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Terrorism and Challenges Related To It

The threat of digital tradecraft in terrorism

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Introduction

The blast near Delhiā€™s Red Fort on November 10, killing 15 and injuring over 30, exposed the operational use of encrypted digital platforms, dead-drop communication, and modular terror cells. The investigation demonstrates a transition from traditional networks to digitally shielded ecosystems, reducing visibility for intelligence agencies and constraining surveillance outcomes.

The new face of terror: What has the investigation revealed?

  1. Encrypted Communication: Enables concealed coordination, protects identity layers, and reduces interception by routing messages through shielded platforms.
  2. Digital Dead-Drops: Facilitates asynchronous message exchange without direct contact, ensuring operational secrecy and reducing surveillance exposure.
  3. Compartmentalised Cells: Strengthens deniability by separating roles across modules led by three individuals linked to medical and academic institutions.
  4. Behavioural Masking: Utilises familiar vehicles and repetitive low-risk movement patterns to support covert reconnaissance without triggering alerts.
  5. Enhanced IED Architecture: Ensures higher lethality through layered mechanisms and precise triggering processes.

Distinctive Features of This Incident

  1. Multi-Layer Encryption: Reduces actionable intelligence, constrains lawful interception, and delays early detection of operational chatter.
  2. Surveillance-Resistant Tools: Utilises VPNs, spoofed identifiers, and encrypted messaging apps, enabling secure command dissemination.
  3. Hybrid Planning: Integrates digital coordination with physical site visits, ensuring real-time situational assessment without exposing handlers.
  4. Decentralised Decision Structures: Prevents traceability by shifting from hierarchical control to remote guidance via anonymised digital nodes.

Why are modern counterterrorism frameworks struggling?

Constraints on Counterterrorism Architecture

  1. Limited Penetration of Encrypted Platforms: Restricts information extraction, narrows visibility over operational trails, and weakens evidence chains.
  2. Diminished HUMINT Opportunities: Reduces physical touchpoints and complicates informant-based intelligence generation.
  3. Fragmented Global Cooperation: Slows data sharing when platforms are hosted outside domestic jurisdiction, weakening investigation pace.
  4. Technological Mismatch: Creates capability gaps as terror networks adopt advanced masking, encryption, and anonymisation faster than security upgrades.

Operational Impact of Digital Tradecraft

  1. End-to-end encryption (E2EE) Platforms: Shields logistics, finances, and movement plans, enabling uninterrupted operational execution.
  2. Remote Radicalisation and Supervision: Facilitates cross-border ideological influence and guidance without physical linkages.
  3. Metadata Evasion: Minimises digital footprints by exploiting layered encryption and controlled online presence.
  4. Coordination Efficiency: Enhances planning speed and reduces command exposure by relying on decentralised digital frameworks.

Required Strategic Adaptations

  1. Digital Forensics Expansion: Strengthens cryptographic analysis, behavioural modelling, and dark-web investigation capacity.
  2. Lawful Interception Reform: Establishes judicially supervised mechanisms enabling secure access to encrypted communication when mandated.
  3. Inter-Agency Data Fusion: Integrates intelligence, cyber cells, and police units on unified platforms to improve threat detection and response.
  4. Cyber Infrastructure Modernisation: Enhances surveillance technologies, metadata analytics, and predictive systems to match digital threat evolution.
  5. International Data Cooperation: Accelerates cross-border evidence sharing and improves alignment with global counterterrorism frameworks.

Conclusion

The Red Fort blast demonstrates a shift toward encrypted, decentralised, and digitally concealed terror ecosystems. The emerging landscape requires specialised digital forensics, integrated intelligence systems, and balanced legal frameworks to strengthen operational readiness. Counterterrorism capacities must evolve to address threats emerging from opaque digital environments rather than visible physical terrains alone.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2016] Use of Internet and social media by non-state actors for subversive activities is a major concern. How have these been misused in the recent past? Suggest effective guidelines to curb the above threat.

Linkage: The misuse of Internet and social media by non-state actors remains a recurring internal security theme. The encrypted digital activity with respect to the recent The recent Red Fort blast make the issue current and significant. The topic continues to appear because communication networks are now central to modern security threats.

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Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

More than two decades later, there is light at the end of the Red Corridor

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

INTRODUCTION

Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) has historically affected large tribal hinterlands across central India. Recent field reports indicate a visible decline in Maoist hold, accompanied by expanding state presence, renewed market activity, and local confidence in security forces. The transformation represents a significant shift from earlier decades marked by fear, isolation, and violence.

Why in the news?

A major setback to Maoists occurred recently when top Andhra-Odisha border commander Madvi Hidma was killed in a security operation, followed by the elimination of seven more Maoists, including an explosives expert. These back-to-back encounters highlight the rapid weakening of LWE networks across the Red Corridor.

Why is the region witnessing a visible shift in confidence?

  1. Reduced Fear: The article notes that locals now openly interact with security forces, signalling erosion of Maoist coercion.
  2. Increased Presence: Security deployment strengthened continuous area domination, reducing the probability of Maoist reprisals.
  3. Civilian Mobility: Market activity in evening hours increased, contrasting earlier periods when movement after dusk was restricted due to threats.
  4. Symbolic Change: Locals offering security personnel chai and sitting freely with them indicates behavioural trust, not forced compliance.

What structural changes weakened Maoist dominance?

  1. Road Connectivity: New roads and bridges reduced forest isolation, weakening Maoist geographical advantage and enabling faster troop mobility.
  2. Communication Facilities: Mobile networks expanded surveillance, reduced Maoist anonymity, and enabled quicker civilian distress calls.
  3. Administrative Outreach: Frequent visits by district officials ensured service delivery and reduced ideological appeal.
  4. Disruption of Recruitment: Youth engagement in local markets, transport, and small businesses reduced Maoist manpower pipelines.

How did security operations evolve on the ground?

  1. Stronghold Penetration: Forces entered areas earlier considered ā€œliberated zonesā€, indicating territorial rollback.
  2. Integrated Command: Inter-state coordination between Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Telangana improved operational continuity.
  3. Sanitisation Efforts: Regular area domination patrols lowered the possibility of ambushes.
  4. Intelligence Support: Human intelligence from locals increased due to declining fear, enabling targeted strikes.

What has changed in the populationā€™s everyday life?

  1. Economic Activity: Markets extending late into evening reflect safety and disposable income circulation.
  2. Transport Revival: Locals travelling without escorts marks reduced threat perception.
  3. Womenā€™s Movement: Increased participation by women in markets shows greater autonomy and reduced intimidation.
  4. Community Interaction: Openness to engage with forces signals normalisation of state-citizen interaction.

Why has the Maoist strategy weakened?

  1. Loss of Terrain Control: Eroded forest sanctuaries limit guerrilla advantage.
  2. Depleted Cadres: Surrenders and casualties reduced leadership continuity.
  3. Ideological Attrition: Reduced resonance of Maoist messaging as development outreach substitutes grievances.
  4. Operational Fatigue: Continuous pressure limited long-duration planning, reducing capability for large-scale attacks.

CONCLUSION

The article highlights a decisive shift in the Red Corridor, where expanded state presence and growing public confidence have significantly reduced Maoist influence. The transition reflects a combination of operational consistency, improved connectivity, and changing local behaviour, collectively signalling a new phase in Indiaā€™s long battle against Left-Wing Extremism.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Naxalism is a social, economic and developmental issue manifesting as a violent internal security threat. Discuss the emerging issues and suggest a multilayered strategy to tackle the menace of Naxalism.

Linkage: The PYQ matches the articleā€™s focus on LWE decline driven by security consolidation and development outreach. It directly links to how improved roads, markets, and public confidence are weakening Naxalism.

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Governor vs. State

SC advisory on Presidential Reference on Governorsā€™ timelines

| Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Why In The News?

The Supreme Court will issue an advisory opinion on a Presidential Reference questioning its authority to impose timelines and prescribe procedures for Governors and the President when handling State Bills sent for assent or consideration.

1) About the Judgement:

  • Scheduled Advisory Opinion: The Supreme Court is set to deliver its advisory opinion on a Presidential Reference questioning whether the Court can impose timelines and procedures for Governors and the President when dealing with State Bills.
  • Benchā€™s Position: The five-judge Bench led by CJI B.R. Gavai held that the Court cannot remain inactive if a constitutional authority fails to perform its duties.
  • Politicalā€“Federal Context: The matter arises amid friction between Opposition-ruled States and Governors, with delays in assenting to key State legislation.
  • April 8 Judgment Trigger: The reference stems from the Supreme Courtā€™s April 8 judgment that imposed a three-month deadline on Governors and the President to act on Bills.
  • Impact on Governance: The Court ruled that Governors cannot impede governance by indefinitely withholding action on welfare legislation.
  • Union Governmentā€™s Objection: The Centre argued that the April 8 ruling creates a ā€œone-size-fits-allā€ approach that may be inappropriate given the varied nature of Bills.
  • Argument on Judicial Overreach: Solicitor General Tushar Mehta contended that the Court cannot assume legislative functions by compelling Governors to grant assent through mandamus.

2) Presidential Reference Under Article 143:

  • Meaning and Scope: Article 143 allows the President to seek the Supreme Courtā€™s advisory opinion on questions of law or fact of public importance.
  • Article 143(1) ā€“ Optional Opinion: The Supreme Court may accept or decline to answer references under this clause. Example: refusal in the 1993 Ram Janmabhoomi reference.
  • Article 143(2) ā€“ Mandatory Opinion: For disputes involving pre-Constitution treaties or agreements, the Court must render its opinion.
  • Nature of Advice: The advisory opinion is not binding on the President but carries significant legal authority.
  • Bench Requirement: Article 145(3) mandates that a minimum five-judge Bench must hear Presidential References.
  • Historical Origins: The power originates from the Government of India Act, 1935. Comparative jurisdictions: Canada accepts advisory opinions; the U.S. does not.
  • Past References: About 15 previous references include the Delhi Laws Act (1951), Kerala Education Bill (1958), Berubari (1960), Keshav Singh (1965), Presidential Poll case (1974), Third Judges Case (1998).
  • Key Question in Present Reference: Whether courts can impose timelines on Governors/President that are not expressly provided in Articles 200 and 201, and whether Article 142 enables the Court to frame such directions.
  • Limit on Overturning Judgments: As held in the 1991 Cauvery decision, Article 143 cannot be used to review or overturn settled Supreme Court judgments.
  • Constitutional Significance: The reference may clarify the constitutional roles of the President/Governors, promote federal balance, and remove procedural ambiguities.
  • Challenges of the Advisory Process: Advice is nonbinding, references may become politicized, ā€œpublic importanceā€ is undefined, and there is no timeline for the Court to respond.

3) Relevant Constitutional Provisions & Case Law on Governorsā€™ Powers to reserve state bills:

  • Article 200 ā€“ Governorā€™s Options: The Governor may assent, withhold assent with reasons, return a non-Money Bill once, or reserve the Bill for the President. Upon reconsideration and re-passage, the Governor must assent.
  • Article 201 ā€“ Presidentā€™s Options: The President may assent, withhold assent, or return a non-Money Bill; unlike the Governor, the President is not bound even if the Bill is re-passed.
  • No Absolute or Pocket Veto: The Supreme Court held in the 2023 Tamil Nadu case that Governors cannot exercise a pocket veto; ā€œas soon as possibleā€ implies reasonable promptness.
  • Restriction on Reserving Bills: After a Bill is re-passed without amendments, the Governor must assent; it cannot be reserved again unless the content has changed.
  • Aid and Advice Principle: The Governor must act on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers except in limited situations concerning High Court or Supreme Court powers.
  • Judicial Timelines and Reviewability: The Supreme Court imposed definitive timelines for Governorā€™s action under Article 200 and held that inaction is subject to judicial review.
[UPSC 2012] Question: Which of the following are the discretionary powers given to the Governor of a State?

1. Sending a report to the President of India for imposing the President’s rule

2. Appointing the Ministers

3. Reserving certain bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President of India

4. Making the rules to conduct the business of the State Government

Select the correct answer using the code given below: Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

 

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SC strikes down provisions of Tribunal Reforms Act, tells govt. to set up panel

SC Judgements | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Statutory, Regulatory & Various Quasi-Judicial Bodies

Why In The News?

Supreme Court struck down provisions of the Tribunal Reforms Act 2021, saying they gave government excessive control over tribunal appointments, functioning and salaries, undermining independence.

 

1) About the Supreme Court Judgement on the Tribunal Reforms Act, 2021:

  • Striking Down Provisions: The Supreme Court struck down provisions of the Tribunal Reforms Act, 2021 that gave the Union government dominant control over appointments, functioning, and salaries of tribunal chairpersons and members.
  • Need for Independence: The Court held that Parliament must structure the tribunal system to ensure independence, impartiality, and effective adjudication as constitutional requirements.
  • Violation of Constitutional Principles: Laws that enable executive control, curtail tenure, or weaken autonomy violate foundational constitutional values.
  • National Tribunal Commission: The Bench directed the Centre to establish a National Tribunal Commission within four months to ensure independence and transparency.
  • Repackaged Ordinance: The 2021 Act was a ā€œrepackaged versionā€ of the earlier ordinance struck down in July 2021.
  • Ignoring Defects: Parliament had ignored the defects pointed out earlier by the Supreme Court, transferring the same provisions into the 2021 Act with minor changes.
  • Rejection of Parliamentā€™s Argument: The Court dismissed the claim that Parliament has discretion to ignore Supreme Court decisions.
  • Judicial Review as a Basic Feature: The Court insisted that judicial review is a basic feature of the Constitution, and Parliament cannot brush aside the supremacy of the Constitution.

2) Power of Judicial Review:

  • Meaning: Judicial review is the power of courts to examine the lawfulness of decisions or actions of public authorities.
  • Process Review: It reviews how a decision was made, not the correctness of the decision itself.
  • Procedure Established by Law: A law is valid only if enacted following the proper legislative procedure.
  • Due Process of Law: Ensures that laws are fair and just; India follows Procedure Established by Law.
  • Scope: Extends to reviewing actions of the legislature, executive, and administrative bodies.
  • Functions: Helps legitimize government action and protects the Constitution from undue encroachment.
  • Basic Structure: Judicial review forms part of the basic structure doctrine (Indira Gandhi vs Raj Narain, 1975).
  • Judicial Functions: Includes interpretational and observer roles of the judiciary.
  • PILs and Suo Moto: Courts can intervene through Public Interest Litigation and suo moto cases.
  • Types:
    • Review of Legislative Actions: Ensures laws comply with the Constitution.
    • Review of Administrative Actions: Enforces constitutional discipline on administrative bodies.
    • Review of Judicial Decisions: Allows correction of prior judicial decisions.
  • Importance: Ensures supremacy of the Constitution, prevents misuse of power, protects rights, maintains federal balance, and upholds judicial independence.
  • Problems: May limit government functioning, create overreach, lead to rigidity, risk judicial bias, and diminish public faith through repeated interventions.
  • Indian Context: India follows separation of functions, not strict separation of powers, but has checks and balances empowering courts to strike down unconstitutional laws.

3) Tribunals:

  • Nature: Tribunals are quasi-judicial bodies aimed at reducing caseloads and providing technical expertise.
  • Constitutional Basis: Articles 323A and 323B added via the 42nd Amendment (1976) empower creation of tribunals.
  • Article 323A: Enables Parliament to form administrative tribunals for service matters.
  • Article 323B: Allows Parliament and state legislatures to create tribunals on subjects like taxation and land reforms.
  • 2010 SC Clarification: Subjects under Article 323B are not exclusiveā€”legislatures may create tribunals for any subject in the Seventh Schedule.
  • Composition: Tribunals include judicial and technical members.
  • Jurisdiction: Defined, subject-specific jurisdiction; some have appellate powers.
  • Appeals: Generally lie with High Courts, though some go directly to the Supreme Court.
  • Chandra Kumar Judgment (1997): Appeals from tribunals must reach a division bench of High Courts.
  • Current Position: Tribunals may function as substitutes for High Courts or remain subordinate.

Significance of Tribunals:

  • Specialization:
    • Ensures cases are handled by individuals with deep legal and technical expertise.
  • Speedy Resolution:
    • Enables timely resolution in crucial matters like tax, service disputes, and environmental issues.
  • Reduced Case Load:
    • Helps ease the burden on regular courts and reduces judicial backlog.
  • Accessibility:
    • Tribunals often have geographically dispersed benches, improving access for litigants.
  • Efficiency in Service Matters:
    • Bodies like CAT expedite government service-related disputes.

Concerns with Tribunals:

  • Independence Issues:
    • Government-controlled appointments raise concerns about executive influence.
    • In 2019, the Supreme Court warned that lack of judicial dominance violates the separation of powers.
  • Pendency of Cases:
    • Example: Armed Forces Tribunal (AFT) had 18,829 pending cases in 2021.
  • Human Resource Constraints:
    • Lack of staffing contributes to rising pendency.
  • Tenure Problems:
    • Short tenure and reappointment provisions increase executive control.
  • Non-Uniform Procedures:
    • Wide variations cause inconsistency and confusion for litigants.
  • Overlapping Jurisdictions:
    • Leads to conflicts between courts and tribunals.
  • Technical Member Issues:
    • Some technical members lack legal qualifications.
[UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:

1. The 44th Amendment to the Constitution of India introduced an Article placing the election of the Prime Minister beyond judicial review.

2. The Supreme Court of India struck down the 99th Amendment to the Constitution of India as being violative of the independence of judiciary.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a)Ā  1 only (b) 2 only* (c)Ā  Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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Food Procurement and Distribution ā€“ PDS & NFSA, Shanta Kumar Committee, FCI restructuring, Buffer stock, etc.

2.25 Crore Ineligible Beneficiaries removed Ā from Free Ration Scheme

Bills/Act/Laws | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

Why in the News?

About 2.25 crore ineligible people were removed from the NFSA free ration list in the past 4ā€“5 months to ensure benefits reach only rightful beneficiaries.

About Free Ration Scheme:

  • Foodgrain Allocation: The scheme provides 5 kg of free foodgrains (wheat or rice) per person per month to poor householdsĀ for basic sustenance.
  • Criteria for Ineligibility: Ineligible individuals included those owning four-wheelers, earning above the income threshold, holding company directorships, or deceased persons.
  • Verification Process: The Centre identified suspect entries and shared them with States for verification and deletion.
  • Role of State Governments: States are responsible for identifying beneficiaries, issuing ration cards, and continuously updating lists.
  • Current Coverage: The scheme currently covers around 80.56 crore people, with scope to add about 0.79 crore more beneficiaries.
  • Ration Card & Distribution Network: India has over 19 crore ration card holders and around 5 lakh fair price shops.
  • Beneficiary Categories:
    • Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY): 35 kg per household per month
    • Priority Households (PHH): 5 kg per person per month

About National Food Security Act, 2013 (NFSA):

  • Enactment: NFSAĀ was signed into law on 12 September 2013, with effect from 5 July 2013.
  • Coverage Goal: It aims to provide subsidized food grains to about two-thirds of Indiaā€™s population, covering 75% rural and 50% urban populations.
  • Legal Entitlements: It converts food security schemes into legal entitlements for eligible households.
  • Subsidized Prices: Mandated Targeted Public Distribution System prices:
    • Rice ā€“ ā‚¹3/kg
    • Wheat ā€“ ā‚¹2/kg
    • Coarse grains ā€“ ā‚¹1/kg
  • Household Head Provision: The eldest woman aged 18 or above in a household is designated as the head for issuing ration cards.
  • Nutritional Support: Pregnant women, lactating mothers, and children (6 monthsā€“14 years) receive free meals under ICDS and Mid-Day Meal schemes.
  • Maternity Benefits: Pregnant and lactating women are entitled to a ā‚¹6,000 maternity benefit, paid in installments.
  • Entitlements Under NFSA:
    • Priority Households: 5 kg foodgrains per person per month
    • AAY Households: 35 kg per month
    • Universal coverage of ICDS and Mid-Day Meals
[UPSC 2018] With reference to the provisions made under the National Food Security Act, 2013, consider the following statements:

1. The families coming under the category of ā€˜below poverty line (BPL)ā€™ only are eligible to receive subsidies food grains.

2. The eldest woman in a household, of age 18 years or above, shall be the head of the household for the purpose of issuance of a ration card.

3. Pregnant women and lactating mothers are entitled to a ā€˜take-home rationā€™ of 1600 calories per day during pregnancy and for six months thereafter.

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only

 

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Seeds, Pesticides and Mechanization ā€“ HYV, Indian Seed Congress, etc.

Centre plans to amend Protection of Plant Variety and Farmersā€™ Rights (PPV&F) Act, 2001

Bills/Act/Laws | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

Why in the News?

The Union Agriculture Minister has confirmed that the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmersā€™ Rights Act, 2001 (PPV&FRA) will be amended, with the Centre incorporating inputs from farmers, scientists, civil society, and industry.

About the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmersā€™ Rights Act (PPV&FRA), 2001:

  • Overview: Indiaā€™s sui generis legislation protects the rights of plant breeders, farmers, and local communities while promoting innovation and conserving agrobiodiversity.
  • TRIPS Compliance: Designed as an alternative to restrictive Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) models, recognising farmers both as cultivators and as breeders with equal legal standing.
  • Key Features:
    • Institutional Framework: Established the PPV&FR Authority, National Register of Plant Varieties, and the National Gene Bank for long-term conservation.
    • Farmersā€™ Rights: Allows farmers to save, use, sow, resow, exchange, share, and sell seeds of protected varieties (except branded seeds) and register their own varieties.
    • Breedersā€™ Rights: Grants exclusive commercialisation rights over registered varieties, subject to benefit-sharing and statutory limitations.
    • DUS Testing: Registration based on Distinctness, Uniformity, Stability, with protection of 15 years for annuals and 18 years for trees and vines.
    • Compulsory Licensing: Ensures public access where breeders fail to provide seeds at fair prices or adequate quantities.
    • Community Benefits: Provides for benefit-sharing, recognition of traditional varieties, and safeguards against unfair claims on farmer-developed seeds.
    • Scope of Varieties: Covers new, extant, farmersā€™, and essentially derived varieties.

What are the Proposed Amendments?

  • Redefinition of ā€˜Varietyā€™: Broadened to include combinations of genotypes and vegetative propagules such as tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, synthetic seeds, and tissue-culture plants, aligning with the Seeds Bill 2019.
  • Expanded Definition of ā€˜Seedā€™: Includes all planting materials and vegetatively propagated parts to harmonise Indiaā€™s seed laws.
  • Clarifying ā€˜Breederā€™ and ā€˜Institutionā€™: Updated to formally recognise both public and private bodies as legitimate breeders.
  • Strengthening DUS Testing: Adds trait-based descriptors, greater transparency, and safeguards against misuse seen in cases like njavara paddy.
  • Defining ā€œAbusive Actsā€: Introduces penalties for selling varieties with identical denominations or misusing breeder rights to gain monopolistic control.
  • Community Seed Rights: Ensures that community-developed and traditional varieties cannot be appropriated by private entities.
  • Protection Against Misappropriation: Prevents registration of varieties already tested or conserved by farmers without disclosure or consent.
  • Farmer Compensation: Strengthens mechanisms for compensating farmers when registered varieties underperform compared to breeder claims.
  • Global Alignment: Follows negotiations under the International Plant Treaty (MLS), especially on in situ conservation and equitable sharing of genetic resources.
[UPSC 2014]Ā  In the context of food and nutritional security of India, enhancing the ‘Seed Replacement Rates’ of various crops helps in achieving the food production targets of the future. But what is/are the constraint/constraints in its wider/greater implementation?

1. There is no National Seeds Policy in place.

2. There is no participation of private sector seed companies in the supply of quality seeds of vegetables and planting materials of horticultural crops.

3. There is a demand-supply gap regarding quality seeds in case of low value and high volume crops.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a)Ā  1 and 2 only (b)Ā  3 only* (c)Ā  2 and 3 only (d)Ā  None of the above

 

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Electoral Reforms In India

Independence of Election Commission Of India(ECI)

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Constitutional Bodies

Why in the news?

Amidst SIR exercise, the Opposition raised questions on the independence of ECI.

About Election Commission of India(ECI)

The Election Commission of India (ECI), established under Article 324, is responsible for ensuring free, fair, and impartial elections. Its independence is essential for democratic legitimacy.

Constitutional Safeguards Ensuring Independence

1.Security of Tenure ā€“ CEC-The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) can be removed only through a process similar to that of a Supreme Court judge- by a special majority of Parliament on grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity.

2.Protection for Election Commissioners (ECs)-ECs can be removed only on the recommendation of the CEC, preventing arbitrary dismissal by the executive.

3. Financial Independence-ECIā€™s expenses are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India, insulating it from executive control through budget cuts.

4. Plenary Powers under Article 324-ECI can act when existing laws are inadequate, allowing it functional autonomy during elections

Independence After the 2023 Act

Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023. This Act overrides the 2023 Supreme Court directive that required a three-member committee :PM + Leader of Opposition + CJI.

Key Provisions and Their Impact

1.New Appointment Committee-Appointments to CEC and ECs now made by a three-member panel:

  • Prime Minister (Chairperson)
  • Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha
  • Union Cabinet Minister nominated by the PM

Impact: Replaces the CJI with a Cabinet minister, increasing executive dominance over appointments, raising concerns about ECI independence.

2. Service Conditions-CEC and ECs will have the same salary and perks as Cabinet Secretary.

Impact: This equates their status with high-ranking executive officers, which critics argue may reduce institutional insulation from the government.

3.Term of Office-Fixed tenure of 6 years or until age 65, whichever earlier.

Impact: Fixed tenure supports stability, but early retirement age could shorten term length.

4. Removal & Suspension-No change: CEC retains constitutional protection; ECs removable only on CECā€™s recommendation.

Challenges to Independence (Post-2023 Act)

  • Executive-Dominated Appointments: A selection panel with a government majority may undermine the Commissionā€™s neutrality.
  • Exclusion of CJI: Removing the Chief Justice from the panel weakens institutional checks and balances.
  • Status Dilution: Equating the CEC/ECs with a bureaucratic rank risks undermining their constitutional stature.
  • Post-Retirement Incentives: Possibility of government-appointed positions may affect independent decision-making.
  • Administrative Dependence: Continued reliance on government machinery for staffing and logistics limits functional autonomy.

The Election Commission of India, protected by the Constitution, ensures free elections; the 2023 Act clarifies appointments, and strengthening autonomy and capacity can further reinforce its credibility and democratic role.

[UPSC 2012] Consider the following statements:

  1. Union Territories are not represented in the Rajya Sabha.
  2. It is within the purview of the Chief Election Commissioner to adjudicate election disputes.
  3. According to the Constitution of India, the Parliament consists of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha only.

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) None*

 

 

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SC recalls verdict rejecting Green Clearances

SC Judgements | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

Why in the News?

A three-judge Bench of the Supreme Court of India recalled its May 16 verdict that had declared the granting of ex post facto environmental clearances (ECs) to construction projects as a “gross illegality” and “anathema” to environmental laws. This decision had struck down a 2017 notification and 2021 office memorandum of the Union Government that allows such retrospective clearances.

Key Points of Decision

  1. Majority Opinion:
    • Chief Justice B.R. Gavai and Justice K. Vinod Chandran ruled to recall the May 16 verdict, which had declared the granting of ex post facto environmental clearances (ECs) as illegal.
    • The majority emphasized the public interest in avoiding the demolition of ongoing construction projects, which could lead to significant financial losses and job cuts.
    • They argued that retrospective clearances should be an exceptional measure rather than a routine practice, and these projects could continue if heavy penalties were imposed for violations.
  2. Dissenting Opinion:
    • Justice Ujjal Bhuyan dissented, critiquing the majority for undermining environmental jurisprudence.
    • Justice Bhuyan argued that granting ex post facto ECs violates the precautionary principle and undermines sustainable development, as it encourages illegal constructions that bypass environmental laws.
    • He emphasized that environmental protection should not be compromised for development purposes.

Implications of the Judgement

  • Development vs Environment: The decision underscores the tension between economic development and environmental protection, highlighting the judiciaryā€™s role in ensuring sustainable development while addressing violations of environmental laws.
  • Environmental Governance: It raises questions on judicial review of executive actions, emphasizing the need for effective regulatory compliance and policy frameworks that balance growth with ecological safeguards.
  • Sustainability and Public Health: The ruling reinforces the importance of adhering to environmental laws to protect natural resources and public health, which is critical for Indiaā€™s long-term sustainability and policymaking.

Supreme Courtā€™s power to review its own judgement

1.Review PetitionĀ 

  • Constitutional Power: Article 137 empowers the Supreme Court to review its own judgments.
  • Exception to Finality: This acts as an exception to the doctrine of functus officio, which otherwise bars reopening finalized cases.
  • Purpose: The review power corrects grave errors and prevents miscarriage of justice.

2.Curative Petition

  • Last Legal Remedy: A curative petition may be filed only after the dismissal of a review petition, serving as the final avenue to prevent gross miscarriage of justice.
  • Judicial Innovation: The concept was created by the Supreme Court in Rupa Ashok Hurra v. Ashok Hurra (2002) to address rare cases where judicial bias or procedural injustice is alleged.
  • Purpose: It aims to correct grave violations of natural justice or abuse of the courtā€™s process, ensuring fairness even after final judgments.

Landmark Cases where Supreme Court Reviewed its own Judgements

  • Keshavananda Bharati v. State of Kerela(1973):Ā overturned the Golakhnath case(1967) by establishing the “basic structure doctrine,” which affirmed Parliament’s power to amend the Constitution, including Fundamental Rights, but with the crucial limitation that it cannot alter or destroy its basic structure.Ā 
  • Common Cause v. Union of IndiaĀ (2023):Ā The Court modified its own 2018 judgment on “Advanced Medical Directives” (passive euthanasia) by altering the requirements for the composition of medical boards and removing the need for a Judicial Magistrate’s counter-signature
  • Recall of the Vanashakti judgment:Ā The Court recalled its May 16, 2025, verdict inĀ Vanashakti vs Union of IndiaĀ that barred retrospective environmental clearances for projects

[UPSC 2021] With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements:

  1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with prior permission from the President of India.
  2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgment, as the Supreme Court does.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) (c) Both 1 and 2 only (d) (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms ā€“ eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

[19th November 2025] The Hindu Op-ED: Time to sort out India’s cereal mess

op-ed snap | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: PDS, Buffer Stock & Food Security

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Elucidate the importance of buffer stocks for stabilizing agricultural prices in India. What are the challenges associated with the storage of buffer stock? Discuss.

Linkage: This PYQ is central to GS-III themes of food security, MSP, PDS and price stabilization. It links with the articleā€™s focus on excess stocks and distorted procurement, showing why Indiaā€™s buffer-stock management is becoming unsustainable.

Mentorā€™s Comment

India faces a cereal management crisis marked by procurement distortions, crop diversification failures, import dependence, and systemic leakages. This article unpacks the urgent concerns raised in ā€œTime to sort out Indiaā€™s cereal messā€ and restructures them into an exam-oriented format that aligns with GS II and GS III themes such as food security, agriculture, subsidies, MSP, PDS, and federal coordination.

Introduction

Indiaā€™s cereal ecosystem, procurement, storage, distribution, and diversification, stands at a difficult juncture. Excessive focus on paddy and rice under MSP, escalating procurement costs, growing import dependence in edible oils and pulses, and logistical inefficiencies have created structural vulnerabilities. The current controversy in Tamil Naduā€™s paddy procurement highlights deeper national issues in cereal governance.

Why in the News

Tamil Naduā€™s short-term kuruvai paddy procurement turned contentious due to time overruns and corruption charges, exposing systemic weaknesses in the procurement architecture. Despite years of surplus stock, India faces a paradox of simultaneous overproduction of rice and wheat and rising import dependence on pulses and edible oils, with 55% of edible oil demand met by imports. The scale of misalignment, such as rice stocks at 536.14 lakh tonnes in October, five times the requirement, reveals an unsustainable cereal management model requiring urgent correction.

Understanding the Current Procurement Distortions

  1. Excessive Paddy Procurement: Tamil Naduā€™s system led by TNCSC and FCI shows delays, over-coverage, and corruption, with farmers preferring paddy due to assured returns.
  2. High Central Pool Stocks: Rice stocks reached 536.14 lakh tonnes (Oct 2024) against norms of about 102.5 lakh tonnes, reflecting procurement far beyond requirement.
  3. Skewed Crop Incentives: Procurement levels for rice and wheat remain consistently higher than norms, reducing incentives for diversification.

Why India’s Cereal Supply is Misaligned

  1. Surplus in Cereals: India maintains abundant stocks, e.g., rice procurement averaging 322 lakh tonnes over three years, indicating oversupply.
  2. Deficit in Pulses & Oilseeds: Despite large-scale cultivation, imports form a major share: India meets 55% of edible oil demand through imports.
  3. Stagnant Diversification: Farmers hesitate to shift due to uncertain support systems, weak price assurance, and inadequate crop guidance.

Rising Import Dependence and Its Consequences

  1. High Import Bills: Edible oil imports breached 30,000 crore in 2023-24 despite domestic production dips from 157 lakh tonnes to 138 lakh tonnes over a decade.
  2. Geopolitical Risks: Events like the Russia-Ukraine conflict directly increased global edible oil prices, impacting domestic inflation.
  3. Oilseed Production Stagnation: Even after 2004 reforms, domestic acreage rose but yields and self-sufficiency remained stagnant.

Structural Issues in India’s Crop Diversification Strategy

  1. Weak Extension Services: Farmers lack assured technical guidance and support for alternative crops.
  2. Higher Risk in Non-Paddy Crops: Limited MSP procurement outside cereals increases production risk.
  3. Fragmented Procurement Framework: Multiple agencies (FCI, State Corporations, NAFED) lead to inconsistent practices across states.

Why Procurement Reforms are Urgent

  1. Inefficient FPO Integration: FPOs, though expanding, remain nascent and face poor access to credit, logistics, and markets.
  2. Leakages and Diversions: Instances of paddy moving outside the procurement chain due to better prices in open markets distort the system.
  3. Need for Commodity-Specific Strategy: Uniform procurement policies for cereals, pulses, and oilseeds fail to reflect regional agro-ecology and market diversity.

Conclusion

Indiaā€™s cereal management crisis is not of shortage but of imbalance, overproduction of rice and wheat coexisting with deficits in pulses and edible oils. Procurement distortions, poor diversification incentives, and high import reliance underline the need for structural reforms. A shift towards agro-ecology-based diversification, procurement redesign, and FPO strengthening can realign Indiaā€™s food security architecture.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

Agentic AI: Tech’s newest buzzword

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

Agentic AI refers to a new class of artificial intelligence systems capable of executing multistep tasks, adapting to processes, and performing actions independently rather than merely responding to prompts. The term has witnessed a rapid surge in public and industry attention, driven by new academic reports and its promise of automating complex workflows. The development marks a notable shift from conventional chatbots that were largely conversational and instruction-bound.

Why in the News?

It is in the news due to a new report by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Boston Consulting Group describing it as a ā€œnew class of systems that can plan, act, and learn on their own.ā€ Google searches for the term have skyrocketed, reflecting a sharp contrast from its obscurity just a year ago.

What Makes Agentic AI Different?

  1. Autonomous Execution: Moves beyond responding to instructions by executing multistep processes and adapting as they proceed.
  2. Planning Capability: Breaks high-level goals into sequential steps and performs them independently.
  3. Human-Like Behaviour: Sounds more natural and expressive, yet retains training-based limitations without genuine understanding.

Why Has the Term Skyrocketed?

  1. New MITā€“BCG Report: Classifies agentic systems as a new AI class with independence in planning and learning.
  2. Search Spike: Google searches for the term hit a peak earlier this fall.
  3. Corporate Adoption: Major tech firms such as OpenAI, Google, IBM, Microsoft, and Salesforce are building or integrating agentic systems.

How Does Agentic AI Work in Real-world Tasks?

  1. Execution of Goal Chains: Systems take inputs like ā€œHere are the great ideasā€ and ā€œAnd then complete the task.ā€
  2. Application in Online Services: Includes personal finance assistance, bill interpretation, dispute resolution, or travel booking using card data.
  3. Complex Task Automation: Involves computer access and stepwise execution of guidelines for high-level objectives.

What Is Driving Industry Optimism?

  1. Workflow Automation Promise: Amazon sees agentic systems as key to automating cloud operations and enterprise-level tasks.
  2. Operational Transformation: Viewed as one of the biggest AI evolutions since early generative models.
  3. Security Applications: Potential as ā€œpersonal shieldsā€ against spam, fraud, and phishing by acting on email and digital data.

What Are The Concerns or Limitations?

  1. Marketing Hype vs Utility: The term is being debated due to its sudden popularity and vague boundaries.
  2. Lack of True Autonomy: Systems act within training limits despite appearing highly capable.
  3. Ethical and Trust Issues: The blending of autonomous actions with sensitive tasks (finance/computers) raises oversight concerns.

Conclusion

Agentic AI represents a shift from conversational to autonomous process-executing systems. While the term has rapidly gained traction due to academic endorsement and industry optimism, its real potential depends on responsible deployment, ethical guardrails, and clarity around autonomy and control. Its emergence signals an important moment in the evolution of artificial intelligence with direct implications for governance, security, and digital administration.

Value Addition

Generative AI

  • Definition: AI systems capable of generating new content, text, images, audio, or code, based on patterns learned from training data.
  • Core Function: Produces responses to prompts; does not take independent action.
  • Examples: ChatGPT, Midjourney, DALLĀ·E.

Large Language Models (LLMs)

  • Definition: Models trained on vast datasets to understand and produce human-like language.
  • Role: Backbone of generative AI.
  • Limitation: No planning ability; follows instructions linearly.

Agentic AI

  • Definition: A new class of AI systems that can plan, act, and learn on their own, breaking down goals into steps and executing them without constant user input.
  • Core Difference from Generative AI: Moves from responding to acting.
  • Example (from article): An agent that interprets medical bills, disputes charges, or handles complex computer tasks.

AI Agents

  • Definition: Software entities capable of autonomous actions in an environment to achieve goals.
  • Role in Agentic AI: Agents are the functional units that perform the tasks.

Multistep Automation

  • Definition: A system that converts a single instruction into multiple executable actions.
  • Agentic Relevance: This is the defining capability that transforms chatbots into autonomous systems.

High-level Goal Breakdown

  • Definition: Ability of an AI to take an abstract goal (e.g., ā€œorganise my travelā€) and break it into actionable steps.
  • Example: Travel bookings using credit card data.

Autonomy in AI

  • Definition: The degree to which an AI system can act without human intervention.
  • Agentic Context: Full or partial autonomy is central to its functionality.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] How can Artificial Intelligence (AI) help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare?

Linkage: Agentic AI builds on this by not just assisting but autonomously executing tasks such as interpreting bills or acting on sensitive data. The privacy risks highlighted in the PYQ directly connect to concerns over AI agents accessing personal digital information while acting independently.

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Trade Sector Updates ā€“ Falling Exports, TIES, MEIS, Foreign Trade Policy, etc.

Excessive dependence: On India’s external trade landscape

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Introduction

India recorded a historic goods trade deficit in October ($41.68 billion), following a sharp rise from Septemberā€™s $32.15 billion deficit. The decline in exports, driven largely by the U.S.ā€™s steep tariffs, coincides with an abnormal spike in gold and silver imports, rupee depreciation, and heavy portfolio outflows. The article highlights how Indiaā€™s dependence on the U.S. market has exposed it to both economic and diplomatic vulnerabilities, raising questions about whether the shift in trade patterns is structural or a temporary response to external shocks.

Why in the News

Indiaā€™s record October trade deficit of $41.68 billion, the sharpest ever, signals a significant disruption in its external trade landscape. Exports plunged due to the U.S.ā€™s sudden 50% tariffs, critical because the U.S. is Indiaā€™s largest export market, while gold imports tripled and silver inflows rose fivefold, creating an unprecedented import spike.

A Rising Trade Deficit and What It Reveals

  1. Record Deficit ($41.68 bn): Reflects a sequential deterioration from Septemberā€™s $32.15 bn deficit, signalling a disturbing shift.
  2. Export Fall (-11.8% YoY): Goods exports dropped to $34.38 bn (from $38.98 bn in 2024), driven primarily by U.S. tariffs.
  3. Heavy Import Surge: Driven by a dramatic rise in bullion inflows and the use of cheaper imported intermediates.

Why the U.S. Tariffs Hit India Hard

  1. 50% Tariff Shock: Imposed in August, directly affecting sectors for which the U.S. has been Indiaā€™s major market since 2018-19.
  2. Large Market Dependence: The U.S. remains the biggest buyer of Indiaā€™s textiles, yarn, readymade garments, and engineering goods.
  3. Export Decline (-9% YoY): Overall exports to the U.S. contracted sharply in October.

What Is Driving the Surge in Gold and Silver Imports?

  1. Gold Imports Tripled: Rising from $4.92 bn (last October) due to economic uncertainty.
  2. Silver Imports Up Fivefold: Indicates hedging behaviour rather than seasonal demand.
  3. Rupee Weakening (ā‚¹85.6 to ā‚¹88.4): Encouraged investors to seek bullion as a safe asset.

Sector-Wise Export Stress

  1. Cotton Yarn & Handlooms (-13.31%): Major labour-intensive sector hit due to tariff-led slowdown.
  2. Man-Made Yarn (-11.75%): Reflects weakening competitiveness.
  3. Readymade Garments (-12.88%): Particularly vulnerable to U.S. demand contraction.
  4. Engineering Goods (-16.71%): Hit despite being a major export strength area.

Is the Import Surge a Structural Pattern?

  1. Cheaper Intermediate Goods: Firms increasingly rely on imported inputs to maintain export competitiveness.
  2. Depreciating Rupee: Makes imports costlier but also signals reduced domestic sourcing.
  3. Need for HS-Chapter Analysis: A breakdown by commodity and source country will clarify which imports are rising structurally.

Government Measures and Their Limitations

  1. Export Promotion (ā‚¹25,060 crore over 6 years): Centre has stepped in to cushion exporters.
  2. RBI Relief Measures: Target tariff-affected exporters.
  3. Too Early to Call It Structural: Realignment of supply chains and market diversification could take years.

Geopolitical Shifts and Bilateral Trade Dynamic

  1. India-U.S. Bilateral Trade Agreement: If concluded soon, Octoberā€™s deficit spike may be temporary.
  2. Russian Imports Down (-27.73%): Sharp drop indicates effort to reduce crude dependence.
  3. U.S. Imports Up (13.89%): Suggests attempt to ease American concerns over trade imbalance.

Conclusion

Indiaā€™s record trade deficit underscores the risks of concentrated export dependence and volatile imports driven by economic uncertainty. While the current shift may be partly reactionary, persistent decline in labour-intensive exports and rising reliance on imported intermediates signal deeper structural weaknesses. Managing this transition will require sustained policy intervention, diversification of markets, and a recalibration of Indiaā€™s trade portfolio to mitigate vulnerability.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?

Linkage: The U.S. tariff shock and rupee weakening in the article directly mirror the PYQā€™s theme, showing how protectionism and currency swings widen Indiaā€™s trade deficit. Together, they illustrate the resulting stress on Indiaā€™s macroeconomic stability.

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Judicial Pendency

[18th November 2025] The Hindu Op-ED: The lower-judiciary- litigation, pendency, stagnation

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Explain the reasons for the growth of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in India. As a result of it, has the Indian Supreme Court emerged as the worldā€™s most powerful judiciary?

Linkage: Judiciary is one of the most important topics for GS-II. This PYQ tests how failures of the lower judiciary, delay, pendency, and weak remedies, drive the rise of PILs and expand the Supreme Courtā€™s role. The article directly shows these systemic gaps, explaining why litigants bypass subordinate courts and seek relief through PILs.

Mentorā€™s Comment

The lower judiciary forms the backbone of Indiaā€™s justice delivery system. Yet, a combination of procedural complexity, chronic pendency, and structural stagnation has now reached a point where even the Supreme Court has begun to publicly express concern. The following article unpacks the crisis using insights from the given text, presenting it in a UPSC-oriented, structured, exam-ready format.

Why in the News?Ā 

A Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice, recently flagged the stagnation and systemic decay in Indiaā€™s subordinate judiciary. With 4.69 crore pending cases in district courts (National Judicial Data Grid), the Court has now asked judges in Delhi to undergo training due to lack of basic knowledge, a move rarely made earlier. This highlights a deep structural crisis, where procedural rigidity, unclear statutes, and administrative delays have created a near-gridlock in Indiaā€™s justice system, affecting millions of litigants.

Introduction

Indiaā€™s subordinate judiciary, comprising district and lower courts, handles the vast majority of cases filed in the country. Despite its crucial role, it is plagued by procedural delays, inadequate training, unnecessary litigation, unclear statutes, and case mismanagement. The editorial highlights how routine court processes, outdated laws, poorly drafted statutes, and lack of judicial preparedness have cumulatively created low efficiency and high pendency. Strengthening the lower judiciary is essential for access to justice, rule of law, and economic productivity.

Why Are Procedural Rigidities Choking the Lower Judiciary?

  1. Mandatory procedures: Courts are bound to entertain pleadings, issue repeated summons, and ensure appearances, leading to wasted time and multiple adjournments. Example: Subordinate judges must call every suit for appearance or vakalatnama, often pointless.
  2. Inefficient daily case flow: Judges take up matters from 10:30 AM and continue till evening, leading to exhaustion and slow disposal. Result: Even if cases are adjourned, orders still need dictation.
  3. Heavy clerical & ministerial workload: Quality time is lost, reducing focus on adjudication.

Why Is the Subordinate Judiciary Functioning Below Optimal Capacity?

  1. Lack of experience: Many judges are fresh graduates without adequate training or exposure. Observation-based training plays a minimal role.
  2. Inadequate orientation: Civil judges rarely receive training with senior district or High Court judges in handling evidence, settlements, and procedural complexities.
  3. Absence of structured mentoring: No robust system for judge mentoring and skill development exists.

How Poorly Drafted Statutes Create Litigation Instead of Resolution?

  1. Negative impact of new provisions: Despite claims of faster disposal, many statutes increase complexity. Example: Section 12A of Commercial Courts Act on mandatory pre-institution mediation.
  2. Ambiguity causing additional litigation: Example: Confusion on whether a party that has already exchanged notices can skip mediation.
  3. Statutes creating contradictory interpretations: Judges are unsure whether processes are mandatory or directory, resulting in wastage of time.

What Makes Family and Civil Disputes Especially Burdensome?

  1. Six-month cooling-off confusion: Confusion on whether the six-month period in mutual-consent divorce is mandatory or waivable causes delays.
  2. Two-year separation interpretation: Courts differ on whether the couple must be separately living for two years before filing or after filing.
  3. Unclear appellate steps: Example: When the 90-day limitation begins for filing appeals if the written statement is delayed.
  4. Property disputes: Example: Whether a preliminary decree must be followed by a fresh application to pass a final decree.

How Do Outdated Procedural Laws Deepen Pendency?

  1. Archaic provisions retained: Several Code of Civil Procedure rules continue to burden courts.
  2. Unclear bars to appeal: Example: Whether written statements filed after 90 days can be accepted.
  3. Conflicting decrees: Parties get stuck when preliminary decrees are not automatically converted into final decrees.
  4. Excessive adjournments: Even when mediation fails, the litigant has to refile fresh applications, clogging the system.

Why Must Higher Judiciary Intervene in the Lower Judiciary Crisis?

  1. Review of subordinate court functioning: Supreme Courtā€™s intervention highlights widespread stagnation.
  2. Training requirement: Judges asked to undergo training due to lack of basic knowledge, an unprecedented move.
  3. Need for systemic correction: Simplification of statutes, harmonized procedural laws, and modernization of case-management systems are essential.

Conclusion

The crisis in Indiaā€™s lower judiciary is structural, not episodic. Procedural rigidity, unclear statutes, inexperienced judges, and outdated rules have combined to create massive pendency. Reform must focus on statutory simplification, judicial training, transparent case management, and harmonized procedural norms. Without systemic changes, the lower judiciary will continue to be a bottleneck in Indiaā€™s justice delivery and governance framework.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

India needs to ‘connect, build and revive’ with Africa

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Introduction

Indiaā€™s partnership with Africa is embedded in shared anti-colonial history, South-South cooperation, and long-standing developmental commitments. Over the last decade, Indiaā€™s diplomatic presence, investments, training initiatives, and cultural engagement have expanded across the continent. However, shifting geopolitical equations, intensifying global competition, and Africaā€™s rising economic potential demand an upgraded, value-driven, and sustained approach. The article argues that India must now ā€œconnect, build and reviveā€ its Africa policy to maintain its strategic foothold and align with Africaā€™s aspirations.

Why in the News?

A decade after hosting the largest-ever India-Africa Forum Summit, Indiaā€™s engagement with Africa is again at a pivotal moment. India has added 17 new missions, trade has crossed USD 100 billion, and investment flows are surging. Yet Indian trade still lags behind China, and many flagship promises made in 2015 require renewed momentum. As Africa is set to become home to one-fourth of the worldā€™s population by 2050, the scale, urgency, and strategic importance of Indiaā€™s outreach makes this moment historically significant.

How has Indiaā€™s outreach to Africa evolved in the past decade?

  1. Expanded diplomatic footprint: India added 17 new missions across Africa, enhancing its on-ground presence and bilateral engagement.
  2. Rising investment flows: Indiaā€™s investment stock has crossed USD 100 billion, making it among Africaā€™s top five investors.
  3. Growth in trade partnerships: Bilateral trade has crossed USD 100 billion, demonstrating the growing economic synergy.
  4. Enhanced defence cooperation: Joint naval exercises such as AIMKEME (April 2025) saw participation from navies of Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, South Africa, and Tanzania.
  5. Stronger multilateral alignment: India played a key role in enabling African Union membership in the G20, elevating Africaā€™s global voice.

Why is Africa emerging as a strategic priority for India?

  1. Demographic transformation: By 2050, one in four people on Earth will be Africa, a major consumer, labour, and talent base.
  2. Economic potential: Africa will be the worldā€™s third-largest economy, creating opportunities in technology, health, infra, and manufacturing.
  3. Geopolitical influence: Africaā€™s global role is expanding, and India aims to support African representation in global institutions and peacekeeping operations.
  4. Shared developmental priorities: From education to digital public goods, Indiaā€™s model aligns naturally with African development aspirations.

What challenges persist in India-Africa trade relations?

  1. Lag behind China: Indiaā€™s trade with Africa is expanding but still far behind China, which has deeper and wider market penetration.
  2. Logistical hurdles: Indian firms often face bureaucratic delays, small balance sheets, and scalability issues.
  3. Fragmented strategy: Indiaā€™s UPID, digital stack, and trade missions have strengths but lack coordinated continental impact.
  4. Competition from Europe and Asia: New entrants are building deeper financial and infrastructural linkages across the continent.

How is India building capacity and knowledge partnerships in Africa?

  1. Human capital initiatives: Indiaā€™s most enduring export to Africa is human capital, created through scholarships, training programs, and institutional partnerships.
  2. Education & digital training: The new IIT Madras campus in Zanzibar is a flagship example of education-based cooperation.
  3. Decadal knowledge ecosystems: Pan-African e-Network and Indiaā€™s ITEC programme continue to train thousands across African nations.
  4. Institutional bridges: African experts, ministers, and students working in India create lasting diplomatic and economic linkages.

What future steps should India take to revitalise momentum?

  1. Move from promises to real outcomes: Lines of credit must become visible, viable, and deliverable rather than symbolic.
  2. Build the India-Africa Digital Corridor: Collaboration on UPI, Aadhaar-stack, and digital payments can create a shared digital infrastructure.
  3. Reinforce the institutional base: Revive the summit-based momentum of IAFS and reintroduce regular leadership exchanges.
  4. Integrate private sector participation: Encourage start-ups, MSMEs, and fintech companies to expand into African markets.
  5. Strengthen maritime cooperation: The Western Indian Ocean is becoming central to supply-chain security and blue-economy partnerships.

Conclusion

Indiaā€™s partnership with Africa is rooted in trust, shared history, and developmental solidarity. But the world around both regions is changing rapidly. Africaā€™s demographic rise, digital aspirations, and geopolitical importance demand that India convert intent into implementation. ā€œConnect, build, and reviveā€ offers a timely blueprint for elevating India-Africa relations into a mature, inclusive, and futuristic partnership, one that benefits both regions and strengthens Indiaā€™s global standing.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Explain the reasons for the growth of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in India. As a result of it, has the Indian Supreme Court emerged as the worldā€™s most powerful judiciary?

Linkage: Judiciary is one of the most important topics for GS-II. This PYQ tests how failures of the lower judiciary, delay, pendency, and weak remedies, drive the rise of PILs and expand the Supreme Courtā€™s role. The article directly shows these systemic gaps, explaining why litigants bypass subordinate courts and seek relief through PILs.

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

What are UNESCO new guidelines for the use of neurotechnology

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

Neurotechnology includes devices and procedures that access, assess, or act upon neural systems. Earlier limited to health care, it now merges neuroscience, AI, computing, and engineering to improve or manipulate brain function. Rapid investments, private-sector involvement, and research innovations, such as brain implants enabling paralysed patients to speak, have increased both possibilities and ethical risks. UNESCOā€™s new standard attempts to balance innovation and human rights, defining responsibilities for governments, researchers, and companies.

Why in the News?Ā 

UNESCO has issued the worldā€™s first global normative framework on the ethics of neurotechnology, marking a major shift in global governance of brain-data systems. This is historic because neurotechnology, once confined to medicine, now expands into marketing, political persuasion, employment screening, insurance, and behaviour profiling. With misuse risks escalating and national laws lagging behind, UNESCOā€™s framework seeks to protect mental privacy, cognitive liberty, and brain-derived data in an era where neurodata can be exploited commercially or politically.

How does the article define neurotechnology?

  1. Devices/Procedures: Used to access, assess, and act on neural systems including the brain.
  2. Neurodata: Brain-derived data that can reveal intentions, emotions, or mental states, posing risks of exploitation.
  3. Dual-use potential: While used for medical enhancement or disability support, the same can be misused for persuasion, surveillance, or profiling.

Why is neurotechnology expanding so rapidly?

  1. Investment surge: According to a UNESCO study (2023), neurotechnology investment reached $8.6 billion, with private investment growing from $7.3 billion by 2020.
  2. Big tech involvement: Projects like US BRAIN Initiative, Elon Muskā€™s Neuralink accelerating market adoption.
  3. Medical promise: Supports mental health, paralysis recovery, chronic illness treatment, and palliative care.
  4. Commercial incentives: Insurance sector, HR screening, political messaging all exploring neurodata applications.

What are the key challenges highlighted?

  1. Mental privacy threats: Neurodata gives deep access to personal thoughts; existing legal standards insufficient.
  2. Political misuse: Brain signals used to influence voters or detect political leanings.
  3. Employment misuse: Screening employees for suitability, stress tolerance, or hidden traits.
  4. Commercial exploitation: Recruiting applicants based on subconscious brain responses to marketing stimuli.
  5. Human rights concerns: Risk of discrimination, autonomy loss, and manipulation.

What does UNESCOā€™s new framework propose?

  1. Human rights foundation: Anchors mental privacy, liberty, dignity.
  2. Responsible innovation: Based on OECD principles, responsibility, inclusion, sustainability.
  3. Four-pronged strategy:
    1. Scope definition of neurotechnology and neurodata.
    2. Identification of ethical principles for countries.
    3. Recommendations focusing on health, education, and vulnerable groups.
    4. Governance considerations for safety and equity.
  4. Intellectual property balance: Calls attention to potential conflicts between innovation and human rights when brain data becomes privatised.
  5. Open science model: Encourages free sharing of discoveries for societal benefit.
  6. Inclusive innovation: Participation of public, stakeholders, scientists, vulnerable communities.

What are the implications for governance and public policy?

  1. AI-Neuro convergence: Need for regulations preventing manipulation or exploitation of neural activity.
  2. Global governance: Calls for adoption by states to standardize mental privacy protections.
  3. Sectoral impact: Health, education, military, and employment policies require safeguards.
  4. IP reform: Recommends new licensing structures to prevent monopolisation of brain-interfacing technologies.
  5. R&D ethics: Researchers to involve the public and align innovations with societal needs, not corporate priorities.

Conclusion

UNESCOā€™s guidelines mark a foundational step in governing an emerging field where technological capacity has outpaced ethics. By protecting mental privacy and anchoring innovation within a human-rights framework, the guidelines seek to ensure neurotechnology remains a tool for empowerment rather than manipulation. For India and other countries, the challenge lies in integrating these recommendations into national law and ensuring safe, inclusive, and responsible neuro-innovation.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] How can Artificial Intelligence (AI) help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare?

Linkage: This directly links to the PYQ on AI in clinical diagnosis because neurotechnology goes even deeper, AI can now read and interpret brain signals, making privacy risks far sharper than ordinary medical data. The same issue fits under Ethics too, since it raises questions about autonomy, consent, dignity, and the basic right to mental privacy.

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Sakurajima Volcano erupts in Japan’s Kyushu

Prelims OnlyWorld Mapping | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Salient Features Of World'S Physical Geography

Why in the News?

Japanā€™s Sakurajima volcano has erupted several times sending ash plumes up to 4.4 km into the atmosphere.

Sakurajima Volcano erupts in Japan's Kyushu

About Sakurajima Volcano:

  • Location: Kagoshima Prefecture, Kyushu, sitting on the southern rim of the Aira caldera inside Kagoshima Bay.
  • Geological Origin: Linked to formation of the Aira caldera (22,000ā€“29,000 years ago); Sakurajima developed as a post-caldera cone about 13,000 years ago.
  • Volcano Type: A classic stratovolcano built from alternating lava and ash layers; active vents include Minamidake crater and the Showa flank crater.
  • Physical Features: Height 1,117 m, circumference ā‰ˆ50 km; originally an island until 1914 lava flows connected it to the Osumi Peninsula.
  • Eruption Style: Dominantly Strombolian eruptions (ash, bombs, lapilli) but historically capable of large Plinian eruptions.
  • Historical Activity: Continuous eruptive record since 963 AD; major episodes in 1471ā€“76, 1779ā€“82, and the 1914 catastrophic eruption.
  • Risk Status: Considered one of Japanā€™s most dangerous volcanoes due to high activity, caldera-linked magma supply and extreme proximity to inhabited zones.

What makes it unique?

  • Near-Continuous Activity: Erupts hundreds of times annually, ranking among the worldā€™s most persistently active volcanoes.
  • Caldera System: Built on the Aira caldera, giving it a deep, complex, highly active magma plumbing network.
  • Landform Transformation: The 1914 eruption converted Sakurajima from an island into a peninsula, an unusual event in recorded volcanology.
[UPSC 2005] Where is the volcanic mountain, Mount St- Helens located?

Options: (a) Chile (b) Japan (c) Philippines (d) United States of America*

 

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75th anniversary of National Sample Survey (NSS)

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Ministries & Departments Of The Government

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) is conducting the 75th-anniversary culmination ceremony of the National Sample Survey (NSS) along with World Statistics Day on 18 November 2025.

About National Sample Survey (NSS):

  • Origins: Started in 1950 to fill gaps in national income data; expanded into Indiaā€™s largest multi-topic socio-economic survey system.
  • Institutional Home: Conducted by NSSO (set up 1970), now merged into the National Statistical Office (NSO) under MoSPI.
  • Organisational Structure: Four key divisions – SDRD (Kolkata) for survey design, FOD (Delhi/Faridabad) for fieldwork, DPD (Kolkata) for data processing, and SCD (New Delhi) for coordination.

Survey Design and Coverage:

  • Rounds Structure: Includes large thick rounds every five years (ā‰ˆ1.2 lakh households) and thin rounds on specialised themes.
  • Geographic Coverage: Expanded from 1,833 villages in 1950ā€“51 to over 14,000 rural villages and urban blocks in recent rounds.
  • Scope: Generates national and state-level estimates on consumption, employment, migration, health, education, disability, housing, agriculture, elderly conditions, and more than 50 socio-economic themes over 75 years.
  • Representativeness: Provides robust national and regional estimates but does NOT offer district-level granularity.

Major Surveys Under NSS / NSO:

  1. Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS): Launched 2017; Indiaā€™s key source on employment, unemployment, labour force participation, and quarterly urban labour indicators.
  2. Annual Survey of Industries (ASI): Tracks organised manufacturing ā€” output, inputs, employment, productivity, structural change.
  3. Price Surveys: Produce CPI-Rural, CPI-Urban, CPI-AL/RL, and contribute to WPI, forming the backbone of inflation monitoring.
  4. Urban Frame Survey (2022ā€“27): Updates the sampling frame for all urban socio-economic surveys.
  5. Agriculture and Crop Surveys: Estimate crop yields and support state agricultural statistics systems.

Significance of the NSS:

  • Policy Backbone: Critical for designing and evaluating programmes such as MGNREGA, PDS reforms, Ayushman Bharat, labour policies, rural development, and welfare targeting.
  • Macroeconomic Relevance: Supports GDP estimation, poverty assessment, consumption tracking, and inflation analysis.
  • Long-Term Value: Provides the most reliable, comparable household-level datasets in India, enabling analysis of structural change over decades.
[UPSC 2018] As per the NSSO 70th Round ā€œSituation Assessment Survey of Agriculture Householdsā€, consider the following statements:

1. Rajasthan has the highest percentage share of agriculture households among its rural households.

2. Out of the total households in the country, a little over 60 percent being to OBCs.

3. In Kerala, a little over 60 percent of agriculture households reported to have received maximum income from sources other than agriculture activities.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Finance Commission – Issues related to devolution of resources

Sixteenth Finance Commission submits its report for 2026-31 to the PresidentĀ 

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Why in the News?

The Sixteenth Finance Commission (16th FC), chaired by Arvind Panagariya, has formally submitted its report to the President of India on 17 November 2025.

Recommendations will be made public once tabled in Parliament under Article 281.

Back2Basics: Finance Commission

  • Constitutional Body: Established under Article 280 of the Constitution to define financial relations between the Union and the States.
  • Appointment: Constituted every 5 years or earlier by the President.
  • Composition: A Chairperson and 4 members, all appointed by the President.
  • Qualifications (under Finance Commission Act, 1951):
    • Chairperson must have experience in public affairs.
    • Members must be persons with expertise as:
      1. a High Court judge,
      2. an expert in government finance and accounts,
      3. a specialist in financial administration,
      4. an economist.
  • Functions: Recommends
    • Distribution of net proceeds of central taxes between Centre & States (vertical devolution);
    • Allocation of Statesā€™ share across individual States (horizontal distribution);
    • Principles governing grants-in-aid under Article 275;
    • Measures to augment State resources to support Panchayats and Municipalities;
    • Any additional financial matter referred by the President.
  • Submission & Tabling: Submits report to President; President lays it before both Houses of Parliament along with an explanatory memorandum.
  • Purpose: Ensures cooperative fiscal federalism, balanced revenue distribution, financial stability, and predictable Unionā€“State relations.

About Sixteenth Finance Commission:

  • Constitution & Basis: Constituted by the President of India under Article 280(1) in November 2024 to examine Union and State finances and recommend tax-sharing for the period 1 April 2026 to 31 March 2031.
  • Chairperson & Members: Chaired by Dr. Arvind Panagariya with members Annie George Mathew, Dr. Manoj Panda, T. Rabi Sankar, Dr. Soumyakanti Ghosh, and Secretary Ritvik Pandey.
  • Report Submission: Submitted its report to the President on 17 November 2025; copies also presented to the Prime Minister and the Union Finance Minister.
  • Term of Work: Mandated to submit the report by 31 October 2025, covering a five-year award period starting FY 2026-27.
  • Mandate (Terms of Reference): Recommend
    • Vertical devolution ā€“ share of States in the Centreā€™s divisible pool;
    • Horizontal distribution ā€“ breakup of the Statesā€™ share across individual States;
    • Principles for grants-in-aid to States under Article 275;
    • Measures to augment State resources to support Panchayats and Municipalities;
    • Review of financing arrangements for Disaster Management, including National and State Disaster Response Funds;
    • Any other matter referred by the President.
  • Method of Work: Analysed finances of Union & States; held extensive consultations with
    • Central government, all State governments,
    • Local governments (urban & rural),
    • Chairpersons of previous Finance Commissions,
    • Multilateral institutions, academic & research bodies,
    • Advisory Council and domain experts.
  • Structure of Report: Final output organised in two volumes ā€“ Volume I (recommendations) and Volume II (annexures and analytical backup).
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following:

1. Demographic performance 2. Forest and ecology 3. Governance reforms 4. Stable government 5. Tax and fiscal efforts

For the horizontal tax devolution, the Fifteenth Finance Commission used how many of the above as criteria other than population area and income distance?

Options: (a) Only two (b) Only three* (c) Only four (d) All five

 

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

Remembering Batukeshwar Dutt (1910ā€“1965)

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Why in the News?

This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.

Remembering Batukeshwar Dutt (1910ā€“1965)

About Batukeshwar Dutt (1910 to 1965):

  • Early Life: Born 18 November 1910 in Burdwan, Bengal Presidency; educated at Theosophical High School and Prithvinath College, Kanpur.
  • Political Affiliations: Joined Hindustan Socialist Republican Association and Naujawan Bharat Sabha; became a close associate of Bhagat Singh during his Kanpur days.
  • Jail Endurance: Known for remarkable resilience in Multan, Jhelum, Trichinopoly, Salem, and Andaman Cellular Jail.
  • Later Imprisonment: Released in 1938; joined Quit India Movement in 1942 and jailed again for four years.
  • Life Post-Independence: Settled in Patna, married Anjali; daughter Bharti became a professor.
  • Death: Died on 20 July 1965 at AIIMS Delhi from bone cancer.
  • Last Wish: Cremated at Hussainiwala, beside Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev.

Important Revolutionary Activities:

  • Assembly Bombing (8 April 1929): Co-executed the Central Legislative Assembly bombing with Bhagat Singh to protest colonial repression; bombs were non-lethal.
  • Political Message: Threw pamphlets, shouted ā€œInquilab Zindabad,ā€ and refused to escape, converting the trial into a political platform.
  • Sentencing: Received life imprisonment on 12 June 1929 in the Delhi Assembly Bomb Case.
  • Cellular Jail: Deported to Andamans; repeatedly led hunger strikes demanding recognition of political prisoners.
  • Long Fasts: Undertook multiple prolonged fasts, including two over a month long.
  • Prison Transfers: Shifted through Multan, Jhelum, Hazaribagh, Delhi and Patna jails.
  • Post-Illness Activism: Continued revolutionary involvement even after severe health decline; joined Quit India after release.
  • Cultural Protest: Criticised misrepresentation of revolutionaries in films; approved only Manoj Kumarā€™s 1965 film Shaheed.

Association with Bhagat Singh:

  • Early Bond: Met Bhagat Singh in Kanpur and was shaped by his discipline and ideological clarity.
  • Joint Action: Collaborated closely in HSRA; jointly executed the Assembly bombing as symbolic resistance.
  • Hunger Strike: Participated with Singh in the historic 114 day hunger strike for humane jail conditions.
  • After the Martyrdom: News of Singhā€™s execution (23 March 1931) reached him in Salem jail; he was haunted by visions of Singh.
  • Family Ties: Maintained lifelong connection with Bhagat Singhā€™s family; Mata Vidyawati stayed with him during his last illness.
  • Comradeship: Supported through final days by HSRA comrades like Shiv Verma, Sadashivrao Malkapurkar, and Kiran Das.
[UPSC 2022] Consider the following freedom fighters:

1. Barindra Kumar Ghosh 2. Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee 3. Rash Behari Bose

Who of the above was/were actively associated with the Ghadar Party?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only*

 

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Animal Husbandry, Dairy & Fisheries Sector ā€“ Pashudhan Sanjivani, E- Pashudhan Haat, etc

Centre announces National Gopal Ratna Awards

Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Economics Of Animal-Rearing

Why in the News?

The National Gopal Ratna Awards for 2025 has been announced by the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying (DAHD) under the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying.

About the National Gopal Ratna Awards:

  • Overview: Established in 2021 under the Rashtriya Gokul Mission to promote excellence in dairy management and indigenous breed conservation.
  • Target Groups: Recognises dairy farmers, Dairy Cooperatives, Milk Producer Companies (MPCs), Dairy FPOs, and Artificial Insemination (AI) Technicians for outstanding performance.
  • Breed Focus: Encourages scientific rearing and genetic improvement of indigenous cattle and buffalo breeds with high productivity and economic value.
  • Regional Inclusion: Contains a special category for North Eastern and Himalayan States to strengthen dairy development and acknowledge regional innovation.
  • Institutional Responsibility: Conferred annually by the Union Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying.
  • Award Categories: Best Dairy Farmer (indigenous breeds), Best Dairy Cooperative Society or MPC or FPO, Best AI Technician, and special regional awards for NER/Himalayan States.
  • Selection Parameters: Based on breed improvement results, milk yield, adoption of scientific practices, cooperative performance, and quality of AI service delivery.
  • Participation Scale: Receives thousands of applications annually (e.g., 2081 entries in the current cycle), reflecting wide national engagement.
  • Commemoration: Awards are presented on National Milk Day (26 November), marking the birth anniversary of Dr. Verghese Kurien.

Award Components and Cash Prizes:

  • Cash Awards: Given only in the first two categories: Best Dairy Farmer and Best Dairy Cooperative/MPC/FPO.
  • Prize Amounts:
    1. First prize- ā‚¹5,00,000
    2. Second prize- ā‚¹3,00,000
    3. Third prize- ā‚¹2,00,000
  • Regional Prizes: Special NER and Himalayan category winners receive ā‚¹2,00,000.
  • Artificial Insemination (AI) Technicians Category: No cash component; recognition only.
[UPSC 2025] Regarding the Rashtriya Gokul Mission:

I. It is important for the upliftment of rural poor as majority of low producing indigenous animals are with small and marginal farmers and landless labourers.

II. It was initiated to promote indigenous cattle and buffalo rearing and conservation in a scientific and holistic manner.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options; (a) I only (b) II only (c) Both I and II* (d) Neither I nor II

 

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Asiatic Caracal spotted at Ramgarh in Rajasthan’s Jaisalmer

Prelims OnlySpecies | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The elusive Asiatic Caracal (Caracal caracal schmitzi) has been rediscovered at Ramgarh, Jaisalmer, reaffirming its survival in the Thar Desert after years of uncertainty.

Asiatic Caracal spotted at Ramgarh in Rajasthan's Jaisalmer

About Asiatic Caracal:

  • Scientific Name: Caracal caracal schmitzi, the Asiatic subspecies of the globally distributed caracal species.
  • Distribution: Native to Africa, Middle East, Central Asia, Pakistan, and historically across northwestern and central India, now restricted mainly to Rajasthan and Gujarat.
  • Indian Population: Fewer than 50 individuals survive in India, with small, fragmented groups in the Thar Desert, Ranthambhore landscape, and Kutch region.
  • Habitat: Prefers semi deserts, savannahs, scrublands, steppes, dry forests, and open arid terrains; uses grassland scrub mosaics for hunting and denning.
  • Ecology: A shy nocturnal mesopredator feeding on rodents, hares, birds, and occasionally small ungulates; known for vertical leaps up to 3 metres to strike flying prey.
  • Legal Protection: Listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 and categorised as Least Concern globally but critically sparse within India.
  • Threats: Habitat loss from land conversion, solar parks, linear infrastructure, hunting, and misclassification of grasslands as wastelands reducing viable habitat.
  • Conservation Status in India: Included in the 2021 Species Recovery Plan by National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) and MoEFCC, with urgent need for grassland restoration, monitoring, and community based protection.
[UPSC 2019] Question: Consider the following statements:

1. Asiatic lion is naturally found In India only.

2. Double-humped camel is naturally found in India only.

3. One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only.

Which of the statements given above is / are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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