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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

In news: Pugad Island

Why in the News?

The Philippine island of Pugad in Manila Bay is facing an existential threat as rising sea levels and rapid land subsidence combine to submerge homes and livelihoods.

About Pugad Island:

  • Overview: Small 7-hectare island in Manila Bay, situated at the mouth of the Angat–Pampanga River Delta, under Hagonoy municipality, Bulacan province, Philippines.
  • Population: Home to about 1,636–2,056 residents, living in a single clustered village of roughly 384 houses.
  • Livelihoods: Community depends on fishing and aquaculture, with families cultivating clams, mussels, and whiting fish in converted fishponds.
  • Living Conditions: Houses built mainly from bamboo and old metal sheets, with poor sanitation, minimal healthcare facilities, and only elementary-level schooling.
  • Flooding Challenge: Regularly hit by high-tide and monsoon floods, made worse by land subsidence (11 cm/year) and sea-level rise (three times global average).
  • Environmental Hazards: Loss of mangroves, urban encroachment, and exposure to typhoons increase risks of disaster and displacement.
[UPSC 2018] Which of the following has/have shrunk immensely/dried up in the recent past due to human activities?

1.Aral Sea 2.Black Sea 3.Lake Baikal

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only (d) 1 and 3*

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

Swami Vivekananda and Vedanta Philosophy

Why in the News?

On the 132nd anniversary of his 1893 Chicago address, Swami Vivekananda was remembered for introducing Indian spirituality and Vedanta to the world with a message of tolerance and unity.

About Swami Vivekananda:

  • Early life: Born Narendranath Datta in 1863, Kolkata; Chief disciple of Sri Ramakrishna.
  • Role: Monk, reformer, and founder of the Ramakrishna Mission (1897).
  • Chicago Speech: Rose to global fame with his 1893 Parliament of Religions address in Chicago, calling for religious tolerance and universal brotherhood.
  • Teachings: Advocated social service, education, and spiritual sovereignty as means of national regeneration.
  • Legacy: Inspired the rise of Vedanta Societies worldwide, spread yoga and meditation in the West, and became a key figure in the Indian renaissance and freedom movement.

What is Vedanta Philosophy?

  • Roots: Derived from the Upanishads, especially Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism).
  • Oneness of Existence: The universe is one absolute Brahman; all souls are divine.
  • Religious Pluralism: All religions are valid paths to the same truth; promotes harmony, not division.
  • Self-Realization: The aim of life is to realize and manifest one’s innate divinity.
  • Karma Yoga: Selfless service is a spiritual practice — “Jiva is Shiva” (service to man is service to God).
  • Practical Vedanta: Application of spiritual wisdom to daily life and social reform, bridging tradition and modernity.

Back2Basics: Indian Classical Philosophy

There are 6 classical schools of Indian philosophy in the orthodox (Astika) tradition, which accept the authority of the Vedas:

  1. Nyaya: School of logic and reasoning
  2. Vaisesika:  Atomism and categories of reality
  3. Sankhya: Dualism of consciousness (purusha) and matter (prakriti)
  4. Yoga: Practical discipline based on Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras
  5. Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa): Ritual action and dharma
  6. Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa): Philosophy of the Upanishads

Apart from these, there are also heterodox (Nastika) schools, which do not accept Vedic authority, such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka (materialism).

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Sri Lanka

[11th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The Way Forward on Katchatheevu, Palk Strait disputes

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2013] In respect of India — Sri Lanka relations, discuss how domestic factors influence foreign policy.

Linkage: The Katchatheevu and Palk Strait disputes show how domestic pressures from Tamil Nadu, fishing community demands, political rhetoric, and cultural ties with Sri Lankan Tamils, directly shape India’s diplomatic posture with Colombo. Balancing these domestic concerns with treaty obligations and ecological imperatives defines the contours of India’s foreign policy. This reflects how internal politics often intersect with external relations in South Asia.

Mentor’s Comment

The Katchatheevu and Palk Straits disputes highlight the fine balance India must strike between diplomacy, livelihood, and ecological sustainability. While political rhetoric often overshadows the nuanced reality, the recent revival of dialogue between India and Sri Lanka offers an opportunity to convert conflict into cooperation. This article unpacks the legal, ecological, and humanitarian dimensions of the issue and offers insights useful for UPSC Mains aspirants.

Introduction

India’s neighbourhood diplomacy has been historically guided by Panchsheel, the Non-Aligned Movement, SAARC, and now the Neighbourhood First Policy. Yet, challenges with Sri Lanka, notably the fisheries dispute in the Palk Straits and the sovereignty of Katchatheevu island, continue to test this vision. Prime Minister Modi’s April 2025 visit to Colombo revived discussions on these long-standing issues, calling for a “humane approach” that reconciles livelihoods and ecological imperatives. The stakes are high: peace in the Palk Straits is not just about maritime boundaries but about human security, sustainability, and regional goodwill.

The Katchatheevu and Palk Strait Issue

Katchatheevu Island Dispute

  • Katchatheevu island: A tiny, uninhabited islet (under 0.5 sq. miles) situated in the Palk Strait, legally ceded to Sri Lanka under the 1974 India-Sri Lanka Maritime Boundary Treaty.
    • Fishing rights vs sovereignty: While sovereignty is settled in Sri Lanka’s favour, Indian fishers, especially from Tamil Nadu, continue to demand access, leading to periodic clashes.
  • Palk Strait: A narrow stretch of sea separating Tamil Nadu from Sri Lanka’s Northern Province, rich in marine resources but ecologically fragile.
    • Conflict drivers: Indian bottom trawlers crossing the maritime boundary deplete fish stocks, harming both Indian artisanal fishers and Sri Lankan Tamil fishers.
    • Core issue: More than territory, it is a livelihood and ecological crisis, complicated by political rhetoric around Katchatheevu’s status.

Livelihood and conservation at odds

  1. Shared history: Fishing communities of Tamil Nadu and Northern Sri Lanka have relied on the Palk Straits for centuries.
  2. Destructive practices: Indian mechanised bottom trawlers enter Sri Lankan waters, violating conservation norms.
  3. Legal framework: UNCLOS and FAO’s 1995 Code of Conduct prohibit destructive fishing; Sri Lanka banned bottom trawling in 2017.
  4. Ecological damage: Coral beds and shrimp habitats are destroyed; fish stocks are depleted.
  5. Internal conflict: Traditional Tamil Nadu artisanal fishers also lose out, creating intra-community livelihood clashes.

Clearing the misconceptions around Katchatheevu

  1. Tiny territory: Katchatheevu is less than half a square mile, barren except for St. Anthony’s church.
  2. Treaty status: The 1974 India-Sri Lanka Maritime Boundary Treaty gave it to Sri Lanka; under international law, such treaties are binding.
  3. Legal precedents: Minquiers and Ecrehos (UK vs France, 1953) and Rann of Kutch (India-Pakistan, 1968) show administrative control outweighs historical claims.
  4. Clarification: Myths such as “Indira Gandhi gifting the island” are misleading; historical records supported Sri Lanka’s claim.
  5. Key point: Fishing rights are separate from sovereignty, and Katchatheevu is not the root of the dispute.

Towards cooperative fisheries management

  1. Historic waters: Indian and Sri Lankan law recognise the Palk Straits as historic waters, giving stronger sovereign rights.
  2. UNCLOS Article 123: Mandates cooperation in semi-enclosed seas.
  3. Models for India-Sri Lanka:
    1. Baltic Sea Fisheries Convention (quota-sharing).
    2. Possible steps: Joint research station on Katchatheevu, regulated quotas, seasonal access, promotion of deep-sea fishing in India’s EEZ.

Building empathy and fraternity

  1. Shared suffering: Sri Lankan Tamil fishers lost decades of livelihood during the civil war due to military restrictions.
  2. Goodwill memory: Tamil refugees were welcomed in Tamil Nadu during the conflict.
  3. Role of Tamil leaders: MPs and media in Sri Lanka can sensitise Tamil Nadu fishers to hardships across the strait.
  4. Narrative shift: Sri Lankan Tamils are not aggressors but fellow victims of history.

India’s neighbourhood policy in action

  1. Diplomatic tradition: Panchsheel, NAM, SAARC, Neighbourhood First Policy.
  2. Way forward: Prioritise livelihood security, ecological sustainability, and treaty respect over populism.
  3. Multi-level engagement: Government-to-government, State/Provincial dialogue, community interaction.
  4. Larger vision: Transform Palk Straits from a zone of conflict to a symbol of cooperation.

Conclusion

The Katchatheevu issue is legally settled and should not distract from the real crisis, sustainable fisheries management in the Palk Straits. Balancing artisanal livelihoods, ecological imperatives, and regional goodwill requires cooperative frameworks and empathy. If pursued with prudence, India and Sri Lanka can convert disputes into opportunities, strengthening the Neighbourhood First Policy and ensuring that smaller conflicts do not overshadow South Asia’s collective future of peace and prosperity.

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Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

To build Roads is to build peace: Developmet in tribal hinterlands affected by Maoist Insurgency

Introduction

Roads in India’s Maoist-affected areas are more than physical infrastructure; they are symbols of the state itself. For communities long governed by neglect or non-state actors, the arrival of a road often marks the first visible sign of governance. Research and field evidence indicate that road development improves access to electricity, healthcare, education, and security while simultaneously displacing the influence of insurgents. Yet, roads alone cannot resolve conflict—they must be embedded in an ecosystem of justice, dignity, and inclusion.

Why is this in the news?

In regions affected by Maoist insurgency, particularly in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha, roads have emerged as a strategic instrument of peacebuilding. Recent studies (Jain & Biswas, 2023) show a correlation between road connectivity and reduced crime, while international evidence (Prieto-Curiel & Menezes, 2020) highlights how poor connectivity perpetuates violence globally. This marks a shift in governance strategy, from viewing infrastructure as purely developmental to recognizing it as a political and stabilising force.

How do roads reclaim governance from insurgents?

  1. Governance presence: Roads bring schools, clinics, and police stations, representing visible and accountable state authority.
  2. Displacement of parallel systems: Maoists often establish informal courts, taxation systems, and welfare activities in remote areas. Roads weaken these structures by enabling the state to reclaim legitimacy.
  3. Diego Gambetta’s insight: Like the Sicilian Mafia, insurgents thrive where the state withdraws. Infrastructure fills the governance vacuum.

What role do insurgent groups play in governance gaps?

  1. Informal welfare: Research by Alpa Shah (2018) and Human Rights Watch (2009) shows Maoists provide rudimentary health and welfare services in villages.
  2. Strategic legitimacy: As Zachariah Mampilly (2011) argues, such services are not altruistic but intended to gain legitimacy.
  3. Coercion with care: Maoist medical aid or welfare is tied to fear and control, not democratic accountability.

Why are extralegal institutions problematic?

  1. Absence of safeguards: Maoist-run “jan adalats” often issue punishments, even executions, without due process.
  2. Opaque justice: Decisions reflect entrenched hierarchies, patriarchy, and mob reprisals rather than rule of law.
  3. Comparison with khap panchayats: Like insurgent institutions, caste councils also deliver swift but exclusionary justice outside constitutional norms.

How do roads act as political infrastructure?

  1. Symbolic presence: Each road signals that “the state is here to stay,” as seen in Chhattisgarh under B.V.R. Subrahmanyam’s governance strategy.
  2. Crime reduction: Jain and Biswas (2023) show connectivity lowers rural crime rates.
  3. Global parallels: Prieto-Curiel & Menezes (2020) demonstrate that poor connectivity correlates with higher violence across contexts.

What safeguards are essential for success?

  1. Justice mechanisms: Roads must be accompanied by functioning courts and legal institutions to prevent arbitrary authority.
  2. Healthcare and welfare: Clinics, schools, and social infrastructure ensure that development is inclusive.
  3. Community participation: Roads must be built with the village, not just through the village, to ensure legitimacy and trust.

Conclusion

Roads in conflict-prone tribal regions represent more than mobility, they embody the arrival of governance and the possibility of peace. Yet, infrastructure without justice risks becoming a symbol of control rather than inclusion. For lasting impact, roads must be accompanied by democratic institutions, safeguards, and rights-based governance. To build roads, then, is indeed to build peace.

Value Addition

Naxalism: Definition & Origins

  • Definition: Left-Wing Extremism (LWE); armed, rural-based movement rooted in land alienation, poverty, displacement, forest rights, and state neglect.
  • Origins: Began with the 1967 Naxalbari peasant uprising in West Bengal; later consolidated under CPI (Maoist) formations.
  • Areas Most Affected — Historical Peak (late 2000s)
    • Spread: Nearly 180 districts across multiple states — the so-called Red Corridor.
    • Core states: Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh/Telangana, parts of Maharashtra & Madhya Pradesh.
  • Areas Most Affected — Recent (2024–25)
    • Reduced footprint: Down to ~38 districts (2024); further shrinking per 2025 statements.
    • Residual hotspots: Bastar (Chhattisgarh), Gadchiroli (Maharashtra), parts of Jharkhand & Odisha, and Chhattisgarh–Telangana border.
  • Why This Shift Matters 
    • Then: Widespread insurgency → blanket rural development response.
    • Now: Concentrated in forested pockets → targeted counter-insurgency + development (roads, police camps, rehabilitation).

What is Operation Black Forest?

  • What / where / when: Operation Black Forest (also reported as Operation Kagar in some outlets) was a focused anti-Maoist offensive launched along the Chhattisgarh–Telangana border in April–May 2025 targeting PLGA (People’s Liberation Guerrilla Army) units in hilly forest belts such as the Kareguttalu/Karegutta hills. 
  • Claimed outcomes (official account): The government/security forces announced significant results — arrests, large recoveries of IEDs, explosives and weapons and the neutralisation (killed/captured) of several Maoists; the Home Minister hailed the operation as a major success and linked it to the government’s goal of a “Naxal-free India.’’

India’s Current Strategy Against Naxalism

  • Security operations & coordination – Intensified offensives (e.g., Operation Black Forest), joint CRPF/state police actions, inter-state Unified Commands.
  • Connectivity first – Roads → schools → clinics → police camps; infrastructure as the entry point of governance.
  • Surrender & rehabilitation – Incentives for cadres to lay down arms, with livelihood and legal reintegration support.
  • Technology & intelligence – Use of UAVs, better signal interception, geolocation, and joint intel sharing.
  • Development & governance – Focus on PESA, land and forest rights, MGNREGA, social welfare schemes to address grievances.
  • Exam angle: India uses a mix of “hard” (security, tech) and “soft” (development, rights, rehab) measures — success lies in balancing both.

Way Forward (Practical + Scholarly Insights)

  • Consolidate gains, avoid militarised development – Pair operations with public-goods delivery to build trust.
  • Rights-based development – Implement PESA/FRA in spirit; ensure Gram Sabha consent and agency.
  • Build accountable institutions – Mobile courts, health camps, schools, and police with transparency; replace jan adalats with constitutional justice.
  • Credible rehabilitation – Beyond cash payouts, provide skills, jobs, and long-term livelihood security.
  • Address political economy – Regulate mining/plantation projects; enforce benefit-sharing and consent to prevent discontent.
  • Theoretical insightsGambetta: extralegal actors thrive in governance vacuums → fill with state services. Mampilly: insurgent welfare is strategic → counter with accountable service delivery.
  • Human rights monitoring – Independent oversight of security and development efforts to ensure legitimacy.
  • One-liner synthesis for mains: Operational successes show improved reach, but a true “Naxal-free” India requires roads + rights + jobs anchored in constitutional justice and inclusive governance.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Naxalism is a social, economic and development issues manifesting as a violent internal security threat. In this context, discuss the emerging issues and suggest a multilayered strategy to tackle the menace of Naxalism.

Linkage: The article shows how roads act as instruments of governance, reducing isolation and weakening insurgent legitimacy, thereby addressing the socio-economic roots of Naxalism. Yet, it cautions that infrastructure alone cannot resolve conflict unless coupled with justice, healthcare, education, and community participation. This aligns with the PYQ’s call for a multi-layered strategy—combining development, security, and rights-based governance.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-SCO

A joint and new journey along the SCO pathway

Introduction

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), now the largest regional grouping after 24 years of evolution, witnessed its biggest summit in Tianjin with 23 countries and 10 international organisations participating. The presence of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Chinese President Xi Jinping signalled a possible recalibration of bilateral ties amid a tense global order. This summit was not only about regional security but also about shaping global governance, fostering sustainable development, and exploring new pathways of cooperation.

Why in the News

The Tianjin SCO Summit is in the news because it marked the largest gathering in SCO’s history and produced high-yielding outcomes, such as the creation of security centres, a development bank, and long-term strategies in energy, green industry, and digital economy. Importantly, India and China engaged in dialogue during the diamond jubilee year of China-India diplomatic ties, projecting partnership rather than rivalry. This reflects a striking shift from the border tensions that have dominated headlines in recent years, positioning the summit as a turning point in regional cooperation and global governance.

High-Yield Outcomes of the Tianjin Summit

  1. Tianjin Declaration: Announced creation of four security centres, including an Anti-drug Center and a Universal Countering Security Challenges Center.
  2. SCO Development Bank: Decision to set up a regional bank to finance cooperative projects.
  3. Fair Stance on Trade: SCO states collectively defended multilateral trading systems and WWII legacy.
  4. 10-Year Strategy: Leaders adopted a development strategy for the next decade.
  5. China’s Initiatives: Xi announced three platforms for energy, green industry, and digital economy; and three centres for innovation, higher education, and vocational training.

How the Summit Shaped Global Governance

  1. Global Governance Initiative: Xi proposed principles such as sovereign equality, international rule of law, and multilateralism.
  2. People-Centered Approach: Emphasis on real actions for peace and justice.
  3. Leadership Platform: SCO positioned as a space to counter the “governance deficit” in world politics.

India’s Role in the SCO

  1. Active Member since 2017: India has advanced SCO’s development agenda.
  2. Support for Presidency: India extended full support to China’s SCO presidency.
  3. Areas of Cooperation: Security, energy, green industry, and digital economy identified as convergence points.

75 Years of India-China Ties

  1. Anniversary Diplomacy: Modi and Xi stressed partnership over rivalry.
  2. Dragon and Elephant Metaphor: Xi urged for “dragon and elephant to dance together.”
  3. Consensus vs Disagreement: Leaders agreed that consensus outweighs differences.

Road Ahead for Bilateral Cooperation

  1. Strategic Mutual Trust: Resume dialogue mechanisms, embrace peaceful coexistence, and mutual respect.
  2. Expanding Exchanges: Focus on trade, investment, technology, culture, and people-to-people bonds.
  3. Good-Neighbourliness: Reinforce Panchsheel principles, keep border differences from overshadowing wider relations.
  4. Global South Leadership: India and China to lead BRICS presidencies, resist hegemony, and promote fairness in world order.

Conclusion

The Tianjin Summit reflects a recalibration of SCO’s role as a platform for regional stability and global governance. For India, it marks a moment of balancing rivalry with cooperation in ties with China. If trust and exchanges are consolidated, India-China relations can shape the future of Asia and the Global South. The challenge lies in ensuring border disputes do not overshadow wider opportunities.

Value Addition

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) 

  • Establishment: Permanent intergovernmental organisation founded on 15 June 2001 in Shanghai by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan. Predecessor: Shanghai Five (1996).
  • Charter: Adopted in 2002 (St. Petersburg), in force since 2003, laying down goals, principles, and structure.
  • Goals:
    • Strengthen trust, friendship, good-neighbourliness.
    • Promote cooperation in politics, economy, science, culture, education, energy, environment, etc.
    • Maintain peace, security, stability in the region.
    • Promote a fair, democratic international order.
  • Principles (Shanghai Spirit): Mutual trust, benefit, equality, consultation, respect for civilizational diversity, common development; externally—non-alignment, openness, non-targeting others.
  • Structure:
    • Council of Heads of State (CHS) – supreme body (annual).
    • Council of Heads of Government (CHG) – economic strategy, budget (annual).
    • Numerous sectoral mechanisms.
  • Permanent Bodies: Secretariat (Beijing) & Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS, Tashkent).
  • Membership:
    • 10 Members – India, China, Russia, Pakistan, Iran, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan.
    • 2 Observers – Afghanistan, Mongolia.
    • 14 Dialogue Partners – incl. Nepal, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Egypt, Qatar, Maldives, etc.

Key Takeaways from SCO Summit 2025

  • 24 Documents Approved – including Tianjin Declaration and SCO Development Strategy till 2035.
  • Security Cooperation – agreement on SCO Anti-Drug Center and Universal Center for Countering Challenges & Threats.
  • Counter-Terrorism – joint declaration condemned Pahalgam (India), Jaffer Express & Khuzdar (Pakistan) terrorist attacks – significant as Pahalgam was earlier omitted.
  • Membership Expansion – Lao PDR granted Dialogue Partner status; CIS given Observer status.
  • Cultural Capital – Cholpon-Ata (Kyrgyzstan) designated SCO Tourist & Cultural Capital (2025–26).
  • Civilisation Dialogue Forum – proposed by PM Modi to strengthen people-to-people ties & civilizational exchange.
  • Global Governance Initiative – proposed by Xi Jinping for multilateralism, just & equitable order, Global South leadership.
  • SCO Chairmanship – passed to Kyrgyz Republic (2025–26) with theme: “25 years of SCO: together for a stable world, development, prosperity.”

What SCO Means for India’s Global and Regional Interests

  1. Strategic Pillars – PM Modi outlined India’s SCO vision as S–Security, C–Connectivity, O–Opportunity.
  2. Central Asia Engagement – SCO provides a rare forum to deepen ties with resource-rich Central Asia and expand India’s role as a pan-Asian player beyond the South Asian paradigm.
  3. Counter-Terrorism – Access to the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) helps India with intelligence-sharing against the “three evils” (terrorism, separatism, extremism), beyond Pakistan-centric frameworks.
  4. India–Russia Cooperation – SCO strengthens Delhi’s strategic proximity with Moscow, which backed India’s full membership in 2016.
  5. Balancing China – India’s presence acts as a countervailing force to Chinese dominance in Eurasia, supported by Russia.
  6. BRI Opposition – India continues to reject the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) as it passes through Pakistan-occupied territory, asserting sovereignty concerns.
  7. Diplomatic Battlefield – While enabling multilateral engagement, SCO also reflects great-power rivalries, making it both an opportunity and a challenge for India.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] ‘Virus of Conflict is affecting the functioning of the SCO.’ In the light of the above statement, point out the role of India in mitigating the problems.

Linkage: The SCO faces internal strains due to rivalries among major members, including China-Pakistan ties and regional security tensions. India has sought to mitigate these by emphasizing its three-pillared approach of Security, Connectivity, and Opportunity, pushing for counter-terrorism cooperation through RATS, and resisting divisive projects like BRI while promoting dialogue, civilizational exchange, and balanced economic engagement. Thus, India positions itself as a stabilizing force to preserve SCO’s collective agenda despite conflicts.

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

[pib] Gyan Bharatam Mission

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Culture has launched the ‘Gyan Bharatam’, a landmark national initiative dedicated to preserving, digitising, and disseminating India’s manuscript heritage.

About Gyan Bharatam Mission:

  • Launch: A national initiative by the Ministry of Culture to preserve, digitise, and disseminate India’s manuscript heritage.
  • Scheme Type: Approved as a Central Sector Scheme (2024–31) with an outlay of ₹482.85 crore.
  • Background: Builds on the National Mission for Manuscripts (2003), which documented 44.07 lakh manuscripts in the Kriti Sampada repository.
  • Vision: Integrates tradition with modern technology (AI, cloud systems, digital archives) to safeguard manuscripts as living knowledge resources.
  • Philosophy: Linked to PM’s Viksit Bharat @2047 vision, positioning India as Vishwa Guru by combining heritage with innovation.

Key Features:

  • Identification & Documentation: Establishment of Manuscript Resource Centres (MRCs) for systematic registration across India.
  • Conservation & Restoration: Strengthening Manuscript Conservation Centres (MCCs) for preventive and curative preservation using scientific techniques.
  • Digitisation & Repository: Large-scale digitisation with AI-based Handwritten Text Recognition (HTR), microfilming, and creation of a National Digital Repository accessible worldwide.
  • Youth & Public Engagement: Programs like Gyan-Setu AI Innovation Challenge to involve youth, start-ups, and researchers in heritage innovation.
[UPSC 2008] Recently, the manuscripts of which one of the following have been included in UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register?

Options: (a) Abhidhamma Pitaka (b) Mahabharata (c) Ramayana (d) Rig Veda*

 

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Digital India Initiatives

[pib] Adi Sanskriti Digital Learning Platform

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has launched the beta version of “Adi Sanskriti”, a pioneering digital learning platform.

About Adi Sanskriti:

  • What is it: A digital learning platform launched by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
  • Objective: To preserve tribal art forms, create livelihoods, and connect tribal communities with the world; scale into a Tribal Digital University with certifications, research opportunities, and transformative learning pathways.
  • Significance: Envisioned as the world’s first Digital University dedicated to tribal culture and traditional knowledge.
  • Developed by: MoTA collaboration with State Tribal Research Institutes (TRIs) to ensure authentic documentation and grassroots participation.
  • Integration with TRIs: Contributions from TRIs of 14 states including Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh.

Key Components of Adi Sanskriti:

  1. Adi Vishwavidyalaya (Digital Tribal Art Academy): Currently offering 45 immersive courses on tribal dance, painting, crafts, music, and folklore.
  2. Adi Sampada (Socio-Cultural Repository): Houses over 5,000 curated documents covering paintings, dance, clothing and textiles, artefacts, and livelihood practices.
  3. Adi Haat (Online Marketplace): Linked with TRIFED, designed to evolve into a dedicated e-marketplace for tribal artisans, ensuring sustainable livelihoods and direct consumer access.
[UPSC 2016] SWAYAM’, an initiative of the Government of India, aims at:

Options: (a) promoting the Self Help Groups in rural areas

(b) providing financial and technical assistance to young start-up entrepreneurs

(c) promoting the education and health of adolescent girls

(d) providing affordable and quality education to the citizens for free*

 

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Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

Himachal Pradesh declared to be ‘Fully Literate’

Why in the News?

Himachal Pradesh was recently declared a ‘fully literate’ state, becoming the 5th State/UT after Goa, Ladakh, Mizoram, and Tripura.

Various Definitions of Literacy / Full Literacy:

  • Ministry of Education (MoE) Definition: Literacy is the ability to read, write, and compute with comprehension, along with digital literacy and financial literacy as critical life skills.
  • Full Literacy (MoE): A State/Union Territory (UT) is considered fully literate at 95% literacy rate.
  • Census of India (2011): Any person aged 7 years or above who can read and write with understanding in any language is considered literate. Ability to read without writing is NOT counted as literacy.
  • ULLAS Programme: Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society launched in 2022. Literacy here means acquiring foundational skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic plus functional knowledge like time, currency, and digital use.
  • NILP: New India Literacy Programme (centrally sponsored, aligned with NEP 2020). Defines full literacy as achieving ≥95% literacy rate certified via assessments.

How is Literacy attained under ULLAS / NILP?

  • Target Group: Adults (15+) who missed formal schooling are identified through door-to-door surveys or other state data.
  • Basic Training: Learners are taught reading, writing, and arithmetic (up to Class 3 level), along with practical skills like using calendars, reading time, handling currency/cheques, and making safe digital transactions.
  • Delivery Mechanism: Training delivered through the ULLAS mobile app or offline by student volunteers and community workers.
  • Assessment: Learners appear for FLNAT (Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test), a 150-mark test available in regional languages.
  • Certification: On passing FLNAT, learners are certified by the NIOS (National Institute of Open Schooling) as literate.
  • Outcome: States/UTs are declared ‘fully literate’ when identified non-literates clear FLNAT and the literacy rate crosses the 95% threshold.
[UPSC 2017] What is the aim of the programme ‘Unnat Bharat Abhiyan’ ?

Options:

(a) Achieving 100% literacy by promoting collaboration between voluntary organizations and government’s education system and local communities.

(b) Connecting institutions of higher education with local communities to address development challenges through appropriate technologies. *

(c) Strengthening India’s scientific research institutions to make India a scientific and technological Power.

(d) Developing human capital by allocating special funds for health-care and education of rural and urban poor, and organizing skill development programmes and vocational training for them.

 

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Power of Siberia 2 Pipeline

Why in the News?

Russia has announced a “legally binding” memorandum with China to build the Power of Siberia 2 pipeline, highlighting closer Russia–China ties amid Western sanctions.

Power of Siberia 2 Pipeline

What are Power of Siberia Pipelines?

  • Power of Siberia 1: Operational pipeline from eastern Siberia to northern China; commercial exports since Dec 2019.
  • Specifications: Length over 5,100 km (3,968 km in Russia), diameter 1,420 mm, capacity 61 bcm/year (38 bcm contracted to China). Built to withstand –62°C, using 2.25 million tonnes of steel.
  • Gas Source & Route: Supplies from Chayanda field (Yakutia) and later Kovykta field; passes via Amur Gas Processing Plant; two tunnels cross under the Amur River into China, linking to Heihe–Shanghai pipeline.
  • Timeline: Construction began 2014, completed 2019, full 38 bcm deliveries by 2025.
  • Power of Siberia 2: Planned 2,600 km pipeline exporting 50 bcm/year from Yamal & western Siberia fields to China, via Mongolia (Soyuz Vostok segment).
  • Status: Gazprom–CNPC signed a binding memorandum. Pricing, financing, and timelines remain unsettled; deliveries may start by 2030.

Geopolitical Significance:

  • Political Symbolism: Project showcases Russia–China partnership, snubs Western LNG, and reflects defiance of sanctions.
  • Strategic Showcase: Analysts call it political theatre — Russia grows more dependent on China, while China gains strategic leverage.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

Statement-I: Sumed pipeline is a strategic route for Persian Gulf oil and natural gas shipments to Europe.

Statement-II: Sumed pipeline connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?”

Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I* (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct

 

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Air Pollution

Swachh Vayu Survekshan, 2025

Why in the News?

Indore, already recognized as the cleanest city in India, has topped the list of million-plus population cities in the Swachh Vayu Survekshan 2025.

Swachh Vayu Survekshan, 2025

About Swachh Vayu Survekshan (SVS), 2025:

  • Overview: Annual survey by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) under the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).
  • Objective: Promotes healthy competition among cities and accelerates implementation of air quality measures.
  • Coverage: Includes 130 cities, grouped into 3 categories: million-plus population, 3–10 lakh population, and under 3 lakh population.
  • Parameters: Cities assessed on 8 factors such as road dust mitigation, solid waste management, vehicular emission control, industrial emission control, construction and demolition waste handling, public awareness, and particulate matter (PM10/PM2.5) reduction.
  • Methodology: Uses a multi-tier evaluation focusing on both on-ground actions and measurable outcomes.

Key Findings of SVS, 2025:

  • Top Performer: Indore ranked 1st among million-plus cities, regaining its position after slipping to 6th in 2024. It had also topped in 2023, while Lucknow topped the inaugural edition in 2022.
  • Other Million-Plus Rankings: Jabalpur 2nd, Agra and Surat 3rd, Navi Mumbai 4th, Kanpur 5th, Bhopal 6th, Allahabad 7th, Chandigarh 8th, Ahmedabad–Pune–Nagpur 10th, Varanasi and Raipur 11th, Lucknow 15th, Hyderabad 22nd, Mumbai 25th, Jaipur 26th, Delhi 32nd, Bengaluru 36th, Kolkata 38th, Chennai 41st.
  • 3–10 Lakh Cities: Amravati 1st, Jhansi and Moradabad joint 2nd, Alwar 3rd.
  • Under-3 Lakh Cities: Dewas 1st, Parwanoo 2nd, Angul 3rd.
  • Air Quality Data: Indore recorded PM10 at 83 μg/m³ in 2024–25, slightly higher than 82 μg/m³ in 2017–18. Cities like Chennai (58 μg/m³), Varanasi (59 μg/m³), Bengaluru (68 μg/m³), and Hyderabad (81 μg/m³) showed lower PM10 levels than Indore.
  • Overall Trends: 103 of 130 cities reduced PM10 since 2017–18. 64 cities achieved a 20% reduction, while 25 cities achieved a 40% reduction. Only 22 cities met the national standard of ≤60 μg/m³, with Chennai the only metro (58 μg/m³). Among metros, Mumbai recorded the highest decline (44%), followed by Kolkata (37%), Hyderabad (26%), Bengaluru (26%), Delhi (15%), and Chennai (12%).
[UPSC 2022] In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements:

1. The 24-hour mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m3 and annual mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m3.

2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.

3. PM 10 can penetrate the long barrier and enter the bloodstream.

4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 only* (c) 2,3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 only

 

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Make in India: Challenges & Prospects

[10th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The long march ahead to technological independence

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] What is the status of digitalization in the Indian economy? Examine the problems faced in this regard and suggest improvement.

Linkage: The article highlights that while India has rapidly digitalised its economy, dependence on foreign software, cloud, and hardware exposes vulnerabilities. This reflects the structural problems of inadequate indigenous technology and lack of sovereignty. Achieving technological independence through open-source and hardware self-reliance is a crucial improvement pathway.

Mentor’s Comment

On India’s 79th Independence Day, Professor P.J. Narayanan reminds us that freedom today is no longer defined by political borders alone, but by technological sovereignty. As cyber wars, AI dependency, and cloud vulnerabilities reshape geopolitics, India must undertake its own “long march” towards self-reliance in both software and hardware. This article critically explores the risks of dependence, the promise of open source, and the urgent need for collective will to achieve true independence.

Introduction

India’s hard-won political freedom was achieved through decades of struggle, but in the 21st century, sovereignty extends beyond flags and constitutions. Technology is now the true battlefield, with wars fought in cyberspace, economies run by software, and critical infrastructure dependent on a handful of global corporations. This dependence poses a strategic vulnerability. The call for technological independence, therefore, is not just a matter of pride but of survival and security.

The renewed urgency of technological sovereignty

India’s 79th Independence Day has highlighted a pressing reality: while politically independent, the nation remains technologically dependent on foreign companies that control critical digital infrastructure. With modern conflicts increasingly fought through cyberspace, and with real incidents of cloud service disruptions causing harm, the vulnerability is no longer hypothetical. For the first time, technology dependence is being discussed in terms of national sovereignty, marking a paradigm shift from past concerns that were limited to strategic sectors.

The Geopolitical Risks of Technology Dependence

  1. Cyber wars: Modern conflicts are less about bombs and more about software, drones, and cyberattacks.
  2. Critical infrastructure: Banks, trains, and power grids are run on ICT largely controlled by a few foreign firms.
  3. National diktat risks: If cloud/AI services are switched off under pressure from foreign governments, India’s economy and security could face paralysis.
  4. Real precedent: A recent stoppage of cloud services to a company proved this is not a theoretical danger.

Defining technological sovereignty in the Indian context

  1. Lack of foundational software: India has no indigenous operating system, database, or foundational software it can fully trust.
  2. Open-source pathway: Linux, Android, and Hadoop show that community-driven, transparent solutions are possible.
  3. Challenge of sustainability: Success requires long-term support, continuous updates, and a large user base.
  4. Role of IT professionals: India’s tech community must unite to develop, maintain, and secure indigenous systems.

Hardware sovereignty as the bigger challenge

  1. Semiconductor fabs: Require massive, long-term investments and expertise in design, manufacturing, and supply chains.
  2. Strategic prioritisation: India should start with specific hardware components, chip design, and assembly even if fabrication remains outsourced.
  3. Global lessons: Countries like Taiwan and South Korea built expertise over decades through patient national strategies.

Open-source solutions for technological independence

  1. Gift of society: Open-source is not about opposition, but about self-support and resilience.
  2. Current limitations: Even though Android, Linux, and Hadoop are open-source, control lies with centralised cloud companies.
  3. Social movement: Just as India’s freedom was driven by collective will, a people-led movement for open-source adoption is needed.
  4. Business viability: The model must go beyond government/private funds and become self-sustaining, with people explicitly paying for trusted software.

Immediate steps towards technological sovereignty

  1. Assemble crack teams: Develop client-side tools (database, email, calendar) and server-side tools (cloud, web, email).
  2. Product model: Teams must function like professional product-development units, not academic research groups.
  3. Mission approach: A dedicated national mission should be set up for implementation, backed by strong engineers and project managers.
  4. Enabling role of government: Focus on building a self-sustaining ecosystem with business incentives and regulatory support.

Conclusion

The 20th century saw India march towards political freedom; the 21st century demands a march towards technological freedom. Dependence on foreign systems is a strategic vulnerability that could cripple the nation in times of crisis. With its talent pool, thriving IT ecosystem, and democratic will, India has both the capacity and urgency to achieve technological sovereignty. The call of the hour is collective resolve, sustained investment, and a mission-driven approach.

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Aadhaar Card Issues

Decisive step (Including Aadhar as 12th document for voter verification)

Introduction

The right to vote is one of the most fundamental expressions of citizenship in a democracy. However, procedural rigidity in electoral roll revisions often results in the exclusion of genuine electors. Recently, the Supreme Court intervened decisively in Bihar’s Special Intensive Revision (SIR) exercise, directing the inclusion of Aadhaar as one of the 12 valid documents for voter verification. With over 65 lakh voters already struck off from Bihar’s draft rolls, this judgment is a crucial corrective step ensuring that the processes of democracy do not become instruments of exclusion.

Significance of the Supreme Court’s Decision

  1. Judicial clarity: The Supreme Court dismantled the ECI’s argument that Aadhaar is proof of residency, not citizenship, by highlighting that most other accepted documents (e.g., ration card, driving license) also do not conclusively establish citizenship.
  2. Preventing mass exclusion: With nearly 90% of Bihar’s population holding Aadhaar versus only 2% holding passports, excluding Aadhaar would have disenfranchised a vast number of eligible voters, especially the poor and marginalised.
  3. Correcting anomalies: The Hindu’s statistical analysis of the exclusion revealed disproportionate impacts and that women were removed in large numbers, death rates appeared statistically improbable, and questionable “permanent shifts” particularly affected migrants and married women.

Implications of the Judgment for Voter Inclusivity

  1. Lifeline for excluded electors: Over 65 lakh voters struck off the draft rolls now have a viable route back through Aadhaar verification.
  2. Support for existing electors: Even those already on the rolls needing document verification benefit from Aadhaar’s inclusion.
  3. Validation of civil society concerns: The Court’s order vindicates activists and political groups who warned that excluding Aadhaar contradicted earlier judicial guidance and created practical hurdles.

Challenges Exposed in the Election Commission’s Process

  1. Questionable reasoning: The ECI insisted Aadhaar was inadmissible, despite its wide acceptance in governance systems.
  2. Haste over accuracy: The rushed SIR process compromised diligence, undermining the credibility of voter rolls.
  3. Patterns of exclusion: Disproportionate impact on marginalised groups like migrant workers and married women reveals systemic flaws.

National Precedent Established by the Ruling

  1. Uniform standards: This ruling is not limited to Bihar but extends to future electoral revisions across India.
  2. Balance between accuracy and inclusivity: It forces the ECI to reorient its approach towards humane, diligent verification.
  3. Strengthening democracy: Electoral rolls form the foundation of free and fair elections; inclusivity ensures democratic legitimacy.

Future Expectations from the Election Commission of India

  1. House-to-house verification: A more thorough, grassroots-level approach to ensure accuracy.
  2. Inclusive procedures: Processes must prevent the disenfranchisement of genuine voters, especially the vulnerable.
  3. Aligning with practical realities: Aadhaar, as the most widely held identity document, should be part of India’s democratic processes.

Way Forward

  • Strengthening Verification Mechanisms
    1. Conduct comprehensive house-to-house verification to avoid wrongful deletions.
    2. Use technology-enabled checks (biometric authentication with Aadhaar, but with strong safeguards for privacy).
  • Ensuring Inclusivity
    1. Simplify documentation requirements for vulnerable groups (migrants, women, senior citizens).
    2. Provide doorstep assistance for voter registration in rural and marginalised areas.
  • Institutional Strengthening of ECI
    1. Enhance independence, transparency, and accountability of the Election Commission.
    2. Establish an independent audit mechanism to regularly review voter roll revisions.
  • Legal and Policy Reforms
    1. Consider amendments to the Representation of People Act to clarify permissible use of Aadhaar and protect against misuse.
    2. Align electoral processes with Supreme Court jurisprudence on Aadhaar to balance convenience with rights.
  • Public Awareness and Participation
    1. Encourage civil society participation in monitoring electoral rolls.
    2. Launch mass awareness campaigns to educate voters on their rights and available documentation.
  • Long-Term Electoral Reform Agenda
    1. Explore remote voting mechanisms for migrant workers.
    2. Move towards integrated digital electoral rolls across states for consistency.
    3. Institutionalise regular, transparent consultations between ECI, political parties, and judiciary.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s directive to include Aadhaar in voter verification is more than a legal clarification; it is a democratic safeguard. By preventing procedural exclusion and ensuring accessibility, the judgment reaffirms India’s commitment to universal suffrage. For the ECI, the challenge now lies in balancing diligence with inclusivity, creating an electoral roll that truly reflects India’s diverse citizenry.

Value Addition

Constitutional & Legal Dimensions:

  • Article 326: Guarantees universal adult suffrage, forming the foundation of electoral democracy.
  • Article 14 & 21: Ensure equality and due process — mass exclusion from voter rolls would violate these.
  • Representation of People Act, 1951: Governs electoral rolls, voter eligibility, and disqualification.

Case Laws:

  1. PUCL v. Union of India (2003) – Recognised “right to know” of voters.
  2. Kuldip Nayar v. Union of India (2006) – Stressed on the principle of electoral integrity.
  3. Supreme Court Aadhaar Judgments (2018) – Aadhaar can be used for welfare and verification, but cannot be made mandatory for all purposes.

Committees & Reports:

  1. Indrajit Gupta Committee (1998): Highlighted need for free and fair elections as cornerstone of democracy.
  2. Second Administrative Reforms Commission (2008): Stressed inclusivity and transparency in voter registration.
  3. Law Commission of India (255th Report, 2015): Recommended linkage of voter databases with Aadhaar for accuracy, subject to safeguards.

Democratic Governance & Inclusivity:

  1. Inclusivity vs. Accuracy: Electoral reforms must balance weeding out bogus voters with preventing disenfranchisement of genuine citizens.
  2. Marginalised Communities: Migrants, women, and the poor are disproportionately affected by procedural rigidity — their access must be prioritised.

Comparative Insight:

  1. USA: Struggles with strict voter ID laws that disproportionately affect minorities.
  2. Canada: Allows multiple identification options to avoid disenfranchisement.
  3. India’s Aadhaar: A unique digital identity tool with near-universal coverage (~90%), giving India an advantage in inclusive electoral reforms.

Ethical Perspective (GS 4 angle)

  1. Principle of Justice: Fair opportunity for every citizen to vote.
  2. Procedural Fairness: Electoral rules must not arbitrarily exclude individuals.
  3. Democratic Accountability: ECI must uphold public trust by ensuring inclusivity in its procedures.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2017] To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful?

Linkage: The Supreme Court’s directive on including Aadhaar as a valid voter verification document directly relates to the broader debate on electoral reforms. Just as the ECI’s 2016 reform proposals sought to strengthen inclusivity and transparency, this judgment ensures that procedural rigidity does not erode democratic participation. Both highlight the evolving role of the ECI in balancing accuracy, accessibility, and fairness in India’s electoral process.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Nepal

Why is Kathmandu Burning

Introduction

On September 8–9, 2025, Nepal plunged into chaos as protests led by Generation Z escalated into violent clashes with security forces. What began as outrage against corruption and a controversial ban on 26 social media platforms quickly spiraled into a mass uprising that engulfed Kathmandu in flames. Former Prime Ministers’ homes were torched, ministers stripped and paraded, and jails broken open. With PM K P Sharma Oli’s resignation and President Ram Chandra Poudel in hiding, the nation faced a constitutional vacuum, raising concerns about the Army’s role and India’s strategic interests. This is the first major political uprising in Nepal led entirely by Gen Z — teenagers and youth born between 1996–2012. Unlike the Maoist insurgency of the past, this revolt was spontaneous, digitally mobilized, and directed against all senior political leaders.

Generation Z and the Rise of Political Discontent

  1. Generation Z Mobilisation: The uprising was driven by youth anger at corruption, lack of jobs, and entrenched political elites since 2008.
  2. Digital Trigger: Outrage exploded after the government banned 26 social media platforms (Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, YouTube, X, etc.), cutting off their main channel of solidarity.
  3. Symbolic Rage: Anger was also directed at “Nepo Kids” — the privileged lifestyles of politicians’ children.
  4. Immediate Demands: Reinstatement of social media (achieved), broader demand for accountability and jobs.

The Escalation of Protests into Violence

  1. State Response: Security forces fired on protesters, killing 19 young people, triggering mass fury.
  2. Attack on Leaders: Houses of five former Prime Ministers were torched (Oli, Prachanda, Madhav Kumar Nepal, Jhala Nath Khanal, Sher Bahadur Deuba).
  3. Fatalities: Rajyalaxmi Chitrakar (wife of ex-PM Khanal) died from burns; former PM Deuba and his wife (Foreign Minister Arzu Deuba) were assaulted.
  4. Dramatic Incidents: Protesters freed Rabi Lamichhane, a jailed critic of Oli, by burning Nakkhu Jail.
  5. Humiliation of Ministers: Finance Minister Bishnu Prasad Paudel and MP Eknath Dhakal were stripped and paraded.

Leadership Vacuum and Constitutional Crisis

  1. PM’s Resignation: K P Sharma Oli resigned; President Poudel went into hiding.
  2. Army’s Stance: Army Chief Gen. Ashok Raj Sigdel urged calm, took charge of security, but avoided assuming political power.
  3. Possibility of Interim Government: Likely after negotiations with figures like Kathmandu Mayor Balen Shah, a Gen Z icon.
  4. Constitutional Crisis: Possibility of Parliament dissolution and collapse of 2015 Constitution.

The Expanding Role of the Nepal Army

  1. Security Role: The Army has assumed charge of law and order.
  2. Political Caution: Unlike in past coups, the Army seems hesitant to directly seize political power.
  3. Facilitator Role: Likely to mediate between political leaders, ensure reconciliation, and protect civilian lives.

Opposition in Disarray Amidst Youth Revolt

  1. Targeted Equally: All senior leaders, across party lines, faced wrath of protesters.
  2. Rising Leaders: Balen Shah (Mayor of Kathmandu, ex-rapper) and Rabi Lamichhane (RSP leader, ex-TV anchor) emerged as youth-backed alternatives.
  3. Monarchy Revival?: Former King Gyanendra Shah offered condolences, appealed for dialogue, subtly signaling a willingness to return to relevance.

India’s Strategic Concerns Amidst Nepal’s Crisis

  1. Strategic Concern: India is deeply worried, given historical ties, open border, and Nepali diaspora in India.
  2. Delicate Position: India is seen as partisan since it backed Maoists and republicanism in 2008.
  3. Official Statement: PM Narendra Modi chaired the CCS meeting, stressing “stability, peace, and prosperity of Nepal” as vital for India.

Conclusion

Nepal’s Gen Z uprising marks the collapse of public trust in traditional politics and signals a generational shift. The combination of digital mobilization, corruption fatigue, and joblessness has produced an explosion that could reshape Nepal’s political order. For India, the crisis is both a challenge and an opportunity, a chance to rebuild goodwill through balanced diplomacy, while avoiding the mistakes of the past. The coming weeks will determine whether Nepal stabilizes through reconciliation or descends into prolonged instability.

Value Addition

Similarities between the recent Nepal Gen Z uprising (2025) and the Bangladesh student–youth revolution (July 2024) that toppled Sheikh Hasina’s government

  • Youth at the Centre
    1. Nepal: Led by Gen Z (born 1996–2012), angry at corruption, nepotism, and joblessness.
    2. Bangladesh: Led by students and young professionals, who launched protests against the quota system in government jobs, symbolising a deeper anger at authoritarianism.
    3. Similarity: In both, young people with no political baggage spearheaded the movement, showing a generational rejection of “old guard” politics.
  • Trigger through State Suppression
    1. Nepal: Anger exploded after government banned 26 social media platforms, silencing digital expression. Police firing killed 19 protesters, escalating violence.
    2. Bangladesh: Crackdowns on student protests with police brutality, tear gas, and arrests deepened the rage, leading to street battles.
    3. Similarity: In both cases, excessive state repression transformed peaceful protests into mass uprisings.
  • Anti-Elite and Anti-Nepotism Sentiment
    1. Nepal: Rage directed at “Nepo Kids”, children of politicians flaunting wealth and privilege.
    2. Bangladesh: Rage at the dynastic, 15-year-long rule of Sheikh Hasina, seen as nepotistic and authoritarian.
    3. Similarity: Both were anti-nepotism revolts, targeting corruption and political entrenchment.
  • Use of Digital Platforms for Mobilisation
    1. Nepal: Movement grew around Facebook pages like Next Generation Nepal, until banned.
    2. Bangladesh: Students used Facebook, X, and YouTube to coordinate protests, live-stream crackdowns, and rally global support.
    3. Similarity: Social media was the fuel of mobilisation, and attempts to suppress it only intensified anger.
  • Collapse of Established Order
    1. Nepal: PM K P Sharma Oli resigned, President went into hiding, houses of former PMs burned, Parliament dysfunctional.
    2. Bangladesh: PM Sheikh Hasina fled the country, Awami League leaders attacked, and Parliament dissolved.
    3. Similarity: Both witnessed a sudden collapse of political order, with leadership vacuum and uncertainty about interim arrangements.
  • Regional & International Concerns
    1. Nepal: India held a CCS meeting, worried about instability on its borders; China also watching closely.
    2. Bangladesh: India was concerned due to historic ties with Hasina, while the West pushed for democratic restoration.
    3. Similarity: In both, India was caught in a delicate diplomatic dilemma — balancing neutrality while protecting its strategic interests.

Conclusion

Both revolutions represent a South Asian pattern of youth-led, anti-elite uprisings, where corruption, joblessness, authoritarianism, and digital repression pushed Gen Z to revolt. They show that in fragile democracies, youth disillusionment can quickly destabilize entrenched regimes. For India, these crises in its immediate neighbourhood are warnings: political stability next door is fragile, and managing relations requires delicate, balanced diplomacy.

Value Addition (II)

  • Comparative Lens: Similar to Arab Spring (2011) — youth-led, social media-driven protests.
  • Theory: Youth Bulge Hypothesis — large unemployed youth populations often drive political instability.
  • Reports: UNDP South Asia Human Development Report highlights youth aspirations and governance deficits.
  • Ethics (GS4): Crisis of legitimacy in governance when corruption and inequality erode public trust.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2012] Discuss the contentious issues that have caused the prolonged

constitutional logjam in Nepal.

Linkage: The 2012 question on Nepal’s constitutional logjam highlighted elite disputes over federalism and governance. The 2025 Gen Z uprising reflects how these unresolved issues have now spilled onto the streets, creating a constitutional vacuum. What was once a parliamentary deadlock has transformed into a popular revolt against the entire political class, deepening Nepal’s democratic fragility.

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Fertilizer Sector reforms – NBS, bio-fertilizers, Neem coating, etc.

[pib] Regulation of Biostimulants in India

Why in the News?

India now has a comprehensive regulatory framework for biostimulants, placing it among the few countries with such dedicated oversight.

What are Biostimulants?

  • Definition: Under Fertilizer Control Order (FCO), 1985, Clause 20C, biostimulants are substances or micro-organisms that stimulate plant processes to improve nutrient uptake, growth, yield, crop quality, efficiency, and stress tolerance.
  • Exclusion: They are not pesticides or plant growth regulators, which fall under the Insecticides Act, 1968.
  • Categories (Schedule VI, FCO): Botanical extracts (including seaweed), protein hydrolysates and amino acids, vitamins, biochemicals, antioxidants, anti-transpirants, humic and fulvic acids, cell-free microbial products, and live micro-organisms (excluding biofertilizers/biopesticides).

Regulation Timeline:

  • Before 2021: Nearly 30,000 unregulated products in Indian markets.
  • Feb 2021: Included under FCO; provisional registration system (G3 certificates) introduced; about 8,000 products approved temporarily.
  • Current Status: Only 146 products formally notified in Schedule VI.

Key Amendments (2021–2025):

  • 2021: Biostimulants legally recognised under FCO.
  • 2023–24: Provisional validity extended to avoid disruption.
  • 2025:
    • Live micro-organisms (excluding biofertilizers/biopesticides) added as a category.
    • Pesticide residue limit raised from 0.01 ppm to 1 ppm.
    • Stricter quality testing, labelling, and safety standards enforced.
    • Provisional system discontinued.

Significance:

  • Protects farmers from spurious/unproven products.
  • Encourages validated indigenous products under Atmanirbhar Bharat.
  • Establishes quality, safety, and labelling standards through Gazette notifications.
  • Makes India one of the few countries with a dedicated Biostimulant law, balancing farmer welfare, environmental safety, innovation, and regulation.
[UPSC 2013] Consider the following organisms:

1.Agaricus 2.Nostoc 3.Spirogyra

Which of the above is/are used as biofertilizer/biofertilizers?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

[pib] Universal Postal Union (UPU)

Why in the News?

At the 28th Universal Postal Congress in Dubai (2025), the Union Minister for Communications has unveiled the Unified Payments Interface (UPI)- UPU Integration Project.

About Universal Postal Union (UPU):

  • Overview: A UN specialized agency and the primary forum for international postal cooperation.
  • Establishment: Created by the Treaty of Bern (1874). It is the second oldest international organization (after CCNR, 1815).
  • Headquarters: Bern, Switzerland.
  • Membership:

    • 192 member countries (as of 2025).
    • Any UN member state can join automatically.
    • Non-UN states may join with two-thirds approval from members.
    • India is a member since 1876.
  • Structure:

    • Congress: Supreme authority meets every 4 years.
    • Council of Administration (CA): Supervises activities between Congress sessions; studies regulatory and administrative issues.
    • Postal Operations Council (POC): Technical/operational body of 48 elected members.
    • International Bureau: Secretariat providing logistical and technical support.
  • Functions:

    • Coordinates postal policies across nations.
    • Sets rules for international mail exchanges.
    • Makes recommendations to boost global mail, parcel, and financial services.
    • Acts as advisory, mediator, and technical support agency for postal systems.

Significance of the UPI–UPU Integration:

  • For India:

    • Strengthens India’s global leadership in digital payments innovation.
    • Positions India as a hub for low-cost remittance solutions.
  • For Global Postal System:

    • Adds digital financial services to the traditional postal network, enhancing its relevance in the digital era.
    • Strengthens India–UPU cooperation and demonstrates India’s ability to combine fintech innovation with global multilateral platforms.
  • For Migrants:

    • Enables fast, affordable, and secure cross-border remittances through post offices.
    • Reduces dependence on high-cost traditional remittance channels.
[UPSC 2004] Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below.

List I (Agency)

(A) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (B) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (C) United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) (D) Universal Postal Union (DPU)

List II (Headquarters) 1. Nairobi 2. Vienna 3. Berne 4. New York

Options: (a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 4 1 2 3 (c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 4 3 2 1*

 

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Indian Army Updates

[pib] Exercise ZAPAD 2025

Why in the News?

An Indian Armed Forces contingent has departed for Mulino Training Ground, Nizhniy, Russia, to participate in Exercise ZAPAD 2025.

About Exercise ZAPAD:

  • Meaning: “ZAPAD” means West in Russian; a series of large-scale joint strategic military drills led by Russia and Belarus.
  • Origins: Started during the Soviet era with Zapad-77, Zapad-81, Zapad-84, reflecting Cold War dynamics.
  • Post-Soviet Revival: Resumed with Zapad-99 (1999), partly as a response to NATO’s Yugoslavia operations.
  • Frequency: Held about once every 4 years, with major editions in 2009, 2013, 2017, 2021, and 2025.
  • Series Context: Forms part of Russia’s rotating operational drills along with Vostok (East), Tsentr (Central), and Kavkaz (Caucasus).
  • Scale: Zapad-2021 involved ~200,000 personnel from 17 countries, one of the largest recent drills.

Geopolitical Significance:

  • Deterrence: Sends a strategic message to NATO about Russian readiness.
  • Allied Assurance: Reassures Russia’s partners and allies of its military strength.
[UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?

1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.

2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).

3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.

4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.

Select the answer using the code given below:

 

Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4*

 

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

What was the Harappan Language?

Why in the News?

The Union Culture Ministry has invited experts to present their research on deciphering the Indus Valley script, also known as the Harappan script.

What was the Harappan Language?

Recent Efforts and Theories on the Harappan Script:

  • Taxation & Commerce Theory: Bahata Ansumali Mukhopadhyay argues the script encodes rules of trade and taxation, not phonetic spellings.
  • Religious Hypothesis: Karuna Shankar Shukla claims Indus seals carried Rig Vedic mantras and Puranic references, used mainly for rituals.
  • Proto-Dravidian Claims:
    • Prakash N. Salame (Nagpur engineer) says 90% of symbols represent Proto-Dravidian Gondi, building on Dr. M. C. Kangali.
    • Asko Parpola (Finnish Indologist) supports the Dravidian hypothesis, suggesting a logo-syllabic system of pictograms and rebuses.
    • Bryan K. Wells also backs Proto-Dravidian links.
  • Santali Link: Prabhunath Hembrom connects the script to the Santali language, citing parallels with Parpola’s work.
  • Scholarly Caveats: H. P. Ray stresses need for bilingual objects, contextual clarity, and warns against assuming a single language for the entire civilization.

Back2Basics: Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

  • Timeline: Flourished 2600–1900 BCE, with roots back to Mehrgarh (7000 BCE).
  • Extent: Covered 1.5 million sq. km across modern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan.
  • Discovery: Excavations at Harappa (1921–22, Daya Ram Sahni) and Mohenjo-daro (1922, R. D. Banerji) confirmed as one civilization by John Marshall.
  • Urban Features: Grid-planned cities, fortified towns, granaries, warehouses, dockyards, drainage systems, advanced water management (wells, reservoirs, Great Bath).
  • Seals & Script: Steatite seals with animal motifs and undeciphered script point to complex administration.
  • Crafts & Finds: Pottery, bead-making, weaving, metallurgy, toys, ornaments, figurines; iconic Dancing Girl, Priest-King, Mother Goddess statues.

 

[UPSC 2001] Which one of the following animals was NOT represented on the seals and terracotta art of the Harappan culture?

Options: (a) Cow* (b) Elephant (c) Rhinoceros (d) Tiger

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

Langkhon Festival of Assam

Why in the News?

Tiwa tribesmen recently celebrated Langkhun festival in Umsowai village in Karbi Anglong district of Assam.

Langkhon Festival of Assam

About Langkhon Festival:

  • Overview: A pre-harvest thanks-giving festival of the Tiwa tribe of Assam.
  • Timing: Celebrated in October–November, just before the Rabi crop season.
  • Core Belief: Involves worship of bamboo, seen as a symbol of prosperity and sustenance in Tiwa culture.
  • Deities: Special prayers to Ramsa Devota and other local gods for crop protection, family welfare, and village prosperity.
  • Ritual Practices: Include offerings, sacrifices, and prayers to drive away pestilence and evil forces and ensure a good paddy harvest.
  • Duration: Celebrated for 2–4 days with active community participation.
  • Traditional Dances: Langkhon dance, Moinari Khanthi, and Yangli form the cultural highlights.
  • Folk Songs: Songs such as Lo Ho La Hai (naming, weddings, harvests) and Lali Hilali Lai (weddings) are integral to the festival.
  • Games & Sports: Local games like Plasele and Sam Kava are organised, strengthening community bonds.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs: Tradition | State

1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram

2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur

3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim

Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Iran

[9th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Iran and India, ancient civilizations and new horizons

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?

Linkage: The article’s emphasis on Iran’s resilience against Western domination, its right to peaceful nuclear energy, and India–Iran civilisational partnership directly connects to the US–Iran Nuclear Pact controversy. Sanctions and U.S. pressure affect India’s energy security, INSTC access, and strategic autonomy. Thus, India’s calibrated diplomacy in balancing ties with both Iran and the West becomes central to safeguarding its national interest.

Mentor’s Comment

In the midst of global flux, Ambassador Iraj Elahi’s reflections on Iran–India relations remind us that ancient civilisations have the potential to shape modern geopolitics in profound ways. This piece dissects his arguments, from the erosion of Western dominance to the rise of South-South cooperation, and places them in the larger canvas of India’s foreign policy and civilisational outreach. For UPSC aspirants, it offers deep insights into international relations, civilisation studies, and contemporary global order debates.

Introduction

The global order is in transition. Once dominated by Western powers, especially the United States, the world now witnesses a shift toward multipolarity. The unchecked use of force, sanctions, and manipulation of global institutions by the West has weakened its legitimacy. In this changing landscape, ancient civilisations such as India and Iran are being called upon to offer not only an alternative but a humane, participatory and just global order. Their shared values of spirituality, peace, and cultural resilience form the foundation of this partnership.

The Crisis of the Western-led Order

  1. Declining dominance: The West, especially the U.S., is losing control over its classic instruments, global finance, technological monopoly, human rights discourse, and global media.
  2. Crisis indicators: Blatant violations of international law, unchecked use of force, trade wars, and environmental destruction signal deep systemic decay.

Why the Global South is Rising

  1. Civilisational awakening: Countries are resisting domination and discrimination by relying on local models and indigenous technology.
  2. Strategic autonomy: Defence and security strengthening in Global South nations marks a push against dependence on external powers.
  3. India and Iran as torchbearers: Both ancient civilisations embody resilience — from India’s Non-Aligned Movement to Iran’s Islamic Revolution.

Civilisational Wisdom and Shared Values

  1. Cultural resilience: Despite military defeats, both India and Iran influenced their conquerors with governance, literature, and art.
  2. Shared ethos: Belief in the triumph of good over evil, respect for diversity, spiritual growth, and commitment to peace.
  3. Historical struggles: India’s anti-colonial resistance and Iran’s oil nationalisation highlight their fight against domination.

Palestine and the Question of Justice

  1. Central issue: The Palestinian struggle is projected as the frontline battle of the Global South against Western hypocrisy.
  2. Iran’s stance: Defence of Palestine and its right to nuclear energy are framed as defences of sovereignty and law.
  3. Global South solidarity: Palestine becomes a metaphor for resistance against occupation and expansionism.

India–Iran in Multilateral and Regional Frameworks

  1. BRICS potential: Seen as a counterweight to Western economic dominance, sanctions, and dollar hegemony.
  2. INSTC: More than a trade corridor; envisioned as a civilisational bridge linking Eurasia, Africa, and South Asia, with stabilising effects on West Asia.
  3. Opposition to U.S. role: Iran critiques American interventions in West Asia and South Asia for fuelling instability and terrorism.

Conclusion

As the world transitions into multipolarity, the call for civilisational powers such as India and Iran to lead is both symbolic and strategic. Their partnership, rooted in resilience, peace, and spiritual values, has the potential to redefine the Global South’s trajectory. By working through BRICS, INSTC, and other platforms, they can craft a participatory global order, one that replaces domination with dignity, and hierarchy with equality.

Value Addition

India-Iran Relations

Historical & Civilisational Links

  1. Ancient ties: Both are among the world’s oldest civilisations, with exchanges in philosophy, art, architecture, and literature.
  2. Cultural influence: Persian language, miniature painting, Sufi traditions, and Mughal architecture in India reflect deep Iranian impact.
  3. Shared values: Spirituality, diversity, peace, and civilisational resilience.

Strategic & Economic Cooperation

  1. Energy security:
    • Iran was once India’s second-largest crude oil supplier.
    • Post-U.S. sanctions, imports dropped, but Iran remains vital for India’s energy diversification.
  2. Chabahar Port:
    1. India’s first overseas port project.
    2. Provides access to Afghanistan and Central Asia, bypassing Pakistan.
    3. Part of the larger International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).
  3. INSTC:
    1. Connects India to Russia and Europe via Iran.
    2. Cuts transport cost by ~30% and time by ~40%.

Geopolitical & Regional Significance

  1. Balancing act: India walks a fine line between the U.S.–Iran rivalry and its ties with Israel and the Gulf States.
  2. Afghanistan: India and Iran cooperated closely for stability, particularly post-U.S. withdrawal.
  3. West Asia: Iran acts as a counterbalance to Sunni-dominated Gulf powers; India’s diaspora and trade interests lie across the region.

Multilateral Engagement

  1. BRICS: Iran is a member of BRICS and became a full member along with other countries starting January 1, 2024, following an expansion agreement at the 2023 Johannesburg Summit.
  2. SCO membership: Both nations share platforms for regional security and connectivity.
  3. NAM legacy: Shared anti-colonial and non-aligned credentials.

Challenges in the Relationship

  1. U.S. sanctions: Reduced oil imports, halted investments in Chabahar and other projects.
  2. Strategic competition: Iran–China 25-year pact and deepening Tehran–Beijing ties raise concerns for India.
  3. Regional volatility: Palestine, Syria, Yemen conflicts complicate India’s balancing approach.

Ethical & Civilisational Diplomacy Dimension

  1. Civilisational diplomacy: Both countries advocate a just, humane, participatory order in contrast to Western domination.
  2. Palestine issue: Shared concern in Global South solidarity, though India has nuanced its position due to ties with Israel.
  3. Spiritual diplomacy: Shared heritage in Sufi and mystical traditions strengthens people-to-people bonds.

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Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

The ‘domestic sphere’ in a new India

Introduction

Women in India continue to bear a disproportionate burden within the “domestic sphere,” both through unpaid household labour and through systemic silence around violence inside the home. Even as the government projects slogans like “nari shakti” and “women-led development,” the stark realities of dowry deaths, marital rape, unequal division of work, and undervaluation of women’s unpaid labour reveal deep contradictions. The recent Time Use Survey (TUS) 2024 and other official data bring to light these inequities, while political narratives attempt to glorify them as cultural strengths.

Why in the News?

The debate on the “domestic sphere” resurfaced after a controversial statement in August 2025 by RSS chief, who urged families to have at least three children for the “survival of civilisation.” This comment, reducing women to reproduction machines, stands in sharp contrast to the silence of ruling elites on domestic violence, dowry deaths (7,000 annually between 2017–2022), and marital rape. Simultaneously, the TUS 2024 exposed glaring gender disparities in unpaid work: women spend 7 hours daily in domestic services versus men’s 26 minutes. Despite this, the government’s framing celebrated men’s 15 minutes of caregiving as proof of “Indian family values.” This dissonance makes the issue urgent and deeply political.

Women and Violence Within Homes

  1. Dowry deaths: An average of 7,000 women annually (2017–2022) have died in dowry-related violence, totalling 35,000 lives lost.
  2. Domestic violence: NFHS-5 revealed 30% women reported intimate partner violence, but only 14% lodged police complaints.
  3. Silence of leadership: While majoritarian rhetoric aggressively targets “love jihad,” it remains mute on intra-community domestic crimes, revealing selective morality.

Historical and Contemporary Debates on Marriage and Gender Rights

  1. Ambedkar vs. orthodoxy: Ambedkar’s Hindu Code Bills sought divorce rights and caste-free marriages; opposed fiercely by conservative forces.
  2. Institution of marriage: Current opposition to criminalising marital rape reflects a continuity of Manusmriti-inspired ideals of sacramental marriage.
  3. Honour crimes: Cultural pressures still compel women to “adjust” in violent marriages, sustaining patriarchal structures.

Time Use Survey 2024 – Striking Findings

  1. Employment gap: Only 25% of women (15–59 yrs) in employment-related work, compared to 75% men, with women working fewer hours.
  2. Unpaid domestic work: 93% of women spend 7 hours daily; 70% of men do none.
  3. Care work: 41% of women vs. 21% of men engage in unpaid caregiving; men average barely 16 minutes daily.
  4. Total working hours: Women overall work longer hours than men but get less leisure, sleep, and nutrition time.

Government Narrative vs. Reality

  1. Official glorification: PIB (Feb 25, 2025) framed caregiving as reflecting the “Indian social fabric,” overlooking systemic gender exploitation.
  2. Policy translation: Anganwadi, mid-day meal, and ASHA workers, essentially extending domestic roles into the public sphere, are classified as “volunteers” with honorariums, not wages.
  3. Undervaluation: SBI 2023 study estimated ₹22.5 lakh crore annually (7% of GDP) as the value of women’s unpaid work, which subsidises male wages by reducing subsistence costs.

Towards an Alternative Approach

  1. Violence-free homes: Stronger social and legal frameworks against domestic violence and marital rape.
  2. Equal right to work: Recognition of men and women as equal primary workers with equal wages.
  3. Public provisioning: State-backed universal childcare, elderly care, quality health and education.
  4. Cultural reform: Move from “adjustment” to shared responsibility in domestic work.
  5. Recognition for scheme workers: Anganwadi, ASHA, mid-day meal staff to receive minimum wages and benefits as government employees.

Conclusion

The “domestic sphere” is not a private matter but a deeply political one, shaping both India’s democracy and economy. Unless women’s unpaid work, safety within homes, and dignity are recognised, slogans of empowerment will remain hollow. True nari shakti lies not in numerical glorification of caregiving, but in building a society where women’s labour, both paid and unpaid, receives justice.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] “Empowering women is the key to control population growth”. Discuss.

Linkage: Empowerment of women through education, health access, and economic participation is directly correlated with declining fertility rates, as seen in states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

When women exercise agency over reproductive choices, population growth transitions from being a demographic challenge to a managed outcome.

Thus, population stabilisation in India is less about coercive policies and more about gender justice and empowerment-driven development.

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