💥UPSC 2026, 2027 UAP Mentorship September Batch
July 2025
M T W T F S S
 123456
78910111213
14151617181920
21222324252627
28293031  

Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

Why in the News?

The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) negotiations are facing a credibility crisis, as years of underperformance, weak accountability, and neglect of developing countries’ concerns have created growing frustration.

About the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):

  • Overview: The UNFCCC is an international treaty adopted at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to address climate change by stabilizing greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere.
  • Entry into Force: The Convention entered into force on 21 March 1994 and currently has 197 Parties, including all UN member states.
  • Governing Body – COP: The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the supreme decision-making body under the UNFCCC, which meets annually to assess progress and set new targets.
  • Consensus-Based Process: The Convention operates on the principle of consensus, meaning all Parties must agree for a decision to be adopted.
  • Article 2 Objective: The objective of the UNFCCC, as per Article 2, is to stabilize GHG levels at a point that prevents dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
  • Key Agreements: The UNFCCC framework led to major global climate agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015).
  • Institutional Structure: It has three main institutional bodies:
    1. SBSTA: Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice
    2. SBI: Subsidiary Body for Implementation
    3. UNFCCC Secretariat: Headquartered in Bonn, Germany
  • Party Classifications:
    • Annex I: Developed countries (OECD + Economies in Transition); Obligated to reduce GHG emissions and submit regular reports.
    • Annex II: Subset of Annex I (OECD members); Required to provide financial and technological support to developing countries.
    • Non-Annex I: Developing countries; No binding emission targets but eligible for support and encouraged to act voluntarily.
    • LDCs (Least Developed Countries): Low-income, highly vulnerable nations; Receive priority support under UNFCCC for adaptation and capacity building.

India and the UNFCCC:

  • Ratification: India ratified the UNFCCC in 1993 and has participated actively in all COP meetings since then.
  • Party Classification: India is classified as a Non- Annex I Party, meaning it has no binding emission reduction targets under the Convention.
  • Paris Agreement Commitments: Under the Paris Agreement (2015), India submitted Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), including:
    • Reducing emissions intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 from 2005 levels
    • Achieving 50% cumulative electric power capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030
  • Climate Diplomacy:
    • India advocates the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR–RC) in all negotiations.
    • India co-founded the International Solar Alliance (ISA) and launched the LiFE Movement (Lifestyle for Environment) to promote sustainable lifestyles.
    • India has opposed unilateral trade measures such as the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) at multiple climate forums.

Issues with the UNFCCC Process:

  • Weak Enforcement: The process lacks enforcement mechanisms; countries that fail to meet commitments face no penalties.
  • Consensus Delays: The consensus-based approach often leads to delays and diluted agreements due to the ability of a few nations to block progress.
  • Unmet Commitments: Developed countries have not fulfilled the promised $100 billion per year in climate finance, which was due by 2020.
  • Neglected Developing Country Needs: Critical needs for adaptation finance, capacity building, and technology transfer remain largely unmet for developing nations.
  • Controversial Host Nations: The selection of host countries (e.g., UAE for COP28 and Azerbaijan for COP29) has drawn criticism due to their fossil fuel dependence.
  • Demand for Reforms: At the Bonn Climate Conference (2024), developing countries called for reforms such as:
    • Shifting to majority-based decision-making
    • Imposing limits on fossil fuel industry participation in climate talks
[UPSC 2016] With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.

2. The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.

3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanisms (CBAM)

Why in the News?

BRICS group has condemned and rejected the European Union’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) and other similar climate-linked trade measures.

What Is the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)?

  • Overview: It is a climate-related import duty imposed by the European Union on goods whose production involves higher carbon emissions than what is permitted in the EU.
  • Policy Framework: CBAM is part of the EU’s “Fit for 55” climate package, aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels.
  • Scope of Coverage: The policy requires importers to declare the volume and embedded carbon emissions of certain goods, such as steel, aluminium, cement, fertiliser, hydrogen, and electricity.
  • Compliance Mechanism: To offset these emissions, EU importers must surrender CBAM certificates, priced based on the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS).
  • Carbon Price Adjustment: If a non-EU producer has already paid a carbon price in their country, that amount can be deducted from the CBAM charge.
  • Implementation Timeline: The transitional phase of CBAM is underway from 2023 to 2025, and the definitive regime begins on January 1, 2026.

Issues with CBAM:

  • Trade Discrimination Concerns: Developing countries, including India and China, argue that CBAM imposes unilateral, punitive, and discriminatory trade restrictions under the guise of environmental protection.
  • Violation of Climate Agreements: It is viewed as a violation of Paris Agreement, which upholds the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.
  • Neglect of Historical Emissions: Countries in the Global South contend that climate-related trade tools like CBAM ignore historical emissions and disproportionately impact countries still reliant on carbon-intensive development.

Implications of CBAM for India:

  • Impact on Exports: Indian exports, particularly in iron, steel, aluminium, and cement, will face additional scrutiny and carbon charges under CBAM, reducing their competitiveness.
  • Carbon Taxation Timeline: From January 1, 2026, carbon taxes will be levied on each shipment to the EU in specific sectors, ranging from 19.8% to 52.7% in potential carbon levies.
  • High Carbon Intensity Risk: India’s high carbon intensity, primarily due to its 75% dependence on coal, makes its products more vulnerable to CBAM tariffs.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

Statement-I: Carbon markets are likely to be one of the most widespread tools in the fight against climate change.

Statement-II: Carbon markets transfer resources from the private sector to the State.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I ** (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Coal and Mining Sector

[pib] Aspirational District Mineral Foundation (DMF) Programme

Why in the News?

The Union Coal and Mines Minister launched operational guidelines for the Aspirational DMF Programme to align DMF initiatives with the goals of the Aspirational District and Block Programmes.

Back2Basics: District Mineral Foundation (DMF)

  • Establishment: DMF is a non-profit trust established under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2015.
  • Main Objective: Its primary purpose is to work in the interest of persons and areas affected by mining-related operations, as determined by the respective state governments.
  • Funding Source: It is funded through contributions made by holders of mining leases for major and minor minerals, with the exact amount prescribed by central or state government rules.
  • Governance: The operation, governance, and functioning of the DMF fall under the jurisdiction of the state government, which defines its composition and implementation mechanisms.
  • Decentralized Utilization: DMF funds are collected and utilized at the district level, enabling decentralized and locally relevant developmental interventions.

What is the Aspirational DMF Programme?

  • Launch: It was launched by the Ministry of Coal and Mines to align DMF planning and implementation with national development priorities.
  • Convergence with National Programs: It seeks to converge DMF activities with the Aspirational District Programme (ADP) and Aspirational Block Programme (ABP) for maximum social impact.
  • Operational Framework: It ensures that DMF funds are used to improve socio-economic indicators in the most underserved districts and blocks.
  • Collaboration: The programme encourages collaboration among central, state, and local authorities, improving the effectiveness and accountability of DMF investments.

Back2Basics: Aspirational District/Block Programme

Aspirational District Programme (ADP):

  • Launch: It was launched in January 2018 by the Government of India to uplift 117 underdeveloped districts across the country.
  • Key Principles: It is based on the principles of Convergence, Collaboration, and Competition, aiming to transform districts through coordinated efforts.
  • Positive Labeling: The word “Aspirational” was deliberately chosen to avoid labels like “backward” and to promote positive transformation and development-oriented thinking.
  • Selection Criteria: Districts were selected by NITI Aayog using a composite index based on 49 indicators across 5 sectors:
  1. Health and Nutrition (30%)
  2. Education (30%)
  3. Agriculture and Water Resources (20%)
  4. Financial Inclusion and Skill Development (10%)
  5. Basic Infrastructure (10%)
  • Real-Time Tracking: The ADP focuses on real-time data tracking, public disclosure of rankings, and building administrative capacity at the district level.
  • People’s Movement: The programme has become a Jan Andolan (people’s movement), actively involving citizens, NGOs, and local administration.

Aspirational Block Programme (ABP):

  • Overview: It was introduced in the Union Budget 2022–23 as an extension of the ADP to the block level.
  • Rural Focus: It is aimed at ensuring that development reaches deep into rural areas, particularly those not fully covered under ADP.
  • Coverage: Initially, the programme covers 500 blocks across 31 states and Union Territories, with room for states to expand the list.
  • Geographical Concentration: A significant number of these blocks are concentrated in six states:
    • Uttar Pradesh (68 blocks)
    • Bihar (61 blocks)
    • Madhya Pradesh (42 blocks)
    • Jharkhand (34 blocks)
    • Odisha (29 blocks)
    • West Bengal (29 blocks)
  • Focus Areas: It focuses on improving indicators similar to ADP, with emphasis on health, education, livelihoods, and basic infrastructure.
  • Collaborative Governance: Like ADP, it promotes convergence of schemes, competitive spirit among blocks, and collaborative governance at all levels.

 

[UPSC 2012] Which of the following can be said to be essentially the parts of ‘Inclusive Governance’?

1. Permitting the Non-Banking Financial Companies to do banking 2. Establishing effective District Planning Committees in all the districts 3. Increasing the government spending on public health 4. Strengthening the Mid-day Meal Scheme

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 only* (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS)

Why in the News?

Close to 600 tribal students from Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) have cleared IIT-JEE Mains, JEE Advanced, and NEET.

What are Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS)?

  • Overview: EMRS are a central government initiative launched in 1997–98 under the Ministry of Tribal Affairs to provide quality residential education to Scheduled Tribe (ST) students.
  • Core Objective: To ensure access to free, holistic education for ST children from Class VI to XII, particularly in remote and tribal-dominated areas.
  • Bridging the Gap: These schools are intended to bring ST students at par with the general population by offering academic, cultural, and skill-based education.
  • Implementing Agency: The National Education Society for Tribal Students (NESTS), an autonomous body under the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, has been tasked with implementing and managing EMRS across the country.
  • Expansion Target: EMRS are being established in every block with more than 50 percent ST population and at least 20,000 tribal residents, with a target of setting up 728 schools by 2026.
  • Staff Recruitment: Recruitment for teaching and non-teaching positions in EMRS is centralized under NESTS, which aims to fill over 38,000 posts to strengthen institutional capacity.

Key Features of EMRS:

  • Residential Setup: EMRS schools are fully residential and co-educational, catering to students from Class VI to Class XII with free education, boarding, and lodging.
  • Student Capacity: Each EMRS school can accommodate 480 students, with equal representation of boys and girls.
  • CBSE Affiliation: The schools follow the CBSE curriculum to maintain consistency with national education standards and facilitate competitive academic performance.
  • Infrastructure: Infrastructure includes classrooms, science and computer laboratories, libraries, hostels for boys and girls, staff quarters, and sports facilities.
  • Cultural Preservation: EMRS institutions are designed not only for academic excellence but also to preserve and promote tribal culture, local art, and languages.
  • Skill and Sports Focus: Special emphasis is placed on skill development and sports training, with 20% seats reserved under the sports quota for deserving ST students.
  • Inclusive Policy: Up to 10% of total seats in each school can be allotted to non-ST students, enhancing diversity while maintaining tribal focus.
  • Free Services: Education, food, accommodation, and all related services are provided free of cost to ensure no economic barrier for tribal children.

Also in news: TALASH (Tribal Aptitude, Life Skills and Self-Esteem Hub) Initiative:

  • NESTS and UNICEF India have launched the TALASH Initiative, focusing on the holistic development of tribal students in EMRSs.
  • It promotes self-awareness, emotional resilience, life skills, and career clarity, aligning with NEP 2020 goals.
  • It includes psychometric tests (inspired by NCERT’s Tamanna), career cards, life skills modules, and e-learning for teachers.
  • Over 1.38 lakh students across 28 States and 8 UTs will benefit, with full EMRS coverage targeted by 2025.
[UPSC 2012] Which of the following provisions of the Constitution of India have a bearing on Education?

1. Directive Principles of State Policy

2. Rural and Urban Local Bodies

3. Fifth Schedule

4. Sixth Schedule

5. Seventh Schedule

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3, 4 and 5 only (c) 1, 2 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5*

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Roads, Highways, Cargo, Air-Cargo and Logistics infrastructure – Bharatmala, LEEP, SetuBharatam, etc.

High Security Registration Plates (HSRPs)

Why in the News?

Maharashtra’s transport department has now made HSRP number plate mandatory with a final deadline set for 15 August.

What is a High-Security Registration Plate (HSRP)?  

  • About: It is a standardised, tamper-proof vehicle number plate mandated for all vehicles in India.
  • Launch: It was officially introduced in 2001 under Rule 50 of the Central Motor Vehicle Rules (CMVR), 1989, and later made mandatory by the Supreme Court in 2012.
  • Composition: The plate is made of aluminium and includes several embedded security features to prevent counterfeiting and enhance traceability.
  • Key Features:
    • Each HSRP is fitted with a non-removable snap lock that prevents tampering or re-use.
    • The plate contains a laser-etched 10-digit unique identification number, linking it to the vehicle’s registration details.
    • A chromium-based hologram of the Ashoka Chakra is embedded to authenticate the plate and prevent duplication.
    • A retro-reflective film improves night-time visibility and supports automated detection systems.
    • A colour-coded third registration sticker is affixed to the vehicle’s windshield displaying key information like engine number, chassis number, and registration number.
    • The plate is embedded with RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) technology, allowing authorities to digitally track the vehicle for enforcement and traffic management purposes.

Compliance and Enforcement in India:

  • HSRPs are mandatory for all vehicles registered after April 1, 2019, as per Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) guidelines.
  • Vehicles registered before April 1, 2019 must retrofitted with HSRPs by deadlines set by respective state governments.
  • The Supreme Court and Ministry of Road Transport have directed states to enforce HSRP installation strictly to enhance road safety and curb vehicle-related crimes.
  • In case of non-compliance, vehicle owners are liable for a fine of ₹1,000 under Rule 50 of CMVR and Section 177 of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.
  • Transport departments across states, including Maharashtra, are conducting daily enforcement drives, issuing challans and directing retrofitting at authorised centres.
  • Several states have authorised zone-wise vendors to streamline installation, and vehicle owners must pre-book appointments online for HSRP fitting.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Electoral Reforms In India

[9th July 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The dark signs of restricted or selective franchise

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2024] Examine the need for electoral reforms as suggest ed by various committees with particular reference to “one na tion-one election” principle.

Linkage: The article talks about the “Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar,” initiated on June 24, 2025, after a gap of over 20 years. This SIR is described as a “complete reconstruction of the electoral rolls” based on document submission which is directly related electoral reforms given in question.  

 

Mentor’s Comment:  The Election Commission of India (ECI) has launched a Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of the electoral rolls in Bihar, just months before the upcoming State Assembly elections in 2025. The process has drawn widespread criticism for being sudden, opaque, and document-heavy, potentially disenfranchising lakhs of eligible voters, particularly migrants, Muslims, and the poor. It is now being challenged in the Supreme Court for violating fundamental rights such as the right to vote, equality, and dignity. The issue has national implications, as similar exercises are reportedly planned in other states.

Today’s editorial analyses the issues related to Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of the electoral rolls in Bihar. This topic is important for  GS Paper II (Polity and Governance) in the UPSC mains exam.

_

Let’s learn!

Why in the News?

Recently, the Election Commission of India (ECI) started a Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of the voter list in Bihar, just a few months before the 2025 State Assembly elections.

What is Special Intensive Revision (SIR)?

Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a process carried out by the Election Commission of India (ECI) to update and verify the electoral rolls (voter lists) more thoroughly than usual.

Key Features of SIR:

  • Not a routine update: Unlike regular annual revisions, SIR involves a more detailed and document-heavy verification process.
  • Document verification: Voters are required to submit proof of citizenship (like birth certificates, land documents, or school records), especially if they are not listed in older rolls (e.g., from 2003).
  • Purpose: Officially, it aims to: Remove duplicate or deceased voters, Identify ineligible entries, and Add newly eligible voters.

Why is the Bihar Special Intensive Revision (SIR) seen as a threat to electoral democracy?

  • Sudden and Opaque Implementation: The SIR was launched abruptly in June 2025 with minimal public awareness and a tight deadline of July 31, offering little time for a state with high migration and low documentation. Eg: Migrants working outside Bihar during monsoon may be excluded due to inability to submit documents on time.
  • Document-Heavy Verification Process: Common documents like Aadhaar or voter ID are not accepted. Instead, hard-to-obtain papers like birth certificates, land records, or matriculation certificates are required, placing a disproportionate burden on poor, rural populations.  
  • Creation of a Two-Tier Citizenship: The process presumes voters not on the 2003 rolls are “suspect” citizens until proven otherwise, undermining the principle of universal adult franchise and equal voting rights. Eg: Like in Assam’s NRC, the burden of proof shifts to individuals, potentially creating a permanent class of disenfranchised citizens.
  • Violation of Natural Justice: Requiring voters to prove citizenship reverses the principle of “innocent until proven guilty” and treats individuals as suspect citizens unless they can prove otherwise. Eg: In the Bihar SIR process, those not on the 2003 voter list must submit rarely available documents like birth certificates or land records, making many vulnerable to arbitrary exclusion.

How does the Bihar SIR compare with Assam’s NRC exercise?

Aspect Bihar SIR (2025) Assam NRC (2013–2019)
1. Suddenness vs. Supervised Process Launched suddenly with only one-month deadline, causing logistical challenges. Conducted over six years, supervised by Supreme Court, with phased rollout.
2. Legal Oversight No direct judicial monitoring; raises concerns about transparency and accountability. Directly monitored by the Supreme Court, ensuring legal safeguards.
3. Scale and Timeframe Targets 50 million voters in just one monsoon month, with floods and migration. Covered 33 million applicants in multiple phases over years.
4. Document Requirements Demands rare documents (birth/matriculation/land records); common IDs not accepted. Required legacy documents, but provided assistance centres and lists.
5. Purpose and Outcome Ostensibly for voter list update, but risks becoming a citizenship test, causing mass disenfranchisement. Explicitly aimed at identifying illegal immigrants; excluded 19 lakh people.

What constitutional principles are at stake in the current voter verification drive?

  • Universal Adult Franchise: Article 326 guarantees every Indian citizen above 18 the right to vote without discrimination. The demand for rare documents like land titles or educational certificates risks excluding poor and illiterate citizens.
  • Equality Before Law (Article 14): The selective burden of proof imposed on new or undocumented voters violates the principle of equal treatment. It creates two classes of citizens — one presumed to be voters and another forced to prove eligibility.
  • Presumption of Innocence (Principle of Natural Justice): The shift of burden from the state to the citizen undermines the principle that individuals are “innocent until proven guilty.”

Who are the vulnerable groups most affected by the SIR process?

  • Migrant Workers: The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) disproportionately affects migrant workers who are often away from their home constituencies during the verification period, especially in July, a peak seasonal migration month.
  • Poor and Illiterate Citizens: Those from economically weaker sections, particularly in rural areas, often lack the official documents such as birth certificates, matriculation degrees, or land records now required for voter verification. Their reliance on documents like Aadhaar, ration cards, or job cards, which the ECI currently does not accept, puts them at risk of disenfranchisement.
  • Women (especially Elderly or Homemakers): Many women, especially widows, elderly, or those confined to domestic roles, are not listed on ownership documents and may lack the required identity proofs.
  • Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (SCs/STs): Historically marginalised communities such as SCs and STs face greater hurdles due to their geographic isolation, poor access to services, and lower literacy levels, making it harder to furnish the required documentation to prove citizenship or residence.
  • Urban Slum Dwellers and Informal Settlers: Migrants living in slums or unauthorised colonies in cities often lack registered addresses, utility bills, or tenancy documents. This makes it difficult to verify their voter eligibility either in their native village or in the urban location, risking double exclusion from electoral rolls.

Way forward: 

  • Ensure Inclusive and Transparent Voter Verification Process: Extend the verification timeline, especially in high-migration and flood-prone regions like Bihar. Accept commonly held identity documents such as Aadhaar, voter ID, and ration cards as valid proof. This would reduce arbitrary exclusions and uphold the principle of universal franchise.
  • Protect Vulnerable Groups through Targeted Support: Launch doorstep assistance, mobile camps, and helplines in rural, tribal, and urban slum areas to help citizens gather documents and complete verification. Special provisions should be made for migrants, women, SC/STs, and informal workers, ensuring no one is disenfranchised due to procedural hurdles.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Promoting Science and Technology – Missions,Policies & Schemes

Quick fix: On India’s Research Development and Innovation scheme

Why in the News?

The Union Cabinet has recently approved a ₹1-lakh crore Research Development and Innovation (RDI) scheme to encourage private companies to invest more in basic scientific research.

What are the aims and design of the ₹1-lakh crore RDI scheme?

  • Promote Private Investment in Basic Research: The scheme aims to shift the R&D funding balance by incentivising the private sector to invest in foundational scientific research, reversing the current trend where the government contributes around 70% of total R&D spending.
  • Special Purpose Fund under ANRF: A dedicated fund will be set up within the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF), which will act as a custodian of ₹1-lakh crore and offer low-interest loans to eligible research projects.
  • Single-Window Clearance Mechanism: ANRF is designed as an independent institutional body with oversight from the Ministry of Science, providing a streamlined funding mechanism for universities and research institutions.
  • Targeting Mid-Stage Innovations (TRL-4 and Above): The scheme prioritises projects at Technology Readiness Level 4 or above, focusing on research that has demonstrated lab-scale feasibility and market potential, rather than early-stage, high-risk science.

Why is ANRF’s role in research funding considered innovative?

  • Single-Window Clearance for R&D Funding: The Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) offers a unified platform to fund research across academic and industrial institutions, reducing bureaucratic delays. Eg: Instead of applying to multiple agencies like DST, DBT, and CSIR, universities can now approach ANRF for consolidated support.
  • Private Sector Integration in Basic Research: ANRF aims to source 70% of its budget from private players, incentivising corporate investment in long-term, foundational science rather than only market-ready products. Eg: Tech companies can fund AI or clean energy research at IITs through ANRF, blending commercial interest with academic innovation.
  • Bridging Academic-Industry Gaps: By acting as a funding bridge between universities, startups, and industries, ANRF fosters collaboration that accelerates the conversion of research into scalable solutions. Eg: A university developing a green hydrogen prototype can partner with a renewable energy firm under ANRFguidance and funding.

How does the TRL-4 condition affect R&D inclusivity?

  • Excludes Early-Stage Fundamental Research: The requirement of Technology Readiness Level-4 (TRL-4) support means only projects with demonstrated application potential are eligible. This excludes TRL-1 to TRL-3 projects, which involve basic, foundational research. Eg: A university lab studying the quantum behaviour of materials may be denied funding despite its long-term potential.
  • Narrows Innovation Pipeline: Focusing only on mid-to-late stage research limits the scope for high-risk, high-reward innovation, which often begins at lower TRLs. This curbs diverse and disruptive innovations from entering the ecosystem. Eg: Internet and GPS started as risky low-TRL military projects—India might miss such breakthroughs by ignoring early research.

What global lessons can India adopt to boost core innovation?

  • Invest in Early-Stage Research through Public Funding: Countries like the United States and Germany fund basic science heavily through institutions like the NSF and Max Planck Society, recognising that core innovation often starts at low Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs). Eg: The U.S. government’s early funding of ARPANET (precursor to the Internet) shows how foundational research can lead to transformative technologies.
  • Link Academia, Industry, and Government: Nations such as South Korea and Israel foster strong collaboration between universities, industries, and the state to accelerate innovation from lab to market. Eg: South Korea’s “Innovation Clusters” connect academic research with industrial application, leading to global tech giants like Samsung.

Why does brain drain persist despite new research schemes?

  • Limited Research Infrastructure and Bureaucracy: Many Indian institutions lack state-of-the-art labs, smooth funding access, and administrative efficiency, discouraging cutting-edge work. Eg: A 2023 study by IISc found that over 40% of PhD graduates in STEM preferred postdoctoral positions abroad due to better facilities and research environments.
  • Lack of Competitive Salaries and Academic Freedom: Indian researchers often face lower salaries, rigid hierarchies, and limited autonomy compared to global peers. Eg: According to a DST report, Indian scientists earn 3–4 times less than those in OECD nations, prompting talent to settle in countries like the US and Germany.
  • Weak Industry-Academia Collaboration: Private sector investment in R&D is low, leading to few applied research opportunities or innovation ecosystems. Eg: In South Korea, over 75% of R&D is industry-funded, whereas India’s share is just around 37%, limiting prospects for applied researchers.

Way forward: 

  • Strengthen Research Ecosystems and Autonomy: Invest in world-class infrastructure, streamline funding mechanisms, and provide greater academic freedom to scientists and institutions to pursue innovative research without bureaucratic hurdles.
  • Enhance Industry Collaboration and Incentives: Foster stronger industry-academia linkages by offering tax benefits, matching grants, and innovation clusters to attract private R&D investment and create lucrative opportunities for researchers in India.

Mains PYQ:

[UPSC 2024] What are the intellectual property rights with respect to life materials? Although, India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.

Linkage:  The article discusses the Union Cabinet’s approval of a ₹1-lakh crore Research Development and Innovation (RDI) scheme aimed at incentivizing the private sector to invest in basic research. This PYQ directly addresses the challenge of commercialization of patents in India, a critical bottleneck in the country’s innovation ecosystem that the implicitly highlights by article.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Minority Issues – SC, ST, Dalits, OBC, Reservations, etc.

Looking inward: Reservation in Supreme Court

Why in the News?

Recently, for the first time ever, the Supreme Court of India has introduced a reservation policy for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in hiring and promoting its non-judicial staff, such as assistants and attendants.

What is the importance of the Supreme Court’s internal reservation policy?

  • Bridges the Gap Between Principle and Practice: For decades, the Court had delivered landmark judgments on affirmative action, but hadn’t applied those standards to its own staff. Eg: Judgments like Indra Sawhney and M. Nagaraj shaped national reservation policy, but internal implementation lagged until the 2025 reform.
  • Promotes Social Inclusion Within the Judiciary: By providing 15% reservation for SCs and 7.5% for STs in administrative posts, the Court ensures better representation of marginalised communities within its own ecosystem. Eg: Of the 1,280 reserved posts, the majority are for junior assistants and attendants, opening real job opportunities for disadvantaged groups.

Why was the Court late in applying affirmative action to its staff?

  • Lack of Leadership Will: The implementation was delayed due to the absence of decisive leadership within the Court to prioritise internal reforms. Eg: It took Chief Justice B.R. Gavai, the second Dalit CJI in the Court’s history, to initiate the reform in 2025, showing how transformational leadership can overcome systemic inertia.
  • Contradiction Between Principle and Practice:  Despite supporting reservations through judgments like Indra Sawhney and M. Nagaraj, the Court did not extend similar benefits to its own non-judicial staff until now.
  • Institutional Inertia and Exceptionalism: For nearly three decades since R.K. Sabharwal v State of Punjab (1995), the Court’s inaction on internal reservations reflected a reluctance to challenge status quo. Eg: While government departments and many High Courts had implemented SC/ST quotas, the Supreme Court remained an exception, showcasing negative exceptionalism despite advocating for equality externally.

How have previous rulings influenced India’s reservation system?

  • R.K. Sabharwal (1995): Shifted the system from vacancy-based to post-based rosters to prevent exceeding the 50% quota cap.
  • M. Nagaraj (2006): Upheld reservation in promotions but required data on backwardness and administrative efficiency.
  • Jarnail Singh (2018): Removed the need to prove backwardness again for SCs/STs already listed.
  • Davinder Singh (2024): Allowed sub-classification within SCs/STs, affirming substantive equality over formal equality.

Who led the push for reservation reform in the Supreme Court?

  • Chief Justice B.R. Gavai: Only the second Dalit CJI in history, he recognized the disconnect between the Court’s rulings and its internal practices and acted to correct it. Gavai also reportedly supports extending reservations to OBCs and other marginalized groups in the future.

What challenges lie ahead in expanding the reservation to other groups?

  • Legal Ambiguity: Extension of reservations to OBCs, PwDs, and others lacks clear policy frameworks and quota specifications. Eg: The July 2025 Gazette mentions new categories but no defined implementation.
  • Institutional Inertia: Bureaucratic delays and reluctance to change slow down the adoption of new reservation measures. Eg: It took decades after R.K. Sabharwal (1995) to implement SC/ST reservations.
  • Balancing Equity and Efficiency: Concerns over merit and administrative efficiency may resist expansion of affirmative action. Eg: M. Nagaraj (2006) required data on backwardness and efficiency, which may be hard to apply internally.

Way forward: 

  • Institutionalise Inclusive Policies: Finalise and implement a comprehensive reservation framework within the Supreme Court, ensuring clarity, transparency, and consistency with government norms for SCs, STs, OBCs, PwDs, and other eligible groups.
  • Strengthen Monitoring and Accountability: Establish a diversity oversight mechanism within the judiciary to track representation, address grievances, and ensure timely implementation of reservation provisions.

Mains PYQ:

[UPSC 2024] Despite comprehensive policies for equity and social justice, underprivileged sections are not yet getting the full benefits of affirmative action envisaged by the Constitution. Comment.

Linkage: The concept of “affirmative action,” which is the foundation for reservation policies in India. The Supreme Court has been instrumental in shaping the contours of affirmative action through its landmark judgments over the years.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

PARAKH Survey reveals deficits in Student Learning

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Education recently released the PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan (RS) Report, an extensive nationwide student performance assessment for Grades 3, 6, and 9.

About PARAKH:

  • Full Form: PARAKH stands for Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development.
  • Establishment: It was established in 2023 as an autonomous institution under the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT).
  • Vision and Role: PARAKH functions as India’s national assessment regulator, aiming to standardize school-level assessments across states and boards.
  • Policy Alignment: The initiative is aligned with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, which promotes competency-based, equitable, and inclusive learning.
  • Core Objective: Its main objective is to develop norms, standards, and guidelines for assessing learning outcomes at the national level.
  • Key Functions:
    • Standardization of Boards: PARAKH seeks to ensure equivalence in academic standards across various state and central school boards.
    • Assessment Focus: It designs and implements competency-based assessments, moving away from rote learning.
    • Progress Tracking: The unit is responsible for developing Holistic Progress Cards across the Foundational, Preparatory, Middle, and Secondary stages.
    • Survey Execution: It conducts Large-Scale Achievement Surveys, such as the PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan (RS) (formerly known as the National Achievement Survey (NAS) launched in 2021) to track student learning outcomes at scale.

Key Highlights of the PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan (RS) Report – 2024:

  • Scale of the Survey: Assessed over 21.15 lakh students from Grades 3, 6, and 9, across 74,229 schools in 781 districts.
  • Top performers: Punjab, Kerala, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, and Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu; low-performing districts were concentrated in Meghalaya, Jharkhand, and Arunachal Pradesh.
    • In Grade 3, around 60–70% of students demonstrated basic reading, vocabulary, and early math skills, though many struggled with geometry and spatial reasoning.
    • In Grade 6, fewer than 40% could solve real-life arithmetic problems or understand fractions, indicating gaps in conceptual understanding and application.
    • In Grade 9, only 28–31% applied percentages or understood number systems; less than half grasped core civic and scientific concepts such as the Constitution, biodiversity, or electricity.
[UPSC 2017]  With reference to ‘National Skills Qualification Framework (NSQF)’, which of the statements given below is/are correct?

1. Under NSQF, a learner can acquire the certification for competency only through formal learning. 2. An outcome expected from the implementation of NSQF is the mobility between vocational and general education.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Rare Great Hornbill sighted in Kerala

Why in the News?

The Great Hornbill (Malamuzhakki Vezhambal)—Kerala’s State bird and a symbol of forest biodiversity—was spotted far outside its usual habitat.

Rare Great Hornbill sighted in Kerala

About the Great Hornbill (Malamuzhakki Vezhambal)

  • Overview: The Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) is the largest hornbill species found in India.
  • Attributes: It is known for its striking yellow casque on the upper mandible, which is hollow and used in vocalisation and courtship.
  • Official Recognition: It is the State Bird of Kerala (as well as Arunachal Pradesh) and is revered in many indigenous cultures for its majestic appearance.
  • Conservation Status: It is listed as Endangered by the IUCN and is protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
  • Habitat: It primarily inhabit evergreen and moist deciduous forests, especially in the Western Ghats, the Himalayan foothills, and Northeast India.
  • Prey Behaviour: They are frugivorous, feeding mainly on figs and other forest fruits, but they may occasionally consume small mammals, birds, and insects.
  • Ecological Significance:  They are known as ‘forest engineers’ or ‘farmers of the forest’, they play a key role in seed dispersal of tropical trees, indicating the health and balance of their forest ecosystems.
[UPSC 2016] In which of the following regions of India are you most likely to come across the ‘Great Indian Hornbill’ in its natural habitat? Options: (a) Sand deserts of northwest India (b) Higher Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir (c) Salt marshes of western Gujarat (d) Western Ghats *

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Foreign Policy Watch: Indo-Pacific and QUAD

Quad Critical Minerals Initiative 

Why in the News?

The Quad has launched the “Quad Critical Minerals Initiative” to secure critical mineral supplies, addressing concerns over China’s price manipulation and coercive practices.

What is the Quad Critical Minerals Initiative?

  • Launch: The Quad Critical Minerals Initiative was launched during the second Quad Foreign Ministers’ Meeting held in Washington, DC.
  • Participants: The meeting was attended by the foreign ministers of India, the United States, Australia, and Japan.
  • Aim: To strengthen cooperation among Quad nations on building secure and diversified critical mineral supply chains.
  • Strategic Objectives:
    • Reduced Dependency: It seeks to reduce reliance on any single country, particularly China, for the processing and refining of critical minerals.
    • Risk Mitigation: The Quad statement emphasized that overdependence exposes nations to economic coercion, price manipulation, and supply chain disruption.

Need for such Initiative:

  • Chinese Supremacy: China dominates global mineral processing, controlling over 90% of rare earth refining, and 50–70% of lithium and cobalt refining.
  • Reserves Leadership: China holds the largest rare earth reserves at 44 million metric tons, far ahead of countries like India (6.9 MMT) and Australia (5.7 MMT).
  • Strategic Investments Abroad: China has acquired key mining assets in Africa, securing access to cobalt, lithium, and other critical minerals.
  • Supply Chain Leverage: With its monopolistic control, China can stall the global EV, battery, and renewable energy sectors through export restrictions.

India’s Strategy on Critical Minerals:

A. National Critical Minerals Mission (NCMM)

  • Launch and Funding: India launched the National Critical Minerals Mission in January 2025, backed by an allocation of ₹16,300 crore.
  • Core Objective: The mission aims to achieve self-sufficiency in critical mineral extraction and processing, thereby reducing import dependency.
  • Minerals Identified: The Indian government has identified 30 critical minerals including lithium, cobalt, graphite, tin, nickel, and copper as vital for economic and energy security.
  • Exploration Strategy: The NCMM promotes intensive exploration within Indian territory and offshore, and pushes for a fast-tracked approval mechanism for mining projects.
  • Energy Transition Goal: The mission supports India’s Net Zero by 2070 goal by ensuring timely access to raw materials for clean energy systems.

B. International Cooperation – MSP and MSFN

  • MSP Membership: India joined the Minerals Security Partnership (MSP) in June 2023, a 14-member initiative led by the United States and supported by the European Union.
  • Investment Facilitation: The MSP seeks to catalyse public-private investments and build shared capabilities in mining, refining, and supply chain infrastructure.
  • Financial Network (MSFN): India is also part of the Minerals Security Finance Network (MSFN), which focuses on co-financing strategic critical mineral projects globally.
  • Sourcing Diversification: Through these platforms, India is expanding its cooperation with resource-rich countries like Mozambique, Madagascar, Brazil, and Tanzania.

Significance for India:

  • Continued Import Dependence: Despite ongoing efforts, India remains heavily dependent on China, particularly for graphite and rare earth elements.
  • Long Project Timelines: A 2024 IEEFA report estimates that domestic mining operations may take over a decade to start production.
  • Rising Demand Pressure: India’s demand for critical minerals is expected to more than double by 2030, necessitating rapid action on exploration and supply diversification.
  • Need for Strategic Tie-ups: To secure future needs, India must accelerate global partnerships and develop domestic value chains from mining to processing.
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

I. India has joined the Minerals Security Partnership as a member. II. India is a resource-rich country in all the 30 critical minerals that it has identified. III. The Parliament in 2023 has amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 empowering the Central Government to exclusively auction mining lease and composite license for certain critical minerals.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only* (d) I, II and III

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Coal and Mining Sector

RECLAIM Framework for Inclusive Mine Closure

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Coal has launched RECLAIM Framework— A Community Engagement and Development Framework for Mine Closure and Repurposing.

About the RECLAIM Framework:

  • Launch: The Ministry of Coal has launched the RECLAIM framework to guide inclusive and sustainable coal mine closures in India.
  • Developed By: The framework was developed by the Coal Controller Organisation in collaboration with the Heartfulness Institute.
  • Objective: It aims to ensure a just, inclusive, and locally relevant transition for communities affected by mine closures.
  • Inclusivity Measures: The framework places special emphasis on gender equity, the inclusion of vulnerable groups, and alignment with Panchayati Raj Institutions to enhance accountability and relevance.

Key Features of the Framework:

  • Guidelines: Mine closure guidelines were introduced in 2009 and revised in 2013 and 2020 to improve environmental safety and social accountability.
  • Community Engagement: The framework promotes community-centric planning by actively involving local stakeholders in mine closure processes.
  • Equity and Representation: It prioritizes the inclusion of women and marginalized groups to ensure that benefits are distributed equitably.
  • Institutional Convergence: RECLAIM aligns mine closure planning with existing institutional structures, especially Panchayati Raj Institutions and local governance systems.
  • Phased Implementation: The framework follows three phases:
    • Pre-Closure: Includes needs assessments and capacity building.
    • Closure: Involves participatory execution of closure plans.
    • Post-Closure: Focuses on monitoring, livelihood restoration, and asset repurposing.
  • Support Tools: RECLAIM is backed by field-tested tools, templates, and methodologies tailored to the Indian mining context.
  • Broader Impact: It supports the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and can be replicated in other resource-intensive sectors and states.

Challenges in Coal Mine Closure in India:

  • Policy–Practice Gap: Despite guidelines issued in 2009, only three coal mines have been formally closed as of 2024.
  • Low Compliance: Out of 299 non-operational coal mines, only eight have applied for formal closure, while the rest remain unscientifically abandoned.
  • Environmental Risks: Abandoned mines lead to methane emissions, ecological degradation, increased accident risks, and illegal mining.
  • Community Displacement: Unsustainable mining has caused unemployment and migration, reducing community engagement during closure planning.
  • Land Return Issues: India lacks a clear policy for returning post-mining land to original owners or communities.
  • Policy Gaps in Draft Bill: The 2024 Draft Coal Bearing Areas (CBA) Amendment Bill proposes land return but lacks clarity on enforcement mechanisms.
  • Financial Barriers: High escrow fund requirements—₹14 lakh per hectare for opencast mines—discourage mine operators from initiating closure processes.

 

[UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:

  1. The coal sector was nationalized by the Government of India under Indira Gandhi.
  2. Now, coal blocks are allocated on lottery basis.
  3. Till recently, India imported coal to meet the shortages of domestic supply, but now India is self-sufficient in coal production.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only  (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

125th Birth Anniversary of Syama Prasad Mookerjee

Why in the News?

Prime Minister Modi has paid respectful tributes to eminent thinker and educationist Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee on his 125th birth anniversary.

125th Birth Anniversary of Syama Prasad Mookerjee

About Syama Prasad Mookerjee (1901-1953):

  • Early life: He was born on July 6, 1901, in Kolkata, West Bengal.
  • Academics: He studied at Presidency College and the University of Calcutta, where he excelled academically.
  • Professional Career: He became a barrister after being called to the English Bar at Lincoln’s Inn, London. At the age of 33, he was appointed Vice-Chancellor of Calcutta University, one of the youngest to hold the post.
  • Association with Freedom Movement: He began his political journey with the Indian National Congress. Later, he joined the Hindu Mahasabha, becoming its president.
  • Demise: He died in 1953, while in custody in Jammu and Kashmir, under mysterious circumstances that remain controversial to this day.

His Contributions:

  • Role in Pre-Independence Politics:
    • He served as the Finance Minister of Bengal under British rule.
    • He resigned in 1942, protesting British policies during the Quit India Movement.
    • He became a strong voice against British repression and for Indian self-rule.
  • Advocacy for Partition of Bengal:
    • He advocated the partition of Bengal to safeguard Hindu interests during the run-up to Partition.
    • His efforts contributed to the creation of a separate West Bengal within the Indian Union.
  • Minister in Nehru’s Cabinet:
    • After independence, he served as India’s first Minister for Industry and Supply in Jawaharlal Nehru’s cabinet.
    • In 1950, he resigned from the cabinet in protest against the Nehru-Liaquat Pact.
    • He believed the pact failed to protect the Hindu minorities in East Bengal (now Bangladesh).
  • Founding of Bharatiya Jana Sangh (1951):
    • In 1951, Mookerjee founded the Bharatiya Jana Sangh with ideological support from the RSS.
    • The party aimed to present a nationalist alternative to the Congress Party.
  • Opposition to Article 370:
    • Mookerjee strongly opposed Article 370, which gave special status to Jammu and Kashmir.
    • He believed the article promoted separatism and weakened national integration.
    • He famously declared that- “One country cannot have two constitutions, two prime ministers, and two flags.”
  • Legacy:
    • Mookerjee’s thoughts continue to influence the ideological foundation and policies of the far right political parties.
    • He is remembered as a champion of national unity, constitutional equality, and strong central integration.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following pairs:

Party: Its Leader

1. Bharatiya Jana Sangh : Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee 2. Socialist Party : C. Rajagopalachari 3. Congress for Democracy : Jagjivan Ram 4. Swatantra Party : Acharya Narendra Dev How many of the above are correctly matched?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

Vera C Rubin Observatory 

Why in the News?

The Vera C. Rubin Observatory has recently begun a 10-year project to study dark matter and dark energy using a 3,200-megapixel camera (of the Simonyi Survey Telescope) from its site in the Chilean Andes.

Vera C Rubin Observatory 

About Vera C. Rubin Observatory:

  • Location: The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is situated on Cerro Pachón in the Chilean Andes, at an altitude of 8,684 feet.
  • Naming: It is named after Vera C. Rubin, the astronomer who first provided robust observational evidence for the existence of dark matter in the 1970s.
  • Survey Duration: The observatory will carry out a 10-year continuous survey of the entire southern sky.
  • Data Volume: It is designed to collect approximately 20 terabytes of astronomical data per night.
  • Observation System: The telescope operates using an automated scripting system that selects observation targets dynamically, rather than through manual scheduling.
  • Objectives: Its key goals include understanding the formation of galaxies, identifying a possible ninth planet, detecting potentially hazardous asteroids, and studying the nature of dark matter and dark energy.

Key Features:

  • Telescope Design: The observatory uses the Simonyi Survey Telescope, which features a three-mirror optical system for wide-field imaging.
  • How big is it: It has a field of view of 9.6 square degrees (compared to 0.04 sq. deg. for Hubble and 0.11 sq. deg. for James Webb), a 3,200-megapixel camera (vs. Hubble’s ~1.0 MP).
  • Field of View: It can capture a field of view equivalent to 40 full Moons in a single exposure — far wider than traditional space telescopes.
  • Spectral Filters: The camera includes six optical filters that capture data from across the electromagnetic spectrum, including ultraviolet and infrared light.
  • Slewing Speed: The telescope is the fastest-moving large telescope, capable of repositioning and stabilizing in just 5 seconds.
  • Imaging Frequency: It can take up to 1,000 images per night, allowing it to scan the entire sky every three nights.
  • Change Detection: Its automated software compares new and old images to detect changes, issuing up to 10 million alerts per night for transient astronomical events.

Breakthrough Discoveries:

  • First Light: The observatory released its first test images on June 23, 2025.
  • Initial Discoveries: Within 10 hours of collecting engineering data, it identified 2,104 new asteroids, including 7 near-Earth objects (NEOs).
  • Expected Discoveries: Over the full 10-year mission, it is projected to discover over 5 million asteroids and around 100,000 NEOs.
  • Impact on Database: These findings would triple the current global inventory of known asteroids.
  • Universe Mapping: The observatory will produce the most detailed map of the large-scale structure of the universe to date.
  • Dark Matter Study: The data will support analysis of dark matter, which constitutes 27% of the universe’s composition.
  • Dark Energy Study: It will also help scientists understand dark energy, which makes up 68% of the universe and drives cosmic expansion.
  • Visible Matter Context: Only 5% of the universe is composed of visible matter, making the observatory’s data essential to studying the remaining 95%.
[UPSC 2002] The world’s highest ground-based telescopic observatory is located in:

Options: (a) Colombia (b) India (c) Nepal (d) Switzerland

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Global Geological And Climatic Events

Indonesia’s Mount Lewotobi erupts

Why in the News?

Mount Lewotobi Laki Laki in eastern Indonesia has erupted violently, spreading ash up to 18 kilometers into the sky.

About Mount Lewotobi: Key Features

  • Overview: Mount Lewotobi is a twin volcano located in East Nusa Tenggara province, consisting of Lewotobi Laki Laki (“Male”) and Lewotobi Perempuan (“Female”).
  • Elevation and Activity: Lewotobi Laki Laki stands at 1,584 meters and is more frequently active. Lewotobi Perempuan is taller at 1,703 meters but less active historically.
  • Volcanic Type: Both mountains are stratovolcanoes, formed by successive layers of lava, ash, and volcanic debris.
  • Lava Domes: During the 20th century, both volcanoes developed small lava domes within their summit craters.
  • Magma Composition: The primary eruptive material from both volcanoes is andesite, a type of intermediate volcanic rock.
  • Tectonic Location: The volcanoes lie on the Pacific Ring of Fire, a seismically active belt known for frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Back2Basics: The Pacific Ring of Fire

  • Overview: The Pacific Ring of Fire is a 40,000-km-long horseshoe-shaped zone encircling much of the Pacific Ocean, known for intense geological activity.
  • Volcanic Density: This region contains around 75 percent of the world’s volcanoes—more than 450 in total.
  • Seismic Activity: Approximately 90 percent of the world’s earthquakes occur within this zone.
  • Geographic Spread: It extends from New Zealand through Indonesia, the Philippines, and Japan, across to the Aleutian Islands, and then down the western coasts of North and South America.
  • Tectonic Plates Involved: Several major tectonic plates intersect here, including the Pacific, Philippine, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Nazca, and North American plates.
  • Subduction Zones: Much of the Ring features subduction zones, where one tectonic plate slides beneath another, generating magma and leading to volcanic eruptions.
  • Plate Movement: The movement of these plates is slow—typically just one to two inches per year—but it results in significant geological events over time.

 

[UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian territory.

2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.

3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Mother and Child Health – Immunization Program, BPBB, PMJSY, PMMSY, etc.

[8th July 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Fostering a commitment to stop maternal deaths

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2020] In order to enhance the prospects of social development, sound and adequate health care policies are needed particularly in the fields of geriatric and maternal health care. Discuss.

Linkage: The article on maternal mortality highlights various deficiencies in healthcare delivery and infrastructure (e.g., lack of specialists, blood banks, operation theatres, and trained personnel) that contribute to maternal deaths, indicating the critical need for sound policies. This question is most directly relevant as it specifically names “maternal health care” as a crucial area for sound and adequate healthcare policies to enhance social development.

 

Mentor’s Comment:  Despite progress, India still loses 93 mothers for every 1,00,000 births due to problems that could be prevented during childbirth. Although the number has come down from 103 (2017–19) to 93 (2019–21), there are still huge differences between states. For example, Kerala has brought the number down to 20, but in states like Madhya Pradesh (175) and Assam (167), the numbers are very high.

Today’s editorial analyses the issues related to India’s Maternal Mortality Ratio. This topic is important for GS Paper I (Women-related Issues) and GS Paper II (Social Justice and Health) in the UPSC mains exam.

_

Let’s learn!

Why in the News?

India’s Maternal Mortality Ratio is going down, but some states still need to work on solving basic problems and improving their healthcare systems.

What do MMR trends reveal about regional disparities in India?

  • Declining National MMR: India’s MMR dropped from 103 (2017–19) to 93 (2019–21), showing slow but consistent improvement.
  • Kerala leads with an MMR of 20, indicating robust institutional care and maternal health awareness.
  • Southern States (like Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh) show better performance (MMR under 50–60), while EAG States such as Madhya Pradesh (175) and Assam (167) remain critical zones.
  • “Other” States: Maharashtra (38) and Gujarat (53) have made notable progress, while Punjab (98) and Haryana (106) still struggle.

 

Why is India’s Maternal Mortality Ratio still high despite better healthcare access?

  • Regional Disparities in Healthcare Infrastructure: MMR is significantly higher in Empowered Action Group (EAG) states like Assam (167) and Madhya Pradesh (175), compared to Kerala (20). Eg: States like Bihar and UP face shortages in skilled staff and poor facility access, despite national programmes.
  • Inadequate Functioning of FRUs (First Referral Units): Many FRUs lack specialists, blood banks, and operating theatres. Over 66% of specialist posts remain vacant. Eg: In 2,856 designated FRUs, many lack anaesthetists or functional surgical units, risking lives in emergencies.
  • Three Delays in Maternal Care: Delays in seeking care, reaching hospitals, and receiving treatment result in avoidable deaths.  

How are the three key delays contributing to maternal deaths?

  • Delay in Decision-Making at Home: Families often fail to recognise danger signs during pregnancy or childbirth and delay seeking medical help. Eg: A pregnant woman showing signs of excessive bleeding may not be taken to a hospital promptly due to family neglect, financial constraints, or the belief that delivery is natural.
  • Delay in Reaching a Healthcare Facility: Lack of timely transportation from remote or rural areas hinders access to skilled birth attendants or emergency care. Eg: A woman in a tribal village may take hours to reach a hospital due to poor roads or lack of ambulances, resulting in delivery en route.
  • Delay in Receiving Adequate Care at the Facility: Even after reaching a hospital, care may be delayed due to absence of doctors, operation theatres, or blood supply. Eg: A woman experiencing uterine rupture may not get immediate surgery because the anaesthetist is unavailable or the OT isn’t ready.
What are First Referral Units (FRUs)?

First Referral Units (FRUs) are designated health facilities equipped to provide comprehensive emergency obstetric and newborn care (CEmONC). These units serve as the first-level referral centres for maternal and child health emergencies, especially in rural and underserved areas.

 

How can FRUs be made more effective in reducing maternal deaths?

  • Ensure Availability of Specialist Medical Staff: FRUs must be equipped with qualified obstetricians, anaesthetists, and paediatricians to handle maternal emergencies. Eg: In many districts, over 60% vacancies in specialist posts mean pregnant women cannot access timely surgeries like C-sections, leading to avoidable deaths.
  • Establish Fully Functional Emergency Infrastructure: FRUs must have operational operation theatres, blood banks, and 24×7 emergency care to address complications like postpartum haemorrhage. Eg: A woman suffering massive bleeding after childbirth can be saved if a blood transfusion and surgery are available within two hours.
  • Strengthen Referral and Transport Systems: Ensure robust ambulance networks and clear referral protocols to reduce delays in reaching FRUs from rural or remote areas. Eg: The 108 ambulance service, when linked efficiently with FRUs, can reduce deaths caused by obstructed labour during long-distance travel.

What lessons does the Kerala model offer for reducing MMR nationwide?

  • Confidential Review of Maternal Deaths: Kerala uses a systematic review process to study every maternal death to identify medical and systemic gaps. Eg: Led by Dr. V.P. Paily, Kerala’s Confidential Review Committee analyses causes like hemorrhage, embolism, or surgical delay, enabling precise interventions.
  • High-Quality Emergency Obstetric Care: Kerala emphasizes emergency preparedness, with trained obstetricians, well-equipped operation theatres, and availability of blood banks.  
  • Holistic Maternal Health Approach: Kerala addresses not only physical but also mental health aspects of pregnancy, like antenatal depression and postpartum psychosis.  

Way forward: 

  • Strengthen FRUs and Emergency Care Infrastructure: Ensure that all First Referral Units (FRUs) are fully staffed with specialists, equipped with blood banks, operation theatres, and essential medicines to manage obstetric emergencies swiftly.
  • Scale Up Kerala’s Model Nationwide: Implement confidential maternal death reviews, train healthcare personnel in advanced obstetric practices, and integrate mental health support into maternal care programs across all States.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Rising seas, shifting lives and a test of democratic values

Why in the News?

India is seeing a worrying rise in people being forced to leave their homes due to climate change along its coasts, revealing serious gaps in how the country manages the environment and supports affected communities.

What are the socio-economic impacts of coastal climate change?

  • Displacement of Coastal Communities: Rising sea levels, saltwater intrusion, and erosion force people from traditional coastal villages to resettlement colonies. Eg: In Satabhaya, Odisha, entire villages have been submerged, displacing residents with little access to sustainable livelihoods.
  • Loss of Traditional Livelihoods: Coastal degradation affects fishing and agriculture, disrupting long-standing economic systems. Eg: In Honnavar, Karnataka, fishing communities face livelihood loss due to mangrove destruction and tourism development.
  • Forced Migration to Urban Informal Sectors: Displaced people migrate to cities and enter unprotected labour markets, often in exploitative conditions. Eg: Many end up as construction or brick kiln workers in cities like Mumbai or Chennai, without labour rights.
  • Labour Exploitation and Gender Vulnerability: Migrants, especially women, face debt bondage, abuse, and trafficking due to informal employment and lack of legal safeguards. Eg: Displaced women entering domestic work are underpaid and vulnerable to exploitation.
  • Social Inequality and Lack of Legal Protection: The absence of targeted legal frameworks leads to exclusion from welfare schemes and labour protections, worsening socio-economic inequality. Eg: Existing laws like the BOCW Act, 1996, do not cover climate migrants, leaving them unprotected.

How does climate-induced displacement test India’s democratic values?

  • Right to Life and Dignity (Article 21): Climate displacement challenges the constitutional guarantee of life with dignity, as displaced communities often lack shelter, healthcare, and livelihood.
  • Denial of Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (Article 19(1)(a)): Many infrastructure and tourism projects along the coast proceed without consulting local communities, violating their freedom of expression and participation in governance.
  • Suppression of Protest and Association (Article 19(1)(b) and 19(1)(c)): Environmental defenders and activists resisting unjust displacement face police action, surveillance, and criminalisation, undermining their freedom to protest and form associations.

Why is a legal framework for climate migrants essential?

  • To Recognise and Protect the Rights of the Displaced: Climate migrants often lose access to housing, work, and basic services. A legal framework ensures their right to life and dignity is upheld under Article 21 of the Constitution. Eg: Villagers displaced from Satabhaya, Odisha, lack legal recognition as climate migrants, preventing access to structured rehabilitation.
  • To Fill Gaps in Existing Laws and Policies: Current laws like the Disaster Management Act, 2005 and CRZ Notification, 2019 focus on emergency response or environmental regulation, not long-term rehabilitation or labour rights. Eg: The NAPCC identifies vulnerability but has no mechanism to integrate displaced people into labour or housing policies.
  • To Prevent Labour Exploitation and Ensure Social Justice: Without legal safeguards, climate migrants, especially in urban informal sectors, face wage theft, abuse, and gendered violence. Eg: Migrants working in brick kilns or as domestic workers in cities remain outside labour codes, exposing them to exploitation.

What is the role of local movements in protecting coastal communities?

  • Grassroots Resistance Against Destructive Projects: Local movements mobilize communities to protest against unsustainable infrastructure and industrial projects that threaten coastal ecosystems. Eg: The Save Satabhaya campaign in Odisha resisted sea-erosion-driven displacement and demanded proper rehabilitation.
  • Advocacy for Environmental Justice and Rights: These movements highlight environmental injustices, defend the livelihoods of traditional communities, and demand informed consent and legal protection. Eg: Pattuvam Mangrove Protection Movement.
  • Challenging Development Narratives and Policy Gaps: Local struggles question top-down development policies, push for sustainable alternatives, and expose policy loopholes that ignore climate and social impacts. Eg: Protests against the Adani port expansion at Ennore Creek, Tamil Nadu.

Which reforms can ensure rights-based climate migration policies? (Way forward)

  • Legal Recognition of Climate Migrants: Integrate climate-induced displacement into national migration and disaster policies to ensure affected individuals are officially recognized and protected under law.
  • Labour Code Reforms for Informal Workers: Amend existing labour laws to include climate migrants, especially those in vulnerable sectors like construction and domestic work, ensuring fair wages, social security, and workplace protections.
  • Participatory Coastal Zone Management: Redesign Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) rules to prioritize ecological sustainability and the rights of local communities, with mandatory community consent before approving commercial projects.

Mains PYQ:

[UPSC 2024] What is sea surface temperature rise? How does it affect the formation of tropical cyclones?

Linkage: The article highlights “rising seas, saltwater intrusion” and “coastal degradation” as impacts of climate change. This question directly relates to a key oceanic phenomenon influenced by climate change and its effect on extreme weather events like cyclones.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Industrial Sector Updates – Industrial Policy, Ease of Doing Business, etc.

Women MSMEs still struggle for credit despite schemes

Why in the News?

Women-led MSMEs are a key part of India’s economic growth, but they still remain underserved. Even though they make up 20% of all registered MSMEs, they contribute only 10% of the total income and receive disproportionate credit and lack of support.

Why do women-led MSMEs face persistent credit gaps?

  • Discriminatory Credit Disbursement: Women face a higher credit gap (35%) compared to men (20%), as per SIDBI reports. Eg: Despite applying for ₹10 lakhs in business loans, many women entrepreneurs receive only ₹6.5 lakhs, limiting their operational expansion.
  • Lack of Collateral and Property Ownership: Many women lack land or asset ownership, making it difficult to meet banks’ collateral requirements. Eg: A rural woman running a tailoring unit may not own property, so her loan request is denied despite good business potential.
  • Lower Financial Literacy: Many first-generation women entrepreneurs, especially in rural areas, lack awareness of financial schemes and documentation processes. Eg: Women in small towns often don’t know how to access PMMY or Stand-Up India loans, resulting in underutilisation of available credit.
  • Gender Bias in Credit Risk Assessment: Financial institutions often perceive women as risky borrowers, especially if they operate in informal sectors.
  • Overdependence on Informal Credit Sources: Due to a lack of formal access, many women rely on moneylenders, who charge high interest rates and offer no legal protection. Eg: In the absence of bank loans, women-led microenterprises may borrow from informal lenders at 24% interest, leading to debt traps.

What limits the effectiveness of schemes like PMMY?

  • Low Sanction-to-Application Ratio: While a high number of women open loan accounts, the actual sanctioned amount is disproportionately lower. Eg: In 2024, women held 64% of PMMY accounts, but received only 41% of the total disbursed amount, reflecting a gap in meaningful financial access.
  • Administrative Inefficiencies: Delays and inconsistencies in processing applications, verification, and disbursal reduce scheme impact.
  • Lack of Awareness: Many potential beneficiaries, especially in rural or semi-urban areas, are unaware of PMMY’s features or how to apply. Eg: Women entrepreneurs with informal businesses often fail to access collateral-free loans due to absence of facilitation from banks or local agencies.

How does low financial literacy hinder women entrepreneurs?

  • Inability to Navigate Formal Banking Systems: Lack of knowledge in budgeting, credit scores, or interest rates discourages women from applying for loans. Eg: First-generation entrepreneurs in rural areas avoid formal credit channels and depend on informal moneylenders with high-interest rates.
  • Limited Confidence in Business Decision-Making: Low financial skills reduce confidence in investment planning, profit calculation, and risk management, hampering business growth. Women running micro-enterprises often hesitate to expand operations or apply for working capital loans, fearing repayment complexities.

What is the role of the Udyam Assist Portal in women’s empowerment?

  • Formal Recognition of Informal Enterprises: The portal helps register Informal Micro Enterprises (IMEs), especially women-led ones, bringing them into the formal financial ecosystem. Eg: In 2024, 70.5% of IMEs registered on the portal were women-owned, enabling access to priority sector lending.
  • Improved Access to Formal Credit: By assigning a Udyam Registration Number, it enables collateral-free loans and better eligibility under various government credit schemes. Eg: Registered women entrepreneurs can now avail benefits under schemes like PMMY and Credit Guarantee Fund Trust for Micro and Small Enterprises (CGTMSE).
  • Boost to Employment and Income Generation: The portal supports women in starting and scaling up their enterprises, thus enhancing livelihood security and job creation. Eg: Women-led IMEs contributed over 70.8% to employment generation in the informal micro-business segment.

Which reforms can improve credit access for women-led IMEs? (Way forward)

  • Expand Collateral-Free Credit Schemes: Widen the reach of schemes like PMMY and CGTMSE with targeted provisions for first-generation women entrepreneurs and flexible documentation norms. Eg: Lower the threshold for loan amounts and simplify eligibility for Udyam-registered IMEs.
  • Strengthen Financial Literacy and Credit Counselling: Launch grassroots training programmes in regional languages to raise awareness about credit products, budgeting, and digital banking. Eg: Tie-up with SHGs and local NGOs to educate women in rural and semi-urban areas.
  • Mandate Gender-Sensitive Banking Practices: Instruct public and private banks to set quotas for women-led MSME lending, and monitor disbursal with gender-segregated data. Eg: Introduce incentive-based targets for bank branches lending to women-run enterprises.

Mains PYQ:

[UPSC 2021] Can the vicious cycle of gender inequality, poverty and malnutrition be broken through microfinancing of women SHGs? Explain with examples.

Linkage: The article explicitly highlight the how government schemes like the Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY) aim to support self-employment and financial independence for women, which aligns with microfinancing efforts. This question is highly relevant as it directly addresses the effectiveness of “microfinancing of women” as a tool for empowerment and breaking negative societal cycles.

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

BRICS Summits

BRICS Rio Declaration, 2025

Why in the News?

Gathering in Rio de Janeiro on July 6–7, leaders of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa adopted the BRICS Rio Declaration 2025 — marking a decisive shift in the bloc’s evolution.

Back2Basics: BRICS

  • BRICS represents a coalition of nations committed to fostering economic growth, development cooperation, and global governance reform.
  • The first summit in 2009 featured the founding countries of Brazil, Russia, India, and China, where they adopted the acronym BRIC and formed an informal diplomatic club.
  • BRICS focuses on collaboration across 3 key pillars:
    1. Political and Security Cooperation: Ensuring peace, global stability, and governance reform.
    2. Economic and Financial Cooperation: Promoting trade, investment, and economic resilience.
    3. Cultural and People-to-People Cooperation: Enhancing mutual understanding and societal linkages.
  • Present Members of BRICS
    • Original Members: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
    • Recent Additions: Indonesia, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, and the UAE.

About the Rio Declaration (2025):

  • Overview: Adopted at the XVII BRICS Summit in Rio de Janeiro (July 6–7, 2025), the Rio Declaration reflects BRICS’s push for a more inclusive and multipolar global order.
  • Call for reform: It calls for reforms in global institutions like the UN Security Council, IMF, and World Bank to give a greater voice to the Global South.
  • Focus: It emphasized sovereign equality, sustainable development, digital cooperation, and solidarity among emerging economies.
  • Expansion: BRICS welcomed Thailand as a full member and acknowledged 10 new partner countries, including Belarus, Nigeria, Cuba, and Vietnam, signalling broader representation.

Key Highlights of the Declaration:

  • Global Reform Push: Demands reform of UN, IMF, Bretton Woods institutions for fairer representation of emerging economies.
  • Climate Finance: Endorses Brazil’s Tropical Forests Forever Facility and calls on developed nations to fund just transitions.
  • AI Governance: Supports a global framework aligned with national rules and UN Charter principles.
  • Health Equity: Launched BRICS Partnership on Socially Determined Diseases to address poverty-linked health disparities.
  • Economic Sovereignty: Push for local currency trade, non-dollar payment systems, and strengthening the New Development Bank.
  • Security Commitment: Zero tolerance for terrorism, including cross-border support and financing.
  • Digital Inclusion: Focus on women’s digital access, AI cooperation, and green technologies.
  • India’s Role: Led initiatives on science collaboration, digital public goods, and proposed reforms for 2026 BRICS leadership.
[UPSC 2015] The ‘Fortaleza Declaration’, recently in the news, is related to the affairs of:

Options: (a) ASEAN (b) BRICS* (c) OECD (d) WTO

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

Operation Med Max

Why in the News?

The Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) has busted a global drug network spanning four continents through secret Operation Med Max.

Back2Basics: Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB)

  • Institutional Mandate: The NCB is India’s central drug law enforcement and intelligence agency, functioning under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
  • Establishment: It was established on 14th November 1985 under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985.
  • Role: The agency works closely with Customs, State Police, Intelligence Bureau, and international agencies like Interpol and the US DEA.
  • International Treaty Compliance: NCB is responsible for monitoring India’s compliance with global drug control conventions and facilitating cooperation with foreign drug enforcement bodies.
  • Operational Network: It maintains zonal offices nationwide and is staffed by officers from IPS, IRS, paramilitary forces, and direct recruits.
  • Financial Surveillance Role: The NCB is a member of the Economic Intelligence Council, reflecting its role in tracking financial transactions linked to drug crimes.
  • Digital Intelligence Focus: The agency is now expanding into cyber surveillance, targeting darknet networks, crypto-based payments, and online narcotics trade.

About Operation Med Max:

  • Launch: It was initiated by the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) in May 2024, beginning with the interception of a car in Delhi, it seized 3.7 kg of Tramadol tablets.
  • Uncovering a Global Syndicate: Investigations revealed a transnational drug syndicate using encrypted apps, drop shipping, and cryptocurrency payments to smuggle controlled pharmaceutical drugs across four continents and over 10 countries.
  • Global Ramifications: The probe triggered international enforcement actions, including the arrest of a money launderer in Alabama (USA), closure of an illegal pill factory in Australia, and identification of a UAE-based drug kingpin.

Also in News: Operation MELON

  • Overview: It was a coordinated crackdown on India’s top-rated darknet drug vendor, alias “Ketamelon”, active for over two years.
  • Drug and Crypto Seizures: The raid led to the seizure of 1,100 LSD blots, 131 grams of Ketamine, and ₹70 lakh worth of cryptocurrency, stored in a hardware wallet.
  • Darknet Threat: Ketamelon was classified as a Level 4 darknet vendor, the highest possible rank, underscoring the growing cyber-narcotics threat and NCB’s technical capacity to counter it.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following activities:

1. Identification of narcotics on passengers at airports or in aircraft

2. Monitoring of precipitation

3. Tracking the migration of animals

In how many of the above activities can the radars be used?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None

 

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024

Attend Now

JOIN THE COMMUNITY

Join us across Social Media platforms.