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Is federalism in retreat under single party hegemony?

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

INTRODUCTION

The rationalisation of GST ushered in a new era of indirect taxation but triggered concerns among several States regarding declining revenue autonomy. Disputes around compensation, centrally-sponsored schemes, disaster relief funding, and Finance Commission recommendations have reached the Supreme Court, raising a fundamental question: Is Indian federalism being structurally reshaped under a single-party political hegemony?

The conversation in the article traces how fiscal and political federalism has shifted from cooperative frameworks in the 1990s to competitive and increasingly centralised dynamics post-2014.

WHY IN THE NEWS

The article is significant because it captures the unprecedented stress on fiscal federalism under GST, the decline of traditional accommodation politics, and the growing disconnect between richer southern States and the Union’s redistributive design. For the first time since liberalisation, States across the political spectrum are questioning the vertical imbalance and the shrinking autonomy embedded in taxation, grants, and centrally sponsored schemes. The issue is compelling because these structural tensions coincide with the rise of a dominant national party, altering how bargaining, negotiation, and regional representation historically shaped Indian federalism.

Shifts in Federalism: From Accommodation to Assertion

  1. Federal Coalition Politics: Provided space for regional parties to influence national policy in the 1990s; reforms had federal character, and Centre-State interaction increased.
  2. Decline of Accommodation: Rise of single-party majority reduced negotiation; regional anxieties and political identities feel less represented.
  3. BJP’s Unitary Political Vision: Emphasises uniformity over accommodation, reducing incentives for coalition-based bargaining.

How Has GST Altered the Fiscal Architecture?

  1. Loss of Tax Autonomy: States surrendered sovereign taxation power; they now depend on shared revenues and compensation.
  2. Compensation Tensions: Delays triggered mistrust; design issues, particularly Finance Commission-linked vertical imbalance, create sustained stress.
  3. Redistributive Principle: Southern States argue that redistributive transfers have become structurally rigid without acknowledging their economic efficiency.

What Is Driving Regional Inequality and Fiscal Stress?

  1. Unequal Growth Patterns: Southern States showed high economic growth but lack employment-intensive outcomes; inequality persists.
  2. Structural Vertical Imbalance: Centre retains key taxation powers while States bear expenditure responsibilities; this misalignment fuels fiscal dissatisfaction.
  3. Urbanisation and Labour Migration: Remittances from poorer northern States sustain the growth of southern economies, deepening interdependence yet also friction.

How Has Single-Party Dominance Reshaped Political Federalism?

  1. Reduced Federal Bargains: With weaker regional representation at the Centre, the cooperative ethos has weakened.
  2. Rise of Central Schemes: States perceive centralisation in scheme design, financing patterns, and conditionalities.
  3. Executive Federalism: More meetings, consultations, and vertical controls replacing political negotiation platforms like the Planning Commission.

Why Are Delimitation and Census Triggering Concerns?

  1. Southern States’ Anxiety: Fear losing political weight due to lower population growth relative to northern States.
  2. Economic Contribution vs Representation: High-growth States feel the political architecture does not reward efficient governance.
  3. One Nation, One Election Debate: Seen as another centralising push, weakening federal political competition.

CONCLUSION

The article concludes that the crisis in Indian federalism is not merely episodic but structural, rooted in post-GST fiscal architecture, weakened accommodation politics, regional disparities, and the rise of a dominant national party. The challenge is to redesign mechanisms of trust, negotiation, and fiscal balance so that India’s federal compact remains resilient to political shocks and centred on cooperative problem-solving.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism.

Linkage: This PYQ directly aligns with the article’s core themes of growing centralisation, GST-driven fiscal stress, and weakening accommodation politics between the Centre and States. It links perfectly with the discussion on fiscal imbalance, GST Council tensions, Finance Commission changes, and the impact of single-party dominance on federal bargaining.

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Air Pollution

Crop-residue burning turning India into global methane hotspot, UN report warns

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why In The News?

India has been identified as a major methane-emission hotspot from crop-residue burning, according to a UN report released on November 17, 2025 at COP30 in Belem, Brazil. Stubble burning, already a key air-pollution source, is now flagged as a major climate threat, and reducing it would benefit both public health and the climate.

1) Key Findings of the Report:

  • Global Ranking: India is the world’s third-largest methane emitter after China and the United States, releasing 31 million tonnes annually.
  • G20 Contribution: The G20 countries, including India, account for 65% of global methane emissions, while total global emissions are 360 million tonnes per year.
  • Future Outlook: The report notes that although methane levels are rising, emissions could decline by 2030 with strong mitigation efforts.
  • Climate & Food Benefits: Reducing methane is one of the fastest and most effective climate actions, also lowering crop losses and improving food security, as highlighted by UNEP Executive Director Inger Andersen.

2) India’s Methane Profile:

  • Major Sources: India’s key methane sources include livestock (enteric fermentation, manure) and rice cultivation, with crop-residue burning becoming a major emerging hotspot.
  • Waste-Management Impact: Waste-burning methane emissions increased from 4.5 million tonnes (1995) to 7.4 million tonnes (2020) – a 64% rise, compared to a 43% global increase.
  • Sector-wise Emissions (2020): India generated 20 million tonnes of methane from agriculture and 4.5 million tonnes from the energy sector in 2020.

3) About Methane:

  • Basic Definition: Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon, made of one carbon and four hydrogen atoms (CH₄).
  • Key Properties: It is odourless, colourless, tasteless, lighter than air, and burns with a blue flame during complete combustion, producing CO₂ and H₂O.
  • Role as Natural Gas: Methane is the primary component of natural gas, widely used as a fuel.
  • Greenhouse Gas Importance: Methane is the second most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide (CO₂).
  • Global Warming Potential: It has a 20-year GWP of 84, meaning it traps 84 times more heat than CO₂ over the same period.
  • Atmospheric Lifetime: Although highly potent, methane is short-lived in the atmosphere compared to CO₂.
  • Contribution to Warming: It is responsible for about 30% of global temperature rise since the pre-industrial era.
  • Ozone Formation: Methane also helps form ground-level ozone, a harmful pollutant.

4) Global Methane Pledge(GMP):

  • About the Pledge: Launched at COP26 (2021) by the United States and the European Union to catalyse action on methane reduction.
  • Membership: Nearly 130 countries have joined; collectively responsible for 45% of global human-caused methane emissions.
  • Targets: Countries commit to reduce methane emissions by at least 30% below 2020 levels by 2030.
  • Climate Impact: A 30% reduction could avoid 0.2°C warming by 2050, supporting the 1.5°C target.
  • India’s Status: India is not a participant, despite being among the top five global methane emitters, mainly from agriculture.

5) Global Methane Initiative (GMI):

  • Nature of Initiative: An international public-private partnership promoting methane recovery and use as a clean energy source.
  • Technical Support: Provides technical assistance to implement methane-to-energy projects worldwide.
  • Country Participation: Helps partner nations deploy methane utilisation projects; India is a partner country.

6) Methane Alert and Response System (MARS):

  • Purpose: A data-to-action system delivering reliable and actionable methane-emission data for mitigation.
  • Launch: Announced at COP27 (2022); pilot phase began in January 2023.
  • Technology: Uses satellite-based detection to identify major methane sources globally.
  • Action Mechanism: Provides notifications to countries and companies, enabling rapid response and emission reduction.
  • Partnerships: Operates with the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) and the International Energy Agency (IEA).
  • Core Components: Detection, notification, response, and progress tracking for emission control.

7) International Methane Emissions Observatory (IMEO):

  • Establishment: Launched at the G20 Leaders’ Summit (2021).
  • Initial Focus: Concentrated on methane emissions from the fossil fuel sector.
  • Data Integration: Combines information from scientific studies, satellites (via MARS), OGMP 2.0 reporting, and national inventories.
  • OGMP 2.0 Role: UNEP’s flagship programme to enhance accuracy and transparency of methane reporting in the oil and gas industry.

 

[UPSC 2019] Consider the following:

1. Carbon monoxide

2. Methane

3. Ozone

4. Sulphur dioxide

Which of the above are released into atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4*

 

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Antibiotics Resistance

NCDC flags study on rising antibiotic resistance in India

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why In The News?

The NCDC has rejected a Lancet study claiming that over 50% of Indian patients undergoing a specific gastrointestinal procedure are colonised with multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs), calling the findings inaccurate.

1) What is Antibiotic Resistance:

  • Definition: Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites) become resistant to antimicrobial drugs such as antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antimalarials, and anthelmintics.
  • Impact on Treatment: Standard treatments become ineffective, leading to persistent infections that can spread to others.
  • Natural Phenomenon: Resistance develops naturally as bacteria evolve, reducing the effectiveness of drugs.
  • Superbugs: Microorganisms that develop AMR are often called “superbugs.”
  • Global Threat: The WHO identifies AMR as one of the top ten global health threats.

2) Causes of Antibiotic Resistance:

  • High Disease Burden: A high prevalence of communicable diseases (tuberculosis, diarrhoea, respiratory infections) increases antimicrobial use.
  • Weak Public Health System: An overburdened health system limits diagnostic capacity, leading to improper treatment.
  • Poor Infection Control: Hygiene lapses in hospitals and clinics promote the spread of resistant bacteria.
  • Misuse of Antibiotics: Overprescription, self-medication, incomplete antibiotic courses, and unnecessary use of broad-spectrum antibiotics accelerate resistance.
  • Easy Access: Unregulated over-the-counter antibiotic availability increases inappropriate use.
  • Lack of Awareness: Low public awareness about AMR contributes to misuse of antibiotics.
  • Inadequate Surveillance: Limited monitoring systems hinder tracking and understanding of AMR spread.

3) Implications of AMR:

  • Healthcare Impact: AMR makes previously effective antibiotics ineffective, causing prolonged illnesses, severe symptoms, and higher mortality from common infections such as pneumonia, UTIs, and skin infections.
  • Increased Healthcare Costs: Resistant infections require costlier drugs, longer hospital stays, and sometimes invasive procedures, raising expenses for patients, health systems, and governments.
  • Challenges in Medical Procedures: AMR increases risks in surgeries, chemotherapy, and organ transplants because infections may not respond to standard antibiotics.
  • Limitations in Treatment Options: Growing resistance reduces the availability of effective antibiotics, potentially creating a post-antibiotic era where common infections become untreatable and potentially fatal.

4) About National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC):

  • Organizational Affiliation: NCDC functions under the Indian Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
  • Purpose: Established as a national centre of excellence for the control of communicable diseases.
  • Leadership: The Director, an officer of the Public Health sub-cadre of Central Health Service, serves as the administrative and technical head of the institute.
  • Headquarters: Located in New Delhi.
  • Branches: NCDC has 8 regional branches at Alwar (Rajasthan), Bengaluru (Karnataka), Kozhikode (Kerala), Coonoor (Tamil Nadu), Jagdalpur (Chhattisgarh), Patna (Bihar), Rajahmundry (Andhra Pradesh), and Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh).
[UPSC 2019] Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India?

1. Genetic predisposition of some people

2. Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases

3. Using antibiotics in livestock farming

4. Multiple chronic diseases in some people

Select the correct answer using the code given below. Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

 

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Air Pollution

SC allows CAQM to take ‘proactive’ measures to curb Delhi air pollution

Prelims Only | | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why In The News?

The Supreme Court allowed CAQM full freedom to take proactive anti-pollution measures in Delhi-NCR, including applying GRAP-IV options like work-from-home and 50% office attendance during the ongoing GRAP-III stage.

About the Judgement:

  • Supreme Court’s Direction: SC empowered CAQM to take proactive pollution-control measures in Delhi-NCR.
  • Bench Observation: CJI Gavai urged stakeholder consultation.
  • Key Proposals: Early use of GRAP-IV measures, vehicle exemptions, staggered timings, and congestion control.
  • Additional Proposals: CAQM proposed advancing GRAP measures, enforcing congestion control, notifying vehicle aggregator policies, reviewing school sports during pollution months, and adopting long-term steps like EV policy review and higher charges on luxury diesel SUVs

2) What is CAQM (Commission for Air Quality Management)?

  • About: A statutory body managing air quality in Delhi-NCR and adjoining areas, created under the CAQM Act, 2021, replacing the earlier EPCA (1998) and initially introduced via a 2020 ordinance.
  • Structure: Chairperson is a senior government official (Secretary/Chief Secretary); includes 5 ex-officio members from Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh; 3 full-time technical members; 3 NGO members; supported technically by CPCB, ISRO, and NITI Aayog.
  • Functions: Responsible for monitoring, coordinating, and implementing air quality policies, researching pollution sources, proposing mitigation strategies, and raising public awareness.
  • Powers: Holds jurisdiction over Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan; can issue binding directions, restrict polluting activities, enforce environmental rules, act against non-compliance, and initiate complaints under the CAQM Act, 2021.

3) What is GRAP (Graded Response Action Plan)?

  • About: A pre-emptive and emergency framework to control Delhi-NCR air pollution; created under Supreme Court directions in C. Mehta vs Union of India (2016); notified in 2017 and implemented by CAQM, MoEFCC, and State authorities; operates through four graded stages linked to AQI levels.
  • Stages of GRAP:
    Stage I – Poor (AQI 201–300): Road dust control and enforcement of PUC norms.
    Stage II – Very Poor (AQI 301–400): Limits on diesel generators and actions in pollution hotspots.
    Stage III – Severe (AQI 401–450): Vehicle restrictions, construction curbs, and remote schooling
    Stage IV – Severe+ (AQI > 450): Ban on heavy vehicles, school closures, and shutdown of non-essential industries.
  • Purpose: To ensure a graded, coordinated, time-bound response that prevents air quality from escalating to hazardous levels.

4)Air Quality Monitoring Measures:

1) AQI (Air Quality Index)

  • Launched in 2014 with the concept “One Number – One Color – One Description” for easy public understanding.
  • Developed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
  • Based on 8 pollutants: PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, Pb.
  • Contains six air quality categories ranging from Good to Severe.

2) SAFAR (System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and Research)

  • Provides location-specific, real-time air quality information for major Indian metropolitan cities.
  • Introduced by the Ministry of Earth Sciences, developed by IITM Pune.
  • Measures pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, O3, CO, NOx, SO2, Benzene, Toluene, Xylene, Mercury.
  • Uses Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Systems (CAAQMS); an example includes the one commissioned by the Indian Army in Kolkata.

3) NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards)

  • Set by CPCB in 2009 under the Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
  • Covers 12 pollutants, including SO2, NO2, PM10, PM2.5, O3, Pb, CO, NH3, Benzene, Benzopyrene, As, Ni.
  • Specifies annual and 24-hour standards for industrial, residential, rural, and ecologically sensitive areas.

4) NAMP (National Air Quality Monitoring Programme)

  • Executed by CPCB to monitor ambient air quality across India.
  • Network includes 800+ stations in 344 cities/towns, covering 28 states and 6 UTs.
  • Objectives: track air quality trends, assess compliance with NAAQS, identify non-attainment cities.
  • Monitors SO2, NO2, PM10, and PM2.5 along with meteorological factors like wind speed, humidity, and temperature.

5) WHO Ambient Air Quality Database

  • A global database compiling annual mean concentrations of PM2.5, PM10, and NO2.
  • First released in 2011; updated periodically—2023 is the sixth update.
  • Linked to WHO’s 2021 Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs), which tightened acceptable pollution limits.

 

 

[UPSC 2022] In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements:

1. The 24-hour mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m³ and annual mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m³.

2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.

3. PM 10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream.

4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 only* (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 only

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Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

[20th November 2025] The Hindu OpED: Hidden cost of polluted groundwater

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater. What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis? Briefly discuss any three such technologies citing their key merits and demerits.

Linkage: This PYQ is important for UPSC as freshwater scarcity and contamination are core GS-III themes. The article links directly by highlighting toxic groundwater, failing treatment systems, and the urgent need for affordable purification technologies.

Mentor’s Comment

Groundwater contamination in India is no longer a silent environmental issue, it has become an economic, social, and public-health emergency. This topic is highly relevant PYQ for UPSC, as water scarcity and groundwater contamination are recurring GS-III themes. The article directly aligns by showing how polluted aquifers and weak treatment systems make alternative purification technologies essential for India’s water security.

Introduction

Groundwater, the backbone of India’s drinking water and irrigation systems, is now increasingly polluted with heavy metals, industrial residues, and excess fertilizers. Reports from multiple states reveal a rise in fluoride, arsenic, uranium, and nitrate contamination, creating a public-health disaster and long-term economic losses. The issue has moved from isolated pockets to a nationwide development challenge demanding regulatory urgency, technological solutions, and sustainable water governance.

Why in the News

Recent rounds of India’s Groundwater Quality Report (2022) and field evidence from Punjab, Gujarat, Telangana, and Haryana indicate a sharp rise in toxic contamination, including fluoride-linked deformities, arsenic poisoning, and uranium beyond safe limits. The scale is unprecedented: nearly 600 million Indians rely on groundwater, and contamination is now accelerating due to over-extraction, fertilizer misuse, and industrial discharge. The crisis is no longer environmental, it is weakening agricultural incomes, burdening households with high medical costs, and threatening India’s export competitiveness.

What Is Causing Groundwater to Become Toxic?

  1. Heavy Reliance on Groundwater
    • Over-extraction: Agriculture absorbs over 60% of India’s groundwater, exceeding sustainable limits in several districts.
    • Irrigation intensity: Canal systems have stagnated, forcing farmers to depend on tube wells.
    • Result: Declining water tables concentrate pollutants and accelerate toxicity.
  2. Chemical Contamination from Agriculture
    • Excess fertilizer and pesticide use: Leads to nitrate accumulation and leaching into aquifers.
    • Heavy metals: Arsenic, fluoride, uranium exceed permissible limits in many districts.
    • Impact: Childhood skeletal deformities, fluorosis, long-term organ damage.
  3. Industrial and Sewage Discharge
    • Untreated effluents: Lack of sewage treatment expands contamination beyond village boundaries.
    • Industrial residues: Agro-processing and manufacturing hubs increase heavy metal presence.
    • Outcome: Polluted aquifers affecting both rural and peri-urban areas.

How Groundwater Pollution Impacts Health and Society

  1. Rising Health Burden
    • Skeletal deformities, fluorosis, kidney damage: Result of toxic metals in drinking water.
    • Children disproportionately affected: Early-life exposure lowers future productivity.
  2. Debt and Medical Expenditure
    • High out-of-pocket expense: Families spend heavily on hospital visits and bottled water.
    • Wealthier households cope better: Poorer families cannot afford alternative water sources.
  3. Intergenerational Impacts
    • Impaired cognitive development: Arsenic and fluoride exposure affects education outcomes.
    • Lower economic mobility: Chronic illness depresses earning capacity.

How Groundwater Pollution Hurts Agriculture and the Economy

  1. Loss of Farm Productivity
    • Poor water quality reduces crop yields: Long-term exposure to contaminated irrigation water.
    • Heavy metals affect soil health: Reducing crop diversity and nutritional value.
  2. Threat to India’s Export Market
    • Buyers demand stringent quality checks: Contamination threatens rice, spices, fruits, vegetables.
    • The $50-60 billion agri-export sector risks losses due to toxicity and traceability issues.
  3. Vicious Cycle of Over-Extraction
    • Declining tables led to more drilling which leads to more contaminants: Increases farmer indebtedness.
    • High fertilizer use worsens soil chemistry: Further reduces sustainability.

Why Policy Failure Allowed This Crisis to Escalate

  1. Weak Enforcement of Pollution Norms
    1. Inadequate regulation of industrial discharge: Leads to untreated sewage entering aquifers.
    2. Poor monitoring: Rural areas lack regular water quality surveillance.
  2. Lack of Decentralised Treatment Systems
    1. Dependence on centralized schemes: Community-level solutions not prioritized.
    2. Delayed response: Slow implementation of purification units.
  3. Limited Agricultural Diversification
    1. Punjab’s water-intensive cropping pattern: Maintains heavy groundwater stress.
    2. Minimal shift to millets/pulses despite policy incentives.

Way Forward

  1. Nationwide Real-Time Groundwater Monitoring
    • Open access digital platform: Communities should know what they are drinking/using to irrigate.
    • Data-driven planning: Better targeting of polluted zones.
  2. Strengthen Industrial and Sewage Regulations
    • Strict enforcement of effluent norms: Prevent industrial leakages.
    • Expand sewage treatment infrastructure: Particularly in peri-urban zones.
  3. Agricultural Policy Reform
    • Shift away from water-intensive crops: Encourage pulses, maize, oilseeds.
    • Promote micro-irrigation: Reduce water table stress.
  4. Localised Water Purification
    • Community-level treatment plants: Immediate relief in severely contaminated areas.
    • Affordable household filtration for poor families.
  5. Long-Term Water Security Planning
    • Integrating health, agriculture, and environment: Holistic approach to water governance.
    • Prevent groundwater from becoming India’s next major economic crisis.

Conclusion

Groundwater contamination has transformed into a multidimensional crisis affecting public health, agriculture, exports, and intergenerational equity. Without strict regulation, real-time monitoring, and agricultural diversification, the economic and health losses will escalate. India must act decisively before the groundwater crisis becomes irreversible.

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Terrorism and Challenges Related To It

The threat of digital tradecraft in terrorism

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Introduction

The blast near Delhi’s Red Fort on November 10, killing 15 and injuring over 30, exposed the operational use of encrypted digital platforms, dead-drop communication, and modular terror cells. The investigation demonstrates a transition from traditional networks to digitally shielded ecosystems, reducing visibility for intelligence agencies and constraining surveillance outcomes.

The new face of terror: What has the investigation revealed?

  1. Encrypted Communication: Enables concealed coordination, protects identity layers, and reduces interception by routing messages through shielded platforms.
  2. Digital Dead-Drops: Facilitates asynchronous message exchange without direct contact, ensuring operational secrecy and reducing surveillance exposure.
  3. Compartmentalised Cells: Strengthens deniability by separating roles across modules led by three individuals linked to medical and academic institutions.
  4. Behavioural Masking: Utilises familiar vehicles and repetitive low-risk movement patterns to support covert reconnaissance without triggering alerts.
  5. Enhanced IED Architecture: Ensures higher lethality through layered mechanisms and precise triggering processes.

Distinctive Features of This Incident

  1. Multi-Layer Encryption: Reduces actionable intelligence, constrains lawful interception, and delays early detection of operational chatter.
  2. Surveillance-Resistant Tools: Utilises VPNs, spoofed identifiers, and encrypted messaging apps, enabling secure command dissemination.
  3. Hybrid Planning: Integrates digital coordination with physical site visits, ensuring real-time situational assessment without exposing handlers.
  4. Decentralised Decision Structures: Prevents traceability by shifting from hierarchical control to remote guidance via anonymised digital nodes.

Why are modern counterterrorism frameworks struggling?

Constraints on Counterterrorism Architecture

  1. Limited Penetration of Encrypted Platforms: Restricts information extraction, narrows visibility over operational trails, and weakens evidence chains.
  2. Diminished HUMINT Opportunities: Reduces physical touchpoints and complicates informant-based intelligence generation.
  3. Fragmented Global Cooperation: Slows data sharing when platforms are hosted outside domestic jurisdiction, weakening investigation pace.
  4. Technological Mismatch: Creates capability gaps as terror networks adopt advanced masking, encryption, and anonymisation faster than security upgrades.

Operational Impact of Digital Tradecraft

  1. End-to-end encryption (E2EE) Platforms: Shields logistics, finances, and movement plans, enabling uninterrupted operational execution.
  2. Remote Radicalisation and Supervision: Facilitates cross-border ideological influence and guidance without physical linkages.
  3. Metadata Evasion: Minimises digital footprints by exploiting layered encryption and controlled online presence.
  4. Coordination Efficiency: Enhances planning speed and reduces command exposure by relying on decentralised digital frameworks.

Required Strategic Adaptations

  1. Digital Forensics Expansion: Strengthens cryptographic analysis, behavioural modelling, and dark-web investigation capacity.
  2. Lawful Interception Reform: Establishes judicially supervised mechanisms enabling secure access to encrypted communication when mandated.
  3. Inter-Agency Data Fusion: Integrates intelligence, cyber cells, and police units on unified platforms to improve threat detection and response.
  4. Cyber Infrastructure Modernisation: Enhances surveillance technologies, metadata analytics, and predictive systems to match digital threat evolution.
  5. International Data Cooperation: Accelerates cross-border evidence sharing and improves alignment with global counterterrorism frameworks.

Conclusion

The Red Fort blast demonstrates a shift toward encrypted, decentralised, and digitally concealed terror ecosystems. The emerging landscape requires specialised digital forensics, integrated intelligence systems, and balanced legal frameworks to strengthen operational readiness. Counterterrorism capacities must evolve to address threats emerging from opaque digital environments rather than visible physical terrains alone.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2016] Use of Internet and social media by non-state actors for subversive activities is a major concern. How have these been misused in the recent past? Suggest effective guidelines to curb the above threat.

Linkage: The misuse of Internet and social media by non-state actors remains a recurring internal security theme. The encrypted digital activity with respect to the recent The recent Red Fort blast make the issue current and significant. The topic continues to appear because communication networks are now central to modern security threats.

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Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

More than two decades later, there is light at the end of the Red Corridor

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

INTRODUCTION

Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) has historically affected large tribal hinterlands across central India. Recent field reports indicate a visible decline in Maoist hold, accompanied by expanding state presence, renewed market activity, and local confidence in security forces. The transformation represents a significant shift from earlier decades marked by fear, isolation, and violence.

Why in the news?

A major setback to Maoists occurred recently when top Andhra-Odisha border commander Madvi Hidma was killed in a security operation, followed by the elimination of seven more Maoists, including an explosives expert. These back-to-back encounters highlight the rapid weakening of LWE networks across the Red Corridor.

Why is the region witnessing a visible shift in confidence?

  1. Reduced Fear: The article notes that locals now openly interact with security forces, signalling erosion of Maoist coercion.
  2. Increased Presence: Security deployment strengthened continuous area domination, reducing the probability of Maoist reprisals.
  3. Civilian Mobility: Market activity in evening hours increased, contrasting earlier periods when movement after dusk was restricted due to threats.
  4. Symbolic Change: Locals offering security personnel chai and sitting freely with them indicates behavioural trust, not forced compliance.

What structural changes weakened Maoist dominance?

  1. Road Connectivity: New roads and bridges reduced forest isolation, weakening Maoist geographical advantage and enabling faster troop mobility.
  2. Communication Facilities: Mobile networks expanded surveillance, reduced Maoist anonymity, and enabled quicker civilian distress calls.
  3. Administrative Outreach: Frequent visits by district officials ensured service delivery and reduced ideological appeal.
  4. Disruption of Recruitment: Youth engagement in local markets, transport, and small businesses reduced Maoist manpower pipelines.

How did security operations evolve on the ground?

  1. Stronghold Penetration: Forces entered areas earlier considered “liberated zones”, indicating territorial rollback.
  2. Integrated Command: Inter-state coordination between Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Telangana improved operational continuity.
  3. Sanitisation Efforts: Regular area domination patrols lowered the possibility of ambushes.
  4. Intelligence Support: Human intelligence from locals increased due to declining fear, enabling targeted strikes.

What has changed in the population’s everyday life?

  1. Economic Activity: Markets extending late into evening reflect safety and disposable income circulation.
  2. Transport Revival: Locals travelling without escorts marks reduced threat perception.
  3. Women’s Movement: Increased participation by women in markets shows greater autonomy and reduced intimidation.
  4. Community Interaction: Openness to engage with forces signals normalisation of state-citizen interaction.

Why has the Maoist strategy weakened?

  1. Loss of Terrain Control: Eroded forest sanctuaries limit guerrilla advantage.
  2. Depleted Cadres: Surrenders and casualties reduced leadership continuity.
  3. Ideological Attrition: Reduced resonance of Maoist messaging as development outreach substitutes grievances.
  4. Operational Fatigue: Continuous pressure limited long-duration planning, reducing capability for large-scale attacks.

CONCLUSION

The article highlights a decisive shift in the Red Corridor, where expanded state presence and growing public confidence have significantly reduced Maoist influence. The transition reflects a combination of operational consistency, improved connectivity, and changing local behaviour, collectively signalling a new phase in India’s long battle against Left-Wing Extremism.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Naxalism is a social, economic and developmental issue manifesting as a violent internal security threat. Discuss the emerging issues and suggest a multilayered strategy to tackle the menace of Naxalism.

Linkage: The PYQ matches the article’s focus on LWE decline driven by security consolidation and development outreach. It directly links to how improved roads, markets, and public confidence are weakening Naxalism.

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Governor vs. State

SC advisory on Presidential Reference on Governors’ timelines

| Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Why In The News?

The Supreme Court will issue an advisory opinion on a Presidential Reference questioning its authority to impose timelines and prescribe procedures for Governors and the President when handling State Bills sent for assent or consideration.

1) About the Judgement:

  • Scheduled Advisory Opinion: The Supreme Court is set to deliver its advisory opinion on a Presidential Reference questioning whether the Court can impose timelines and procedures for Governors and the President when dealing with State Bills.
  • Bench’s Position: The five-judge Bench led by CJI B.R. Gavai held that the Court cannot remain inactive if a constitutional authority fails to perform its duties.
  • Political–Federal Context: The matter arises amid friction between Opposition-ruled States and Governors, with delays in assenting to key State legislation.
  • April 8 Judgment Trigger: The reference stems from the Supreme Court’s April 8 judgment that imposed a three-month deadline on Governors and the President to act on Bills.
  • Impact on Governance: The Court ruled that Governors cannot impede governance by indefinitely withholding action on welfare legislation.
  • Union Government’s Objection: The Centre argued that the April 8 ruling creates a “one-size-fits-all” approach that may be inappropriate given the varied nature of Bills.
  • Argument on Judicial Overreach: Solicitor General Tushar Mehta contended that the Court cannot assume legislative functions by compelling Governors to grant assent through mandamus.

2) Presidential Reference Under Article 143:

  • Meaning and Scope: Article 143 allows the President to seek the Supreme Court’s advisory opinion on questions of law or fact of public importance.
  • Article 143(1) – Optional Opinion: The Supreme Court may accept or decline to answer references under this clause. Example: refusal in the 1993 Ram Janmabhoomi reference.
  • Article 143(2) – Mandatory Opinion: For disputes involving pre-Constitution treaties or agreements, the Court must render its opinion.
  • Nature of Advice: The advisory opinion is not binding on the President but carries significant legal authority.
  • Bench Requirement: Article 145(3) mandates that a minimum five-judge Bench must hear Presidential References.
  • Historical Origins: The power originates from the Government of India Act, 1935. Comparative jurisdictions: Canada accepts advisory opinions; the U.S. does not.
  • Past References: About 15 previous references include the Delhi Laws Act (1951), Kerala Education Bill (1958), Berubari (1960), Keshav Singh (1965), Presidential Poll case (1974), Third Judges Case (1998).
  • Key Question in Present Reference: Whether courts can impose timelines on Governors/President that are not expressly provided in Articles 200 and 201, and whether Article 142 enables the Court to frame such directions.
  • Limit on Overturning Judgments: As held in the 1991 Cauvery decision, Article 143 cannot be used to review or overturn settled Supreme Court judgments.
  • Constitutional Significance: The reference may clarify the constitutional roles of the President/Governors, promote federal balance, and remove procedural ambiguities.
  • Challenges of the Advisory Process: Advice is nonbinding, references may become politicized, “public importance” is undefined, and there is no timeline for the Court to respond.

3) Relevant Constitutional Provisions & Case Law on Governors’ Powers to reserve state bills:

  • Article 200 – Governor’s Options: The Governor may assent, withhold assent with reasons, return a non-Money Bill once, or reserve the Bill for the President. Upon reconsideration and re-passage, the Governor must assent.
  • Article 201 – President’s Options: The President may assent, withhold assent, or return a non-Money Bill; unlike the Governor, the President is not bound even if the Bill is re-passed.
  • No Absolute or Pocket Veto: The Supreme Court held in the 2023 Tamil Nadu case that Governors cannot exercise a pocket veto; “as soon as possible” implies reasonable promptness.
  • Restriction on Reserving Bills: After a Bill is re-passed without amendments, the Governor must assent; it cannot be reserved again unless the content has changed.
  • Aid and Advice Principle: The Governor must act on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers except in limited situations concerning High Court or Supreme Court powers.
  • Judicial Timelines and Reviewability: The Supreme Court imposed definitive timelines for Governor’s action under Article 200 and held that inaction is subject to judicial review.
[UPSC 2012] Question: Which of the following are the discretionary powers given to the Governor of a State?

1. Sending a report to the President of India for imposing the President’s rule

2. Appointing the Ministers

3. Reserving certain bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President of India

4. Making the rules to conduct the business of the State Government

Select the correct answer using the code given below: Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

 

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SC strikes down provisions of Tribunal Reforms Act, tells govt. to set up panel

SC Judgements | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Statutory, Regulatory & Various Quasi-Judicial Bodies

Why In The News?

Supreme Court struck down provisions of the Tribunal Reforms Act 2021, saying they gave government excessive control over tribunal appointments, functioning and salaries, undermining independence.

 

1) About the Supreme Court Judgement on the Tribunal Reforms Act, 2021:

  • Striking Down Provisions: The Supreme Court struck down provisions of the Tribunal Reforms Act, 2021 that gave the Union government dominant control over appointments, functioning, and salaries of tribunal chairpersons and members.
  • Need for Independence: The Court held that Parliament must structure the tribunal system to ensure independence, impartiality, and effective adjudication as constitutional requirements.
  • Violation of Constitutional Principles: Laws that enable executive control, curtail tenure, or weaken autonomy violate foundational constitutional values.
  • National Tribunal Commission: The Bench directed the Centre to establish a National Tribunal Commission within four months to ensure independence and transparency.
  • Repackaged Ordinance: The 2021 Act was a “repackaged version” of the earlier ordinance struck down in July 2021.
  • Ignoring Defects: Parliament had ignored the defects pointed out earlier by the Supreme Court, transferring the same provisions into the 2021 Act with minor changes.
  • Rejection of Parliament’s Argument: The Court dismissed the claim that Parliament has discretion to ignore Supreme Court decisions.
  • Judicial Review as a Basic Feature: The Court insisted that judicial review is a basic feature of the Constitution, and Parliament cannot brush aside the supremacy of the Constitution.

2) Power of Judicial Review:

  • Meaning: Judicial review is the power of courts to examine the lawfulness of decisions or actions of public authorities.
  • Process Review: It reviews how a decision was made, not the correctness of the decision itself.
  • Procedure Established by Law: A law is valid only if enacted following the proper legislative procedure.
  • Due Process of Law: Ensures that laws are fair and just; India follows Procedure Established by Law.
  • Scope: Extends to reviewing actions of the legislature, executive, and administrative bodies.
  • Functions: Helps legitimize government action and protects the Constitution from undue encroachment.
  • Basic Structure: Judicial review forms part of the basic structure doctrine (Indira Gandhi vs Raj Narain, 1975).
  • Judicial Functions: Includes interpretational and observer roles of the judiciary.
  • PILs and Suo Moto: Courts can intervene through Public Interest Litigation and suo moto cases.
  • Types:
    • Review of Legislative Actions: Ensures laws comply with the Constitution.
    • Review of Administrative Actions: Enforces constitutional discipline on administrative bodies.
    • Review of Judicial Decisions: Allows correction of prior judicial decisions.
  • Importance: Ensures supremacy of the Constitution, prevents misuse of power, protects rights, maintains federal balance, and upholds judicial independence.
  • Problems: May limit government functioning, create overreach, lead to rigidity, risk judicial bias, and diminish public faith through repeated interventions.
  • Indian Context: India follows separation of functions, not strict separation of powers, but has checks and balances empowering courts to strike down unconstitutional laws.

3) Tribunals:

  • Nature: Tribunals are quasi-judicial bodies aimed at reducing caseloads and providing technical expertise.
  • Constitutional Basis: Articles 323A and 323B added via the 42nd Amendment (1976) empower creation of tribunals.
  • Article 323A: Enables Parliament to form administrative tribunals for service matters.
  • Article 323B: Allows Parliament and state legislatures to create tribunals on subjects like taxation and land reforms.
  • 2010 SC Clarification: Subjects under Article 323B are not exclusive—legislatures may create tribunals for any subject in the Seventh Schedule.
  • Composition: Tribunals include judicial and technical members.
  • Jurisdiction: Defined, subject-specific jurisdiction; some have appellate powers.
  • Appeals: Generally lie with High Courts, though some go directly to the Supreme Court.
  • Chandra Kumar Judgment (1997): Appeals from tribunals must reach a division bench of High Courts.
  • Current Position: Tribunals may function as substitutes for High Courts or remain subordinate.

Significance of Tribunals:

  • Specialization:
    • Ensures cases are handled by individuals with deep legal and technical expertise.
  • Speedy Resolution:
    • Enables timely resolution in crucial matters like tax, service disputes, and environmental issues.
  • Reduced Case Load:
    • Helps ease the burden on regular courts and reduces judicial backlog.
  • Accessibility:
    • Tribunals often have geographically dispersed benches, improving access for litigants.
  • Efficiency in Service Matters:
    • Bodies like CAT expedite government service-related disputes.

Concerns with Tribunals:

  • Independence Issues:
    • Government-controlled appointments raise concerns about executive influence.
    • In 2019, the Supreme Court warned that lack of judicial dominance violates the separation of powers.
  • Pendency of Cases:
    • Example: Armed Forces Tribunal (AFT) had 18,829 pending cases in 2021.
  • Human Resource Constraints:
    • Lack of staffing contributes to rising pendency.
  • Tenure Problems:
    • Short tenure and reappointment provisions increase executive control.
  • Non-Uniform Procedures:
    • Wide variations cause inconsistency and confusion for litigants.
  • Overlapping Jurisdictions:
    • Leads to conflicts between courts and tribunals.
  • Technical Member Issues:
    • Some technical members lack legal qualifications.
[UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:

1. The 44th Amendment to the Constitution of India introduced an Article placing the election of the Prime Minister beyond judicial review.

2. The Supreme Court of India struck down the 99th Amendment to the Constitution of India as being violative of the independence of judiciary.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a)  1 only (b) 2 only* (c)  Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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Food Procurement and Distribution – PDS & NFSA, Shanta Kumar Committee, FCI restructuring, Buffer stock, etc.

2.25 Crore Ineligible Beneficiaries removed  from Free Ration Scheme

Bills/Act/Laws | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

Why in the News?

About 2.25 crore ineligible people were removed from the NFSA free ration list in the past 4–5 months to ensure benefits reach only rightful beneficiaries.

About Free Ration Scheme:

  • Foodgrain Allocation: The scheme provides 5 kg of free foodgrains (wheat or rice) per person per month to poor households for basic sustenance.
  • Criteria for Ineligibility: Ineligible individuals included those owning four-wheelers, earning above the income threshold, holding company directorships, or deceased persons.
  • Verification Process: The Centre identified suspect entries and shared them with States for verification and deletion.
  • Role of State Governments: States are responsible for identifying beneficiaries, issuing ration cards, and continuously updating lists.
  • Current Coverage: The scheme currently covers around 80.56 crore people, with scope to add about 0.79 crore more beneficiaries.
  • Ration Card & Distribution Network: India has over 19 crore ration card holders and around 5 lakh fair price shops.
  • Beneficiary Categories:
    • Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY): 35 kg per household per month
    • Priority Households (PHH): 5 kg per person per month

About National Food Security Act, 2013 (NFSA):

  • Enactment: NFSA was signed into law on 12 September 2013, with effect from 5 July 2013.
  • Coverage Goal: It aims to provide subsidized food grains to about two-thirds of India’s population, covering 75% rural and 50% urban populations.
  • Legal Entitlements: It converts food security schemes into legal entitlements for eligible households.
  • Subsidized Prices: Mandated Targeted Public Distribution System prices:
    • Rice – ₹3/kg
    • Wheat – ₹2/kg
    • Coarse grains – ₹1/kg
  • Household Head Provision: The eldest woman aged 18 or above in a household is designated as the head for issuing ration cards.
  • Nutritional Support: Pregnant women, lactating mothers, and children (6 months–14 years) receive free meals under ICDS and Mid-Day Meal schemes.
  • Maternity Benefits: Pregnant and lactating women are entitled to a ₹6,000 maternity benefit, paid in installments.
  • Entitlements Under NFSA:
    • Priority Households: 5 kg foodgrains per person per month
    • AAY Households: 35 kg per month
    • Universal coverage of ICDS and Mid-Day Meals
[UPSC 2018] With reference to the provisions made under the National Food Security Act, 2013, consider the following statements:

1. The families coming under the category of ‘below poverty line (BPL)’ only are eligible to receive subsidies food grains.

2. The eldest woman in a household, of age 18 years or above, shall be the head of the household for the purpose of issuance of a ration card.

3. Pregnant women and lactating mothers are entitled to a ‘take-home ration’ of 1600 calories per day during pregnancy and for six months thereafter.

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only

 

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Seeds, Pesticides and Mechanization – HYV, Indian Seed Congress, etc.

Centre plans to amend Protection of Plant Variety and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&F) Act, 2001

Bills/Act/Laws | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

Why in the News?

The Union Agriculture Minister has confirmed that the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001 (PPV&FRA) will be amended, with the Centre incorporating inputs from farmers, scientists, civil society, and industry.

About the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act (PPV&FRA), 2001:

  • Overview: India’s sui generis legislation protects the rights of plant breeders, farmers, and local communities while promoting innovation and conserving agrobiodiversity.
  • TRIPS Compliance: Designed as an alternative to restrictive Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) models, recognising farmers both as cultivators and as breeders with equal legal standing.
  • Key Features:
    • Institutional Framework: Established the PPV&FR Authority, National Register of Plant Varieties, and the National Gene Bank for long-term conservation.
    • Farmers’ Rights: Allows farmers to save, use, sow, resow, exchange, share, and sell seeds of protected varieties (except branded seeds) and register their own varieties.
    • Breeders’ Rights: Grants exclusive commercialisation rights over registered varieties, subject to benefit-sharing and statutory limitations.
    • DUS Testing: Registration based on Distinctness, Uniformity, Stability, with protection of 15 years for annuals and 18 years for trees and vines.
    • Compulsory Licensing: Ensures public access where breeders fail to provide seeds at fair prices or adequate quantities.
    • Community Benefits: Provides for benefit-sharing, recognition of traditional varieties, and safeguards against unfair claims on farmer-developed seeds.
    • Scope of Varieties: Covers new, extant, farmers’, and essentially derived varieties.

What are the Proposed Amendments?

  • Redefinition of ‘Variety’: Broadened to include combinations of genotypes and vegetative propagules such as tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, synthetic seeds, and tissue-culture plants, aligning with the Seeds Bill 2019.
  • Expanded Definition of ‘Seed’: Includes all planting materials and vegetatively propagated parts to harmonise India’s seed laws.
  • Clarifying ‘Breeder’ and ‘Institution’: Updated to formally recognise both public and private bodies as legitimate breeders.
  • Strengthening DUS Testing: Adds trait-based descriptors, greater transparency, and safeguards against misuse seen in cases like njavara paddy.
  • Defining “Abusive Acts”: Introduces penalties for selling varieties with identical denominations or misusing breeder rights to gain monopolistic control.
  • Community Seed Rights: Ensures that community-developed and traditional varieties cannot be appropriated by private entities.
  • Protection Against Misappropriation: Prevents registration of varieties already tested or conserved by farmers without disclosure or consent.
  • Farmer Compensation: Strengthens mechanisms for compensating farmers when registered varieties underperform compared to breeder claims.
  • Global Alignment: Follows negotiations under the International Plant Treaty (MLS), especially on in situ conservation and equitable sharing of genetic resources.
[UPSC 2014]  In the context of food and nutritional security of India, enhancing the ‘Seed Replacement Rates’ of various crops helps in achieving the food production targets of the future. But what is/are the constraint/constraints in its wider/greater implementation?

1. There is no National Seeds Policy in place.

2. There is no participation of private sector seed companies in the supply of quality seeds of vegetables and planting materials of horticultural crops.

3. There is a demand-supply gap regarding quality seeds in case of low value and high volume crops.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a)  1 and 2 only (b)  3 only* (c)  2 and 3 only (d)  None of the above

 

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Electoral Reforms In India

Independence of Election Commission Of India(ECI)

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Constitutional Bodies

Why in the news?

Amidst SIR exercise, the Opposition raised questions on the independence of ECI.

About Election Commission of India(ECI)

The Election Commission of India (ECI), established under Article 324, is responsible for ensuring free, fair, and impartial elections. Its independence is essential for democratic legitimacy.

Constitutional Safeguards Ensuring Independence

1.Security of Tenure – CEC-The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) can be removed only through a process similar to that of a Supreme Court judge- by a special majority of Parliament on grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity.

2.Protection for Election Commissioners (ECs)-ECs can be removed only on the recommendation of the CEC, preventing arbitrary dismissal by the executive.

3. Financial Independence-ECI’s expenses are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India, insulating it from executive control through budget cuts.

4. Plenary Powers under Article 324-ECI can act when existing laws are inadequate, allowing it functional autonomy during elections

Independence After the 2023 Act

Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023. This Act overrides the 2023 Supreme Court directive that required a three-member committee :PM + Leader of Opposition + CJI.

Key Provisions and Their Impact

1.New Appointment Committee-Appointments to CEC and ECs now made by a three-member panel:

  • Prime Minister (Chairperson)
  • Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha
  • Union Cabinet Minister nominated by the PM

Impact: Replaces the CJI with a Cabinet minister, increasing executive dominance over appointments, raising concerns about ECI independence.

2. Service Conditions-CEC and ECs will have the same salary and perks as Cabinet Secretary.

Impact: This equates their status with high-ranking executive officers, which critics argue may reduce institutional insulation from the government.

3.Term of Office-Fixed tenure of 6 years or until age 65, whichever earlier.

Impact: Fixed tenure supports stability, but early retirement age could shorten term length.

4. Removal & Suspension-No change: CEC retains constitutional protection; ECs removable only on CEC’s recommendation.

Challenges to Independence (Post-2023 Act)

  • Executive-Dominated Appointments: A selection panel with a government majority may undermine the Commission’s neutrality.
  • Exclusion of CJI: Removing the Chief Justice from the panel weakens institutional checks and balances.
  • Status Dilution: Equating the CEC/ECs with a bureaucratic rank risks undermining their constitutional stature.
  • Post-Retirement Incentives: Possibility of government-appointed positions may affect independent decision-making.
  • Administrative Dependence: Continued reliance on government machinery for staffing and logistics limits functional autonomy.

The Election Commission of India, protected by the Constitution, ensures free elections; the 2023 Act clarifies appointments, and strengthening autonomy and capacity can further reinforce its credibility and democratic role.

[UPSC 2012] Consider the following statements:

  1. Union Territories are not represented in the Rajya Sabha.
  2. It is within the purview of the Chief Election Commissioner to adjudicate election disputes.
  3. According to the Constitution of India, the Parliament consists of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha only.

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) None*

 

 

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SC recalls verdict rejecting Green Clearances

SC Judgements | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

Why in the News?

A three-judge Bench of the Supreme Court of India recalled its May 16 verdict that had declared the granting of ex post facto environmental clearances (ECs) to construction projects as a “gross illegality” and “anathema” to environmental laws. This decision had struck down a 2017 notification and 2021 office memorandum of the Union Government that allows such retrospective clearances.

Key Points of Decision

  1. Majority Opinion:
    • Chief Justice B.R. Gavai and Justice K. Vinod Chandran ruled to recall the May 16 verdict, which had declared the granting of ex post facto environmental clearances (ECs) as illegal.
    • The majority emphasized the public interest in avoiding the demolition of ongoing construction projects, which could lead to significant financial losses and job cuts.
    • They argued that retrospective clearances should be an exceptional measure rather than a routine practice, and these projects could continue if heavy penalties were imposed for violations.
  2. Dissenting Opinion:
    • Justice Ujjal Bhuyan dissented, critiquing the majority for undermining environmental jurisprudence.
    • Justice Bhuyan argued that granting ex post facto ECs violates the precautionary principle and undermines sustainable development, as it encourages illegal constructions that bypass environmental laws.
    • He emphasized that environmental protection should not be compromised for development purposes.

Implications of the Judgement

  • Development vs Environment: The decision underscores the tension between economic development and environmental protection, highlighting the judiciary’s role in ensuring sustainable development while addressing violations of environmental laws.
  • Environmental Governance: It raises questions on judicial review of executive actions, emphasizing the need for effective regulatory compliance and policy frameworks that balance growth with ecological safeguards.
  • Sustainability and Public Health: The ruling reinforces the importance of adhering to environmental laws to protect natural resources and public health, which is critical for India’s long-term sustainability and policymaking.

Supreme Court’s power to review its own judgement

1.Review Petition 

  • Constitutional Power: Article 137 empowers the Supreme Court to review its own judgments.
  • Exception to Finality: This acts as an exception to the doctrine of functus officio, which otherwise bars reopening finalized cases.
  • Purpose: The review power corrects grave errors and prevents miscarriage of justice.

2.Curative Petition

  • Last Legal Remedy: A curative petition may be filed only after the dismissal of a review petition, serving as the final avenue to prevent gross miscarriage of justice.
  • Judicial Innovation: The concept was created by the Supreme Court in Rupa Ashok Hurra v. Ashok Hurra (2002) to address rare cases where judicial bias or procedural injustice is alleged.
  • Purpose: It aims to correct grave violations of natural justice or abuse of the court’s process, ensuring fairness even after final judgments.

Landmark Cases where Supreme Court Reviewed its own Judgements

  • Keshavananda Bharati v. State of Kerela(1973): overturned the Golakhnath case(1967) by establishing the “basic structure doctrine,” which affirmed Parliament’s power to amend the Constitution, including Fundamental Rights, but with the crucial limitation that it cannot alter or destroy its basic structure. 
  • Common Cause v. Union of India (2023): The Court modified its own 2018 judgment on “Advanced Medical Directives” (passive euthanasia) by altering the requirements for the composition of medical boards and removing the need for a Judicial Magistrate’s counter-signature
  • Recall of the Vanashakti judgment: The Court recalled its May 16, 2025, verdict in Vanashakti vs Union of India that barred retrospective environmental clearances for projects

[UPSC 2021] With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements:

  1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with prior permission from the President of India.
  2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgment, as the Supreme Court does.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) (c) Both 1 and 2 only (d) (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

[19th November 2025] The Hindu Op-ED: Time to sort out India’s cereal mess

op-ed snap | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: PDS, Buffer Stock & Food Security

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Elucidate the importance of buffer stocks for stabilizing agricultural prices in India. What are the challenges associated with the storage of buffer stock? Discuss.

Linkage: This PYQ is central to GS-III themes of food security, MSP, PDS and price stabilization. It links with the article’s focus on excess stocks and distorted procurement, showing why India’s buffer-stock management is becoming unsustainable.

Mentor’s Comment

India faces a cereal management crisis marked by procurement distortions, crop diversification failures, import dependence, and systemic leakages. This article unpacks the urgent concerns raised in “Time to sort out India’s cereal mess” and restructures them into an exam-oriented format that aligns with GS II and GS III themes such as food security, agriculture, subsidies, MSP, PDS, and federal coordination.

Introduction

India’s cereal ecosystem, procurement, storage, distribution, and diversification, stands at a difficult juncture. Excessive focus on paddy and rice under MSP, escalating procurement costs, growing import dependence in edible oils and pulses, and logistical inefficiencies have created structural vulnerabilities. The current controversy in Tamil Nadu’s paddy procurement highlights deeper national issues in cereal governance.

Why in the News

Tamil Nadu’s short-term kuruvai paddy procurement turned contentious due to time overruns and corruption charges, exposing systemic weaknesses in the procurement architecture. Despite years of surplus stock, India faces a paradox of simultaneous overproduction of rice and wheat and rising import dependence on pulses and edible oils, with 55% of edible oil demand met by imports. The scale of misalignment, such as rice stocks at 536.14 lakh tonnes in October, five times the requirement, reveals an unsustainable cereal management model requiring urgent correction.

Understanding the Current Procurement Distortions

  1. Excessive Paddy Procurement: Tamil Nadu’s system led by TNCSC and FCI shows delays, over-coverage, and corruption, with farmers preferring paddy due to assured returns.
  2. High Central Pool Stocks: Rice stocks reached 536.14 lakh tonnes (Oct 2024) against norms of about 102.5 lakh tonnes, reflecting procurement far beyond requirement.
  3. Skewed Crop Incentives: Procurement levels for rice and wheat remain consistently higher than norms, reducing incentives for diversification.

Why India’s Cereal Supply is Misaligned

  1. Surplus in Cereals: India maintains abundant stocks, e.g., rice procurement averaging 322 lakh tonnes over three years, indicating oversupply.
  2. Deficit in Pulses & Oilseeds: Despite large-scale cultivation, imports form a major share: India meets 55% of edible oil demand through imports.
  3. Stagnant Diversification: Farmers hesitate to shift due to uncertain support systems, weak price assurance, and inadequate crop guidance.

Rising Import Dependence and Its Consequences

  1. High Import Bills: Edible oil imports breached 30,000 crore in 2023-24 despite domestic production dips from 157 lakh tonnes to 138 lakh tonnes over a decade.
  2. Geopolitical Risks: Events like the Russia-Ukraine conflict directly increased global edible oil prices, impacting domestic inflation.
  3. Oilseed Production Stagnation: Even after 2004 reforms, domestic acreage rose but yields and self-sufficiency remained stagnant.

Structural Issues in India’s Crop Diversification Strategy

  1. Weak Extension Services: Farmers lack assured technical guidance and support for alternative crops.
  2. Higher Risk in Non-Paddy Crops: Limited MSP procurement outside cereals increases production risk.
  3. Fragmented Procurement Framework: Multiple agencies (FCI, State Corporations, NAFED) lead to inconsistent practices across states.

Why Procurement Reforms are Urgent

  1. Inefficient FPO Integration: FPOs, though expanding, remain nascent and face poor access to credit, logistics, and markets.
  2. Leakages and Diversions: Instances of paddy moving outside the procurement chain due to better prices in open markets distort the system.
  3. Need for Commodity-Specific Strategy: Uniform procurement policies for cereals, pulses, and oilseeds fail to reflect regional agro-ecology and market diversity.

Conclusion

India’s cereal management crisis is not of shortage but of imbalance, overproduction of rice and wheat coexisting with deficits in pulses and edible oils. Procurement distortions, poor diversification incentives, and high import reliance underline the need for structural reforms. A shift towards agro-ecology-based diversification, procurement redesign, and FPO strengthening can realign India’s food security architecture.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

Agentic AI: Tech’s newest buzzword

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

Agentic AI refers to a new class of artificial intelligence systems capable of executing multistep tasks, adapting to processes, and performing actions independently rather than merely responding to prompts. The term has witnessed a rapid surge in public and industry attention, driven by new academic reports and its promise of automating complex workflows. The development marks a notable shift from conventional chatbots that were largely conversational and instruction-bound.

Why in the News?

It is in the news due to a new report by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Boston Consulting Group describing it as a “new class of systems that can plan, act, and learn on their own.” Google searches for the term have skyrocketed, reflecting a sharp contrast from its obscurity just a year ago.

What Makes Agentic AI Different?

  1. Autonomous Execution: Moves beyond responding to instructions by executing multistep processes and adapting as they proceed.
  2. Planning Capability: Breaks high-level goals into sequential steps and performs them independently.
  3. Human-Like Behaviour: Sounds more natural and expressive, yet retains training-based limitations without genuine understanding.

Why Has the Term Skyrocketed?

  1. New MIT–BCG Report: Classifies agentic systems as a new AI class with independence in planning and learning.
  2. Search Spike: Google searches for the term hit a peak earlier this fall.
  3. Corporate Adoption: Major tech firms such as OpenAI, Google, IBM, Microsoft, and Salesforce are building or integrating agentic systems.

How Does Agentic AI Work in Real-world Tasks?

  1. Execution of Goal Chains: Systems take inputs like “Here are the great ideas” and “And then complete the task.”
  2. Application in Online Services: Includes personal finance assistance, bill interpretation, dispute resolution, or travel booking using card data.
  3. Complex Task Automation: Involves computer access and stepwise execution of guidelines for high-level objectives.

What Is Driving Industry Optimism?

  1. Workflow Automation Promise: Amazon sees agentic systems as key to automating cloud operations and enterprise-level tasks.
  2. Operational Transformation: Viewed as one of the biggest AI evolutions since early generative models.
  3. Security Applications: Potential as “personal shields” against spam, fraud, and phishing by acting on email and digital data.

What Are The Concerns or Limitations?

  1. Marketing Hype vs Utility: The term is being debated due to its sudden popularity and vague boundaries.
  2. Lack of True Autonomy: Systems act within training limits despite appearing highly capable.
  3. Ethical and Trust Issues: The blending of autonomous actions with sensitive tasks (finance/computers) raises oversight concerns.

Conclusion

Agentic AI represents a shift from conversational to autonomous process-executing systems. While the term has rapidly gained traction due to academic endorsement and industry optimism, its real potential depends on responsible deployment, ethical guardrails, and clarity around autonomy and control. Its emergence signals an important moment in the evolution of artificial intelligence with direct implications for governance, security, and digital administration.

Value Addition

Generative AI

  • Definition: AI systems capable of generating new content, text, images, audio, or code, based on patterns learned from training data.
  • Core Function: Produces responses to prompts; does not take independent action.
  • Examples: ChatGPT, Midjourney, DALL·E.

Large Language Models (LLMs)

  • Definition: Models trained on vast datasets to understand and produce human-like language.
  • Role: Backbone of generative AI.
  • Limitation: No planning ability; follows instructions linearly.

Agentic AI

  • Definition: A new class of AI systems that can plan, act, and learn on their own, breaking down goals into steps and executing them without constant user input.
  • Core Difference from Generative AI: Moves from responding to acting.
  • Example (from article): An agent that interprets medical bills, disputes charges, or handles complex computer tasks.

AI Agents

  • Definition: Software entities capable of autonomous actions in an environment to achieve goals.
  • Role in Agentic AI: Agents are the functional units that perform the tasks.

Multistep Automation

  • Definition: A system that converts a single instruction into multiple executable actions.
  • Agentic Relevance: This is the defining capability that transforms chatbots into autonomous systems.

High-level Goal Breakdown

  • Definition: Ability of an AI to take an abstract goal (e.g., “organise my travel”) and break it into actionable steps.
  • Example: Travel bookings using credit card data.

Autonomy in AI

  • Definition: The degree to which an AI system can act without human intervention.
  • Agentic Context: Full or partial autonomy is central to its functionality.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] How can Artificial Intelligence (AI) help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare?

Linkage: Agentic AI builds on this by not just assisting but autonomously executing tasks such as interpreting bills or acting on sensitive data. The privacy risks highlighted in the PYQ directly connect to concerns over AI agents accessing personal digital information while acting independently.

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Trade Sector Updates – Falling Exports, TIES, MEIS, Foreign Trade Policy, etc.

Excessive dependence: On India’s external trade landscape

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Introduction

India recorded a historic goods trade deficit in October ($41.68 billion), following a sharp rise from September’s $32.15 billion deficit. The decline in exports, driven largely by the U.S.’s steep tariffs, coincides with an abnormal spike in gold and silver imports, rupee depreciation, and heavy portfolio outflows. The article highlights how India’s dependence on the U.S. market has exposed it to both economic and diplomatic vulnerabilities, raising questions about whether the shift in trade patterns is structural or a temporary response to external shocks.

Why in the News

India’s record October trade deficit of $41.68 billion, the sharpest ever, signals a significant disruption in its external trade landscape. Exports plunged due to the U.S.’s sudden 50% tariffs, critical because the U.S. is India’s largest export market, while gold imports tripled and silver inflows rose fivefold, creating an unprecedented import spike.

A Rising Trade Deficit and What It Reveals

  1. Record Deficit ($41.68 bn): Reflects a sequential deterioration from September’s $32.15 bn deficit, signalling a disturbing shift.
  2. Export Fall (-11.8% YoY): Goods exports dropped to $34.38 bn (from $38.98 bn in 2024), driven primarily by U.S. tariffs.
  3. Heavy Import Surge: Driven by a dramatic rise in bullion inflows and the use of cheaper imported intermediates.

Why the U.S. Tariffs Hit India Hard

  1. 50% Tariff Shock: Imposed in August, directly affecting sectors for which the U.S. has been India’s major market since 2018-19.
  2. Large Market Dependence: The U.S. remains the biggest buyer of India’s textiles, yarn, readymade garments, and engineering goods.
  3. Export Decline (-9% YoY): Overall exports to the U.S. contracted sharply in October.

What Is Driving the Surge in Gold and Silver Imports?

  1. Gold Imports Tripled: Rising from $4.92 bn (last October) due to economic uncertainty.
  2. Silver Imports Up Fivefold: Indicates hedging behaviour rather than seasonal demand.
  3. Rupee Weakening (₹85.6 to ₹88.4): Encouraged investors to seek bullion as a safe asset.

Sector-Wise Export Stress

  1. Cotton Yarn & Handlooms (-13.31%): Major labour-intensive sector hit due to tariff-led slowdown.
  2. Man-Made Yarn (-11.75%): Reflects weakening competitiveness.
  3. Readymade Garments (-12.88%): Particularly vulnerable to U.S. demand contraction.
  4. Engineering Goods (-16.71%): Hit despite being a major export strength area.

Is the Import Surge a Structural Pattern?

  1. Cheaper Intermediate Goods: Firms increasingly rely on imported inputs to maintain export competitiveness.
  2. Depreciating Rupee: Makes imports costlier but also signals reduced domestic sourcing.
  3. Need for HS-Chapter Analysis: A breakdown by commodity and source country will clarify which imports are rising structurally.

Government Measures and Their Limitations

  1. Export Promotion (₹25,060 crore over 6 years): Centre has stepped in to cushion exporters.
  2. RBI Relief Measures: Target tariff-affected exporters.
  3. Too Early to Call It Structural: Realignment of supply chains and market diversification could take years.

Geopolitical Shifts and Bilateral Trade Dynamic

  1. India-U.S. Bilateral Trade Agreement: If concluded soon, October’s deficit spike may be temporary.
  2. Russian Imports Down (-27.73%): Sharp drop indicates effort to reduce crude dependence.
  3. U.S. Imports Up (13.89%): Suggests attempt to ease American concerns over trade imbalance.

Conclusion

India’s record trade deficit underscores the risks of concentrated export dependence and volatile imports driven by economic uncertainty. While the current shift may be partly reactionary, persistent decline in labour-intensive exports and rising reliance on imported intermediates signal deeper structural weaknesses. Managing this transition will require sustained policy intervention, diversification of markets, and a recalibration of India’s trade portfolio to mitigate vulnerability.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?

Linkage: The U.S. tariff shock and rupee weakening in the article directly mirror the PYQ’s theme, showing how protectionism and currency swings widen India’s trade deficit. Together, they illustrate the resulting stress on India’s macroeconomic stability.

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Judicial Pendency

[18th November 2025] The Hindu Op-ED: The lower-judiciary- litigation, pendency, stagnation

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Explain the reasons for the growth of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in India. As a result of it, has the Indian Supreme Court emerged as the world’s most powerful judiciary?

Linkage: Judiciary is one of the most important topics for GS-II. This PYQ tests how failures of the lower judiciary, delay, pendency, and weak remedies, drive the rise of PILs and expand the Supreme Court’s role. The article directly shows these systemic gaps, explaining why litigants bypass subordinate courts and seek relief through PILs.

Mentor’s Comment

The lower judiciary forms the backbone of India’s justice delivery system. Yet, a combination of procedural complexity, chronic pendency, and structural stagnation has now reached a point where even the Supreme Court has begun to publicly express concern. The following article unpacks the crisis using insights from the given text, presenting it in a UPSC-oriented, structured, exam-ready format.

Why in the News? 

A Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice, recently flagged the stagnation and systemic decay in India’s subordinate judiciary. With 4.69 crore pending cases in district courts (National Judicial Data Grid), the Court has now asked judges in Delhi to undergo training due to lack of basic knowledge, a move rarely made earlier. This highlights a deep structural crisis, where procedural rigidity, unclear statutes, and administrative delays have created a near-gridlock in India’s justice system, affecting millions of litigants.

Introduction

India’s subordinate judiciary, comprising district and lower courts, handles the vast majority of cases filed in the country. Despite its crucial role, it is plagued by procedural delays, inadequate training, unnecessary litigation, unclear statutes, and case mismanagement. The editorial highlights how routine court processes, outdated laws, poorly drafted statutes, and lack of judicial preparedness have cumulatively created low efficiency and high pendency. Strengthening the lower judiciary is essential for access to justice, rule of law, and economic productivity.

Why Are Procedural Rigidities Choking the Lower Judiciary?

  1. Mandatory procedures: Courts are bound to entertain pleadings, issue repeated summons, and ensure appearances, leading to wasted time and multiple adjournments. Example: Subordinate judges must call every suit for appearance or vakalatnama, often pointless.
  2. Inefficient daily case flow: Judges take up matters from 10:30 AM and continue till evening, leading to exhaustion and slow disposal. Result: Even if cases are adjourned, orders still need dictation.
  3. Heavy clerical & ministerial workload: Quality time is lost, reducing focus on adjudication.

Why Is the Subordinate Judiciary Functioning Below Optimal Capacity?

  1. Lack of experience: Many judges are fresh graduates without adequate training or exposure. Observation-based training plays a minimal role.
  2. Inadequate orientation: Civil judges rarely receive training with senior district or High Court judges in handling evidence, settlements, and procedural complexities.
  3. Absence of structured mentoring: No robust system for judge mentoring and skill development exists.

How Poorly Drafted Statutes Create Litigation Instead of Resolution?

  1. Negative impact of new provisions: Despite claims of faster disposal, many statutes increase complexity. Example: Section 12A of Commercial Courts Act on mandatory pre-institution mediation.
  2. Ambiguity causing additional litigation: Example: Confusion on whether a party that has already exchanged notices can skip mediation.
  3. Statutes creating contradictory interpretations: Judges are unsure whether processes are mandatory or directory, resulting in wastage of time.

What Makes Family and Civil Disputes Especially Burdensome?

  1. Six-month cooling-off confusion: Confusion on whether the six-month period in mutual-consent divorce is mandatory or waivable causes delays.
  2. Two-year separation interpretation: Courts differ on whether the couple must be separately living for two years before filing or after filing.
  3. Unclear appellate steps: Example: When the 90-day limitation begins for filing appeals if the written statement is delayed.
  4. Property disputes: Example: Whether a preliminary decree must be followed by a fresh application to pass a final decree.

How Do Outdated Procedural Laws Deepen Pendency?

  1. Archaic provisions retained: Several Code of Civil Procedure rules continue to burden courts.
  2. Unclear bars to appeal: Example: Whether written statements filed after 90 days can be accepted.
  3. Conflicting decrees: Parties get stuck when preliminary decrees are not automatically converted into final decrees.
  4. Excessive adjournments: Even when mediation fails, the litigant has to refile fresh applications, clogging the system.

Why Must Higher Judiciary Intervene in the Lower Judiciary Crisis?

  1. Review of subordinate court functioning: Supreme Court’s intervention highlights widespread stagnation.
  2. Training requirement: Judges asked to undergo training due to lack of basic knowledge, an unprecedented move.
  3. Need for systemic correction: Simplification of statutes, harmonized procedural laws, and modernization of case-management systems are essential.

Conclusion

The crisis in India’s lower judiciary is structural, not episodic. Procedural rigidity, unclear statutes, inexperienced judges, and outdated rules have combined to create massive pendency. Reform must focus on statutory simplification, judicial training, transparent case management, and harmonized procedural norms. Without systemic changes, the lower judiciary will continue to be a bottleneck in India’s justice delivery and governance framework.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

India needs to ‘connect, build and revive’ with Africa

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Introduction

India’s partnership with Africa is embedded in shared anti-colonial history, South-South cooperation, and long-standing developmental commitments. Over the last decade, India’s diplomatic presence, investments, training initiatives, and cultural engagement have expanded across the continent. However, shifting geopolitical equations, intensifying global competition, and Africa’s rising economic potential demand an upgraded, value-driven, and sustained approach. The article argues that India must now “connect, build and revive” its Africa policy to maintain its strategic foothold and align with Africa’s aspirations.

Why in the News?

A decade after hosting the largest-ever India-Africa Forum Summit, India’s engagement with Africa is again at a pivotal moment. India has added 17 new missions, trade has crossed USD 100 billion, and investment flows are surging. Yet Indian trade still lags behind China, and many flagship promises made in 2015 require renewed momentum. As Africa is set to become home to one-fourth of the world’s population by 2050, the scale, urgency, and strategic importance of India’s outreach makes this moment historically significant.

How has India’s outreach to Africa evolved in the past decade?

  1. Expanded diplomatic footprint: India added 17 new missions across Africa, enhancing its on-ground presence and bilateral engagement.
  2. Rising investment flows: India’s investment stock has crossed USD 100 billion, making it among Africa’s top five investors.
  3. Growth in trade partnerships: Bilateral trade has crossed USD 100 billion, demonstrating the growing economic synergy.
  4. Enhanced defence cooperation: Joint naval exercises such as AIMKEME (April 2025) saw participation from navies of Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, South Africa, and Tanzania.
  5. Stronger multilateral alignment: India played a key role in enabling African Union membership in the G20, elevating Africa’s global voice.

Why is Africa emerging as a strategic priority for India?

  1. Demographic transformation: By 2050, one in four people on Earth will be Africa, a major consumer, labour, and talent base.
  2. Economic potential: Africa will be the world’s third-largest economy, creating opportunities in technology, health, infra, and manufacturing.
  3. Geopolitical influence: Africa’s global role is expanding, and India aims to support African representation in global institutions and peacekeeping operations.
  4. Shared developmental priorities: From education to digital public goods, India’s model aligns naturally with African development aspirations.

What challenges persist in India-Africa trade relations?

  1. Lag behind China: India’s trade with Africa is expanding but still far behind China, which has deeper and wider market penetration.
  2. Logistical hurdles: Indian firms often face bureaucratic delays, small balance sheets, and scalability issues.
  3. Fragmented strategy: India’s UPID, digital stack, and trade missions have strengths but lack coordinated continental impact.
  4. Competition from Europe and Asia: New entrants are building deeper financial and infrastructural linkages across the continent.

How is India building capacity and knowledge partnerships in Africa?

  1. Human capital initiatives: India’s most enduring export to Africa is human capital, created through scholarships, training programs, and institutional partnerships.
  2. Education & digital training: The new IIT Madras campus in Zanzibar is a flagship example of education-based cooperation.
  3. Decadal knowledge ecosystems: Pan-African e-Network and India’s ITEC programme continue to train thousands across African nations.
  4. Institutional bridges: African experts, ministers, and students working in India create lasting diplomatic and economic linkages.

What future steps should India take to revitalise momentum?

  1. Move from promises to real outcomes: Lines of credit must become visible, viable, and deliverable rather than symbolic.
  2. Build the India-Africa Digital Corridor: Collaboration on UPI, Aadhaar-stack, and digital payments can create a shared digital infrastructure.
  3. Reinforce the institutional base: Revive the summit-based momentum of IAFS and reintroduce regular leadership exchanges.
  4. Integrate private sector participation: Encourage start-ups, MSMEs, and fintech companies to expand into African markets.
  5. Strengthen maritime cooperation: The Western Indian Ocean is becoming central to supply-chain security and blue-economy partnerships.

Conclusion

India’s partnership with Africa is rooted in trust, shared history, and developmental solidarity. But the world around both regions is changing rapidly. Africa’s demographic rise, digital aspirations, and geopolitical importance demand that India convert intent into implementation. “Connect, build, and revive” offers a timely blueprint for elevating India-Africa relations into a mature, inclusive, and futuristic partnership, one that benefits both regions and strengthens India’s global standing.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Explain the reasons for the growth of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in India. As a result of it, has the Indian Supreme Court emerged as the world’s most powerful judiciary?

Linkage: Judiciary is one of the most important topics for GS-II. This PYQ tests how failures of the lower judiciary, delay, pendency, and weak remedies, drive the rise of PILs and expand the Supreme Court’s role. The article directly shows these systemic gaps, explaining why litigants bypass subordinate courts and seek relief through PILs.

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

What are UNESCO new guidelines for the use of neurotechnology

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

Neurotechnology includes devices and procedures that access, assess, or act upon neural systems. Earlier limited to health care, it now merges neuroscience, AI, computing, and engineering to improve or manipulate brain function. Rapid investments, private-sector involvement, and research innovations, such as brain implants enabling paralysed patients to speak, have increased both possibilities and ethical risks. UNESCO’s new standard attempts to balance innovation and human rights, defining responsibilities for governments, researchers, and companies.

Why in the News? 

UNESCO has issued the world’s first global normative framework on the ethics of neurotechnology, marking a major shift in global governance of brain-data systems. This is historic because neurotechnology, once confined to medicine, now expands into marketing, political persuasion, employment screening, insurance, and behaviour profiling. With misuse risks escalating and national laws lagging behind, UNESCO’s framework seeks to protect mental privacy, cognitive liberty, and brain-derived data in an era where neurodata can be exploited commercially or politically.

How does the article define neurotechnology?

  1. Devices/Procedures: Used to access, assess, and act on neural systems including the brain.
  2. Neurodata: Brain-derived data that can reveal intentions, emotions, or mental states, posing risks of exploitation.
  3. Dual-use potential: While used for medical enhancement or disability support, the same can be misused for persuasion, surveillance, or profiling.

Why is neurotechnology expanding so rapidly?

  1. Investment surge: According to a UNESCO study (2023), neurotechnology investment reached $8.6 billion, with private investment growing from $7.3 billion by 2020.
  2. Big tech involvement: Projects like US BRAIN Initiative, Elon Musk’s Neuralink accelerating market adoption.
  3. Medical promise: Supports mental health, paralysis recovery, chronic illness treatment, and palliative care.
  4. Commercial incentives: Insurance sector, HR screening, political messaging all exploring neurodata applications.

What are the key challenges highlighted?

  1. Mental privacy threats: Neurodata gives deep access to personal thoughts; existing legal standards insufficient.
  2. Political misuse: Brain signals used to influence voters or detect political leanings.
  3. Employment misuse: Screening employees for suitability, stress tolerance, or hidden traits.
  4. Commercial exploitation: Recruiting applicants based on subconscious brain responses to marketing stimuli.
  5. Human rights concerns: Risk of discrimination, autonomy loss, and manipulation.

What does UNESCO’s new framework propose?

  1. Human rights foundation: Anchors mental privacy, liberty, dignity.
  2. Responsible innovation: Based on OECD principles, responsibility, inclusion, sustainability.
  3. Four-pronged strategy:
    1. Scope definition of neurotechnology and neurodata.
    2. Identification of ethical principles for countries.
    3. Recommendations focusing on health, education, and vulnerable groups.
    4. Governance considerations for safety and equity.
  4. Intellectual property balance: Calls attention to potential conflicts between innovation and human rights when brain data becomes privatised.
  5. Open science model: Encourages free sharing of discoveries for societal benefit.
  6. Inclusive innovation: Participation of public, stakeholders, scientists, vulnerable communities.

What are the implications for governance and public policy?

  1. AI-Neuro convergence: Need for regulations preventing manipulation or exploitation of neural activity.
  2. Global governance: Calls for adoption by states to standardize mental privacy protections.
  3. Sectoral impact: Health, education, military, and employment policies require safeguards.
  4. IP reform: Recommends new licensing structures to prevent monopolisation of brain-interfacing technologies.
  5. R&D ethics: Researchers to involve the public and align innovations with societal needs, not corporate priorities.

Conclusion

UNESCO’s guidelines mark a foundational step in governing an emerging field where technological capacity has outpaced ethics. By protecting mental privacy and anchoring innovation within a human-rights framework, the guidelines seek to ensure neurotechnology remains a tool for empowerment rather than manipulation. For India and other countries, the challenge lies in integrating these recommendations into national law and ensuring safe, inclusive, and responsible neuro-innovation.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] How can Artificial Intelligence (AI) help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare?

Linkage: This directly links to the PYQ on AI in clinical diagnosis because neurotechnology goes even deeper, AI can now read and interpret brain signals, making privacy risks far sharper than ordinary medical data. The same issue fits under Ethics too, since it raises questions about autonomy, consent, dignity, and the basic right to mental privacy.

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Sakurajima Volcano erupts in Japan’s Kyushu

Prelims OnlyWorld Mapping | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Salient Features Of World'S Physical Geography

Why in the News?

Japan’s Sakurajima volcano has erupted several times sending ash plumes up to 4.4 km into the atmosphere.

Sakurajima Volcano erupts in Japan's Kyushu

About Sakurajima Volcano:

  • Location: Kagoshima Prefecture, Kyushu, sitting on the southern rim of the Aira caldera inside Kagoshima Bay.
  • Geological Origin: Linked to formation of the Aira caldera (22,000–29,000 years ago); Sakurajima developed as a post-caldera cone about 13,000 years ago.
  • Volcano Type: A classic stratovolcano built from alternating lava and ash layers; active vents include Minamidake crater and the Showa flank crater.
  • Physical Features: Height 1,117 m, circumference ≈50 km; originally an island until 1914 lava flows connected it to the Osumi Peninsula.
  • Eruption Style: Dominantly Strombolian eruptions (ash, bombs, lapilli) but historically capable of large Plinian eruptions.
  • Historical Activity: Continuous eruptive record since 963 AD; major episodes in 1471–76, 1779–82, and the 1914 catastrophic eruption.
  • Risk Status: Considered one of Japan’s most dangerous volcanoes due to high activity, caldera-linked magma supply and extreme proximity to inhabited zones.

What makes it unique?

  • Near-Continuous Activity: Erupts hundreds of times annually, ranking among the world’s most persistently active volcanoes.
  • Caldera System: Built on the Aira caldera, giving it a deep, complex, highly active magma plumbing network.
  • Landform Transformation: The 1914 eruption converted Sakurajima from an island into a peninsula, an unusual event in recorded volcanology.
[UPSC 2005] Where is the volcanic mountain, Mount St- Helens located?

Options: (a) Chile (b) Japan (c) Philippines (d) United States of America*

 

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