂ (cooling agent) while increasing CO₂ emissions may accelerate climate change.
Recommendations: Installing electrostatic precipitators (₹25 lakh per MW) can reduce 99% of particulate matter (PM), offering a more cost-effective and impactful solution.
[UPSC 2024] According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which one of the following is the largest source of sulphur dioxide emissions?
Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) has partnered with IIT Bombay to launch a pilot project on Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology, integrating electric vehicles into the power grid.
About V2G Technology:
V2G enables Electric Vehicles (EVs) to send power back to the grid when not in use, turning EV batteries into decentralized energy storage devices.
It involves two key functions:
Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V): Power is transferred from the grid to charge the EV.
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G): Power is sent from the EV back to the grid, making the vehicle a distributed energy source.
Smart charging strategies optimize charging based on grid demand and renewable energy availability, enhancing grid stability and enabling renewable energy integration.
About the KSEB-IIT Bombay V2G Pilot Project:
This pilot aims to assess EVs’ role in supporting the power grid, especially during peak demand periods when solar energy is unavailable.
Kerala’s growth in EV adoption and rooftop solar installations has raised concerns about increased electricity demand, particularly in the evenings.
The project will explore the feasibility of using EVs to reduce grid strain and optimize the use of renewable energy.
Applications of V2G:
Grid Support: EVs can supply power back to the grid during high-demand periods, improving grid stability.
Solar Energy Integration: V2G encourages charging during the day when solar power is abundant, and storing excess energy to supply the grid at night.
Emergency Power Source: EVs can act as backup power during crises or natural disasters, providing electricity to communities.
[UPSC 2024] Which one of the following is the exhaust pipe emission from Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles powered by hydrogen?
Scientists using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) have found signs of possible life on exoplanet K2-18 b by detecting gases usually produced by Earth’s biological processes.
Key findings of the Recent Study:
Scientists detected significant biosignatures in the atmosphere of K2-18 b, including dimethyl sulphide (DMS) and dimethyl disulfide (DMDS).
These gases, on Earth, are primarily produced by marine phytoplankton.
High concentrations of these gases suggest the possibility of microbial life, particularly in the planet’s oceans.
However, researchers caution that this is not definitive proof of life but a potential biosignature indicating biological processes.
Further studies and observations are needed to confirm whether these gases are biologically produced or the result of other processes.
About James Webb Space Telescope (JWST):
JWST is a joint venture between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) launched in December 2021.
It is an orbiting infrared observatory that will complement and extend the discoveries of the Hubble Space Telescope, with longer wavelength coverage and greatly improved sensitivity.
Webb was formerly known as the “Next Generation Space Telescope” (NGST), and it was renamed in 2002 after a former NASA administrator, James Webb.
It isa large infrared telescope with an approximately 6.5-meter primary mirror.
JWST is positioned at the Earth-Sun L2 Lagrange point, 5 million km away.
It consists of a mirror, spanning 6.5 meters in diameter compared to Hubble’s 2.4 meters, and its specialised instruments optimised for infrared observations.
Key Objectives:
JWST observes deeper into the universe than Hubble.
Observes celestial objects from earlier epochs.
Enables the detection of light from the universe’s earliest stars, dating back over 13.5 billion years.
[UPSC 2020] The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.” The experiment in question refers to:
Options: (a) Voyager-2 (b) New Horizons (c) LISA Pathfinder (d) Evolved LISA*
The 6th edition of India-Uzbekistan Joint Military Exercise DUSTLIK-6 commenced at the Foreign Training Node at Aundh in Pune, Maharashtra.
About Exercise DUSTLIK
Exercise DUSTLIK is an annual event alternating between India and Uzbekistan.
It is named after Dustlik, a town in the Jizzakh region of Uzbekistan.
The first edition of the exercise was held in 2019 near Tashkent.
The 5th edition was held in Termez District, Uzbekistan.
4th edition held in Pithoragarh, India, in February 2023.
Objectives and Focus Areas:
Focus on physical fitness, joint planning, and tactical drills.
Emphasis on special arms skills and multi-domain operations.
Tactical drills include establishing command posts, intelligence centers, heliborne operations, and room intervention.
Back2Basics: India’s bilateral exercises with Central Asian Countries
Country
Exercise
Kazakhstan
Ex PRABAL DOSTYK, Ex KAZIND
Kyrgyzstan
Ex KHANJAR
Mongolia
Ex NOMADIC ELEPHANT
Tajikistan
Ex Farkhor
[UPSC 2008] Hand-in-Hand 2007’, a joint anti-terrorism military training was held by the officers of the Indian Army and officers of the Army of which one of the following countries?
Formal Establishment (1858): The office of the Governor was established under the Government of India Actof1858, which transitioned administration from the East India Company to the British Crown. Governors acted as agents of the Crown and had significant powers in provincial administration.
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919): The GoI Act of 1919, under the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, aimed to increase Indian participation but kept the Governor central to governance, including vetoing Bills passed by legislative councils.
GoI Act of 1935: The GoI Act of 1935 gave provincial autonomy but retained the Governor’s discretionary powers, including vetoing Bills and withholding assent, signalling a transition toward more autonomy while maintaining significant Governor authority.
Post-Independence Transition (1947): As India moved toward independence, the India (Provisional Constitution) Order of 1947 modified the 1935 Act. It removed the phrase “in his discretion,” reducing the Governor’s discretionary powers and signalling a shift to a more symbolic and constitutional role.
Constituent Assembly Debates: It debated whether Governors should be elected or nominated. Concerns over separatism led to the decision that Governors would be nominated by the President to maintain unity and strengthen ties with the Centre, especially after the partition.
Post-Independence Framework: Before Independence, various documents and political proposals, including the Commonwealth India Bill (1925) and the Nehru Report (1928), supported retaining the office of the Governor, inspired by the Westminster model of governance.
Constitutional Role of the Governor:
Article 163: The Governor acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, except in certain discretionary situations.
Ambedkar’s Views: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar advocated for limited use of discretionary powers, ensuring the Governor’s actions align with the advice of the ministers.
Article 200: The Governor must grant assent to Bills, but may withhold assent, reserve the Bill for the President, or return it for reconsideration. Ambedkar amended this in 1949 to ensure the Governor acts in alignment with the elected government.
Symbolic and Impartial Role: The Governor is expected to represent the Union, support democratic functioning, and remain non-interfering in day-to-day state affairs.
Discretionary Powers: The Governor’s discretion is limited to constitutional guidelines and should be used sparingly, ensuring the Governor’s role remains constitutional, not political.
[UPSC 2017] In the context of Indian history, the-principle of ‘Dyarchy (diarchy)’ refers to:
(a) Division of the central legislature into two houses.
(b) Introduction of double government i.e., Central and State governments.
(c) Having two sets of rulers; one in London and another in Delhi.
(d) Division of the subjects delegated to the provinces into two categories. *
