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Month: September 2025

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J&K – The issues around the state

Sixth Schedule demand for Ladakh

| Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Why in the News?

The recent protests in Ladakh led by activist Sonam Wangchuk, which turned violent, have been driven by demands for inclusion under the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution and a call for statehood.

Background: Ladakh’s Governance Post Article 370 Repeal

  • Union Territory Recognition: After the 2019 repeal of Article 370, Ladakh became a Union Territory without legislature, unlike Jammu & Kashmir.
  • Local Demands: The Apex Body Leh (ABL) and Kargil Democratic Alliance (KDA) have consistently demanded Sixth Schedule inclusion for autonomy and protection of tribal interests.

Centre’s earlier offer:  

  • Article 371-like Protections: Ministry of Home Affairs proposed safeguards similar to NE states, addressing land, jobs, and cultural protection.
  • Exclusion from Sixth Schedule: Centre ruled out Sixth Schedule inclusion, preferring alternative mechanisms for autonomy.

What is the Sixth Schedule?

  • Constitutional Basis: Mentioned under Article 244 in Part X of the Constitution.
  • Coverage: Applies only to Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram (ATM²).
  • Relation to Fifth Schedule: The Fifth Schedule covers scheduled areas in other states except these four.

Salient Features of the Sixth Schedule:

  • Autonomous Districts: Tribal areas are designated as autonomous districts; Governor empowered to create, reorganize, or alter boundaries.
  • District & Regional Councils:
    • Each district council has 30 members (26 elected, 4 nominated).
    • Councils can legislate on land, forest management, shifting cultivation, village administration, inheritance of property, marriage/divorce, and social customs.
    • They run schools, healthcare, markets, and village courts, and can levy certain taxes.
  • Law Application: Acts of Parliament/State may not apply directly or apply with Governor/President’s modifications.
  • Governor’s Authority: Can appoint commissions, examine issues of districts, and dissolve councils based on recommendations.
  • Areas under the Sixth Schedule:
    • Assam: Karbi Anglong, North Cachar Hills, Bodoland Territorial Areas District.
    • Meghalaya: Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, Garo Hills.
    • Tripura: Tripura Tribal Areas District.
    • Mizoram: Chakma, Mara, Lai districts.
[UPSC 2023] With reference to ‘Scheduled Areas’ in India, consider the following statements :

1. Within a State, the notification of an area as Scheduled Area takes place through an Order of the President.

2. The largest administrative unit forming the Scheduled Area is the District and the lowest is the cluster of villages in the Block.

3. The Chief Ministers of the concerned States are required to submit annual reports to the Union Home Ministry on the administration of Scheduled Areas in the States.

How many of the above statements are correct?

Options: (a) Only one * (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

 

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Air Pollution

Delhi to witness Artificial Rain through Cloud Seeding

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: S&T - Applications In Everyday Life

Why in the News?

The Delhi government is planning to trial cloud-seeding to trigger artificial rain to combat air pollution ahead of winters.

About Cloud Seeding:

  • About: It is a microclimate management technique aimed at altering precipitation patterns by dispersing substances into clouds to stimulate rainfall or snowfall.
  • Why it is used: It is used to mitigate hail, disperse fog, and either induce precipitation or prevent it from occurring in subsequent days.
  • Techniques include:
    • Static Cloud Seeding: Chemicals are introduced into cold clouds already containing supercooled water droplets, encouraging the formation of ice crystals.
    • Hygroscopic Cloud Seeding: Salts are sprayed into the base of warm clouds to act as condensation nuclei, increasing the number and size of water droplets.
    • Dynamic Cloud Seeding: This method involves boosting vertical air currents to enhance moisture passage through the clouds, leading to more rain.
  • Common Cloud Seeding Chemicals:
    • Silver iodide (AgI): Preferred for its ice-like crystalline properties.
    • Potassium iodide (KI): Functions similarly to silver iodide.
    • Dry ice (solid CO₂): Used to rapidly cool cloud droplets, aiding rain formation.
    • Liquid propane: Used in specific cloud types, effective at higher temperatures.
    • Sodium chloride and calcium chloride: Used in hygroscopic (warm) cloud seeding methods.
    • Bismuth tri-iodide (BiI₃): Sometimes used based on experimental or environmental considerations.
  • Dispersion methods range from aircraft and ground-based generators to newer approaches like drones delivering electric charges or infrared laser pulses.

Limitations: 

  • Concerns persist regarding the potential accumulation of seeding agents in sensitive ecosystems, although detailed studies have shown negligible impacts.
  • The chemicals used, such as silver iodide, may potentially damage the environment and cause health issues like iodine poisoning in high concentrations
[UPSC 2025] Artificial way of causing rainfall to reduce air pollution makes use of:

(a) silver iodide and potassium iodide *

(b) silver nitrate and potassium iodide

(c) silver iodide and potassium nitrate

(d) silver nitrate and potassium chloride

 

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Freedom of Speech – Defamation, Sedition, etc.

[24th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Criminal Defamation is incompatible with democratic debate

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2014] What do you understand by the concept ‘freedom of speech and expression’? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.

Linkage: The 2014 PYQ on freedom of speech, hate speech, and films directly links with criminal defamation as both test the limits of Article 19(1)(a) under Article 19(2). Just as films and hate speech face special restrictions, criminal defamation raises the question of whether jail for reputational harm is a proportionate curb on free expression.

Mentor’s Comment

The debate around criminal defamation in India has resurfaced with the Supreme Court itself acknowledging the growing misuse of the law. What began as a safeguard for reputation has increasingly turned into a tool of intimidation, propaganda, and political retribution. This article examines why criminal defamation is incompatible with democratic debate, the disproportionate nature of its penalties, and how its misuse has shaped India’s political and media landscape. We will also provide value additions, practice questions, and related UPSC linkages.

Introduction

In 2016, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of criminal defamation in the Subramanian Swamy v. Union of India case, equating reputation with the right to life. However, recent developments show that this reasoning has produced more problems than it has solved. On September 22, Justice M.M. Sundresh expressed concern over the growing use of criminal defamation by political actors and private individuals as a shield against criticism and as a weapon of retribution. With imprisonment prescribed as a penalty, the law now threatens democratic debate, fosters self-censorship, and risks turning the judiciary into a tool for silencing dissent.

Criminal Defamation in the News

The issue has returned to the spotlight because of rising judicial unease over its misuse. Justice M.M. Sundresh’s recent remarks highlight how criminal defamation cases are no longer rare or exceptional but routine weapons used by politicians, business interests, and individuals to stifle criticism. From Rahul Gandhi and Shashi Tharoor to journalists and opposition leaders, many face disproportionate litigation that results in prolonged trials, loss of political time, and harassment. This represents not just isolated misuse but a systemic problem that undermines free speech and democratic accountability.

Defamation (criminal) — statutory text & essentials

  1. Statutory definition: Section 499 of the Indian Penal Code defines defamation as making or publishing an imputation concerning any person intending to harm, or knowing or having reason to believe that such imputation will harm, that person’s reputation.
  2. Punishment: Section 500 prescribes simple imprisonment up to two years, or fine, or both.
  3. Exceptions: Section 499 contains ten exceptions (e.g., truth for public good, fair comment on public conduct, parliamentary proceedings, etc.) — these are crucial in practice and often determinative in defamation disputes.

  • Under Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023:

    • Section 354(2) – punishment up to 2 years simple imprisonment, or fine, or both, or community service.
    • Section 356 – covers words, signs, or visible representations harming reputation.
  • Scope: Applies to individuals, companies, and deceased persons if family reputation is harmed.
  • Essential Elements: False statement, harm to reputation, communication to third party, and intent/knowledge of likely harm.
  • Nature of Offence: Non-cognizable and bailable – requires a warrant for arrest; bail available.
  • Digital Extension: Covers defamatory posts on social media, websites, and messaging platforms.
  • Defences/Exceptions: Truth in public interest, fair comment on public servants, judicial proceedings, public performances, and cautionary statements made in good faith.

Supreme Court timeline (select landmark decisions on defamation) 

  1. S. Rangarajan v. P. Jagjivan Ram (1989): refined the reasonable-restriction test under Article 19(2); held that state action to restrain expression must demonstrate proximate danger (not remote/conjectural). Important when courts assess whether alleged speech is dangerously likely to cause harm.
  2. R. Rajagopal v. State of Tamil Nadu (Auto-Shankar case) (1994): balanced freedom of press with right to privacy; held privacy has constitutional status but public interest/public record may limit privacy claims. Relevant to defamation where publication concerns public servants/official acts.
  3. Subramanian Swamy v. Union of India (2016): Supreme Court upheld constitutionality of Sections 499 and 500, treating reputation as part of human dignity under Article 21 and holding criminal defamation a reasonable restriction on Article 19(1)(a). This remains the leading authority sustaining criminal defamation in India

Why is criminal defamation disproportionate?

  1. Imprisonment for speech: Criminal defamation proposes jail time for reputational injury, which is disproportionate compared to civil remedies like damages or injunctions.
  2. Nature of harm: Unlike physical injury, reputational harm can be addressed through compensation and retractions, not imprisonment.
  3. Global comparison: Many countries such as the U.K. have abolished criminal defamation laws as incompatible with democratic debate.

How has the law been misused in politics and media?

  1. Weaponisation of complaints: Political actors distort or take statements out of context, using the threat of jail to suppress opponents. Examples:
    • Editors of The Hindu faced cases under Jayalalithaa’s government.
    • Rahul Gandhi faced criminal defamation for remarks against political leaders.
    • Nitin Gadkari and Arun Jaitley’s cases against Arvind Kejriwal and AAP tied up governance in litigation.
  2. Judicial burden: Lower courts often issue summons without assessing whether the speech crosses the threshold of defamation.

What is the impact on journalism and public debate?

  1. Intimidation of journalists: Local reporters face harassment from politicians and business groups, including threats of arrest and travel to distant courts.
  2. Self-censorship: The chilling effect forces media houses and individuals to avoid criticism of powerful actors.
  3. Distortion of democratic debate: Criminal defamation converts political disagreements into legal battles, weakening accountability and transparency.

Are civil remedies a better alternative?

  1. Civil courts as recourse: Aggrieved individuals can seek damages, injunctions, or retractions through civil suits.
  2. Balanced protection: Civil remedies protect reputation without curbing free expression.
  3. Reduced misuse: Without the threat of imprisonment, civil proceedings reduce the scope of intimidation.

Comparative perspective and lessons for India

  1. U.K. model: Abolished criminal defamation, relying instead on civil law to handle reputational disputes.
  2. Global democratic practice: Democracies increasingly view criminal defamation as incompatible with free speech.
  3. India’s opportunity: Reforms are needed to align India’s legal framework with global standards and democratic values.

Conclusion

Criminal defamation in India has shifted from being a safeguard for dignity to a political weapon that curtails free expression and democratic accountability. Justice Sundresh’s remarks signal a broader judicial recognition that the law’s misuse has become systemic. Moving toward civil remedies while abolishing criminal defamation is necessary for strengthening free speech, protecting journalists, and ensuring political debates remain democratic rather than litigative. India must now act to strike the right balance between dignity and liberty.

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

India’s only active volcano in Andaman’s Barren Island erupts

Places in newsPrelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Why in the News?

Barren Island, which is not only India’s but South Asia’s only active volcano, has erupted twice in a span of eight days.

barren island

About Barren Island:

  • Location: In the Andaman Sea, about 138–140 km northeast of Port Blair, within the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India).
  • Unique Status: The only confirmed active volcano in the Indian subcontinent and South Asia, lying on the volcanic arc between Sumatra (Indonesia) and Myanmar.
  • Geophysical Features: Roughly circular island (~3 km diameter); volcanic crater located 0.5 km from shore, rising to 354 m above sea level and classified as a stratovolcano made of lava, volcanic ash, and rock fragments.
  • Volcanic Activity
    • First Recorded Eruption: 1787.
    • Notable Eruptions: 1789, 1795, 1803–04, 1852, 1991, 2017, and minor eruptions in 2025.
    • 1991 Eruption: Lasted ~6 months, destructive to local fauna.
    • Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): Generally low, around 2.
  • Geological Significance:
    • Age of Flows: Oldest subaerial lava flows dated to 1.6 million years ago.
    • Crust: Built on 106 million-year-old oceanic crust.
    • Tectonics: Part of the subduction zone where the Indian Plate meets the Burmese Plate.
    • Research Value: Critical for geological and volcanic studies as India’s only active volcano.

Note:

Although there are no active volcanoes in mainland India, there are some extinct and dormant volcanoes in the country. These are: Narcondam Island (dormant, A&N Islands); Deccan Plateau (18.51°N 73.43°E; extinct, Maharashtra); Baratang Island (mud volcanoes; active, A&N Islands); Dhinodhar Hills (extinct, Gujarat); Dhosi Hill (extinct, Haryana–Rajasthan border); Tosham Hills (extinct, Haryana); and Loktak Lake (Supervolcanic caldera, Manipur).

[UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

  1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian territory.
  2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
  3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only*

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 3 only

(d) 1 and 3

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The Left we need: The Legacy of Indian Socialism

Explained | History | Mains Paper 1: Post-Independence

Introduction

Once a vibrant stream of India’s political life, socialism today survives only on the margins, overshadowed by dominant political narratives. The Samajwadi Ekjutata Sammelan attempted to revive this forgotten legacy by recalling socialist icons, showcasing their contributions, and highlighting the ideological resources they left behind. Unlike European social democracy or Marxism, Indian socialism, particularly articulated by Ram Manohar Lohia, offered a distinct doctrine—integrating caste, gender, and cultural politics with economic equality and Gandhian satyagraha. At a time when the world grapples with inequality, climate change, and rising authoritarianism, revisiting Indian socialism is not just about remembering the past, but about reclaiming tools for the future.

Why in the News?

The 90th anniversary of the socialist movement was commemorated through a large convention in Pune, bringing together activists, veterans of the Emergency resistance, and younger voices. This event is significant because it highlights the amnesia and disjunction surrounding socialism in India today, where even icons like JP, Usha Mehta, and Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay are remembered for roles outside the socialist tradition. The Sammelan underscored a major problem: the ideological vacuum created by the neglect of Indian socialism, just when its core ideas, on inequality, sustainable development, cultural politics, and resistance to authoritarianism, are urgently needed. The striking aspect is not just nostalgia, but the contrast between socialism’s past centrality and its near invisibility in today’s discourse.

The Legacy of Indian Socialism

  1. Founding of Congress Socialist Party (1934): Socialist stream within Congress connected political freedom with social and economic equality.
  2. Quit India Movement: JP, Lohia, Usha Mehta and others led underground resistance, marking socialism’s high point in the freedom struggle.
  3. Post-Independence Role: Departure from Congress to form an independent opposition, mobilising backward castes and the poor, especially in the Hindi belt.
  4. Emergency Resistance: Socialist leaders like Rajkumar Jain, Vijay Pratap, and Anand Kumar stood against authoritarianism, spending months in jail.

Why is Socialism Fading from Public Memory?

  1. Amnesia: Young people today conflate socialists with communists or Maoists, erasing the distinctiveness of the socialist tradition.
  2. Disjunction in Memory: JP Narayan is remembered as Gandhian, Kamaladevi for handicrafts, Usha Mehta as freedom fighter—none as socialists.
  3. Neglect of Ideas: Unlike communists, socialists lacked a robust academic subculture and access to English-speaking opinion-makers.
  4. Absence of Popular Recall: Figures like Yusuf Meherally, Achyut Patwardhan, Madhu Limaye, and S.M. Joshi remain unknown to today’s youth.

Distinctive Ideas of Indian Socialism

  1. Expanded Equality: Beyond economics, it included caste, gender, race, nationality, relevant to debates on women’s reservation, caste census, and subquotas.
  2. Alternative Development Model: Critiqued technocratic-industrial path; emphasised sustainable well-being, now crucial amid climate change.
  3. Satyagraha as Politics: Advocated Gandhian non-violent resistance as an alternative to violence or electoralism.
  4. Cultural Politics: Rooted in Indian languages and traditions, countering hegemonic cultural nationalism with inclusive symbols.

Why Does Indian Socialism Matter Today?

  1. Counter to Inequality: Rising global inequality makes Lohia’s expanded framework urgent.
  2. Democratic Deepening: Socialists played key role in mobilisation of backward castes and poor, essential for inclusive democracy.
  3. Resistance to Authoritarianism: With a consistent history of fighting Emergency and excesses, socialism offers principled tools to resist authoritarian regimes.
  4. Global Relevance: By abjuring Eurocentric roots, Indian socialism contributed a new doctrine to world thought.

Conclusion

The decline of Indian socialism is not just the fading of a political ideology but the loss of a moral and intellectual compass that once challenged inequality and authoritarianism. The Sammelan in Pune reminded us that socialism is more than an electoral project; it is a resource for reimagining democracy and justice in the 21st century. Whether or not the label survives, its ideas remain indispensable. The real challenge lies in recalling, renewing, and repurposing socialism to confront contemporary crises.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2020] Since the decade of the 1920s, the national movement acquired various ideological strands and thereby expanded its social base. Discuss.

Linkage: Since the 1920s, the national movement diversified ideologically with strands like socialism, which linked political freedom with social and economic equality. Socialists such as JP and Lohia expanded the movement’s base by mobilising peasants, backward castes, women, and workers, while also shaping resistance during Quit India and the Emergency. This ideological pluralism deepened democracy and widened the social foundations of Indian politics.

Value Addition

History of Socialism in Pre-Independent India

Early Currents (1920s–1930s)

  1. Global Influence: The Russian Revolution (1917) electrified Indian youth. Marxist ideas about class struggle and collective ownership inspired a generation disillusioned with colonial exploitation.
  2. Indian Context: The non-cooperation movement (1920–22) radicalised many students and workers. Young leaders like S.A. Dange, M.N. Roy, Nalini Gupta, Muzaffar Ahmad started bringing socialist ideas into India.
  3. Labour & Peasant Movements: The formation of AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress, 1920) and Kisan Sabhas gave socialism a practical ground.

Formation of the Congress Socialist Party (1934)

  1. Background: Many young nationalists within the Congress felt that Congress under Gandhi was too focused on political freedom without a social revolution.
  2. Founding: The Congress Socialist Party (CSP) was founded in Patna, 1934 by Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Deva, Ram Manohar Lohia, Yusuf Meherally, and others.

Objectives:

  1. Radicalise the Congress by linking freedom with social & economic equality.
  2. Advocate land reforms, redistribution of wealth, end of caste discrimination.
  3. Maintain distance from the Communists but work inside the Congress unlike them.

Impact: CSP became the ideological left-wing of the Congress, drawing in students, workers, peasants, and socially progressive leaders.

Role in the Quit India Movement (1942)

  • Context: With the launch of Quit India (August 1942), much of the mainstream Congress leadership was arrested.

Socialist Contribution:

  1. Socialists like JP, Lohia, Usha Mehta, Aruna Asaf Ali kept the movement alive underground.
  2. Usha Mehta ran the Secret Congress Radio, broadcasting messages against British rule.
  3. JP and Lohia organised clandestine networks, strikes, and sabotage against colonial infrastructure.

Significance: This gave socialism a heroic image of sacrifice and resistance, showing it could sustain the national struggle when the mainstream was paralysed.

Peasant & Worker Mobilisation

  1. Kisan Sabhas: Led by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati in Bihar and N.G. Ranga in Andhra, peasants were mobilised against landlordism, high rents, and colonial agrarian policies.
  2. Labour Strikes: Socialist leaders engaged with trade unions and AITUC, mobilising railway workers, mill workers, and dockyard labourers.
  3. Linkage with Socialism: These movements translated the abstract ideals of socialism into mass struggles, rooting the ideology in agrarian and working-class realities.

Other Key Developments

  1. Students’ Movement: Socialist ideas found strong resonance in the All India Students’ Federation (AISF) and later the Socialist Youth movements.
  2. Princely States Movements: Socialists often took leadership in agitations in princely states (like Travancore, Hyderabad), linking freedom with social justice.
  3. Intellectual Contribution: Leaders like Acharya Narendra Deva (theorist), JP (activist organiser), Lohia (thinker & mass mobiliser) gave socialism in India both intellectual depth and activist energy.

Summary

  1. By the 1940s, socialism in India was not merely an imported ideology—it had become a home-grown political stream, deeply connected to the freedom struggle. Its distinctiveness lay in:
  2. Rooting Marxist equality in Indian realities of caste, agrarian hierarchy, and colonial exploitation.
  3. Combining Gandhian satyagraha with socialist radicalism.
  4. Mobilising peasants, workers, students, women, and backward castes, thereby expanding the social base of the national movement.

Socialist Principles in the Indian Constitution

Explicit Reference:

  • Preamble (42nd Amendment, 1976): India declared to be a “Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic.”

Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP):

  1. Article 38: Promote welfare of people through a just social order.
  2. Article 39: Equitable distribution of resources, prevention of wealth concentration, protection of workers’ rights.
  3. Article 41: Right to work, education, and public assistance.
  4. Article 43: Living wage, decent working conditions, and participation of workers in management.
  5. Article 47: Duty of state to improve public health, nutrition, and prohibition of intoxicants.

Comparative Analysis: Indian vs. Western Socialism

Aspect Western Socialism Indian Socialism
Origins Industrial Revolution (Europe, 19th c.), Marxist critique of capitalism. Freedom struggle (20th c.), influenced by Gandhi + Lohia + JP + Marxism.
Focus Class-based equality (workers vs capitalists). Multi-dimensional equality (caste, class, gender, nationality).
Method Revolution (Marxist), or reform (social democracy). Democratic, non-violent satyagraha + electoral politics.
State Role Welfare state ensuring redistribution, public ownership of key industries. Mixed economy with state-led planning (Nehruvian model) + constitutional guarantees.
Culture & Identity Largely secular, materialistic basis. Rooted in Indian culture, language, symbols (Lohia’s “cultural politics”).
Developmental Model Industrialisation as progress. Critique of technocratic-industrial model, stress on sustainability & decentralisation.

 

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Mother and Child Health – Immunization Program, BPBB, PMJSY, PMMSY, etc.

Lessons from India’s Vaccination Drive

Explained | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Introduction

Vaccination is among the most effective and cost-efficient public health measures, credited with saving millions of lives globally. India, with its Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP), runs the world’s largest vaccination campaign annually, covering over 2.6 crore infants and 2.9 crore pregnant women. From eliminating polio and maternal/neonatal tetanus to spearheading COVID-19 vaccine development, India has emerged as a global leader in immunisation. Yet, challenges remain in ensuring last-mile delivery, tackling vaccine hesitancy, and integrating disease surveillance with vaccination systems.

Expanding Reach through Mission Indradhanush

  1. Mission Indradhanush (MI): Launched in 2014 to achieve 90% full immunisation coverage, up from 62% in 2014 (NFHS-4).
  2. Intensified Mission Indradhanush (IMI): Began in 2017, targeting low-coverage and missed populations.
  3. Impact: By 2023, 12 phases of MI/IMI had vaccinated 5.46 crore children and 1.32 crore pregnant women.
  4. Integration: Linked with Gram Swaraj Abhiyan and Extended Gram Swaraj Abhiyan for greater outreach.

What Has India Achieved through UIP?

  1. Decline in Mortality: Under-5 mortality dropped from 45 to 31 per 1,000 live births (2014–2021, SRS 2021).
  2. Expanded Vaccination Basket: 6 new vaccines added in the last decade (e.g., Rotavirus, Pneumococcal Conjugate, Measles-Rubella).

Disease Elimination Milestones:

  1. Polio-free since 2011.
  2. Maternal and neonatal tetanus eliminated in 2015.
  3. Yaws eradicated in 2016.
  4. Recognition: Measles and Rubella Champion Award (2024).

What Challenges Continue to Plague India’s Vaccination Efforts?

  1. Remote Populations: Hard-to-reach and migratory groups remain under-covered.
  2. Vaccine Hesitancy: Clusters with low awareness and misinformation hinder uptake.
  3. Pandemic Disruption: COVID-19 disrupted routine services, leading to measles outbreaks (2022–2024).
  4. Immunity Gaps: Outbreaks showed clustering of unimmunised children.

How Has Technology Transformed Vaccine Delivery?

Digital Platforms:

  1. U-WIN: End-to-end vaccination record tracking, modeled on Co-WIN.
  2. eVIN & Cold Chain MIS: Real-time vaccine stock and logistics monitoring.
  3. SAFE-VAC: Vaccine safety reporting.

Pandemic Success:

  1. COVID-19 vaccination began Jan 16, 2021.
  2. By Jan 2023: 220 crore doses, 97% with one dose, 90% with both.
  3. Equity & Outreach: Enabled “anytime-anywhere” access for migratory groups.

What Lessons Has India Shared with the World?

  1. Vaccine Maitri: Supported low- and middle-income countries, reflecting Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.
  2. Domestic Manufacturing: Self-reliance through Make in India strategy.
  3. Global Leadership: World’s largest vaccine manufacturing hub, shaping global vaccine futures.

Conclusion

India’s vaccination drive demonstrates the transformative power of political will, technological innovation, and community participation. While achievements like polio eradication, COVID-19 vaccine success, and award-winning Measles-Rubella campaigns inspire global emulation, challenges of equity, hesitancy, and surveillance integration demand continued attention. The future lies in adopting a One-Health approach and strengthening linkages between disease surveillance and immunisation to ensure pandemic preparedness and universal vaccine coverage.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2022] What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines work? What approaches were adopted by the Indian vaccine manufacturers to produce COVID-19 vaccines?

Linkage: This question is important for UPSC as it tests both the scientific principle of vaccine development and India’s capacity to innovate during crises like COVID-19. The article links by showing how vaccines, once developed, were scaled through UIP, Mission Indradhanush, and digital tools like U-WIN, reflecting the bridge between science and governance. It also highlights India’s global role via Vaccine Maitri and WHO recognition, making it a holistic case study for GS 3: Science & Technology and Public Health.

Value Addition

Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP)

  1. Definition: World’s largest immunisation programme, launched in 1985, providing free vaccines against 12 vaccine-preventable diseases.
  2. Coverage: Annually vaccinates 2.6 crore infants and 2.9 crore pregnant women.
  3. Relevance: Illustrates inclusive public health coverage, state capacity, and preventive healthcare.

Mission Indradhanush (MI) / Intensified Mission Indradhanush (IMI)

  1. MI (2014): Launched to increase full immunisation coverage from 62% (NFHS-4, 2015–16) to 90%.
  2. IMI (2017): Focused on low-coverage areas and “left-out” children/women.
  3. Outcome: By 2023, 5.46 crore children and 1.32 crore pregnant women vaccinated under 12 phases.
  4. Relevance: Example of targeted governance and convergence with Gram Swaraj Abhiyan.

Zero-dose Outreach

  1. Definition: Identifying and reaching children who have received no vaccines at all (first contact point for immunisation).
  2. Importance: Critical for equity in healthcare since such children often belong to marginalised, remote, or migratory populations.
  3. Relevance: Reflects SDG-3 (Good Health and Well-being) and commitment to leaving no one behind.

U-WIN / eVIN / SAFE-VAC

  1. U-WIN: Successor to Co-WIN, a digital platform for real-time tracking of vaccination for pregnant women and children up to 16 years; enables portability for migrants.
  2. eVIN (Electronic Vaccine Intelligence Network): Ensures real-time monitoring of vaccine stocks.
  3. SAFE-VAC: Module for adverse events reporting and ensuring vaccine safety.
  4. Relevance: Showcases digital governance in health → transparent, accountable, efficient delivery.

One-Health Approach

  1. Concept: Integrates surveillance of human, animal, and environmental health systems.
  2. Need: 75% of emerging infectious diseases are zoonotic (e.g., COVID-19).
  3. Application: Strengthens pandemic preparedness and ties immunisation with wider health surveillance.
  4. Relevance: A forward-looking framework for epidemic resilience and sustainable public health.

Vaccine Maitri

  1. Definition: India’s global vaccine diplomacy initiative during COVID-19, supplying vaccines to 100+ countries.
  2. Impact: Cemented India’s role as “Pharmacy of the World”; strengthened ties with developing countries.
  3. Relevance: Example of health diplomacy, South-South cooperation, and global public good.

Reports & Data

NFHS-4 (2015–16)

  1. Report Name: National Family Health Survey – Round 4.
  2. Finding: India’s full immunisation coverage was 62% in 2014.
  3. Significance: Provided the baseline for Mission Indradhanush.
  4. Relevance: Evidence-based policymaking; highlights gaps in equity and access.

Sample Registration System (SRS) 2021

  1. Significance: Clear evidence of immunisation’s role in improving child survival.
  2. Relevance: Shows how preventive healthcare directly impacts SDG-3 (Health & Well-being).

Measles-Rubella (MR) Campaign (2017–19)

  1. Coverage: 34.8 crore children aged 9 months–15 years vaccinated.
  2. Significance: Largest catch-up campaign globally.
  3. Relevance: Example of mass public mobilisation and vaccine diplomacy readiness.

Key Concepts:

Zero-dose Outreach

  1. Definition: Identifying and immunising children who have not received a single vaccine.
  2. Importance: They represent the most vulnerable clusters (remote, migratory, socio-economically deprived).
  3. UPSC Link: Equity in health, SDG-3, “Leaving no one behind”.

One-Health Lens

  1. Definition: Integrated surveillance of human, animal, and environmental health.
  2. Why: 75% of emerging infectious diseases are zoonotic (e.g., COVID-19, Nipah).
  3. Application: Prevents epidemics by connecting immunisation with disease surveillance across ecosystems.
  4. UPSC Link: Pandemic preparedness, sustainable health governance.

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Nuclear Energy

Roadmap for India’s Fusion Power Plan

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Researchers at the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), Gandhinagar have released a roadmap for India’s fusion programme, envisioning the Steady-State Superconducting Tokamak-Bharat (SST-Bharat) as the country’s first fusion electricity generator.

Back2Basics: ITER and India’s Contribution in ITER

  • ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor): It is the world’s largest nuclear fusion project, based in France, involving 35 nations.
    • What is Nuclear Fusion: It is the process where light atomic nuclei, like hydrogen, combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a tremendous amount of energy, as seen in the Sun and stars.
  • Aim: Demonstrate safe, carbon-free fusion energy by achieving Q = 10 (500 MW output from 50 MW input).
  • Uses Tokamak design, heating plasma to 150 million °C with superconducting magnets.
  • India joined as a full partner in 2005, contributing 9% of ITER hardware (~₹17,500 crore).
  • Major Indian contributions:
    • Partnership: Member since 2005, contributes 9% of hardware (~₹17,500 crore) with full IP rights.
    • Cryostat (3,800 tonnes, world’s largest vacuum vessel) – fabricated by L&T in Gujarat.
    • Superconducting magnets, cryogenic systems, RF heating systems, diagnostics, and shielding modules.
    • R&D on lithium-lead breeder blankets for tritium self-sufficiency in fusion reactors.
  • ITER serves as a training ground for Indian scientists, engineers, and industry, strengthening the country’s precision engineering and high-tech capabilities.

Roadmap for India’s Fusion Power Plan:

  • Vision: Outlined by the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), Gandhinagar, aligned with India’s Net Zero 2070 goal.
  • Strategy: Transition from fusion–fission hybrids (SST-Bharat) to a full fusion demonstration reactor (INDRA) by 2060.
  • Phased Targets:
    • 2025–2035: ITER participation, validation of deuterium-tritium (D–T) fueling, superconducting magnets, and plasma control.
    • 2035–2060: Build INDRA (500 MWe, Q > 20), continuous operation >6 months, tritium breeding ratio >1.1.
    • Post-2060: Commercial-scale fusion plants, target 50 GW fusion capacity by 2100, offsetting ~750 MT CO₂ annually.
  • Hybrid Approach: Fusion neutrons to drive thorium-based subcritical assemblies until pure fusion matures.
  • Innovations: Digital twins of tokamaks, AI-assisted plasma confinement, and radiation-resistant materials.
  • Global Context: UK STEP targets 2040, US startups 2030s, China’s EAST plasma records; India aims for 2060 cautiously.

About Steady-State Superconducting Tokamak-Bharat (SST-Bharat):

  • Design: Planned as India’s first fusion electricity generator, a fusion–fission hybrid.
  • Output: 130 MW total; 100 MW from fission, 30 MW from fusion.
  • Target: Q-Value = 5 (fusion output/input ratio), vs ITER’s goal of Q = 10.
  • Cost: Estimated at ₹25,000 crore.
  • Features: Superconducting magnets, advanced plasma control, hybrid breeding design to generate fuel and reduce waste.
  • Legacy: Builds on SST-1 tokamak, which achieved 650 ms confinement (designed for up to 16 min).
  • Goal: Pave way for INDRA (250 MW, Q = 20) by 2060.
[UPSC 2016] India is an important member of the ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor’. If this experiment succeeds, what is the immediate advantage for India?

Options: (a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power generation

(b) It attain a global role in satellite-navigation

(c) It can drastically improve the efficiency of its fission reactors in power generation

(d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation*

[UPSC 2025] The fusion energy programme in India has steadily evolved over the past few decades. Mention India’s contributions to the international fusion energy project International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). What will be the implications of the success of this project for the future of global energy?

 

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Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

Commissioning of Oju Hydel Project

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Why in the News?

The Union Environment Ministry has cleared the 2,220 MW Oju Hydroelectric Project on the Subansiri River in Taksing, Upper Subansiri district, near the China border.

About the Oju Hydroelectric Project:

  • Capacity & Location: A 2,220 MW run-of-river hydro project on the Subansiri River at Taksing, Upper Subansiri district, Arunachal Pradesh, near the China border.
  • Infrastructure:
    • Dam: 93 m high, 355 m long concrete gravity dam.
    • Tunnels: Two diversion tunnels, 14.17 km headrace tunnel.
    • Powerhouse: Underground, with 8 turbines of 231.25 MW each.
  • Hydrology: Catchment area 9,827 sq. km; average annual yield 11,339 million cubic meters.

Significance of the Project:

  • Hydro Cascade: Largest in Subansiri basin, upstream of projects like Niare, Naba, Nalo, Dengser, Upper & Lower Subansiri, making it vital for basin-wide energy planning.
  • Border Security: Strengthens India’s strategic presence near China border through infrastructure development.
  • Energy Security: Provides clean power at ~₹5.65/kWh, supporting renewable targets and reducing fossil dependence.

Back2Basics: Subansiri River

Commissioning of Oju Hydel Project

  • Also called the Gold River, it is the largest tributary of the Brahmaputra, about 518 km long with a 32,640 sq. km basin.
  • It originates in Lhuntse County, Tibet, flows through Upper Subansiri district (Arunachal Pradesh), and enters India via the Miri Hills.
  • The Upper Subansiri refers to its Himalayan origin stretch, while the Lower Subansiri marks its descent into the Assam Valley through Lower Subansiri district.
  • It joins the Brahmaputra at Jamurighat/Majuli Island in Assam; key tributaries are Rangandi, Dikrong, Kamle, Char Chu, and Tsari Chu.
  • Known for floods, rapids, and hydropower projects like the Lower Subansiri, the river also carries cultural importance in Tibet’s Tsari region.

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Roads, Highways, Cargo, Air-Cargo and Logistics infrastructure – Bharatmala, LEEP, SetuBharatam, etc.

[pib] Logistics Ease Across Different States (LEADS), 2025

DOMRPrelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

The Union Minister for Commerce and Industry has released Logistics Ease Across Different States (LEADS), 2025 Report.

What is Logistics Ease Across Different States (LEADS)? 

  • Overview: It is a national index benchmarking logistics performance across States and Union Territories of India.
  • Origin: Conceived in 2018, modelled on the World Bank’s Logistics Performance Index (LPI).
  • Authority: Prepared by the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
  • Methodology: Combines objective indicators (infrastructure, regulatory support, enablers) with perception-based feedback from stakeholders on cost, efficiency, and services.
  • Purpose: Promotes healthy competition, identifies best practices, and guides policy interventions to improve logistics efficiency.

About LEADS 2025:

  • Launch: Released by the Union Minister for Commerce and Industry in New Delhi.
  • Framework: Built on 4 pillars – Infrastructure, Services, Operating & Regulatory Environment, and Sustainable Logistics.
  • New Features:
    • Corridor-level assessment of major national and regional corridors (journey time, truck speed, waiting periods).
    • API-enabled evaluation of section-wise truck speeds using real-time data.
  • Classification: States/UTs ranked as Leaders, Achievers, and Aspirers.
  • Alignment: Supports Make in India, Atmanirbhar Bharat, and Viksit Bharat 2047.

Key Highlights of LEADS 2025:

  • Top States: Gujarat (1st), Karnataka (2nd), Maharashtra (3rd), Tamil Nadu (4th), Rajasthan (5th).
  • Parameters: Journey time, logistics costs, infrastructure quality, service reliability, waiting times, and sustainability practices.
  • Strategic Outcomes: Identifies bottlenecks, promotes evidence-based policymaking, reduces logistics costs, and enhances supply chain competitiveness.

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Horticulture, Floriculture, Commercial crops, Bamboo Production – MIDH, NFSM-CC, etc.

[pib] Clean Plant Programme (CPP)

Schemes | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

Why in the News?

The government has announced the establishment of 9 Clean Plant Centres across the country as part of the recently approved Rs 1,765.67 crore Clean Plant Programme (CPP).

What is Clean Plant Programme (CPP)?

  • Launch: Cleared by the Union Cabinet in August 2024 with an outlay of ₹1,765.67 crore, supported by a $98 million Asian Development Bank loan.
  • Implementation: Led by the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare through the National Horticulture Board (NHB), with technical support from ICAR.
  • Objective: Supply virus-free, high-quality planting material to improve crop yield, quality, and farmer incomes in horticulture.
  • Scope: Focus on fruit crops such as grapes, oranges, pomegranates, apples, and citrus.

Key Features:

  • Centres: Establishment of 9 Clean Plant Centres (CPCs) across India; three in Maharashtra – Pune (grapes), Nagpur (oranges), Solapur (pomegranates).
  • Research Hub: National-level laboratory in Pune for original plant species research.
  • Financial Aid: ₹3 crore for large nurseries, ₹1.5 crore for medium nurseries; target of 8 crore disease-free seedlings annually.
  • Certification & Traceability: Strong framework to ensure disease-free mother plants and regulated propagation.
  • Global Cooperation: Collaboration with Israel and the Netherlands for clean plant technologies.
  • Policy Alignment: Supports Mission LiFE, One Health, and Viksit Bharat 2047.

On-Ground Progress:

  • Dedicated Website: Launched as central hub – cpp-beta.nhb.gov.in.
  • Hazard Analysis:
    • Grapevine: 578 samples tested from multiple states.
    • Apple: 535 samples under testing from Himalayan and northern states.
    • Citrus:  Hazard profiling preparations underway.
  • Assessments: ICAR, NHB, and ADB conducted lab and nursery visits (2024–25) to strengthen diagnostics and bioinformatics using High-Throughput Sequencing (HTS).
  • Propagation Protocol: Negative samples re-tested; positive ones treated with tissue culture, heat, or cryotherapy before propagation.
  • Infrastructure: First Clean Plant Centre underway; design bidding initiated.
[UPSC 2011] With what purpose is the GoI promoting the concept of “Mega Food Parks”?

1. To provide good infrastructure facilities for the food processing industry.

2. To increase the processing of perishable items and reduce wastage.

3. To provide emerging and eco-friendly food processing technologies to entrepreneurs.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Defence Sector – DPP, Missions, Schemes, Security Forces, etc.

India’s first overseas Defence Facility in Morocco

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Indigenization Of Technology

Why in the News?

Defence Minister Rajnath Singh inaugurated Tata Advanced Systems’ plant at Berrechid, Morocco—India’s first overseas and Morocco’s largest defence manufacturing facility.

About India’s Morocco Defence Facility:

  • Developer: Established by Tata Advanced Systems Limited (TASL) – India’s first overseas defence manufacturing facility and Morocco’s largest defence plant.
  • Scale & Capacity: Spread over 20,000 sq. m. with capacity to produce ~100 armoured vehicles annually.
  • Product: Focused on the Wheeled Armoured Platform (WhAP) 8×8, jointly developed by TASL and DRDO.
  • Variants: Modular designs include Infantry Fighting Vehicle, Armoured Personnel Carrier, Reconnaissance Vehicle, Command Post, Mortar Carrier, and Ambulance.
  • Operations: First deliveries to the Royal Moroccan Army scheduled for October 2025.

Significance:

  • Strategic Expansion: Extends India’s defence vision from Make in India to Make for the World.
  • Diplomatic Milestone: Symbolises stronger India–Morocco defence ties, marked by the first visit of an Indian Defence Minister to Morocco.
  • Economic & Employment Boost: Creates jobs in Morocco; 33% local sourcing of components (to increase to 50%).
  • Export Hub: Morocco’s location makes it a gateway to Africa and Europe, enhancing India’s defence export footprint.
  • Security Role: Enhances regional defence capacity and establishes India as a credible global supplier of armoured vehicles.
[UPSC 2017] What is the importance of developing Chabahar Port by India?

Options: (a) India’s trade with African countries will enormously increase.

(b) India’s relations with oil-producing Arab countries will be strengthened.

(c) India will not depend on Pakistan for access to Afghanistan and Central Asia. *

(d) Pakistan will facilitate and protect the installation of a gas pipeline between Iraq and India.

 

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AYUSH – Indian Medicine System

[23rd September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The growing relevance of traditional medicine

op-ed snap | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] How is the Government of India protecting traditional knowledge of medicine from patenting by pharmaceutical companies?

Linkage: The question on protecting traditional knowledge from patenting directly links with India’s global Ayurveda outreach and the WHO Global Traditional Medicine Centre, which focus on safeguarding and validating traditional systems. The article highlights India’s investment in research, standardisation, and international cooperation to integrate and protect Ayurveda while projecting it globally.

Mentor’s Comment

The significance of traditional medicine has moved far beyond being an alternative to modern healthcare. With its widespread practice across 170 countries, increasing global market share, and India’s leadership through AYUSH, traditional medicine now represents a paradigm shift from reactive to preventive healthcare. This article explores the transformation of traditional medicine, India’s global leadership, scientific validation, and its contemporary relevance in addressing both lifestyle diseases and climate change.

Introduction

Traditional medicine, once considered peripheral to mainstream health systems, is increasingly being recognised as central to global health. The World Health Organization reports that 88% of its member-states practise traditional medicine, making it a cornerstone of healthcare for billions. India, with its vibrant AYUSH sector, is at the forefront of this transformation — combining ancient wisdom with modern science, and positioning itself as a global leader in preventive, sustainable, and inclusive healthcare.

Why is traditional medicine in the news?

The growing relevance of Ayurveda and related systems has been highlighted due to multiple firsts and major developments. The WHO Global Traditional Medicine Centre in India marks a historic milestone, anchoring India as a hub for global research and innovation in this field. The AYUSH industry’s eight-fold growth within a decade, and exports reaching $1.54 billion to 150 countries, reflect the scale of transformation. With the 2025 theme of “Ayurveda for People & Planet”, traditional medicine is being reframed not just as healthcare but as a holistic movement addressing lifestyle diseases, biodiversity conservation, and climate change.

How significant is the global presence of traditional medicine?

  1. WHO report: 170 of 194 countries (88%) practise traditional medicine.
  2. Primary healthcare: For billions in low- and middle-income countries, it remains the first line of treatment due to affordability and accessibility.
  3. Market size: Global traditional medicine market projected to hit $583 billion by 2025, growing at 10–20% annually.
  4. Country data: China’s TCM valued at $122.4 billion, Australia’s herbal medicine at $3.97 billion, India’s AYUSH sector at $43.4 billion.

What has been India’s transformation in AYUSH?

  1. Industrial growth: Over 92,000 MSMEs drive the AYUSH sector. Revenues expanded from ₹21,697 crore (2014-15) to ₹1.37 lakh crore today.
  2. Services sector: Generated ₹1.67 lakh crore in revenue.
  3. Exports: AYUSH and herbal products worth $1.54 billion reach over 150 countries.
  4. Recognition abroad: Ayurveda now has formal recognition as a medical system in multiple nations.
  5. Public awareness: NSSO (2022-23) survey — 95% rural, 96% urban awareness; over half of India used AYUSH in the past year.

How is India promoting scientific validation and global outreach?

  1. Research institutions: AIIMS Ayurveda, National Institute of Ayurveda, and CCRAS focus on drug standardisation, clinical validation, and integrative care models.
  2. International cooperation: 25 bilateral agreements, 52 institutional partnerships, 43 AYUSH cells in 39 countries, 15 academic chairs abroad.
  3. WHO Centre: WHO Global Traditional Medicine Centre in India integrates traditional knowledge with AI, big data, and digital health.
  4. AI integration: WHO publication highlights AI’s role in predictive care and strengthening clinical validation.

Why is Ayurveda relevant to global challenges today?

  1. Philosophy of balance: Between body–mind, human–nature, consumption–conservation.
  2. Lifestyle diseases: Offers preventive care against rising global non-communicable diseases.
  3. Climate change: Promotes sustainability and biodiversity conservation.
  4. Beyond humans: Extends to veterinary care and plant health.
  5. Theme 2025: “Ayurveda for People & Planet” underlines Ayurveda as both a wellness system and a planetary health framework.

Conclusion

Traditional medicine, led by Ayurveda, has transitioned from being an ancient practice to a modern global movement. India’s leadership, backed by research, exports, and global outreach, has made it central to the evolving global health architecture. As the world faces lifestyle disorders and ecological crises, Ayurveda’s holistic framework offers sustainable solutions for both people and the planet.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-United States

With US withdrawing from multilateralism, India has both risks and opportunities

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Introduction

The United Nations (UN) was envisioned in 1945 as the cornerstone of a rules-based global order. Yet, 80 years later, it faces one of its gravest challenges. US President Donald Trump’s second term has unleashed a sweeping retreat from multilateralism, leaving the UN structurally weakened and financially strained. His push for sovereignty-driven unilateralism, withdrawal from critical agreements and institutions, and deep funding cuts have left a vacuum increasingly filled by China. For India, this turbulence is both a threat and an opportunity to shape a new multilateralism.

Trump’s Shift from Multilateralism to Unilateralism

  1. America First Doctrine: Trump has framed sovereignty as the fundamental principle of international relations, rejecting supra-nationalism.
  2. UN Critique: He claims to have done “a better job than the UN Security Council” in maintaining peace, boasting of “ending seven wars” within eight months of his second term.
  3. First-term precedent: Withdrawals from the Paris Agreement, UNESCO, Human Rights Council, Iran Nuclear Deal signalled this trend.
  4. Second-term escalation: Guided by Project 2025 (Heritage Foundation manifesto), Trump has cut >80% of US contributions to UN operations, including peacekeeping and global health.

How is the UN Being Undermined?

  1. Massive Funding Cuts: US contributions slashed from 22% to a fraction, crippling UN’s financial base.
  2. Institutional Withdrawals: Exit from WHO, UNESCO, Human Rights Council and halting support for the Paris Agreement & Climate Loss and Damage Fund.
  3. Policy Rejection: No support for sustainable development or climate mitigation under Trump’s agenda.
  4. Domestic Politics Spillover: Appeals to his populist base that frames liberals as “war party” and paints the UN as an obstruction.

China’s Expanding Role in Global Governance

  1. Strategic Positioning: Beijing systematically places its nationals in influential leadership, technical, and administrative posts.
  2. New Initiatives: Promotes “Global Development, Global Security, Global Civilisation, Global Governance” — aligned with the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
  3. Funding Power: Contributes around $680 million (~20% of UN budget), second only to the US.
  4. Outcome: While not yet supplanting US dominance, Chinese activism is making Beijing an indispensable player.

Decline of Multilateralism: A Structural Problem

  1. Historical High Point: Around 2000 with WTO launch & Millennium Development Goals.
  2. Erosion Factors: Populist nationalism, US-China rivalry, US-Russia vetoes paralyzing UNSC, and transatlantic divisions.
  3. Current Paralysis: Even humanitarian crises are stalled by veto politics.
  4. Reform Blockage: Calls for UNSC expansion remain frozen, while agencies face financial crisis and inefficiencies.

India’s Opportunities and Responsibilities

  1. Financial Contribution Gap: India contributes $38 million (<1%), far below its stature as the world’s 4th largest economy.
  2. Comparative Figures: US: $820 million (22%), China: $680 million (20%).
  3. Strategic Priorities: Instead of old demands (like UNSC expansion), India should focus on:
    1. AI governance
    2. North-South coalitions
    3. UN reforms for efficiency
  4. Moral Leadership: As a long-standing Global South champion, India must pay more and lead more to shape new rules.

Conclusion

The UN at 80 stands fragile, buffeted by American retreat and Chinese ambition. Trump’s second-term disruption has turned long-standing weaknesses into systemic crises. Yet, neither the US nor China enjoys universal legitimacy. For India, the moment is decisive: it can no longer lament but must shoulder the responsibility of building a multilateralism that works in an age of rivalry and rapid change.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] Too little cash, too much politics, leaves UNESCO fighting for life. Discuss the statement in the light of US’ withdrawal and its accusation of the cultural body as being ‘anti-Israel bias’.

Linkage: It highlights how US funding withdrawal and political accusations cripple UN agencies like UNESCO, leaving them under-resourced and delegitimised. Similarly, Trump’s second-term cuts — over 80% reduction in US contributions and exits from WHO, UNESCO, HRC — show how financial muscle and politics erode multilateral institutions.

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LGBT Rights – Transgender Bill, Sec. 377, etc.

Trans People deserve better

Explained | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Laws, Institutions & Bodies Constituted For The Vulnerable Sections

Introduction

The struggles of India’s transgender community highlight the deep chasm between constitutional guarantees of equality and the lived reality of marginalisation. Despite progressive measures such as the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019, welfare schemes, and quotas in education and employment, access to these rights often remains obstructed by bureaucracy, social prejudice, and tokenism. The issue is not confined to a minority group alone; it reflects a larger national loss of talent, creativity, and human capital. Denial of dignity and opportunities to gender minorities undermines India’s democratic fabric, making it imperative that policies move beyond symbolic gestures towards genuine representation, enforceable protections, and inclusive development. This article is a stark reminder that policy is not paperwork, but life itself.

Legal & Policy Framework for Transgender Rights in India:

Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019

  1. Comprehensive protections – The Act prohibits discrimination against transgender persons in education, employment, healthcare, housing, and access to public services.
  2. Legal recognition – It affirms the right of individuals to be recognised as transgender and ensures access to identity documents in accordance with their self-perceived gender.
  3. Obligations on institutions – Schools, workplaces, and healthcare institutions are legally bound to create safe, inclusive environments, though implementation remains weak.
  4. Critical limitation – While progressive, the Act has faced criticism for requiring medical boards’ involvement in recognising gender, which many activists argue undermines the principle of self-identification upheld in NALSA v. Union of India (2014).

NITI Aayog’s SDG India Index

  1. Measuring inclusivity – The Index tracks progress towards Sustainable Development Goals, with transgender inclusion mapped to SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities).
  2. Policy relevance – States are ranked on inclusivity measures, encouraging competitive federalism to adopt progressive policies.
  3. Limitations – Despite formal inclusion in metrics, ground-level impact remains limited, with most States lagging in transgender-specific initiatives.

National Portal for Transgender Persons (2020)

  1. Ease of certification – A digital platform was launched to streamline self-identification and certification of transgender persons without cumbersome physical verification.
  2. Access to welfare schemes – The portal links beneficiaries to scholarships, healthcare support, and livelihood initiatives.
  3. Barrier reduction – Aimed to reduce harassment and delays in government offices, but digital literacy and awareness remain challenges.

Government Schemes and Initiatives:

SMILE Scheme (2022)

  1. Full form: Support for Marginalised Individuals for Livelihood and Enterprise.
  2. Livelihood support – Offers vocational training, financial assistance, and rehabilitation to transgender persons and others in vulnerable conditions (e.g., beggars).
  3. Holistic rehabilitation – Focus on dignity through sustainable income opportunities, not just short-term aid.

Garima Greh (Shelter Homes for Transgender Persons)

  1. Safe housing – Provides temporary shelter to transgender persons in need, particularly those facing family rejection or homelessness.
  2. Rehabilitation support – Along with accommodation, offers skill-building, counselling, and reintegration programmes.
  3. Geographical spread – Shelters are being established in multiple States, though demand far outstrips supply.

National Transgender Welfare Board

  1. Advisory role – Created to guide and monitor welfare schemes, policies, and rights protection for transgender persons.
  2. Policy advocacy – Acts as a bridge between community needs and government initiatives.
  3. Challenge – Effectiveness has been questioned due to limited representation from grassroots transgender voices.

Why do policies remain hollow for transgender persons?

  1. Hollow quotas – Promises on paper, but weak implementation and bureaucratic humiliation in accessing them.
  2. Selective dispersal – Corruption and leakages mean benefits rarely reach genuine beneficiaries.
  3. Urban-rural gap – Schemes concentrated in cities, leaving rural transgender communities excluded.
  4. Insensitive officials – Lack of sensitisation among staff, police, and service providers reinforces stigma.
  5. Economic marginalisation – Limited job opportunities push many into begging or unsafe livelihoods.
  6. Weak accountability – No penalties for institutions failing to ensure inclusivity.
  7. Data deficit – Census undercounts transgender population, weakening policy design.
  8. Fragmented ecosystem – Welfare spread across ministries with poor coordination and monitoring.

Why is access to basic needs still a challenge?

  1. Considerable Population– Over 4.87 lakh individuals identified as transgender, under the ‘Other’ gender category as per the 2011 census.
  2. Housing discrimination – Landlords refuse to rent, neighbours ostracise, and societies erect silent barricades, denying stability.
  3. Public ridicule – Buses, markets, and streets are unsafe; everyday survival requires courage against humiliation.
  4. Hunger and survival – With families abandoning them, many trans persons face destitution, leaving them vulnerable to unsafe livelihoods.

How does exclusion repeat historical injustices?

  1. Historical parallels – Denial of rights to African-Americans and women earlier hollowed democracies; similarly, denying rights to trans persons repeats history’s mistakes.
  2. Loss of talent – Every trans child forced out of school means a lost scientist; every denied home displaces an artist; every humiliation silences a leader.

Why is representation in politics critical?

  1. Beyond symbolism – Representation is structural, not tokenistic. Without trans voices in legislatures, policies reproduce privilege and blind spots.
  2. Absence in institutions – No trans person has been appointed to media boards despite censor boards clearing derogatory content against them.

What are the urgent priorities for reform?

  1. Education – Scholarships, inclusive curricula, and anti-bullying measures are essential to prevent dropouts.
  2. Healthcare – Affordable, state-supported gender transition and mental health care; transition is survival, not cosmetic.
  3. Employment & housing – Anti-discrimination laws must be enforced with penalties, ensuring workplace inclusion and rental protections.

Way Forward

  1. Enforceable protections – Move from symbolic promises to penalties for violations in housing, jobs, and education.
  2. Political representation – Reserved seats or political pathways must ensure gender minorities are participants in policymaking.
  3. Educational reform – Gender-sensitive curricula and anti-bullying frameworks to prevent dropouts.
  4. Cultural shift – Mainstream media, schools, and workplaces must promote respect and positive representation, not ridicule.
  5. Holistic inclusion – From healthcare to public spaces, dignity must be guaranteed as a right, not charity.

Conclusion

The resilience of transgender persons cannot substitute for rights. A nation that sidelines its gender minorities sidelines its own conscience and potential. Policy must no longer be about trans persons but must be shaped with them. The denial of dignity is not a transgender issue—it is a national issue of justice, equality, and democratic maturity. India’s claim to global leadership will remain hollow until all its citizens, regardless of gender identity, can live with dignity.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] Development and welfare schemes for the vulnerable, by its nature, are discriminatory in approach.” Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.

Linkage: This article’s critique of hollow quotas and tokenistic welfare for transgender persons directly links to the PYQ by showing how schemes meant for the vulnerable, instead of empowering, often reinforce exclusion and discrimination.

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Freedom of Speech – Defamation, Sedition, etc.

Criminal Defamation in India

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Why in the News?

Justice M.M. Sundresh of the Supreme Court remarked that the time has come to decriminalise defamation, reflecting concern over its growing misuse.

Free Speech and Defamation: Constitutional Provisions

  • Article 19(1)(a): Freedom of speech & expression.
  • Article 19(2): Allows reasonable restrictions in the interests of:
    • Sovereignty & integrity of India.
    • Security of the State.
    • Friendly relations with foreign States.
    • Public order, decency or morality.
    • Contempt of court, defamation, or incitement to an offence.
  • Article 21: Right to reputation is part of right to life (Subramanian Swamy v. UOI, 2016).

What is Criminal Defamation?

  • Overview: Offence of harming a person’s character, fame, or reputation with false and malicious statements.

  • Forms:

    1. Libel: False defamatory statement in writing.
    2. Slander: False defamatory statement spoken orally.
  • Indian Context: Both libel & slander are criminal offences if made publicly.
  • Earlier IPC Section 499: Criminalised communication of false info harming reputation; punishment under IPC Section 500 – up to 2 years imprisonment.

  • Law under Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023:

    • Section 354(2) – punishment up to 2 years simple imprisonment, or fine, or both, or community service.
    • Section 356 – covers words, signs, or visible representations harming reputation.
  • Scope: Applies to individuals, companies, and deceased persons if family reputation is harmed.
  • Essential Elements: False statement, harm to reputation, communication to third party, and intent/knowledge of likely harm.
  • Nature of Offence: Non-cognizable and bailable – requires a warrant for arrest; bail available.
  • Digital Extension: Covers defamatory posts on social media, websites, and messaging platforms.
  • Defences/Exceptions: Truth in public interest, fair comment on public servants, judicial proceedings, public performances, and cautionary statements made in good faith.

Judicial Pronouncements related to Defamation:

  • Subramanian Swamy v. Union of India (2016): SC upheld constitutionality of IPC Sections 499 & 500; held that reputation is part of Article 21; criminal defamation valid under Article 19(2) restrictions.
  • Kaushal Kishore v. Union of India (2017): SC held no extra restrictions on free speech beyond Article 19(2).
  • Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015): SC struck down Section 66A of IT Act, calling it vague and violative of free speech.
  • Imran Pratapgarhi Case (March 2025): Court adopted the “reasonable person” test (Clapham omnibus standard), not that of overly sensitive individuals.
  • Recent Stays: SC stayed multiple cases (incl. against Rahul Gandhi and Shashi Tharoor) stressing courts should not be tools for political vendetta.
[UPSC 2014] What do you understand by the concept of “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.

[UPSC 2021] ‘Right to Privacy’ is protected under which Article of the Constitution of India?

Options: (a) Article 15 (b) Article 19 (c) Article 21 * (d) Article 29

 

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Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

Pollution in Indian Rivers: CPCB Report, 2023

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) released its latest assessment (2022–23) on the health of Indian rivers.

About Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB): 

  • Overview: Statutory body set up in September 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
  • Expanded mandate: Later entrusted with powers under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
  • Umbrella role: Serves as the technical arm of the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC), implementing provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

  • Principal Functions:

    1. Water pollution control: Promote cleanliness of streams and wells across states by preventing, controlling, and abating pollution; Oversee the National Water Quality Monitoring Program to collect, collate, and disseminate data.
    2. Air pollution control: Improve air quality and control emissions; Run the National Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP) to determine current status and trends. Regulate industrial pollution, provide baseline data for industrial siting and town planning.
    3. Data Management: Collects, collates, and disseminates technical and statistical data on air and water pollution.

  • Key Initiatives and Programs:

    • NAMP: Monitors air quality and pollution trends.
    • NAQI (National Air Quality Index): Offers real-time air quality data.
    • GRAP (Graded Response Action Plan): Measures graded interventions based on severity of pollution.
    • Clean Air Campaign: Awareness and enforcement measures for pollution reduction.

CPCB Assessment of Pollution in Indian Rivers:

Parameters & Definitions:

  • Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): It is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by microbes to break down organic matter.
    • Healthy river: BOD <3 mg/L.
    • Unfit for bathing: BOD >3 mg/L.
  • Polluted River Stretch (PRS): When two or more consecutive locations in a river exceed bathing criteria (BOD >3 mg/L).
  • Priority Classification (BOD levels):
    1. Priority 1: >30 mg/L → Most polluted, urgent remediation.
    2. Priority 2: 20–30 mg/L.
    3. Priority 3: 10–20 mg/L.
    4. Priority 4: 6–10 mg/L.
    5. Priority 5: 3–6 mg/L → least polluted category but still polluted.

Key Findings of the Report: 

  • Unfit bathing locations: 807 (2023) vs 815 (2022), shows marginal dip.
  • Polluted River Stretches (PRS): 296 stretches/locations across 271 rivers in 2023 vs 311 stretches in 279 rivers in 2022.
  • State-wise PRS (2023):
    1. Maharashtra: 54 (highest).
    2. Kerala: 31.
    3. Madhya Pradesh: 18.
    4. Manipur: 18.
    5. Karnataka: 14.
  • Most polluted states by Priority 1 (2023): Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand (5 each).
  • Most polluted states by Priority 1 (2022): Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh (6 each).
[UPSC 2017] Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for:

Options: (a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood

(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems

(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems *

(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high altitude regions

 

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

Optical Computing and AI with Light

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Finnish researchers showed that nonlinear optical fibres can perform AI tasks efficiently, advancing optical computing.

About Optical Computing:

  • Overview: A computer that uses light (photons) instead of electricity (electrons) to process data.
  • Why Important: Light is faster, makes less heat, and carries more data at once.
  • Technology Used: Runs through optical fibres, the same cables that carry internet data.
  • Main Challenge: Hard to control how light behaves, especially when it gets very strong and non-linear (changes colour, merges, or spreads).

Recent Breakthrough:

  • Research:
    • Turned images into light pulses.
    • Sent them through optical fibre where the light changed.
    • These changes acted like a hidden computing layer.
    • The system read the light at the other end to classify the images.
  • Results: Reached 91–93% accuracy, close to normal AI computers.

How can it help AI working?

  • Energy-efficient AI hardware: Can make faster and greener AI systems in the future.
  • Tech needs: New tools like photonic chips and optical neural networks before large-scale use.
[UPSC 2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?

(a) Cloud Services (b) Quantum Computing* (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies (d) Wireless Communication Technologies

 

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Super Typhoon Ragasa

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

Why in the News?

China is planning to evacuate 4 lakh people ahead of the landfall of Super Typhoon Ragasa.

Super Typhoon Ragasa

About Typhoon & Super Typhoon:

  • Typhoon: A tropical cyclone forming in the Western Pacific Ocean and China Sea, usually above sea temperatures of 27°C.
  • Formation: Warm, moist air rises and creates a low-pressure system with spiralling winds.
  • Super Typhoon: Defined by the US Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) as sustained winds of ≥240 km/h (some agencies use 185 km/h).
  • Structure:
    • Eye: Calm centre.
    • Eyewall:  Strongest winds and rainfall.
    • Spiral Rainbands: Bands of showers spreading outward.
  • Impacts: Can cause storm surges, coastal flooding, landslides, and destruction of infrastructure, agriculture, and homes.

Back2Basics: Tropical Cyclones

  • What is it: Large low-pressure systems over warm oceans, marked by rotating winds, heavy rain, and storm surges.
  • Conditions: Form when ocean temps >27°C, with moist rising air releasing latent heat to fuel convection.
  • Rotation: Driven by the Coriolis force – anticlockwise in Northern Hemisphere, clockwise in Southern.
  • Structure: Eye (calm), Eyewall (violent winds/rains), Rainbands (widespread showers).
  • Regional Names: Typhoons (Pacific), Hurricanes (Atlantic/Caribbean), Cyclones (Indian Ocean).
  • Drivers & Frequency: Common in Southeast Asia due to warm Pacific waters, El Niño/La Niña cycles, and climate change.
  • Impacts: Loss of life, property damage, flooding, soil salinisation, displacement, and disease outbreaks.
  • Climate Change Link: Global warming is making tropical cyclones stronger, less predictable, and more frequent, raising risks for coastal populations.

 

[UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:

1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only.

2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.

3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10°C lesser than that of the surroundings.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only * (d) 1 and 3 only

https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/china-to-evacuate-4-lakh-as-super-typhoon-ragasa-approaches/article70080064.ece

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Earth gains new tiny ‘Quasi-Moon’ 2025 PN7

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

Earth gains new tiny 'Quasi-Moon' 2025 PN7

Why in the News?

Astronomers have confirmed the discovery of asteroid 2025 PN7, Earth’s latest quasi-moon.

About Quasi-Moon 2025 PN7:

  • Discovery: First detected on 2 August 2025 by the Pan-STARRS 1 telescope in Hawaii; confirmed in September 2025 as Earth’s newest quasi-satellite.
  • Orbit: Circles the Sun, not Earth, but remains near Earth due to a 1:1 orbital resonance – meaning it completes one solar orbit in the same time as Earth.
  • Distance from Earth: At closest, ~299,000 km, similar to the Moon’s distance.
  • Physical Traits: Roughly 19 metres wide, very faint (magnitude 26.4), requiring large telescopes to track.
  • Orbital Parameters: Semi-major axis 1.003 AU (same as Earth), eccentricity 0.108 (slightly oval), inclination just under 2°.
  • Arjuna Nature: Fits the Arjuna asteroid class criteria – extremely Earth-like orbit, low eccentricity, and low inclination, making it appear as a temporary companion.
  • Stability: Expected to remain a quasi-satellite for ~128 years before shifting into another orbital configuration.

What is the Arjuna Asteroid Class?

  • Overview: A rare group of near-Earth objects (NEOs) with orbits closely matching Earth’s path around the Sun.
  • Etymology: Originated with the discovery of asteroid 1991 VG by astronomer Robert H. McNaught at the Siding Spring Observatory in Australia in 1991.
  • Name Origin: Inspired by Arjuna from the Mahabharata – symbolising fast-moving and elusive objects.
  • Special Traits:
    • Can approach Earth more closely than most asteroid families.
    • Sometimes become temporary mini-moons or quasi-satellites.
    • Have relatively low relative velocities, making them attractive for spacecraft missions.
  • Scientific Importance:
    • Offer natural laboratories for studying orbital resonance and gravitational effects.
    • Useful for testing asteroid mining and redirection technologies.
    • Significant for planetary defence, since tracking their movements refines collision risk predictions.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following pairs:

Object in space – Description

1. Cepheids – Giant clouds of dust and gas in space

2. Nebulae – Stars which brighten and dim periodically

3. Pulsars – Neutron stars that, are formed when massive stars run out of fuel and collapse

How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?

(a) Only one * (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

 

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Nuclear Energy

[22nd September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Uranium unrest: On uranium mining in Meghalaya

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] Policy contradictions among various competing sectors and stakeholders have resulted in inadequate ‘protection and prevention of degradation’ to the environment. Comment with relevant illustration

Linkage: The uranium mining push in Meghalaya illustrates a clear policy contradiction, India’s strategic and energy security imperatives versus constitutional safeguards for Scheduled/Tribal Areas and environmental sustainability. The Centre’s OM exempting uranium from public consultation shows how national security priorities often override local consent and ecological concerns, leading to inadequate protection. Thus, it serves as a live illustration of competing sectoral interests producing environmental degradation risks.

Mentor’s Comment

India’s renewed push for uranium mining in Meghalaya, despite strong tribal opposition, has reopened debates on resource governance, environmental justice, and constitutional safeguards. For UPSC aspirants, this case is not only about Meghalaya but about how India manages its uranium reserves, balances national security with sustainability, and navigates the tensions between state imperatives and community consent. This article integrates the editorial’s concerns with a broader analysis of uranium mining in India and its implications.

Introduction

The Union Environment Ministry’s office memorandum (OM) exempting uranium and other strategic minerals from public consultation has intensified unrest in Meghalaya. Tribal Khasi groups, opposing uranium extraction since the 1980s, see this as a denial of their constitutional and cultural rights. At the same time, India’s nuclear ambitions make uranium strategically vital. This tension between energy security and indigenous consent places India at a crucial crossroads of democratic governance and resource management.

Why is this in the news?

The Centre’s attempt to mine uranium in Meghalaya, against the backdrop of decades-long opposition, is a landmark moment in India’s mineral politics. For the first time, an executive order (OM) has bypassed community consultations for uranium mining. Given the toxic environmental footprint of uranium mining and its irreversible impact on tribal lands, the issue has become both a governance crisis and an ecological flashpoint.

What is the history of uranium mining resistance in Meghalaya?

  1. Khasi opposition since the 1980s: Resistance in Domiasiat and Wahkaji has endured for four decades.
  2. Distrust from Jharkhand experience: Singhbhum mines faced protests due to radiation exposure and livelihood loss.
  3. Procedural unfairness: Hearings often conducted in unfamiliar languages, ignoring objections.

Why is the new Office Memorandum controversial?

  1. Exempts strategic mineral mining from public consultation, silencing affected communities.
  2. Issued without parliamentary scrutiny, showing executive overreach.
  3. Weakens constitutional safeguards, turning stewards of the land into bystanders in decisions affecting their survival.

What constitutional and legal protections are at stake?

  1. Sixth Schedule: Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council may invoke its autonomy.
  2. Judicial precedents: Niyamgiri (2013) recognized the primacy of tribal consent.
  3. Fifth and Sixth Schedules: Provide a strong legal basis for resistance.
  4. Global principle of FPIC (Free, Prior, and Informed Consent): Ignored in this decision.

Why is uranium mining a risky proposition?

  1. Environmental hazards: Radioactive waste and contamination of water sources.
  2. Human health risks: Increased cases of radiation-linked illnesses reported in Singhbhum.
  3. Cultural disruption: Tribal communities lose ancestral land and cultural heritage.
  4. Short-term security vs long-term sustainability: Overemphasis on uranium undermines renewable energy pathways.

Uranium Mining in India – An Overview

Where is uranium mined in India?

  1. Jharkhand (Singhbhum district): Oldest uranium mines; key hub of Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL).
  2. Andhra Pradesh (Tummalapalle, Kadapa district): Estimated to be one of the world’s largest uranium reserves (~150,000 tonnes).
  3. Telangana (Nalgonda district): Lambapur-Peddagattu reserves.
  4. Meghalaya (Domiasiat, Wahkaji): Rich reserves but stalled due to tribal opposition.
  5. Rajasthan (Rohil in Sikar district): Exploratory work underway.

What are the requirements and process of uranium mining?

  1. Requirement of Environmental Clearances: Normally includes public consultation, impact assessments, and Forest Rights Act compliance (bypassed in the new OM).
  2. Mining process:
    • Open-cast mining: Surface excavation, highly polluting.
    • Underground mining: Safer but expensive.
    • Processing: Crushing ore, followed by leaching (acid/alkaline) to extract uranium oxide (yellowcake).
    • Radiation management: Requires robust safeguards in waste disposal, tailing ponds, and worker protection—areas where India has faced criticism.

India’s standing in global uranium context

  1. Global reserves: Australia, Kazakhstan, Canada, Russia dominate.
  2. India’s share: About 1-2% of world reserves, modest compared to global leaders.
  3. Import dependence: Despite domestic efforts, India imports uranium from Kazakhstan, Russia, Uzbekistan, Canada.
  4. Nuclear energy contribution: Currently ~3% of India’s electricity; goal is 9-10% by 2040.

Implications for India

  1. Energy security: Indigenous uranium critical for India’s nuclear power expansion under India’s three-stage nuclear program.
  2. Geopolitical leverage: Imports expose India to supply shocks and diplomatic constraints.
  3. Environmental justice: Mining projects risk alienating tribal populations and worsening ecological fragility.

How should the state respond?

  1. Withdraw the OM to restore procedural legitimacy.
  2. Respect community consent to prevent democratic erosion.
  3. Explore alternatives like thorium-based nuclear energy (where India has rich reserves) and renewable energy strategies.
  4. Promote dialogue, not coercion, to avoid long-term alienation of tribal groups.

Conclusion

The uranium debate in Meghalaya is about much more than mining, it is about the soul of Indian democracy. By sidelining constitutional protections and environmental concerns, the state risks sacrificing long-term legitimacy for short-term gains. India’s future energy security cannot come at the cost of tribal survival, ecological stability, and democratic consent. A sustainable pathway lies in inclusive governance, diversified energy strategies, and respect for constitutional safeguards.

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