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Month: November 2025

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Land Reforms

Watandari System of Land Revenue

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Why in the News?

An inquiry has been ordered into a Pune land deal over alleged irregularities and undervaluation of 40 acres of a Watandari land.

What is the Watan / Watandari System?

  • Overview: A hereditary land tenure and revenue-rights system once prevalent in Maharashtra and the Deccan, granting Watan lands to individuals or families for performing state or village services.
  • Historical Origin: Evolved under the Rashtrakutas, Deccan Sultanates, and Mughals to institutionalise local governance through hereditary offices.
  • Purpose: Created to compensate local officials and functionaries (like village heads, accountants, or priests) through land revenue rights rather than direct salaries.
  • Administrative Role: Integrated local elite families into the state’s fiscal system, ensuring continuity of governance and tax collection.
  • Socio-Economic Character: Reflected the fusion of land, caste, and service, forming a semi-feudal agrarian order at the village level.

Key Features of the Watan System:

  • Hereditary Tenure: Watan rights and duties passed from one generation to another, often within the same lineage.
  • Service-Based Grant: Land given as compensation for hereditary duties– administrative, military, or religious, performed for the state.
  • Watandars: Holders included Patils, Kulkarnis, Deshmukhs, Josis, and Purohits, each tied to specific village roles.
  • Non-Transferability: Watan lands were non-saleable and non-alienable, as tenure depended on continued public service.
  • Revenue Rights: Watandars retained a share of village revenue in lieu of fixed payment, ensuring local autonomy.
  • Caste-Linked Hierarchy: Reinforced hereditary privilege and caste dominance within village administration.
  • Decline and Inefficiency: Over time, hereditary claims caused disputes, mismanagement, and reduced accountability.
[UPSC 2024] With reference to revenue collection by Cornwallis, consider the following statements:
1. Under the Ryotwari Settlement of revenue collection, the peasants were exempted from revenue payment in case of bad harvests or natural calamities.
2. Under the Permanent Settlement in Bengal, if the Zamindar failed to pay his revenues to the state on or before the fixed date, he would be removed from his Zamindari.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

Civil War in Sudan

World Mapping | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Why in the News?

The United Nations Secretary-General has warned that the civil war in Sudan is “spiralling out of control” after the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) seized the strategic Darfur city of El-Fasher.

Civil War in Sudan

About the Civil War in Sudan:

  • Outbreak: Began in April 2023 between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) led by Gen. Abdel Fattah al-Burhan and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) led by Gen. Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo (Hemedti).
  • Causes: Rooted in Sudan’s failed democratic transition after the 2019 overthrow of Omar al-Bashir and the October 2021 military coup.
  • Immediate Trigger: Power struggle over RSF integration into the national army under the proposed political framework agreement.
  • Conflict Spread: Fighting engulfed Khartoum, Omdurman, and Darfur, causing massive civilian casualties and infrastructure collapse.
  • Humanitarian Toll: Over 8.5 million displaced, famine conditions emerging, and public health systems near total breakdown.
  • Atrocities: Both sides accused of war crimes, ethnic killings, and looting, particularly in Darfur.
  • Territorial Shift: RSF’s capture of El-Fasher (2025) consolidated its control over western Sudan.
  • Foreign Actors: Egypt supports SAF; UAE and Russia’s Wagner Group back RSF, fuelling proxy dynamics.

What Lies Ahead?

  • Risk of Partition: Sudan may split RSF holding the west, SAF dominating the northeast, leading to de-facto fragmentation.
  • Regional Destabilisation: Prolonged conflict could spill into the Horn of Africa and Red Sea corridor, worsening insecurity.
  • Political Outlook: Civilian transition appears remote; both factions remain focused on military dominance.
  • Economic Collapse: Inflation above 250%, agricultural failure deepening food insecurity.
  • Regional Impact: Refugee influx threatens Chad, South Sudan, and Ethiopia with cross-border instability.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following pairs: Country Reason for being in the news
1. Argentina Worst economic crisis
2. Sudan War between the country’s regular army and paramilitary forces
3. Turkey Rescinded its membership of NATO
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
Options: (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs* (c) All three pairs (d) None of the pairs

 

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Global Study on Biomass Movement

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

A new study published in Nature Ecology & Evolution highlights how species mobility, measured as biomass movement, shapes ecosystems and reflects human ecological dominance.

About the Concept of Biomass Movement:

  • Overview: Biomass movement is the product of a species’ total biomass and the distance it travels annually, representing the mass of living matter displaced across ecosystems each year.
    • Biomass movement = (Total biomass of a species) × (Distance it travels annually).
  • Purpose: Quantifies how living organisms contribute to nutrient transport, seed dispersal, and energy flow through movement.
  • Comparative Metric: Enables cross-species comparison of ecological influence via mobility, bridging animal ecology and global biogeography.
  • Analytical Value: Provides a standardised ecological indicator to study both natural migrations and human-induced mobility patterns.
  • Anthropocene Context: Serves as a unified measure of ecological and energetic impact in a human-dominated epoch.
  • Scientific Basis: Concept explored in Nature Ecology & Evolution (2025) to assess species-level and anthropogenic movement on a global scale.

Key Highlights with Example:

  • Arctic Tern: Weighing ~100 g, travels ~90,000 km annually (Arctic–Antarctica circuit), the longest animal migration known.
  • Collective Biomass Movement: Two million terns contribute only 0.016 gt/km/yr, due to low body mass despite vast distances.
  • Grey Wolf: Records 0.03 gt/km/yr, higher due to larger body size and wider terrestrial range.
  • Serengeti Migration: Over a million wildebeests, gazelles, and zebras generate biomass movement 20× greater than wolves.
  • Human Parallel: The total biomass moved in the FIFA World Cup equals that of major animal migrations, highlighting scale disparity between species.

Human Biomass Movement and Its Consequences:

  • Magnitude: Humans move an estimated ~4,000 gt/km/yr, the largest on Earth, 40× greater than all wild land mammals combined.
  • Mobility Patterns: Average human travels 30 km/day, mostly motorised, 65% by cars/motorcycles, 10% by air, 5% by rail.
  • Economic Disparity: Two-thirds of total human mobility occurs in high- and upper-middle-income countries, reflecting global inequality.
  • Ecological Effects: Drives carbon emissions, urban sprawl, resource depletion, and land fragmentation.
  • Marine Decline: Marine animal mobility has halved since 1850 due to industrial fishing and whaling.
  • Livestock Factor: Domesticated cattle show biomass movement comparable to humans, indicating the ecological weight of livestock farming.
  • Wildlife Contrast: Combined biomass movement of all wild land mammals (excluding bats) is only 30 gt/km/yr, underscoring human dominance.
  • Anthropocene Insight: Demonstrates that human and domesticated animal mobility now defines Earth’s biogeochemical and ecological motion.

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Electoral Reforms In India

[6th November 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The malleable Code of Conduct

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People's Act

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in the light of the evolution of the Model Code of Conduct.

Linkage: It explores how the Election Commission’s authority evolved through the MCC. It assesses the effectiveness in upholding electoral fairness amid growing political violations.

Mentor’s Comment

The Model Code of Conduct (MCC) represents India’s democratic conscience. It is a self-imposed ethical framework ensuring that elections are fought on fairness, not power misuse. Yet, the political ingenuity in bypassing it reflects a deeper erosion of moral restraint in governance. With recent welfare disbursements in Bihar triggering debate, the MCC stands at a crossroads between relevance and redundancy.

Introduction

The Model Code of Conduct is an ethical framework evolved through consensus among political parties to ensure level competition during elections. It prevents the misuse of official machinery, state resources, and authority to influence voters. However, repeated violations especially by governments announcing pre-poll cash transfers or populist projects show that while the MCC binds in letter, its spirit is increasingly compromised.

Why in the News

The Mukhyamantri Mahila Rojgar Yojana (MMRY) launched in Bihar in August 2025 has reignited the debate over MCC violations. Cash disbursements continued into late October and early November, overlapping with the election schedule. Though legally permissible, the scheme’s timing tilted public perception toward favouring the ruling party, raising serious concerns about the sanctity of the electoral process. The controversy marks another instance where governments use public funds to gain electoral mileage, undermining the spirit of the MCC.

Genesis and Purpose of the MCC

  1. Origin and Evolution: The MCC was first used during the 1960 Assembly elections in Kerala, and later adopted nationwide by the Election Commission of India (ECI) during the 1962 general elections.
  2. Consensus Document: It was not enacted by Parliament but evolved through agreement among political parties.
  3. Formal Enforcement: The Model Code of Conduct was first issued by the Election Commission of India under the title of ‘Minimum Code of Conduct’ on September 26, 1968 during the Mid-Term Elections 1968-69. The code was further revised in 1979, 1982, 1991 and 2013
  4. Core Purpose: Ensures free, fair, and peaceful elections by preventing misuse of government machinery and undue influence over voters.

When It Is Applicable and Who Enforces It

  1. Trigger Point: The MCC comes into effect immediately from the date the Election Commission announces the election schedule.
  2. Duration: It remains in force until the declaration of election results.
  3. Enforcing Authority: The Election Commission of India is the sole authority for its enforcement and interpretation.
  4. Withdrawal: The MCC automatically ceases once the results are officially declared by the ECI.

What Gets Suspended Under the MCC

  1. Policy Announcements: Ministers and authorities cannot announce new projects, financial grants, or inaugurate schemes that may influence voters.
  2. Public Advertisements: No use of government funds for publicity of achievements or campaigns during this period.
  3. Transfers and Appointments: Major administrative transfers or appointments in departments are prohibited unless approved by the EC.
  4. Use of Official Machinery: Government vehicles, buildings, and personnel cannot be used for electioneering.
  5. Foundation Stones or Inaugurations: These are disallowed if they could project partisan benefit.

What Is Permitted During MCC

  1. Ongoing Projects: Continuing existing schemes and projects (initiated before MCC enforcement) is allowed if there’s no modification or new announcement.
  2. Routine Governance: Day-to-day administration and delivery of essential services can continue.
  3. Emergency Actions: Governments can act during natural disasters or emergencies with EC approval.
  4. Election Campaigning: Political parties are free to campaign, release manifestos, and address voters, provided they follow EC guidelines on ethics and expenditure.

The Challenge of “Violations in Spirit”

Despite the clarity of rules, violations persist:

  1. Cash Schemes: Governments frequently announce last-minute transfers to favourable groups.
  2. Symbolic Launches: Old projects are rebranded as new initiatives to gain media traction.
  3. Moral Erosion: Such acts violate the spirit of fairness, reducing elections to a contest of resource deployment rather than ideas.
  4. Quote Insight: As Shakespeare’s Hamlet said, the MCC is often “more honoured in the breach than in the observance.”

Legal Status and Enforcement Issues

  1. Voluntary Nature: The MCC is a moral code, not a legal statute.
  2. Legal Overlap: Specific violations may be prosecuted under the Representation of the People Act, 1951, or Indian Penal Code (IPC).
  3. 2013 Standing Committee View: Recommended making MCC legally binding, but EC preferred flexibility due to the short election window.
  4. Judicial Constraints: Courts find it difficult to act swiftly during elections, leaving real-time violations unchecked.

Impact on Democratic Integrity

  1. Erosion of Level Playing Field: Pre-poll welfare schemes distort voter perception.
  2. Loss of Trust: Frequent violations weaken public confidence in EC neutrality.
  3. Ethical Degradation: Turning elections into transactional exercises undermines constitutional morality.
  4. Institutional Burden: Constant MCC imposition hampers governance continuity, hence the push for simultaneous elections.

Way Forward

  1. Legal Backing with Flexibility: Grant partial statutory status to the MCC to enhance enforceability while retaining EC’s discretion for quick decisions during elections.
  2. Swift Adjudication Mechanism: Establish fast-track EC tribunals for resolving MCC violation complaints within days, not weeks.
  3. Transparent Public Disclosure: Mandate real-time publication of EC orders and violations to ensure accountability and deter misconduct.
  4. Institutional Empowerment: Strengthen EC’s independence by insulating it from executive interference in appointments and funding.
  5. Ethical Political Culture: Political parties should adopt internal codes of ethics and conduct public pledges to uphold MCC principles.
  6. Simultaneous Elections Debate: Explore synchronizing elections to reduce frequent MCC enforcement disruptions and policy paralysis.
  7. Civic Awareness: Promote voter education campaigns to build public pressure against MCC violations and ethical breaches.

Conclusion

The Model Code of Conduct is not just an election rulebook, it is a mirror reflecting the ethical health of Indian democracy. When leaders manipulate it, they erode not just electoral fairness but the foundational trust between citizen and state. The MCC must therefore be strengthened, through legal clarity, swift EC action, and moral political leadership, so that it remains a living instrument of democracy, not a symbolic ritual.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

India AI: Governance Guidelines

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Introduction

Artificial Intelligence has evolved from an assistive tool to an autonomous decision-maker, influencing governance, economy, security, and social life. Recognizing both its potential and perils, the Government of India, through MeitY’s drafting committee (July 2025), released the India AI Governance Guidelines.It is  rooted in the vision of “AI for All”. The framework aims to foster inclusive growth, innovation, and ethical use of AI, ensuring that India’s AI journey is safe, transparent, and globally credible.

Why in the News

For the first time, India has articulated a unified, principle-based framework on AI governance, a techno-legal and institutional roadmap aligning AI with constitutional values and national priorities. It promotes voluntary frameworks over strict regulation marking a shift from restraint to responsible innovation.

What are the Core Principles Guiding India’s AI Governance?

  1. Seven Sutras: Trust, People First, Innovation over Restraint, Fairness & Equity, Accountability, Understandable by Design, Safety, Resilience & Sustainability. These are adapted from the RBI’s FREE-AI Committee report and designed to be sector-neutral and technology-agnostic.
  2. Trust as Foundation: Builds confidence in AI systems by ensuring transparency, safety, and ethical use.
  3. People First: Emphasizes human oversight and empowerment, preventing machine dominance.
  4. Innovation over Restraint: Encourages experimentation with accountability, not prohibition.
  5. Fairness & Equity: Prevents algorithmic discrimination and digital exclusion.

How Does the Framework Promote AI Development and Infrastructure?

  1. Compute Expansion: Over 38,000 GPUs made available to startups and researchers at subsidized rates.
  2. AIKosh Data Platform: Houses 1,500 datasets and 217 models from 20 sectors, ensuring data accessibility with privacy.
  3. Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI): Combines Aadhaar, UPI, and Bhashini for scalable, low-cost AI deployment.
  4. MSME Enablement: AI-linked loans via SIDBI & Mudra, tax rebates for certified AI adoption, and starter packs for sectors like textiles and logistics.

How Does India Address Risk and Regulation in AI?

  1. Balanced Regulation: No separate AI law yet existing laws (IT Act, DPDP Act, Copyright Act, etc.) govern AI harms.
  2. Key Risk Areas: Deepfakes, data poisoning, discrimination, loss of control, national security threats.
  3. India-specific Risk Framework: Classifies harms empirically and promotes voluntary, proportionate compliance.
  4. Content Authentication: Suggests watermarking and provenance tools aligned with global C2PA standards.

How Will Institutions Enforce AI Safety and Accountability?

  1. AI Governance Group (AIGG): Apex inter-ministerial body chaired by the Principal Scientific Adviser, coordinating AI policy across ministries.
  2. Technology & Policy Expert Committee (TPEC): Offers domain expertise on law, data, security, and governance.
  3. AI Safety Institute (AISI): Anchors technical safety, risk research, and international collaborations like the Global Network of AI Safety Institutes.
  4. Accountability Measures:
    • Graded Liability System based on role and risk.
    • Transparency Reports, Grievance Redressal Systems, Peer Monitoring, and Self-certifications for compliance.

What is India’s Global and Long-term Vision for AI Governance?

  1. Foresight & Diplomacy: Positions India as a voice of the Global South in AI governance debates (G20, UN, OECD).
  2. AI Incident Reporting System: Centralised database tracking AI harms for national security and regulatory learning.
  3. Techno-Legal Architecture: Concepts like DEPA for AI Training embed consent and privacy by design.
  4. Action Plan:
    • Short-term: Build institutions and awareness.
    • Medium-term: Develop standards, risk frameworks, and legal clarity.
    • Long-term: Evolve global leadership and adaptive legal frameworks.

Conclusion

India’s AI Governance Guidelines represent a paradigm shift from regulation to enablement, balancing innovation with public trust. By rooting governance in human values, institutional cooperation, and digital infrastructure, India positions itself as a responsible AI power, one that prioritizes inclusivity, transparency, and resilience. The framework sets a precedent for the Global South, reflecting India’s vision of “AI for All, AI for Good”.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] e-governance, as a critical tool of governance, has ushered in effectiveness, transparency and accountability in governments. What inadequacies hamper the enhancement of these features?

Linkage: The AI Governance Guidelines integrate e-governance and AI to improve transparency, accountability, and citizen-centricity. This addresses the same governance challenges this question targets.

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Freedom of Speech – Defamation, Sedition, etc.

What constitutes Contempt of Court in India

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

Introduction

Recent remarks made against the Chief Justice of India and the Supreme Court have sparked nationwide debate on whether such statements amount to contempt of court. This incident is significant as it goes beyond personal criticism, it questions the authority of India’s top court and raises issues regarding the balance between free speech and judicial independence. The spread of such remarks through social media amplifies their impact, prompting discussions about protecting the dignity of the judiciary while upholding democratic accountability.

Understanding the Concept of Contempt

  1. Constitutional Reference: The term ‘contempt of court’ appears in Article 19(2) as a valid ground for imposing reasonable restrictions on freedom of speech and expression.
  2. Lack of Procedural Guidelines: The Constitution does not specify how contempt proceedings should be initiated; these are governed by statutory provisions.
  3. Courts of Record: Under Articles 129 and 215, the Supreme Court and High Courts are designated as Courts of Record, implying their judgments serve as precedents and they possess the power to punish for contempt.

Types of Contempt and Their Legal Basis

  1. Governing Law: The Contempt of Courts Act, 1971 provides the legal framework for contempt proceedings.
  2. Classification: Section 2(a) of the Act divides contempt into civil and criminal.
    • Civil Contempt: Wilful disobedience of any court judgment, decree, direction, or undertaking.
    • Criminal Contempt: Publication or act that:
      • Scandalizes or lowers the authority of any court.
      • Prejudices or interferes with judicial proceedings.
      • Obstructs the administration of justice.

How Contempt Differs from Mere Disobedience

  1. Broader Implication: Contempt extends beyond disobedience. It encompasses disruption of justice delivery and diminishing public faith in the judiciary.
  2. Objective: Ensures that the judicial process remains uninfluenced and the authority of courts remains intact.
  3. Public Order Impact: Any act that weakens confidence in the justice system indirectly threatens the rule of law.

Freedom of Criticism vs Judicial Dignity

  1. Legitimate Criticism: The law recognizes that fair criticism of judicial decisions is not contempt.
  2. Boundary of Legality: Criticism crosses into contempt when it transgresses limits of fairness, becomes malicious, or undermines the authority of the court.
  3. Balance Required: Maintaining equilibrium between transparency and respect for institutions is vital to constitutional morality.

Significance of Recent Controversy

  1. Erosion of Judicial Authority: Remarks against the Chief Justice are not just personal; they symbolically attack the institution itself.
  2. Amplification via Social Media: Online circulation transforms isolated opinions into mass narratives, posing greater risks to judicial credibility.
  3. Trigger for Debate: Highlights the need for clear boundaries between criticism, activism, and contempt, particularly in digital public discourse.

Conclusion

Contempt of court serves as a constitutional safeguard for maintaining judicial integrity and authority. However, in a democracy, constructive criticism is vital for institutional reform. The challenge lies in ensuring that such criticism remains responsible, reasoned, and respectful. As public discourse migrates online, India’s legal system must re-examine the contours of contempt to preserve both judicial dignity and freedom of speech, two essential pillars of constitutional morality.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] Do you think that the Constitution of India does not accept the principle of strict separation of powers rather it is based on the principle of checks and balances? Explain.

Linkage: This topic is important for both Prelims and Mains. While direct questions can be asked in both, in the mains examination it can be well integrated into various judicial topics. Like in this 2019 question, contempt jurisdiction is part of this checks-and-balances system. Judicial contempt powers are mechanisms for internal checks within the democratic structure.

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Panchayati Raj Institutions: Issues and Challenges

Mayor in India

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Panchayats & Local Bodies

Why in the News?

Zohran Mamdani of Indian-origin has been elected as the mayor of New York City.

Mayor in India:

  • Overview: The Mayor serves as the head of a Municipal Corporation, responsible for urban governance, civic infrastructure, and local service delivery in large cities.
  • Basis: Institutionalised under the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, which gave constitutional status to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and transferred 18 functional subjects to them.
  • Administrative Framework: Municipal corporations function under state municipal laws, operating under the supervision of state urban development departments.
  • Historical Context: The first municipal corporation was created in Madras (1688), followed by Bombay and Calcutta (1762) under British rule.
  • Evolution of the office: The idea of an elected municipal President was first introduced through Lord Mayo’s Resolution (1870). The present form of local self-government was shaped by Lord Ripon’s Resolution (1882), earning him the title “Father of Local Self-Government in India.”
  • Election and Tenure:
    • Direct Election: Citizens directly elect the Mayor in cities like Bhopal, Indore, and Jaipur.
    • Indirect Election: Elected councillors choose the Mayor in cities like Mumbai, Delhi, and Bengaluru.
    • Tenure: Varies from 1 to 5 years, depending on state-specific legislation.
  • Powers and Functions:
    • Ceremonial Role: Acts as the first citizen of the city, representing it in official and public functions.
    • Presiding Officer: Chairs meetings of the Municipal Corporation and ensures smooth deliberations.
    • Limited Executive Power: Administrative authority lies with the Municipal Commissioner (IAS officer) appointed by the state government.
    • Policy and Representation: Serves as a political leader and civic advocate, voicing urban development concerns.

How a Mayor in India differ from a Mayor in the U.S.?

India U.S.
System Type Parliamentary model under state supervision Executive or presidential city model
Election Usually indirectly elected by councillors Directly elected by citizens
Tenure 1–5 years, varies by state Fixed 4-year term, renewable once
Administrative Power Ceremonial, executive power with Commissioner Full executive control over departments and budget
Financial Authority Dependent on state approval Autonomous budgetary power (e.g., NYC manages $120+ bn)
Legislative Role Chairs council meetings Can veto bills and issue executive orders
Autonomy Subordinate to state Semi-autonomous, independent within city jurisdiction
Nature of Office Symbolic and representational Powerful executive, city-level head of government

 

[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

1. Powers of the Municipalities are given in Part IX A of the Constitution.

2. Emergency provisions are given in Part XVIII of the Constitution.

3. Provisions related to the amendment of the Constitution are given in Part XX of the Constitution.

Select the answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

 

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Indian Navy Updates

[pib] Indian Navy commissions INS Ikshak

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Why in the News?

The Indian Navy has commissioned INS Ikshak, the third Survey Vessel (Large) (SVL) and the first to be based at the Southern Naval Command, at Naval Base Kochi.

About INS Ikshak:

  • Overview: It is the third vessel of the Survey Vessel (Large) [SVL] class and the first to be based at the Southern Naval Command.
  • Series Lineage: Third ship in the SVL series, following INS Sandhayak and INS Nirdeshak, replacing older Sandhayak-class vessels.
  • Builder & Origin: Constructed by Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE) Ltd., Kolkata, under Aatmanirbhar Bharat, with over 80% indigenous content sourced from Indian MSMEs.
  • Name Meaning: Means ‘Guide’ in Sanskrit – symbolising its role in charting unexplored waters and strengthening maritime safety in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
  • Mission Role: Designed primarily for hydrographic surveys but also configured for Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) operations and can serve as a hospital ship during crises.

Key Features:

  • Dimensions & Displacement: 110 m long, 16 m wide, 3,400-ton displacement, with crew capacity of ~231 personnel.
  • Propulsion & Speed: Powered by twin main engines and twin-shaft configuration; achieves 14 knots cruising speed, 18 knots maximum.
  • Survey Systems: Equipped with multi-beam echo sounder, Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV), Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV), four Survey Motor Boats (SMBs), and advanced oceanographic sensors for coastal and deep-water mapping.
  • Aviation Facility: Features a helicopter deck, extending its range, reconnaissance, and operational versatility.
  • Dual Role Capability: Convertible for HADR and medical missions, enhancing naval disaster-response capability.
  • Gender-Inclusive Design: India’s first survey vessel with dedicated accommodation for women officers and sailors.
[UPSC 2016] Which one of the following is the best description of ‘INS Astradharini’, that was in the news recently?
Options: (a) Amphibious warfare ship
(b) Nuclear-powered submarine
(c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel *
(d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier

 

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Gravitational Wave Observations

Clearest Black Hole Merger signal allows probe of Hawking’s Law

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Researchers have detected the clearest gravitational wave signal, GW250114, from merging black holes, confirming Stephen Hawking’s 1971 Black Hole Area Theorem.

Clearest Black Hole Merger signal allows probe of Hawking’s Law

About GW250114:

  • Overview: GW250114 is the clearest gravitational wave signal ever detected, observed on January 14, 2025, by LIGO (US), Virgo (Italy), and KAGRA (Japan).
  • What Happened: It came from the collision of two black holes, each about 30 times the Sun’s mass, located 1.3 billion light-years away.
  • Importance: Published in Physical Review Letters (Sept 2025), it gave the strongest proof of Stephen Hawking’s Black Hole Area Theorem (1971) and confirmed Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity.

Back2Bascis: Black Holes

  • Overview: A black hole is a region in space where gravity is so strong that even light cannot escape.
  • Formation: Created when a massive star collapses after using up its fuel.
  • Types:
  1. Stellar Black Holes – formed from dead stars.
  2. Supermassive Black Holes – at the centre of galaxies.
  3. Intermediate or Primordial – smaller or early-universe types.
  • Properties: Defined by mass, spin, and charge; grow by absorbing matter or merging with other black holes.

What is a Black Hole Merger?

  • Process: Two black holes orbit each other, come closer, and finally collide to form a bigger black hole.
  • Phases:
  1. Inspiral – they lose energy and move inward.
  2. Merger – they collide, sending out gravitational waves.
  3. Ringdown – the new black hole settles down.
  • Observation: These mergers create powerful ripples in spacetime called gravitational waves, first detected by LIGO in 2015.

What is the Hawking’s Black Hole Area Theorem (1971)?

  • Idea: The total surface area of black holes never decreases — it can only stay the same or increase.
  • Analogy: Similar to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, where disorder (entropy) always increases.
  • Meaning: When two black holes merge, the new black hole’s surface area is greater than or equal to the combined areas of the originals.
  • Proof: The GW250114 event (2025) confirmed this by showing that the total area increased, just as Hawking predicted.
[UPSC 2019] Recently, scientists observed the merger of giant ‘blackholes’ billions of light-years away from the Earth. What is the significance of this observation?

Options: (a) Higgs boson particles’ were detected.

(b) Gravitational waves’ were detected. *

(c) Possibility of inter-galactic space travel through ‘wormhole’ was confirmed.

(d) It enabled the scientists to understand ‘singularity’.

 

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Industrial Sector Updates – Industrial Policy, Ease of Doing Business, etc.

Govt panel working on New SEZ Norms for Exporters to Access Domestic Market

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

Why in the News?

A government panel comprising officials from the Commerce and Industry Ministry, NITI Aayog, and exporters is drafting new Special Economic Zone (SEZ) norms to revive manufacturing and support exporters hit by steep U.S. tariffs in 2025.

Back2Basics: Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in India

  • Overview: Duty-free enclaves treated as foreign territory for trade, designed to boost exports, investment, and employment.
  • Legal Framework: Governed by the SEZ Act, 2005 and SEZ Rules, 2006 with single-window clearances and liberal FDI norms.
  • Policy Evolution: Introduced in 2000, replacing Export Processing Zones (EPZs) to strengthen export-led industrialization.
  • Objectives: Promote export growth, foreign and domestic investment, and infrastructure creation.
  • Incentives: Include duty-free imports, tax holidays, zero-rated GST, and ECB up to $500 million annually.
  • Scale: As of 2025, India has 276 operational SEZs– notably GIFT City (Gujarat), SEEPZ (Mumbai), and Noida SEZ.
  • Reform Outlook: The Development of Enterprise and Service Hubs (DESH) Bill 2022 aims to evolve SEZs into flexible, multi-use economic hubs linking domestic and global value chains.

Need for SEZ Norms Revision:

  • U.S. Tariff Impact: Recent U.S. tariff hikes on gems, jewellery, and textiles have reduced price competitiveness of India’s SEZ-based exporters, leading to production losses.
  • Export Decline: SEZ exports dropped to $172 billion (FY25), with domestic sales stagnating at 2%, exposing overdependence on foreign markets.
  • Idle Capacity & Job Losses: Fluctuating export demand left labour and machinery underutilised; reforms aim to let SEZs meet domestic orders during downturns.
  • Global Benchmarking: Indian SEZs lag China and Vietnam in scale, policy stability, and productivity, prompting structural reform for competitiveness.
  • Revenue Balance: The government seeks industry relief while safeguarding tax revenues, given SEZs’ extensive tax exemptions.

Proposed SEZ Reforms under Review:

  • Reverse Job Work Permission: SEZs may be allowed to accept domestic processing contracts to use idle capacity during off-peak seasons.
  • DTA Sales Flexibility: Partial permission for direct domestic sales, with duty adjustments to protect local manufacturers.
  • Simplified De-notification Rules: Faster conversion of non-performing SEZs into industrial parks or enterprise hubs.
  • Sectoral Support: Gems and jewellery exporters seek moratoriums, longer export obligations, and interest relief.
  • Integration with DESH Bill (2022): Adoption of hybrid zone model for both exports and domestic production under the Development of Enterprise and Service Hubs framework.
[UPSC 2010] The SEZ Act, 2005 which came into effect in February 2006 has certain objectives. In this context, consider the following:
1. Development of infrastructure facilities. 2. Promotion of investment from foreign sources. 3. Promotion of exports of services only.
Which of the above are the objectives of this Act?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3

[UPSC 2016] Recently, India’s first ‘National Investment and Manufacturing Zone’ was proposed to be set up in-
Options: (a) Andhra Pradesh* (b) Gujarat (c) Maharashtra (d) Uttar Pradesh

 

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Wetland Conservation

Bihar’s Gogabeel Lake declared India’s 94th Ramsar Site

India MappingPrelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

Gogabeel Lake, located in Katihar district, Bihar, has been officially designated as India’s 94th Ramsar Site and sixth from Bihar.

Bihar's Gogabeel Lake declared India's 94th Ramsar Site

About Gogabeel Lake:

  • Overview: An oxbow lake situated in Katihar district, Bihar, within the Trans-Gangetic Plains, formed between the Ganga and Mahananda rivers.
  • Hydrological Nature: Connects to both rivers during monsoon floods, functioning as a dynamic floodplain wetland.
  • Legal Status: Declared Bihar’s first community reserve, co-managed by local communities and forest authorities.
  • Ecological Significance: Serves as a key habitat for migratory birds and a breeding site for vulnerable species such as the Lesser Adjutant Stork, Black-necked Stork, and Smooth-coated Otter.
  • Biodiversity: Hosts 90+ bird species (including 30 migratory), wetland flora, and fish species like Helicopter Catfish (Wallago attu).
  • Ecosystem Services: Provides flood mitigation, groundwater recharge, carbon storage, and climate regulation, contributing to the Gangetic ecosystem’s stability.
  • Cultural Linkages: Integral to local festivals like Sirva, Adra, and Chhath, symbolising people–nature harmony in rural Bihar.

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Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

[5th November 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: India’s forests hold the future

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Environmental pollution is a major environmental issue in India. Discuss the various mitigation measures to deal with this problem and also the government’s initiatives in this regard.

Linkage: Even though no direct linking PYQ is found. But here forest restoration and carbon sink creation are key mitigation measures in controlling pollution and ensuring ecosystem resilience.

Mentor’s Comment

India’s revised Green India Mission (GIM) signals a decisive shift in the nation’s ecological vision from expanding forest area to restoring ecosystem resilience. The article examines the ambitious plan to restore 25 million hectares by 2030, challenges in afforestation design, and how India can convert green cover into genuine carbon and community assets.

Introduction

India stands at the crossroads of economic growth and ecological sustainability. The recent revision of the Green India Mission (GIM) underscores the goal of restoring 25 million hectares of degraded forest and non-forest land by 2030, directly linked to India’s climate pledge of creating a carbon sink of 3.39 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent. The central question now is not just how much land India restores, but how well it does so.

Why in the News

The release of the revised Green India Mission blueprint (2025) marks a crucial development in India’s environmental policy. For the first time, the emphasis shifts from mere tree planting to ecological restoration and community participation. With India’s forests showing a 12% decline in photosynthetic efficiency (IIT Kharagpur-BITS Pilani, 2025), the focus on quality over quantity becomes imperative. The GIM’s success or failure will significantly impact India’s climate commitments and rural livelihoods dependent on forests.

Afforestation in India: From Quantity to Quality

  1. New Scientific Evidence: A 2025 IIT Kharagpur study found a 12% decline in photosynthetic efficiency of dense forests due to rising temperatures and soil drying.
  2. Beyond Canopy Cover: The discovery challenges the old assumption that “more trees mean more carbon sinks” and instead emphasizes ecological resilience.
  3. Shift in Mission Focus: Between 2015-2021, â‚č575 crore was disbursed for afforestation; forest and tree cover rose from 21.16% to 25.17% by 2023 yet qualitative degradation persists.

What Are the Core Gaps in India’s Afforestation Strategy?

  1. Community Participation: Despite the Forest Rights Act (2006) empowering local communities, many plantation drives bypass their consent, eroding trust and legitimacy.
  2. Ecological Design: Monoculture plantations of eucalyptus and acacia reduce biodiversity, leaving forests vulnerable to drought and pests.
  3. Financing and Implementation: The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) holds â‚č95,000 crore, but fund utilization remains inconsistent. Delhi, for instance, used only 23% of funds between 2019-2024.

What Are the Emerging Success Stories?

  1. Odisha: Joint Forest Management Committees are now part of revenue-sharing and planning processes.
  2. Chhattisgarh: Forest departments are experimenting with biodiversity-sensitive plantations and promoting village carbon markets.
  3. Himachal Pradesh: Launched biochar programmes to reduce fire risk and generate carbon credits.
  4. Tamil Nadu: Nearly doubled mangrove cover in three years, advancing coastal carbon storage.

How Can India Finance and Implement Effective Restoration?

  1. Utilizing CAMPA Funds: Efficient allocation and transparent dashboards can ensure accountability.
  2. Innovative Tools: Integration of carbon markets, adaptive management, and public dashboards can align national and state-level efforts.
  3. Technical Training: Expanding institutes like IIFM Bhopal or the upcoming Byrnihat Ecological Institute to train field staff in ecological design.
  4. Public-Community Collaboration: Linking local monitoring with national reporting systems will enhance ground-level legitimacy and data reliability.

What Lies Ahead for India’s Forest Future?

  1. Smarter Restoration: Focus must shift from planting to ecological engineering using native species and local hydrology.
  2. Inclusive Climate Action: Empowering communities ensures climate justice and sustainable forest governance.
  3. National Movement Approach: Collaboration between civil society, research institutions, and local communities can transform GIM from a government scheme to a people’s mission.

Conclusion

India’s forests are more than carbon sinks, they are the nation’s ecological infrastructure. The revised Green India Mission represents a shift from greenwashing metrics to resilient ecosystems. With rigorous monitoring, community inclusion, and scientific restoration, India can make its forests not only a tool for carbon sequestration but a foundation for climate-resilient growth.

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Electoral Reforms In India

A nationwide SIR

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Introduction

India’s Election Commission (ECI) has launched the Special Intensive Revision (SIR 2.0) of electoral rolls to address a persistent issue, duplicate and multiple voter entries across constituencies and states. As the electoral roll forms the foundation of Indian democracy, its accuracy directly determines the legitimacy of elections. The initiative represents a nationwide, paperless, tech-driven approach that seeks to align the voter database with digital verification systems, ensuring that every vote counts once and only once.

Understanding the SIR and its Objective

  1. Definition: The Special Intensive Revision (SIR), under the Representation of the People (RPA) Act, 1950, aims to ensure the integrity of electoral rolls and prevent duplication and impersonation.
  2. Objective: To update, verify, and purify the voter database by leveraging technology, interlinked databases, and field-level verification.
  3. Legal Basis: Under Section 22 and 23 of the RPA, 1950, corrections, deletions, and transfers of voter entries are authorized to maintain roll accuracy.
  4. Context: This follows recent legal scrutiny and concerns raised after instances of double voting and duplicate EPIC numbers across states.

Why Duplicate Entries Are a Major Concern

  1. Erosion of Electoral Integrity: Duplicate or multiple entries lead to bogus voting, undermining free and fair elections.
  2. Systemic Weakness: Failures in linking EPIC (Elector Photo Identity Card) data and inter-state coordination have enabled repeated entries.
  3. Case Example: In Prashant Kishor’s case, the same EPIC number was found in two constituencies, revealing system-level flaws.
  4. Administrative Burden: Duplicate entries strain the ECI’s verification apparatus, consuming time, manpower, and digital resources.
  5. Loss of Public Confidence: Recurring discrepancies in electoral lists weaken voter faith in institutional fairness and neutrality.

How the Electoral Roll is Being Purified

  1. Tech Integration: The Electoral Registration Officers (EROs) use National Voters’ Service Portal (NVSP), AI-driven duplicate detection, and data cross-verification through NIC and CDAC systems.
  2. Field-Level Verification: Enumerators conduct doorstep distribution and validation of forms to identify discrepancies.
  3. Automated Detection: Use of Common Photo Identity Card (EPIC) data and facial/ID match algorithms ensures high accuracy in identifying duplication.
  4. Legal Safeguards: Voters are given an opportunity to rectify records within six months under the law before deletion.
  5. Accountability Mechanism: EROs are held responsible for false deletion or oversight in duplication verification.

How Technology is Transforming Voter Verification

  1. Digital Synchronization: SIR 2.0 uses centralized databases for unified record-keeping across states.
  2. EPIC-Database Linkage: Integration with Aadhaar and other ID repositories facilitates cross-verification while preventing fraudulent entries.
  3. Machine Learning Models: These identify patterns of duplication and commonalities across datasets.
  4. Paperless Process: Transition from manual to cloud-based verification reduces procedural errors.
  5. Accountability Enhancement: Real-time dashboards enable monitoring of deletions, corrections, and transfers.

Challenges and Procedural Gaps

  1. Administrative Lapse: Failures stem not from technology but from poor implementation and follow-up by EROs.
  2. Inconsistent Updates: Delay in updating inter-constituency migration data leads to overlapping entries.
  3. Procedural Redundancy: Revisions often become ritualistic exercises without systemic correction mechanisms.
  4. Accountability Deficit: Lack of penal action against negligent officials reduces deterrence.
  5. Digital Divide: Areas with limited connectivity face challenges in real-time digital verification.

Way Forward

  1. Institutional Accountability: Make EROs answerable for errors through performance audits.
  2. Continuous Roll Updating: Transition from annual revision to dynamic roll management.
  3. Citizen Participation: Introduce crowdsourced error reporting through verified portals.
  4. Data Integration: Extend linkage with Aadhaar, PAN, and DigiLocker for authentication.
  5. Transparency Mechanism: Establish public dashboards for tracking deletion and addition records.
  6. Legal Framework: Consider amending the RPA to provide statutory backing for digital roll management.

Conclusion

The Special Intensive Revision (SIR 2.0) symbolizes India’s move towards a digitally verifiable democracy, but its success depends on administrative accountability as much as on technology. Ensuring a clean, accurate, and dynamic electoral roll is not a technical formality, it is a democratic imperative. Only a transparent, error-free voter database can sustain public faith in India’s electoral integrity.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Examine the need for electoral reforms as suggested by various committees with particular reference to the “one nation-one election” principle.

Linkage: It addresses electoral reform as a structural and procedural issue under the Representation of the People Act (RPA, 1950), the same law governing the SIR initiative. It connects with the broader reform drive for efficient, error-free elections.

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Cyber Security – CERTs, Policy, etc

Compound effect: On digital arrest scams

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Cyber Security

Introduction

The Supreme Court of India’s recent directive for a comprehensive probe into proliferating digital scams underscores the scale and sophistication of cyber fraud plaguing Indian citizens. The Court’s focus on “digital arrest” scams, where criminals impersonate law enforcement officials to extort money highlights a disturbing transformation in global cybercrime: industrial-scale scam operations embedded in Southeast Asian conflict zones.

Why in the News

For the first time, the Supreme Court has intervened directly to address the globalised architecture of digital scams targeting Indian citizens. These scams run from “scam compounds” in Myanmar, Cambodia, and other parts of Southeast Asia combine human trafficking, digital slavery, and organised crime. Thousands of Indians have fallen victim, some trafficked to operate scams, others defrauded online. The situation represents both a national security concern and a humanitarian crisis, demanding urgent multilateral action.

Understanding the ‘Scam Compound’ Phenomenon

  1. Industrial-scale operations: Scam compounds operate from conflict-ridden or special economic zones in Myanmar, Cambodia, and Laos, exploiting weak governance.
  2. Cross-border architecture: These are not isolated crimes but coordinated, transnational enterprises involving militias, private entities, and local regimes.
  3. Digital slavery model: Trafficked individuals are forced, under threat and torture, to perpetrate scams such as “digital arrest,” “pig butchering,” and crypto investment frauds.
  4. State complicity: In Myanmar, regime-backed Border Guard Forces allegedly facilitate these compounds, converting scams into revenue streams for military operations.

KK Park Cyber Scam Hub in Myanmar

How the Digital Scam Network Operates

  1. Recruitment through deception: Victims are lured by fake job ads in cities like Bangkok, offering attractive salaries under visa-free entry regimes.
  2. Trafficking & confinement: Once recruited, they are trafficked into border regions controlled by ethnic militias in Myanmar and held captive in “digital sweatshops.”
  3. Coercive work environment: Workers face violence, sexual harassment, and torture if they fail to meet scam targets.
  4. Key scam types:
    1. “Digital arrest scams” impersonation of law enforcement to extort money.
    2. “Pig butchering scams” combining online romance and crypto fraud.
  5. Crypto laundering networks: Proceeds are funneled via money mules and institutions like Cambodia’s Huione Pay, then converted into cryptocurrency to evade tracing.

Why Southeast Asia Became the Epicentre

  1. Conflict & weak governance: Myanmar’s post-2021 coup turmoil has enabled militia-run economies.
  2. Borderland lawlessness: Regions under Border Guard Forces function beyond formal state oversight.
  3. Economic desperation: Regional instability and poverty create fertile recruitment grounds.
  4. Regime complicity: Militias tax scam centres to fund armed operations, sustaining a vicious cycle of profit and repression.

India’s Dual Crisis

  1. Forced scam labour: Thousands of Indian citizens trafficked and enslaved in these compounds.
  2. Domestic victimisation: Thousands more in India fall prey to online frauds orchestrated by these same captives.
  3. Diplomatic and enforcement challenge: Tackling both victim rescue abroad and fraud prevention at home requires synchronised national and international coordination.

Policy Imperatives and India’s Way Forward

  1. Public awareness campaigns: The Reserve Bank of India and Union Ministries must amplify citizen education about emerging digital fraud patterns.
  2. Cybercrime infrastructure: Strengthening cyber policing, digital forensics, and cross-border data sharing frameworks.
  3. Regional cooperation: Collaborate with China, Thailand, Vietnam, and affected ASEAN nations to forge joint task forces.
  4. Diplomatic pressure: Use bilateral and multilateral diplomacy to pressurise Myanmar’s junta and Cambodia’s regime to dismantle scam hubs.
  5. Global recognition: Mobilise the United Nations to classify this crisis as a modern manifestation of slavery needing urgent international intervention.

Conclusion

The proliferation of scam compounds across Southeast Asia exposes the dark underbelly of the global digital economy where technology meets trafficking. For India, the challenge is dual: protect citizens from victimisation and rescue those coerced into perpetration. This crisis demands that India integrate cyber security, diplomacy, and human rights enforcement under one coordinated regional framework.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Keeping in view India’s internal security, analyse the impact of cross-border cyber attacks. Also, discuss defensive measures against these sophisticated attacks.

Linkage: This question directly relates to the rise of transnational scam compounds in Southeast Asia that exploit digital networks to target Indian citizens. It underscores the urgent need for coordinated international and domestic cyber defense frameworks.

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Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

Recalling the landmark Shah Bano Case

| Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Why in the News?

The upcoming Bollywood film revisits the historic Shah Bano case (1985), one of India’s most politically charged legal battles.

Recalling the landmark Shah Bano Case

Background of the Case:

  • Origin: In 1978, Shah Bano Begum, a 62-year-old Muslim woman from Indore, was divorced by her husband, Mohammad Ahmad Khan, a lawyer, via triple talaq after 43 years of marriage.
  • Legal Action: She filed for maintenance under Section 125 of the CrPC (1973), a secular law ensuring financial support for dependents unable to maintain themselves.
  • Husband’s Argument: Claimed that under Muslim personal law, his obligation ended after the iddat period (~3 months) and that payment of mahr (dower) fulfilled his duty.
  • Lower Court Ruling: Ordered payment of â‚č25/month; the Madhya Pradesh High Court raised it to â‚č179.20. Khan appealed to the Supreme Court, triggering the landmark 1985 judgment.

Supreme Court Verdict of April 23, 1985:

  • Bench & Ruling: A five-judge Constitution Bench led by CJI Y.V. Chandrachud dismissed the appeal, upholding the High Court’s decision.
  • Secular Applicability: Held that Section 125 CrPC applies to all religions, as its purpose is to prevent destitution, not to regulate personal law.
  • Maintenance Beyond Iddat: Affirmed that a divorced Muslim woman is entitled to maintenance beyond the iddat period if she cannot sustain herself.
  • Religious Harmony: Cited Quranic verses to show consistency between Islamic principles and maintenance under secular law.
  • Uniform Civil Code (UCC): Expressed concern that Article 44 remained a “dead letter,” urging steps toward a common civil code.

Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986:

  • Enactment: Passed after protests from Muslim organisations and AIMPLB, reversing the Shah Bano ruling.
  • Key Provision: Limited husband’s liability to maintenance during iddat, shifting later responsibility to relatives or Waqf Boards.
  • Judicial Interpretation:
    • Danial Latifi v. Union of India (2001) – Upheld the Act but read it progressively, requiring lump-sum payment within iddat for lifetime support.
    • Mohd. Abdul Samad v. State of Telangana (2024) – Reaffirmed that Muslim women may still claim relief under Section 125 CrPC, preserving the choice of remedy.

Legacy and Significance:

  • Landmark Impact: Became a watershed case in India’s struggle between gender justice and religious identity.
  • Political Consequence: The 1986 Act was seen as appeasement politics, deepening the secularism debates.
  • Reform Catalyst: Revived the UCC discourse, influenced feminist legal reform, and reinforced constitutional morality.
  • Enduring Symbol: Continues to shape discussions on minority rights, women’s empowerment, and judicial activism in India’s plural legal framework.
[UPSC 2020] Customs and traditions suppress reason, leading to obscurantism. Do you agree?

 

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BRICS Summits

BRICS Pay and the Push to De-dollarize Global Finance

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

Since 2014, BRICS nations have worked to cut dependence on the U.S. dollar, launching the New Development Bank (NDB), Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA), and now BRICS Pay to promote local currency trade and rival the SWIFT system.

BRICS Pay and the Push to De-dollarize Global Finance

About BRICS Pay Initiative:

  • Overview: BRICS Pay is a proposed cross-border digital payment and settlement platform developed by the BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) to facilitate trade in local currencies and reduce reliance on the U.S. dollar and the SWIFT network.
  • Origins: The idea emerged after the 2014 Fortaleza Summit, where BRICS established its own financial architecture, the New Development Bank (NDB) and the Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA).
  • Purpose: To enable direct financial transactions among member nations using local currencies, minimizing the role of Western-controlled financial systems and avoiding U.S.-led sanctions.
  • Development Path:
    • 2017: BRICS agreed to enhance currency cooperation via swaps, local currency settlements, and direct investments.
    • Early 2020s: The BRICS Payments Task Force (BPTF) was created to design interoperable systems.
    • 2024 Kazan Summit: Leaders highlighted strengthening of correspondent banking networks and settlements in local currencies under the BRICS Cross-Border Payments Initiative.
  • Prototype: A demo of BRICS Pay was unveiled in Moscow (October 2024), marking a concrete step toward implementation.
  • Supporting National Systems:
    • India: Unified Payments Interface (UPI)
    • China: Cross-Border Interbank Payment System (CIPS)
    • Russia: System for Transfer of Financial Messages (SPFS)
    • Brazil: Pix instant payment system
  • Strategic Importance: The initiative seeks to establish a self-reliant financial network, bypass SWIFT, and enhance monetary sovereignty among emerging economies.

Back2Basics: Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT) System

  • Establishment: Founded in 1973 by 239 banks from 15 countries to standardize and secure cross-border financial communications.
  • Headquarters: La Hulpe, Belgium.
  • Nature: A messaging network, not a bank, it does not hold or transfer funds but enables secure interbank communication for financial transactions.
  • Coverage: Connects over 11,000 financial institutions across 200+ countries, making it the largest international payment messaging system.
  • Operation:
    • Assigns each member a Bank Identifier Code (BIC) of 8–11 characters.
    • Standardizes message formats to ensure seamless global financial communication.
    • Facilitates fund transfer instructions, trade settlements, and foreign exchange operations.
  • Governance:
    • Supervised by G10 central banks, the European Central Bank (ECB), and the National Bank of Belgium.
    • Managed by a 25-member board of directors, representing about 3,500 member institutions.
  • Strategic Role:
    • Forms the backbone of global finance, allowing efficient movement of capital.
    • Exclusion from SWIFT acts as a powerful economic sanction tool, isolating nations (e.g., Russia and Iran) from the international financial system.
  • Significance: SWIFT’s dominance reflects Western control over global finance, making it a central target for alternative networks like BRICS Pay, China’s CIPS, and Russia’s SPFS that seek a multipolar monetary order.

 

[UPSC 2023] With reference to the Central Bank digital currencies, consider the following statements:

1. It is possible to make payments in a digital currency without using US dollar or SWIFT system.

2. A digital currency can be distributed with a condition programmed into it such as time-frame for spending it.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Gravitational Wave Observations

Gamma-Ray Bursts from Black Hole ‘Morsels’ could expose Quantum Gravity

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

A recent theoretical study (accepted in Nuclear Physics B, August 2025) introduces the idea of “black hole morsels”, tiny, asteroid-mass micro-black holes possibly formed during black hole mergers.

What are Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs)?

  • Overview: They are extremely energetic cosmic explosions that emit intense bursts of gamma radiation, the highest-energy form of electromagnetic waves.
  • Discovery: First detected in the late 1960s by U.S. Vela satellites, initially built to monitor nuclear tests.
  • Duration-Based Classification:
    • Short GRBs: Lasting <2 seconds, typically formed by merging neutron stars or neutron stars–black hole collisions.
    • Long GRBs: Lasting 2–1000 seconds, arising from supernova collapses of massive stars (collapsars).
  • Energy Output: A single GRB can release as much energy in seconds as the Sun emits over its entire lifetime (~10⁔Âč–10⁔⁎ ergs).
  • Afterglow: Follows the main burst in X-ray, optical, and radio wavelengths, allowing astronomers to study host galaxies and distances.

Hypothesis about Black Hole ‘Morsels’:

  • Study Context: Research proposes the existence of “black hole morsels”, tiny remnants formed during black hole mergers.
  • Formation Mechanism: During merger, spacetime “pinches off” into ultra-dense pockets, creating micro-black holes or morsels that may later evaporate.
  • Emissions: These morsels are predicted to release gamma rays and high-energy particles via Hawking radiation, providing a possible observational signature of quantum gravity.
  • Scientific Goal: The hypothesis aims to bridge general relativity and quantum mechanics, offering a natural test case for quantum spacetime dynamics.

What are Black Hole Morsels?

  • Overview: Hypothetical micro–black holes formed as fragments during black hole mergers under extreme gravitational stress.
  • Origin: Result from pinched-off regions of spacetime during coalescence of two black holes.
  • Mass & Size: Much smaller than parent black holes, roughly asteroid-scale mass but with extreme density.
  • Temperature & Radiation: Extremely hot, emitting intense Hawking radiation– photons, neutrinos, and high-energy particles.
  • Lifetime: Short-lived — ranging from milliseconds to years, depending on initial mass.
  • Detectability: Expected to produce isotropic gamma-ray bursts, unlike directional jets of typical GRBs.
  • Observation Instruments: Potential detection via HESS (Namibia), HAWC (Mexico), LHAASO (China), and Fermi Space Telescope (USA).

Scientific Significance:

  • Quantum Gravity Evidence: Detection would confirm that gravity behaves quantum mechanically at microscopic scales.
  • Spacetime Structure: Provides direct insight into the quantum texture of spacetime near black hole singularities.
  • Cosmic Accelerator Analogy: Morsels could probe energy scales far beyond the LHC, acting as natural high-energy laboratories.
  • Current Status: None observed yet, but existing gamma-ray data are being analysed to set upper mass limits and refine the model.
[UPSC 2019] Recently, scientists observed the merger of giant ‘Blackholes’ billions of light-years away from the Earth. What is the significance of this observation?

Options: (a) Higgs boson particles were detected.

(b) Gravitational waves were detected.*

(c) Possibility of inter-galactic space travel through ‘wormhole’ was confirmed.

(d) It enabled the scientists to understand ‘singularity’.

 

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River Systems, Dams and Hydrology

Meghalaya’s Umngot River turns Muddy

India MappingPrelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Why in the News?

The Umngot River, celebrated for its crystal-clear waters and tourist appeal at Dawki and Shnongpdeng, has turned murky and opaque.

Meghalaya’s Umngot River turns Muddy

About Umngot River:

  • Location: Flows through West Jaintia Hills district, Meghalaya, close to the India–Bangladesh border.
  • Origin: Arises from the Jaintia Hills, traversing limestone-rich terrain that naturally filters impurities and maintains clarity.
  • Distinct Appearance: Known for its crystal-clear waters that create the illusion of boats floating on air, earning it global recognition.
  • Length & Course: Flows southward to Dawki town, where it merges with Bangladesh’s Piyain River.
  • Ecological Features: Possesses high dissolved oxygen levels, preventing algal growth and supporting diverse aquatic biodiversity.
  • Tourism Hub: Popular at Dawki and Shnongpdeng for boating, fishing, camping, and eco-tourism, drawing thousands of visitors annually.
  • Infrastructure Landmark: The Dawki Suspension Bridge (1932) is a heritage structure spanning the river and serving as a trade route link.
  • Economic Role: Sustains cross-border trade, local fishing, and tourism-driven livelihoods vital to Meghalaya’s rural economy.
  • Cultural Boundary: Serves as a natural divider between Ri Pnar (Jaintia Hills) and Hima Khyrim (Khasi Hills).

Cause of Discoloration:

  • Primary Cause: Linked to Shillong–Dawki road-widening project upgrading it to a two-lane highway with a 400 m bridge at Dawki.
  • Pollution Source: Hill-cutting, excavation, and soil dumping along sites near Umtyngar and Dawki caused heavy sediment runoff.
  • Inspection Findings: The Meghalaya State Pollution Control Board (MSPCB) detected uncontained debris and sliding soil entering the river, reducing water transparency.
[UPSC 2021] Consider the following rivers:

1. Brahmani 2. Nagavali 3. Subarnarekha 4. Vamsadhara

Which of the above rise from the Eastern Ghats?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4* (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

‘Phool Walon Ki Sair’ Festival

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

For the first time since its 1962 revival (except during COVID-19), Delhi’s interfaith festival Phool Walon Ki Sair will not be held this year.

About ‘Phool Walon Ki Sair’ Festival:

  • Timing: Held annually post-monsoon (September–November), attracting large participation from artisans, locals, and cultural groups.
  • Meaning: Literally translates to “Procession of the Florists,” celebrated annually in Mehrauli, Delhi.
  • Origin: Began in 1811 under Mughal Emperor Akbar Shah II when Begum Mumtaz Mahal offered floral chadars at both the Yogmaya Temple and the dargah of Khwaja Bakhtiar Kaki.
  • Symbolism: Represents Hindu–Muslim unity, interfaith respect, and religious harmony in Delhi’s cultural fabric.
  • Historical Timeline:
    • Banned by the British (1942) during the freedom movement.
    • Revived in 1962 by then Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as a symbol of secular revivalism.
  • Celebrations: Include floral processions, decorative pankhas (fans), qawwali, folk dances, and traditional fairs.

Cultural Significance:

  • Ganga–Jamuni Tehzeeb: Embodies Delhi’s composite Indo-Islamic culture, celebrating shared heritage and pluralism.
  • Interfaith Harmony: Promotes unity, peace, and mutual respect between communities.
  • Secular Ethos: Serves as a living symbol of Indian secularism, transcending religious and social boundaries.
[UPSC 2017] Consider the following pairs:

Traditions: Communities

1. Chaliha Sahib Festival- Sindhis 2. Nanda Raj Jaat Yatra- Gonds 3. Wari-Warkari- Santhals

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) None of the above

 

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Renewable Energy – Wind, Tidal, Geothermal, etc.

[4th November 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The case for energy efficiency

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above objective? Explain.

Linkage: The question relates to India’s renewable energy transition and the feasibility of meeting its 2030 targets. The article links by emphasizing that without efficiency and subsidy realignment, rising renewable capacity alone cannot ensure a cleaner grid.

Mentor’s Comment

India’s clean energy transition faces a paradox: even as renewable capacity doubles, the electricity flowing into homes is becoming dirtier. The rise in India’s grid emission factor despite record renewable expansion reveals deep systemic challenges, capacity-generation mismatch, demand peaks, and underutilization of renewables. This editorial decodes why energy efficiency, the “first fuel”, must become central to India’s decarbonisation strategy.

Introduction

India’s non-fossil fuel sources now account for about 50% of total installed capacity, yet its grid emission factor (GEF) has worsened from 0.703 tCO₂/MWh in 2020-21 to 0.727 tCO₂/MWh in 2023-24 (Central Electricity Authority). This anomaly highlights that while renewable capacity has expanded, fossil-fuel-based generation still dominates. To make India’s grid cleaner and more reliable, scaling up energy efficiency and flexibility is essential.

Why Is India’s Grid Getting Dirtier Despite More Renewables?

  1. Grid Emission Factor (GEF): This measure of carbon intensity has increased instead of falling, reflecting rising dependence on coal during peak demand hours.
  2. Installed capacity doesn’t always equate to generation: Renewables deliver less electricity annually compared to thermal or nuclear sources.
  3. Coal’s dominance: Fossil fuels continue to meet the marginal demand, making India’s grid more emission-intensive even with rising renewable capacity.

What Explains the Capacity-Generation Mismatch?

  1. Low capacity utilisation: Solar and wind plants run at only 15-25% utilisation, versus 65-90% for coal and nuclear.
  2. Temporal mismatch: Solar peaks during afternoon hours, while demand peaks at night, requiring fossil backup.
  3. System inflexibility: Lack of energy storage, flexible grids, and responsive pricing structures forces reliance on coal during non-solar hours.
  4. Data point: In 2023-24, renewables (including hydro) supplied only 22% of total electricity; the rest came from fossil fuels.

How Can Energy Efficiency Bridge the Gap?

  1. First fuel approach: Efficiency reduces demand before generation, lowering peak load, reducing reliance on coal during evening peaks.
  2. Economic benefit: Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) reports savings of 200 million tonnes of oil equivalent (MTOE) between FY2017-FY2023. This is equivalent to 1.29 GT of CO₂ and savings of â‚č76,000 crore.
  3. Enabler of renewables: Efficiency flattens demand peaks, preventing renewable curtailment and enhancing integration of solar and wind.
  4. Preventing lock-in: Replacing old, inefficient technologies avoids long-term carbon lock-ins.

What Policy and Structural Changes Are Needed?

  1. Battery integration: Enabling homes and offices to connect storage systems for balancing demand.
  2. Appliance efficiency: Transition to 4-star and 5-star appliances with updated standards.
  3. Market mechanisms: Incentives for consumers to shift electricity usage to periods of high renewable availability.
  4. Scrappage policy: Phasing out inefficient fans, motors, and air conditioners through targeted rebates.
  5. RTC renewable procurement: Promote Round-the-Clock (RTC) renewable electricity, currently costing less than â‚č5/kWh, to replace coal power.

Why Energy Efficiency Must Be at the Core of Decarbonisation Strategy

  1. Invisible yet indispensable: Efficiency is distributed and diffuse, but without it, India’s energy transition remains incomplete.
  2. Global comparison: Nations like France, Norway, and Sweden have achieved GEFs of 0.1-0.2 tCO₂/MWh via high efficiency and nuclear-hydro mix.
  3. India’s targets: National Electricity Plan (2023) projects India’s GEF to fall to 0.548 by 2026-27 and 0.430 by 2031-32.
  4. Integrated approach: A balance of renewable expansion, storage, and efficiency measures is key to achieving India’s Net Zero by 2070 target.

Conclusion

India’s clean energy paradox underscores that generation capacity alone cannot drive decarbonisation. Efficiency, flexibility, and policy coherence must shape the next phase of transition. Making energy efficiency the “first fuel” and embedding it across homes, industries, and infrastructure will determine how India powers its future while keeping its grid truly green.

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