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Type: Prelims Only

  • Debate on VVPAT Verification in Indian Elections

    vvpat

    Introduction

    • Recent Developments: A political alliance, has requested a meeting with the Election Commission of India (ECI) to discuss and suggest changes regarding the use of Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) machines.
    • Proposal: The alliance proposes that VVPAT slips be handed to voters to place in a separate ballot box, with 100% counting of these slips, to enhance trust in the electoral process.

    What are VVPATs?

    • Function and Purpose: VVPAT machines, attached to EVMs, print a slip showing the voter’s choice, allowing voters to verify their vote for seven seconds before the slip drops into a secured box.
    • Development History: The concept emerged in 2010, leading to the creation of prototypes by Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) and Electronics Corporation of India (ECIL). After trials and feedback, the design was approved in February 2013.
    • Implementation: The Conduct of Elections Rules, 1961, were amended to incorporate VVPATs. They were first used in Nagaland’s Noksen Assembly constituency in 2013 and were implemented in all polling stations by the 2019 Lok Sabha elections.

    Current VVPAT Slip Counting Protocol

    • EC’s Decision Process: In 2018, the ECI consulted the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) to determine a statistically robust sample size for VVPAT slip verification.
    • Existing Protocol: Initially, VVPAT slips of one randomly selected polling station per Assembly constituency were counted. This was increased to five polling stations per Assembly seat after a Supreme Court judgment in 2019.
    • ISI Recommendation: The ISI suggested counting VVPAT slips from 479 EVMs to ensure a high confidence level that the proportion of defective EVMs is less than 2%.

    Election Commission’s Stance

    • Current Verification Adequacy: The EC argues that the current practice of verifying VVPATs from five polling stations per Assembly seat exceeds the ISI’s recommendation.
    • Reliability Record: The EC highlights that in past elections, no cases of vote misattribution were detected in VVPAT checks, attributing discrepancies to human errors.
    • Concerns over Full Verification: The EC views 100% VVPAT verification as regressive, time-consuming, and prone to human error, akin to manual ballot voting.

    Conclusion

    • Debate on Electoral Integrity: The discussion around VVPAT verification reflects ongoing concerns about ensuring electoral integrity and public trust in the voting process.
    • Challenges Ahead: Balancing the need for efficient electoral processes with the imperative of maintaining voter confidence remains a critical challenge for the ECI and political parties in India.

  • Space Missions to Watch in 2024

    space

    Introduction

    • 2023 Milestones: NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission returned a sample from an asteroid, and India’s Chandrayaan-3 explored the lunar South Pole.
    • 2024 Prospects: The year is set to be thrilling for space exploration, with several missions under NASA’s Artemis plan and Commercial Lunar Payload Services targeting the moon.

    Key Missions to Follow in 2024

    [1] Europa Clipper: Unveiling Jupiter’s Moon

    • Mission Overview: NASA’s Europa Clipper aims to explore Europa, one of Jupiter’s largest moons, known for its icy surface and potential subsurface saltwater ocean.
    • Scientific Goals: The mission will conduct close flybys to study Europa’s ice shell, geology, and subsurface ocean, seeking signs of habitability.
    • Launch Window: Scheduled for October 10, 2024, with 21 days, aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket.

    [2] Artemis II: Human Return to the Moon

    • Program Background: Artemis II is part of NASA’s Artemis program, aiming to send humans back to the moon and establish a sustained presence for future Mars missions.
    • Mission Details: Artemis II will carry four astronauts on a 10-day mission orbiting the Moon, building upon the uncrewed Artemis I mission.
    • Launch Timeline: Planned for as early as November 2024, with potential delays to 2025.

    [3] VIPER: Searching for Lunar Water

    • Mission Purpose: VIPER, a golf cart-sized rover, will explore the moon’s south pole to search for water and other volatiles.
    • Technical Challenges: The mission will navigate extreme lunar temperatures and shadowed regions during its 100-day mission.
    • Launch Schedule: Set for November 2024, following a delay for additional lander system tests.

    [4] Lunar Trailblazer and PRIME-1: Water Mapping and Drilling

    • SIMPLEx Missions: As part of NASA’s low-cost planetary missions, Lunar Trailblazer will orbit the moon to map water locations, while PRIME-1 will test drilling technology.
    • Launch Dependencies: Both missions are secondary payloads, with their launch timing contingent on the readiness of primary payloads.

    [5] JAXA’s Martian Moon eXploration (MMX) Mission

    • Mission Focus: MMX aims to study Mars’ moons, Phobos and Deimos, to determine their origin and collect a sample from Phobos.
    • Scientific Objectives: The mission will spend three years conducting science operations around Mars and its moons.
    • Launch Plan: Scheduled for around September 2024.

    [6] ESA’s Hera Mission: Asteroid Defense Study

    • Mission Context: Hera will follow up on NASA’s DART mission to the Didymos-Dimorphos asteroid system, where DART tested the kinetic impact technique for planetary defense.
    • Research Goals: Hera will study the physical properties of the asteroids and assess the impact of the DART collision.
    • Launch and Arrival: Set for October 2024, with arrival at the asteroid system expected in late 2026.

  • Crucial Role of Karman Line in Space Defense Strategies

    Introduction

    • The Karman line, the theoretical boundary between Earth’s atmosphere and outer space, plays a crucial role in space defense and satellite communications.

    Understanding the Karman Line

    • The Karman Line is an abstract boundary positioned at an altitude of 100 kilometers above sea level.
    • Its primary function is to establish the separation between Earth’s atmosphere and the vast expanse of space.
    • Although not universally accepted by all scientists and space explorers, the majority of countries and space organizations acknowledge this demarcation.
    • It was formally established in 1960s by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale (FAI), a body responsible for record-keeping.
    • Crossing the Karman Line designates an individual as an astronaut.

    Potential Threats from Dominating the Karman Line

    • Anti-Satellite Weapons: Control over the Karman line could enable adversaries to deploy weapons targeting satellites, disrupting communication links.
    • Jamming and Interference: Adversaries might use systems to disrupt satellite communications, causing blackouts or degraded performance.
    • Hacking and Cyber-attacks: Unauthorized access to satellite systems could lead to data breaches or manipulation of communication signals.
    • Physical Interception or Tampering: The ability to physically reach satellites could allow adversaries to alter orbits, damage components, or eavesdrop on communications.
    • Space Debris and Kinetic Kill Vehicles: Creating debris or deploying kinetic kill vehicles could disrupt satellite networks.
    • Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) Weapons: EMPs could damage satellite electronics, rendering them inoperable.
    • Denial of Access to Space: Dominating the Karman line could enable adversaries to deny space access to certain countries or entities.
    • Spoofing and Deception: Manipulating satellite communication signals could mislead or deceive users.
    • Space-based Cyber-Physical Attacks: Combining cyber and physical methods could disrupt or manipulate satellite operations.
    • Policy and Regulatory Challenges: Dominance could lead to geopolitical challenges and affect international agreements related to space activities.

    Historical Context and Recent Developments

    • First Breach by V-2 Missile: On June 20, 1944, the V-2 became the first object to breach the Karman line, marking a significant milestone in space exploration.
    • Superpower Dominance: Both the United States and the Soviet Union have historically sought to dominate space for military and reconnaissance purposes, leading to the development of anti-satellite weapons and ballistic missiles.

    India’s Evolving Space Program

    • Shift in Focus: India’s space program has transitioned from a developmental focus to incorporating space for national security objectives, particularly in response to China’s counter-space capabilities.
    • Military and Security Considerations: India’s approach now includes robust launch capabilities, military satellites, and an emphasis on self-reliance and situational awareness.

    Conclusion

    • Strategic Importance: The Karman line’s significance extends beyond scientific understanding to encompass crucial defense strategies in space.
    • Need for Vigilance and Cooperation: Nations must protect their space-based assets and collaborate internationally to address the multifaceted threats associated with dominating this critical boundary.
    • Future of Space Defense: As space becomes increasingly contested, understanding and securing the Karman line is vital for maintaining and defending capabilities in outer space.

  • Direct-to-Mobile (D2M) Technology in India

    Direct-to-Mobile (D2M)

    Introduction

    • The Telecommunication Engineering Centre (TEC) has identified significant challenges in implementing direct-to-mobile (D2M) technology, which allows streaming TV content directly to mobile phones without an internet connection.
    • The proposal for D2M has faced opposition from technology companies like Qualcomm, Samsung, Ericsson, Nokia, and telecom operators.

    About Direct-to-Mobile (D2M) Technology

    • Direct-to-mobile (D2M) technology is a method of transmitting content directly to mobile devices using broadcast signals. Here are the key points to understand about D2M technology:
    • D2M uses broadcast networks, similar to those for TV and radio, to send content directly to mobile devices, bypassing traditional cellular or internet data networks.
    • This technology is efficient for delivering the same content to many users simultaneously, reducing the load on cellular networks and making it ideal for live events or popular broadcasts.
    • Mobile devices need to be equipped with specific hardware to receive and decode broadcast signals, which may require new standards in smartphone manufacturing.
    • D2M can offer high-quality video and audio streaming, as it doesn’t depend on the variable speed and stability of an internet connection.

    Key Challenges Identified by TEC

    • Integration Issues: Integrating smartphones with D2M and digital terrestrial TV to mobile devices (DTT2M) technologies is a major challenge.
    • Infrastructure Requirements: Implementing technologies like Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC) 3.0 (NextGen TV) may necessitate a new nationwide network for indoor coverage, adding complexity.
    • Increased Costs: The adoption of D2M technology could lead to higher costs for smartphone manufacturers and, consequently, higher phone prices.
    • Ecosystem and Viability Concerns: Challenges include the availability of a handset ecosystem, scalability, business viability, and spectrum requirements.

    TEC’s Report and Consultation Findings

    • Device Ecosystem: Success in adopting D2M technology hinges on enabling service on mobile devices, particularly smartphones or tablets, and creating an open-market, low-cost device ecosystem.
    • Need for Compatible Standards: A standard compatible with existing mobile handsets is essential for cost-effectiveness and leveraging the existing ecosystem.
    • Offloading Broadcasting Traffic: The standard should facilitate offloading broadcasting traffic over phones and guide the design and manufacture of smartphones for direct broadcast signal reception.

    Government’s Intent and Potential Uses of D2M

    • Convergence of Services: The government aims to explore the convergence of broadcasting and broadband services through D2M technology.
    • Direct Broadcasting Benefits: Users could receive terrestrial digital TV content on handsets, similar to FM radio. The technology could broadcast emergency alerts, public safety messages, and social services.
    • Traffic Offloading: Telcos could offload video content to broadcasting networks, reducing network congestion.

    Global Context and Trials

    • Lack of Available Devices: Currently, no mobile devices support these broadcasting technologies or standards globally.
    • International Trials: Countries like the USA, Brazil, Mexico, and Canada are conducting trials for D2M technology.

    Stakeholder Concerns and Consultation Feedback

    • Hasty Implementation Worries: Stakeholders expressed concerns about the government’s rushed approach to implementing a technology still in its early stages.
    • Telcos’ Revenue Concerns: Telecom operators are apprehensive about potential revenue losses from their data business if mobiles pick up signals from D2M technology.

    Conclusion

    • Critical Factors: The success of D2M in India will depend on the development of a device ecosystem and the ability to broadcast to a vast number of open-market mobile devices.
    • Navigating Implementation Challenges: Addressing the identified challenges and considering stakeholder concerns will be crucial in determining the feasibility and success of D2M technology in India.

  • Indian Science Congress Postponement: Significance and Implications

    Introduction

    • The Indian Science Congress, a significant annual event for scientists and science students in India, has been postponed from its usual start date of January 3.

    About Indian Science Congress

    Details
    Headquarters Kolkata, West Bengal, India
    Establishment 1914 in Kolkata
    Annual Meeting First week of January
    Membership More than 30,000 scientists
    First Congress 1914 at the Asiatic Society in Calcutta
    Recent Policy Change Speakers at future conferences to be vetted; scrutinizes content of talks due to past controversies
    Notable Participants Prominent Indian and foreign scientists, including Nobel laureates
    Genesis Initiated by British chemists Professor J. L. Simonsen and Professor P. S. MacMahon
    Objectives Advance and promote science in India

    Hold an annual congress

    Publish proceedings and journals

    Manage funds for science promotion

    Perform acts conducive to these objectives
    Sections, Committees, and Forums Grown from 16 sections in 2000 to 14 sections, including various scientific disciplines
    International Interaction Represented in various foreign scientific academies/associations
    Internal Challenges Discussions on corruption, need for transparency and overhaul of bureaucratic agencies

     

    Historical Context and Importance

    • Consistent Occurrence: Held every year since 1914, except for 2021 and 2022 due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the 108th edition took place in Nagpur from January 3-7, 2023.
    • Prime Minister’s Involvement: Traditionally inaugurated by the Prime Minister, the congress is a key event in the PM’s calendar and is often their first public engagement of the New Year.

    Reasons behind the Postponement

    • Funding Dispute: The postponement is a result of a disagreement between the Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA) and the Department of Science and Technology (DST) over alleged “financial irregularities” and funding withdrawal.
    • Venue Change and Withdrawal: The ISCA’s decision to move the event from Lucknow University to Lovely Professional University (LPU) in Jalandhar, which later withdrew its offer to host, contributed to the crisis.

    Decline of the Indian Science Congress

    • Loss of Prestige: In recent years, the Congress has been criticized for promoting pseudoscience and failing to reflect advancements in science, leading to a decline in participation from top scientists and institutions.
    • Calls for Discontinuation: Some scientists have suggested discontinuing the event or withdrawing government support due to its diminishing scientific credibility.

    Government’s Dilemma and Actions

    • Limited Influence: While the government funds the ISCA and the Congress, it has no direct role in the event’s organization, leading to challenges in addressing controversies.
    • Scaling Down Involvement: The government has reduced its involvement, such as no longer presenting awards at the inaugural session and limiting stage sharing with the PM.

    Future of the Indian Science Congress

    • Potential for Resumption: ISCA general secretary Ranjit Kumar Verma expressed hope for organizing the congress before March 31, with possible attendance by the Prime Minister.
    • Continued Government Support: A government official indicated that financial support for future events might resume, despite disagreements over this year’s funding.

    Way Forward

    • Alternative Scientific Forums: Scientists suggest creating alternative forums to discuss the latest scientific developments and foster scientific temper, similar to events in other countries.
    • Enhancing Indian Science: Such forums could increase the competitiveness of Indian science and encourage collaborative research with leading global institutions.

    Conclusion

    • Assessing the Impact: The postponement of the Indian Science Congress reflects broader issues in India’s scientific community and the need for reform.
    • Opportunity for Revitalization: This situation presents an opportunity to revitalize scientific discourse in India, potentially leading to more impactful and globally recognized scientific forums.

  • Akash Missile System: India’s Iron Dome

    akash missile

    Central Idea

    • India demonstrated the firepower of its Akash surface-to-air (SAM) weapon system, where a single firing unit simultaneously engaged and destroyed four unmanned targets during the recent Exercise Astrashakti 2023.
    • Countries like Armenia, Brazil, and Egypt have shown interest in acquiring the Akash SAM.

    About Akash Missile System

    Details
    Development and Production Developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), produced by Bharat Dynamics Ltd (BDL).
    Type Short-range Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM).
    Engagement Capacity Engages four aerial targets simultaneously at a range of 25 km from a single firing unit.
    Target Engagement Capable of targeting multiple threats concurrently in group or autonomous modes.
    Electronic Counter-Counter Measures (ECCM) Equipped to counter enemy jamming and evasion tactics.
    Mobility and Agility Configured on mobile platforms for rapid deployment and relocation.
    Operational Use In service with the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force (IAF).
    Range and Altitude Effective range of 4.5 km to 25 km, with an altitude range of 100 meters to 20 km.
    Physical Dimensions Length: 5,870 mm; Diameter: 350 mm; Weight: 710 kg.
    Automation and Response Fully automated with quick response from target detection to neutralization.
    System Architecture Open-system architecture for adaptability to current and future air defense environments.

    Comparison with Israel’s Iron Dome

    • Interception Capabilities: Akash is often compared to Israel’s Iron Dome due to its ability to intercept UAVs, smaller projectiles, helicopters, and aircraft.
    • Defensive Role: While similar to the Iron Dome, Akash is primarily designed for defense against larger aerial threats like aircraft, rather than small rockets.

  • India’s Transition in Slum Definitions

    slum

    Central Idea

    • Research Citation: Nipesh Narayanan’s research, published in the Economic & Political Weekly on October 21, 2023, delves into the changing conceptualization of slums in Indian parliamentary debates from 1953 to 2014.
    • Policy on Slums: These shifting narratives have significantly influenced government policies and approaches towards slums.

    Evolution of Discourses on Slums

    • Parliamentary Debates Analysis: Narayanan analyzed 1,228 debates in the Rajya Sabha and various policy documents, including Five-Year Plans, to trace the evolution of discourses surrounding slums.
    • Dynamic Definitions: The study highlights the fluid nature of slum definitions and the tendency to overlook urban disparity as a causal factor in slum formation.

    Eras of Changing Perspectives

    1. 1950s-1960s: Initially, slums were seen as a by-product of partition and rapid urbanization. The focus was on eradication due to health concerns and spatial constraints, side-lining socio-economic factors like migration. The Slum Areas Act of 1956 marked a significant shift, allowing government intervention in slum areas.
    2. Early 1970s-Mid-1980s: The narrative shifted to viewing slums as necessary evils requiring development rather than eradication. Town planning emerged as a key tool, pushing slums to city peripheries and prioritizing basic amenities over demolition.
    3. Mid-1980s-Late 1990s: With the National Commission on Urbanisation’s report in 1985, cities and slums began to be seen as economic assets. This era saw a focus on housing policies and infrastructure development, with economic reasoning driving interventions.
    4. 2000s-2014: The 2001 Census provided comprehensive data on slums, leading to targeted schemes. Slums transitioned from social concerns to technical, economic objects. The focus was on upgradation strategies, legal rights, and property rights for slum dwellers.

    Slum Formation and Government Response

    • Causality and Complexity: The research identifies urban planning issues, population growth, land pressure, and housing affordability as key factors in slum formation.
    • Government Role: The Union government’s role shifted to funding State governments for urban improvement, with a focus on data-driven policies.

    Technocratic Solutions and Challenges

    • Technological Reliance: The increasing dependence on technological solutions for urban issues is evident in current government policies.
    • Critical Examination: The article warns against using slums merely as a tool for anti-poverty policies and emphasizes understanding slum formation beyond numerical data.

    Conclusion

    • Historical Insights: Narayanan’s analysis provides valuable insights into the historical shifts in government perceptions and actions towards slums.
    • Significance for Urban Studies: This research contributes significantly to the understanding of urban dynamics, socio-economic inequalities, and the complexities of slum life in India.

  • Nationwide Transportation Strike: Protests against Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita

    Strike

    Central Idea

    • The nationwide transportation strike entered its second day, causing huge disruptions across the country.
    • The strike, involving truck, bus, and tanker drivers, is a protest against stringent regulations under the Bharatiya Nyay Sanhita (BNS) for hit-and-run cases.

    Background of the Strike: BNS Provisions

    • Implementation of BNS: The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, which introduces tougher penalties for hit-and-run cases, has not yet been implemented.
    • Comparison with IPC: The new law replaces Section 304A of the Indian Penal Code, which had a lesser punishment for causing death by negligence.
    • Section 106 Controversy: Transporters are protesting Section 106 of the BNS, which increases punishment for rash and negligent driving to a maximum of 10 years.
    • Section 106(1) and 106(2): These sections provide for punishments in hit-and-run cases, with Section 106(1) offering a lesser sentence for those who report accidents.
    • Abiding to Supreme Court Observations: The increase in sentence duration to 10 years is based on the Supreme Court’s recommendations for stricter actions against reckless drivers who flee accident scenes.

    Protesters’ Concerns and Demands

    • Fear of Unjust Punishments: Transport operators argue that the new law could lead to unfair punishments and expose drivers to mob violence.
    • Lack of Stakeholder Consultation: There is a sentiment that the law was passed without adequate discussion with relevant stakeholders.
    • Skepticism about Government Promises: All India Motor Transport Congress expressed doubts about the government’s assurances, predicting fuel shortages and driver protests.

    Impact of the Strike

    • Widespread Disruptions: The strike has significantly impacted transportation, especially in northern states like Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, and others, as well as West Bengal, Odisha, and southern states.
    • Fuel Shortages: Long queues at petrol pumps have been reported, indicating a hit to fuel supply.

    Conclusion

    • Continued Protests: Despite some transport bodies calling off the strike, others continue to protest, affecting transportation and fuel supply.
    • Need for Dialogue: The situation underscores the need for further dialogue between the government and transport stakeholders to address concerns and find a resolution.

  • Sarna Religion and its Forest Conservation Rituals

    Sarna Religion

    Central Idea

    • A study at IIT Indore on tribal culture, forest conservation, and wildfire in central India sheds light on the Sarna religion’s tenets.

    About Sarna Religion

    Details
    Nature of Faith Indigenous religious faith predominantly followed in the Chota Nagpur Plateau region.
    Geographical Spread Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and smaller numbers in Assam, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh.
    Central Belief Reverence of Sarna, the sacred groves, and worship of a village deity (Gram deoti, Dharmes, Marang Buru, etc.)
    Etymology ‘Sarna’ means ‘grove’, related to the sal tree.
    Theology Worship of village deities and the mother goddess identified as the earth or nature.
    Sacred Grooves Patches of forest considered sacred, such as sal, mahua, neem, and banyan trees.

    No harm allowed to these areas.
    Practices Rituals performed in sacred groves involving village priests; worship of ancestors.
    Main Festival Sarhul: Celebrating nature and ancestors, offerings made to sacred trees like sal.

    Karam: Worship of the sacred karam tree, focusing on crop enrichment and preservation of biodiversity.

    Faggu: Gathering of dry wood and leaves from forests, reducing fuel load and lowering wildfire risks.
    Tribes Following Followed by various tribes including Santal, Oraon, Ho, Munda, Bhumij, and others.
    2011 Census Counted 4,957,467 followers in India, primarily in eastern states.
    Sarna Code Resolution (2020) Jharkhand assembly passed a resolution for the inclusion of Sarna as a separate religion in the census.
    Impact of Colonialism Historical conflict due to Western missionary activities in tribal areas.

  • Kyrgyzstan declares Snow Leopard as National Symbol

    Snow Leopard

    Central Idea

    • Kyrgyzstan, a Central Asian country, has declared the snow leopard as its national symbol.

    About Snow Leopard

    Details
    Habitat Mountainous regions of Central and Southern Asia; in India: western and eastern Himalayas.
    Indian Geographical Range Western Himalayas (J&K, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand) and Eastern Himalayas (Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh).
    Project Snow Leopard (2009) Aims to strengthen wildlife conservation in the Himalayan high altitudes, involving local communities.
    Conservation Status IUCN Red List: Vulnerable

    CITES: Appendix I

    Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (India): Schedule I
    India’s Conservation Efforts Flagship species for high altitude Himalayas.

    Part of GSLEP Programme since 2013.

    Himalaya Sanrakshak community programme (2020).

    National Protocol on Snow Leopard Population Assessment (2019)

    SECURE Himalaya project (GEF-UNDP funded).

    Listed in 21 critically endangered species for recovery by MoEF&CC.

    Conservation breeding at Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park.
    GSLEP Programme Inter-governmental alliance of 12 snow leopard countries (India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Mongolia, Russia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan), focusing on ecosystem value awareness.
    Living Himalaya Network Initiative WWF’s initiative across Bhutan, India (North-East), and Nepal for conservation impact in the Eastern Himalayas.

    Significance of the Snow Leopard

    • The snow leopard symbolizes the health and stability of mountain ecosystems, which cover a significant portion of the global territory.
    • The snow leopard has been a totem animal in ancient Kyrgyz culture, associated with the legendary figure Manas.
    • The harmony between humans and nature, symbolized by the snow leopard, is portrayed in Chyngyz Aitmatov’s novel “When Mountains Fall.”