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Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

[24th October 2025] The Hindu Oped: The UN matters, as a symbol of possibility

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2025] The reform process in the United Nations remains unaccomplished because of the delicate imbalance of East and West and entanglement of the USA vs. Russo-Chinese alliance. Examine and critically evaluate the East-West policy confrontations in this regard.

Linkage: UN is an important and recurring UPSC theme, often asked through its agencies and reform debates. This question is crucial as it probes the East–West power imbalance that hinders UN reform, echoing the article’s call for a more representative global order.

Mentor’s Comment

The article reviews the United Nations (UN) at 80 years, analysing its evolution, global role, and urgent need for institutional reform. It explores India’s position on UNSC restructuring, challenges of multilateralism, and the UN’s normative impact on global governance. For UPSC aspirants, the theme directly links with GS Paper II, international institutions, global order, and India’s diplomacy.

Introduction

Formed after World War II to preserve peace and promote human dignity, the UN evolved from a Cold War arena to a forum for cooperative problem-solving. The institution remains indispensable but requires deep reform to stay relevant in a multipolar and interconnected world.

Reforming the UN: Adapting to a Shifting Global Order

  1. Foundational Context: Established in 1945 as a peace mechanism ensuring collective security, equality of states, and global legal order
  2. Changing Landscape: Transitioned from bipolarity (US–USSR) to unipolarity and now multipolarity marked by fragmented alliances and transnational threats such as climate change and cyber warfare.
  3. Institutional Lag: UNSC composition reflects post-1945 power hierarchy. Exclusion of emerging powers, India, Japan, Germany, Brazil, South Africa, undermines legitimacy and efficiency.
  4. Legitimacy and Representation: Outdated representation erodes the Council’s credibility, weakening enforcement capacity and consensus-building.

UN’s Humanitarian and Normative Relevance

  1. Humanitarian Operations: UNHCR, WFP, and UNICEF deliver critical relief during conflicts and disasters, providing food, shelter, and protection.
  2. Peacekeeping Mandate: Blue Helmets ensure limited stability in fragile regions, sustaining fragile ceasefires and aiding post-conflict recovery.
  3. Norm Creation: UN conventions and declarations define global standards for human rights, gender equality, and sustainable development.
    The SDGs (2015) frame a universal agenda for inclusive and sustainable growth.
  4. Symbolic Value: Represents a global forum for dialogue, ensuring that multilateralism remains the default mechanism for peace and justice.

Institutional Weaknesses and Reform Imperatives

  1. Erosion of Liberal Multilateralism: Rising nationalism and protectionism weaken commitment to collective decision-making.
  2. Structural Constraints: Permanent members’ veto power perpetuates paralysis in humanitarian crises.
  3. Financial Fragility: Budgetary shortfalls from delayed dues (notably by major contributors) constrain operational capacity and staffing.
  4. Operational Agility: Requires digitisation, decentralised response mechanisms, and enhanced decision-making authority at field levels.

India’s Strategic Position in Global Governance

  1. India’s Credentials: World’s largest democracy, major troop-contributor to peacekeeping missions, and growing economic power.
  2. UNSC Reform Advocacy: Demands structural reform ensuring equitable and inclusive representation of developing nations.
  3. Strategic Autonomy: Follows independent policy avoiding bloc alignment while protecting regional and developmental interests.
  4. Vision for Reform: Supports dignity-based multilateralism ensuring sovereignty, cooperation, and equity among nations.

Mandate for Renewal and Reform

  1. Council Reconfiguration: Expands permanent and non-permanent seats to reflect current geopolitical realities.
  2. Institutional Agility: Enhances crisis responsiveness through digital integration, rapid funding, and empowered missions.
  3. Moral Authority: Restores credibility by reaffirming adherence to international law and ethical neutrality in decision-making.
  4. Member-State Commitment: Ensures predictable funding and sustained political backing from member nations to strengthen UN institutions.

Conclusion

The UN remains a vital, evolving institution balancing ideals with realpolitik. Its effectiveness depends on reform, representation, and renewed moral purpose. Relevance in the 21st century rests on its ability to become more inclusive, responsive, and legitimate.

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Should India take global leadership on climate change?

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

Global momentum on climate change is waning. The U.S. withdrawal from the Paris Agreement, the EU’s cautious stance, and Brazil’s focus on implementation have created a leadership vacuum. India, backed by consistent domestic policies and credible renewable achievements, is being viewed as a stabilising force in climate negotiations.

Current Global Context and India’s Position

  • Leadership Vacuum: Developed economies show declining enthusiasm for climate leadership due to economic pressures and energy insecurity.
  • India’s Steady Role: India maintains policy continuity and cross-party consensus on climate goals, avoiding divisive politics.
  • Emerging ‘Axis of Good’: Expanding partnerships with Europe, Brazil, and developing nations for climate technology and forest cooperation.
  • Implementation Emphasis: COP30 expected to focus on execution of existing commitments rather than new pledges.

The Financing Challenge and Implementation Gap

  1. Adaptation Finance Deficit: Global climate finance needs estimated at $1.3 trillion annually by 2035, highlighting dependence on private and multilateral funding.
  2. Means of Implementation: Finance, technology transfer, and capacity building remain central to effective execution.
  3. Blended Finance Approach: Encourages combining public, private, and philanthropic resources for adaptation sectors like agriculture and water.
  4. Pipeline Creation: Necessitates project,ready mechanisms at the national and state levels to attract investments.

India’s Achievements and Strategic Leverage

  1. Emission Stabilisation: Power sector emissions plateaued as renewable integration expands.
  2. Renewable Leadership: Non,fossil fuel sources account for ~50% of installed power capacity.
  3. Decoupling Trend: Energy demand growth no longer proportional to emissions growth, indicating structural change.
  4. Green Industry Shift: Corporate groups (Adani, Reliance) invest heavily in green hydrogen, solar, and renewables driven by market value creation.

Adaptation,Driven Growth and Dual,Benefit Projects

  1. Integrated Projects: Initiatives like PM,KUSUM use solar energy in agriculture, reducing diesel dependence and improving income security.
  2. Co,benefit Design: Projects combining adaptation (resilience) and mitigation (emission reduction) yield long,term sustainability.
  3. Sectoral Innovation: Solar,powered cold,chain storage and electric buses illustrate scalable, cost,efficient climate solutions.
  4. Aggregation Advantage: National,scale schemes can reduce costs, increase service access, and enhance local resilience.

Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and Adaptation Planning

  1. Current Commitment: 50% of power capacity from non,fossil sources by 2030; aligned with Paris Agreement goals.
  2. Green Hydrogen Linkage: Recognition of renewable energy’s role in hydrogen production can strengthen India’s NDC profile.
  3. Industrial Decarbonisation: Industry identified as a “hard,to,abate” sector; emphasis on electrification, alternative materials, and carbon markets.
  4. Adaptation Priority List: Proposal for a “wish list” of adaptation projects under carbon markets, adaptable by States.
  5. Carbon Market Strategy: Promotes participation in high value areas (solar + storage) rather than single,stream credits.

Should India Lead Globally?

  1. Moral Credibility: Low per capita emissions and proactive domestic policy lend legitimacy to India’s global stance.
  2. Strategic Interest: Leadership enhances India’s role in shaping financial flows and green technology frameworks.
  3. Implementation Expertise: India’s experience with renewable deployment and welfare,linked schemes adds operational credibility.
  4. Risk and Responsibility: Global leadership must balance ambition with developmental imperatives for energy access and equity.

Conclusion

India’s leadership on climate change is neither symbolic nor premature, it is pragmatic, equity,driven, and implementation oriented. With stable governance, scalable models, and growing private participation, India can anchor the next phase of global climate action by ensuring that commitments translate into outcomes.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parses (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)? What are the commitments made by India in this conference?

Linkage: This question assesses understanding of India’s climate diplomacy from COP26 to future summits under the UNFCCC framework. The article extends this trajectory by highlighting India’s shift from pledge to performance, emphasizing implementation, adaptation finance, and renewable energy leadership ahead of COP30.

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Monsoon Updates

How do monsoons affect Tamil Nadu?

Explained | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Introduction

Tamil Nadu’s northeast monsoon, traditionally spanning October to December, has arrived early for the second consecutive year, bringing intense and localized rainfall. While excess rainfall was once viewed as a boon for agriculture and water storage, climate change has made “excess” a liability, causing flash floods, crop destruction, and structural damage. The situation is compounded by simultaneous inflows from Kerala via the Mullaperiyar Dam, creating a dual-flood scenario that tests the resilience of Tamil Nadu’s urban systems, infrastructure, and disaster governance.

Urban Flooding: A Consequence of Unsustainable Development

  1. Impervious surfaces: Extensive concretization and asphalt paving prevent rainwater infiltration, resulting in rapid surface runoff that overwhelms drainage systems.
  2. Inadequate drainage networks: Poor maintenance and blockage of stormwater drains lead to flash floods and prolonged inundation in low-lying areas.
  3. Infrastructure shutdowns: Power authorities resort to preventive power cuts to avoid electrocution risks, compounding public inconvenience and economic losses.
  4. Sewage overflows: Heavy rainfall triggers untreated wastewater discharge into streets and waterbodies, leading to public health crises and water contamination.

Agricultural Distress and Soil Degradation

  1. Waterlogging and root suffocation: Excess moisture damages crop roots, washes away seeds, and erodes nutrient-rich topsoil, reducing long-term fertility.
  2. Fungal and pest proliferation: Moist environments facilitate fungal infections and pest outbreaks, lowering crop yields.
  3. Nutrient runoff: Heavy rain carries fertilizers and pesticides into reservoirs, degrading water quality and aquatic ecosystems.
  4. Economic losses: Repeated crop failure translates into financial vulnerability for farmers and food supply disruptions.

Health and Environmental Risks of Prolonged Rainfall

  1. Vector-borne diseases: Stagnant water acts as a breeding ground for mosquitoes, leading to malaria, dengue, and Japanese encephalitis outbreaks.
  2. Zoonotic transmission: Flooded environments increase exposure to leptospirosis and scrub typhus.
  3. Infrastructure corrosion: High humidity and seepage promote mold growth and building decay, undermining structural integrity.
  4. Water contamination: Overflowing sewage and agricultural runoff mix into drinking sources, causing gastrointestinal and waterborne diseases.

Rising Flood Risk: The Mullaperiyar–Vaigai Connection

  1. Dual monsoon exposure: Kerala receives rainfall from the southwest monsoon, while Tamil Nadu depends on the northeast monsoon. Overlapping patterns cause simultaneous water inflows.
  2. Mullaperiyar Dam’s critical role: Located in Kerala’s Idukki district but operated by Tamil Nadu, the dam diverts water to Tamil Nadu’s Vaigai basin.
  3. Catchment saturation: Heavy rains in Kerala rapidly fill the reservoir, forcing Tamil Nadu to open shutters to ensure dam safety.
  4. Two-directional flooding: Released water flows both toward Kerala’s Periyar basin and Tamil Nadu’s Vaigai, creating cross-border flood pressure.
  5. Ground situation: With all 13 shutters open, Theni district faces submergence even as local rains intensify, turning “shared water” into a shared crisis.

Infrastructure and Economic Impact

  1. Rising water tables: Continuous rainfall elevates the groundwater level, weakening building foundations and road structures.
  2. Loss of load-bearing capacity: Saturated soil causes foundation shifting, cracks, and collapses in the long term.
  3. Economic burden: Damage repair, relocation, and agricultural losses lead to high fiscal costs for the State exchequer.
  4. Social impact: Displacement, psychological distress, and livelihood loss add a human dimension to the flood crisis.

Reassessing the “Excess is Good” Paradigm

  1. Changing monsoon patterns: Climate change is causing shorter, more intense bursts rather than steady rainfall, overwhelming absorptive capacity.
  2. Policy recalibration: Tamil Nadu must prioritize water storage optimization, urban resilience, and inter-State coordination.
  3. Adaptive planning: Future strategies must integrate real time dam management, rainwater harvesting, and climate resilient agriculture.

Conclusion

Tamil Nadu’s monsoon experience underscores that climate resilience is not merely about rainfall volumes but about water management capacity. Balancing inter-State water sharing, strengthening urban drainage systems, and adopting adaptive agricultural practices are crucial. The Mullaperiyar conundrum reflects the urgent need for cooperative federalism in climate adaptation, a lesson not just for Tamil Nadu but for all monsoon-dependent states in India.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Why is the South-West Monsoon called ‘Purvaiya’ (easterly) in the Bhojpur region? How has this directional seasonal wind system influenced the cultural ethos of the region?

Linkage: The monsoon is a recurring UPSC theme. Tamil Nadu’s experience, where the northeast monsoon defines urban life, agriculture, and inter-State dynamics, parallels Bhojpur’s example. This shows how regional monsoon variations influence both ecological realities and local ethos across India.

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Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

Saranda’s Forests and the case for a ‘Sanctuary’ before Supreme Court

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Supreme Court of India, led by the Chief Justice of India (CJI), directed the Jharkhand government to submit an undertaking to notify a new wildlife sanctuary in the Saranda Forest, West Singhbhum district.

Judicial Background and Case Chronology:

  • Origin: Stemmed from NGT’s July 2022 order directing Jharkhand to notify Saranda as a Wildlife Sanctuary or Conservation Reserve.
  • Petitioner’s Argument: Claimed Saranda was already a “game sanctuary” (1968, Bihar), deemed protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
  • Non-Compliance: State inaction led the case to the Supreme Court, which between Nov 2024–Sept 2025 repeatedly criticised delay and evasive conduct.
  • SC Intervention: CJI D. Y. Chandrachud-led Bench (Apr 16, Sept 17 hearings) condemned “dilly-dallying tactics” and demanded clarity on committees altering sanctuary boundaries in mining belts.

Back2Basics: What is a Wildlife Sanctuary?

  • Legal Basis: Under Section 18, Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, areas declared by States to protect flora, fauna, and habitats.
  • Objective: Preserve ecological integrity, sustain biodiversity, and enable natural regeneration.
  • Permissible Use: Limited human activities, grazing, fuelwood, traditional use, allowed with Chief Wildlife Warden’s permission.
  • Prohibitions: Hunting, felling, quarrying, mining banned under Sections 27–33.
  • Continuity Clause: Section 66(3) deems all pre-1972 “game sanctuaries” as wildlife sanctuaries.
  • Governance: Managed by State Forest Department; often part of eco-sensitive zones under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
  • Examples: India has 550+ sanctuaries, incl. Chilika, Bhadra, Periyar, many upgraded to national parks or tiger reserves.

About Saranda Forest:

  • Location: West Singhbhum, Jharkhand; ~856 sq km (816 reserved, rest protected forest).
  • Etymology: “Saranda” in Ho language = “seven hundred hills.”
  • Vegetation: Dense Sal (Shorea robusta) forests with bamboo, mahua, terminalia; among India’s richest Sal ecosystems.
  • Waterbodies: the Karo River and the Koina River.
  • Ecological Role: Identified by WII as a biogeographic bridge between Jharkhand and Odisha within the Eastern Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot.
  • Fauna: Asian elephant, four-horned antelope, sloth bear, leopard, civet, diverse birds and butterflies.
  • Elephant Corridors: Links to Keonjhar & Sundargarh (OD) and Hasdeo-Arand (CG).
  • Threats: Illegal iron/manganese mining, fragmentation, pollution, flagged by Justice M. B. Shah Commission (2014).
  • Economic Value: Holds ~26 % of India’s iron ore reserves, mined by SAIL and private lessees.

Significance of Supreme Court’s Ruling (2025):

  • Directive: Ordered Jharkhand to notify 31,468 ha (314.68 sq km) of Saranda as a Wildlife Sanctuary, enforcing NGT 2022 order.
  • Legal Strengthening: Reinforces Wildlife Act 1972, Forest (Conservation) Act 1980, and Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
  • Ecological Impact: Grants protection to Sal canopy, corridors, and watersheds, ensuring habitat connectivity with Odisha.
  • Mining Clause: Existing valid leases (e.g., SAIL) remain unaffected, balancing economy and ecology.
  • Tribal Safeguards: Upholds rights of Ho & Munda Adivasis under FRA 2006 and PESA 1996.
  • Outcome: Sanctuary notification to curb deforestation, revive corridors, and enhance carbon sequestration.
  • Precedent Value: Sets national model for reconciling mining, tribal rights, and biodiversity in resource-rich landscapes.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

1. The definition of “Critical Wildlife Habitat” is incorporated in the Forest Rights Act, 2006.

2. For the first time in India, Baigas have been given Habitat Rights.

3. Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change officially decides and declares Habitat Rights for Primitive and Vulnerable Tribal Groups in any part of India.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

200 Years of Kittur Rani Chennamma’s Victory

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Culture is commemorating 200 years of Rani Chennamma’s victory over the British, marking her as a pioneering figure in India’s early anti-colonial resistance.

200 Years of Kittur Rani Chennamma's Victory

Who was Rani Chennamma?

  • Birth and Early Life: Born on 23 October 1778 in Kakati village, Belagavi district, Karnataka, to a Lingayat family known for valour and self-reliance.
  • Marriage: Married at the age of 15 to Raja Mallasarja Desai, ruler of Kittur, a small princely state in present-day Karnataka.
  • Ascension to Power: After her husband’s death in 1816, and the death of her only son, she adopted Shivalingappa as her heir to secure the throne.
  • Conflict with the British: The British East India Company rejected the adoption under the Doctrine of Lapse, declaring Kittur annexed to British India.
  • Battle of Kittur (1824): When John Thackery, the British political agent at Dharwad, attacked Kittur with 20,000 troops, she led her army personally and killed Thackery in battle.
  • Resistance and Leadership: Trained in horse-riding, swordsmanship, and military strategy, she employed guerrilla tactics and rallied local soldiers and peasants against British forces.
  • Defeat and Imprisonment: After initial victory, the British reinforced their attack, captured Kittur Fort, and imprisoned her at Bailhongal Fort, where she died in 1829.
  • Historical Position: Recognised as India’s first female freedom fighter, her uprising predates the Revolt of 1857 and symbolizes early defiance against colonial annexation.

Back2Basics: Doctrine of Lapse

  • Origin: Introduced by Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General of India (1848–1856), as a tool of colonial expansion under British East India Company rule.
  • Core Principle: Stated that any princely state without a natural male heir would be annexed by the British; adopted heirs were not recognised.
  • Purpose: Justified British annexations under the pretext of maintaining “good governance” and administrative efficiency.
  • Annexed States: Applied to Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), and Nagpur (1854), among others.
  • Violation of Indian Customs: Contradicted the Indian tradition of adoption and hereditary succession, angering princely rulers across India.
  • Impact on Revolt of 1857: The doctrine became one of the major causes of resentment leading to the First War of Independence (1857).
  • Abolition: The policy was abandoned in 1859, after the end of Company rule and the assumption of power by the British Crown.

 

[UPSC 2014] What was/were the object/objects of Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1858)?
1. To disclaim any intention to annex Indian States
2. To place the Indian administration under the British Crown
3. To regulate East India Company’s trade with India
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

PM Schools for Rising India (PM SHRI) Scheme

Schemes | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Why in the News?

The Kerala government has formally signed the PM Schools for Rising India (PM-SHRI) agreement with the Union Ministry of Education, seeking approximately ₹1,446 crore to modernize government schools across the State.

About the PM-SHRI Scheme:

  • Objective: To upgrade and modernize government schools as model institutions of quality education aligned with New Education Policy, 2020.
  • Purpose: Promote inclusive, equitable, and holistic education, integrating digital tools, environmental awareness, and vocational learning.
  • Overview: Launched in 2022 by the Ministry of Education as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
  • Scale & Duration: Targets 14,500 schools across India from 2022–23 to 2026–27, after which states will maintain benchmarks independently.
  • Funding Pattern: 60:40 (Centre: States/UTs with legislature), 90:10 (North-Eastern & Himalayan States), and 100% Central assistance (UTs without legislature).

Key Features of PM-SHRI Schools:

  • Holistic Learning: Focus on creativity, collaboration, communication, and critical thinking beyond rote academics.
  • Pedagogical Shift: Promotes experiential, inquiry-driven, and multilingual education with art and technology integration.
  • Infrastructure Upgradation: Includes Smart Classrooms, Integrated Science & Computer Labs, Vocational/Skill Labs, Atal Tinkering Labs, and Digital Libraries.
  • Green Practices: Encourages solar power use, waste recycling, rainwater harvesting, and organic gardening to create sustainable campuses.
  • Assessment Reform: Moves from memorization to competency-based evaluation, measuring conceptual understanding and application.
  • Innovation Focus: Acts as incubators of educational innovation, influencing reforms across India’s public school system.

Selection and Monitoring Mechanism:

  • Three-Stage Process:
    • Stage 1 – MoU signed by States/UTs committing to NEP-aligned reforms.
    • Stage 2 – Identification of eligible schools using UDISE+ data.
    • Stage 3 – Challenge Mode competition reviewed by an Expert Committee headed by the Education Secretary.
  • Monitoring System: Implemented via School Quality Assessment Framework (SQAF) evaluating academic, infrastructural, and administrative standards.
  • Accountability: Continuous digital evaluation, reporting, and performance tracking ensure transparency and sustained improvement.
[UPSC 2017] What is the purpose of Vidyanjali Yojana?

1. To enable the famous foreign campuses in India.

2. To increase the quality of education provided in government schools by taking help from the private sector and the community.

3. To encourage voluntary monetary contributions from private individuals and organizations so as to improve the infrastructure facilities for primary and secondary schools.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 2 only *  (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 and 3 only

 

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Central Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI)

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

Central Asian countries have endorsed a new six-year Work Programme (2025–2031) under the Central Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI) to conserve 17 migratory mammal species across shared borders.

What is the Central Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI)?

  • Origin & Launch: Established in 2014 at the 11th Conference of the Parties (COP11) to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) in Quito, Ecuador.
  • Purpose: Aims to halt population decline and ensure long-term survival of migratory mammals across Central Asia’s steppes, deserts, and mountain ecosystems through coordinated conservation.
  • Participating Countries: Involves 14 range states, Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.
  • Framework: Provides a transboundary conservation platform uniting governments, NGOs, and scientific institutions to address poaching, habitat loss, climate threats, and migration barriers.
  • Species Focus: Covers 17 migratory mammals, including argali sheep, Asiatic cheetah, snow leopard, saiga antelope, wild yak, wild camel, Przewalski’s horse, and Bukhara deer.
  • Work Programme (2025–2031): Adopted at Tashkent (Uzbekistan); prioritises key landscapes, ecological corridors, and community-based conservation partnerships.
  • Approach: Integrates science, cross-border policy harmonisation, and pastoral community engagement, promoting coexistence between wildlife and livelihoods.
  • Key Partners: Supported by IUCN, WWF, CMS Secretariat, and national agencies to strengthen ecosystem connectivity across Central Asia.

Back2Basics: Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS)

  • Objective: To conserve migratory species and their habitats across borders, sustaining ecological networks throughout their migratory ranges.
  • Establishment: Signed on 23 June 1979 in Bonn, Germany, under UNEP; entered into force in 1983.
  • Unique Mandate: The only global treaty exclusively protecting terrestrial, marine, and avian migratory species.
  • Legal Instruments:
    • Agreements – binding treaties for specific species/regions.
    • MoUs – non-binding cooperation arrangements.
  • Conference of the Parties (COP): The CMS decision-making body adopting strategies like CAMI.
  • Membership: Over 130 Parties worldwide, promoting science-based conservation and international cooperation.
  • Global Significance: Aligns with SDG-15 (Life on Land) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
  • Next COP: CMS COP15, to be held March 23–29, 2026, in Brazil, will review and advance regional frameworks including CAMI.

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WTO and India

Authorised Economic Operator (AEO) India Scheme 

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

Why in the News?

India’s Authorised Economic Operator (AEO) programme was commended by the World Trade Organization (WTO) for significantly enhancing MSME participation in global trade.

What is AEO India Scheme?

  • Overview: It is a voluntary certification programme launched by the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC) in 2011 to promote secure and efficient cross-border trade.
  • Objective: Identifies and accredits trusted traders demonstrating high customs compliance and supply chain security, offering trade facilitation benefits.
  • Evolution: Began as a pilot in 2011, revised in 2016 to merge with the Accredited Client Programme (ACP), aligning with the World Customs Organization (WCO) SAFE Framework of Standards.
  • Certification Tiers: Consists of AEO-T1, AEO-T2, AEO-T3, and AEO-LO (Logistics Operator) each offering progressively higher benefits based on compliance, solvency, and security.
  • Key Benefits: Provides faster customs clearances, deferred duty payments, direct port delivery, reduced inspections, priority adjudication, and dedicated client managers.

About WCO AEO Framework:

  • Origin: Established by the World Customs Organization (WCO) under the SAFE Framework of Standards (2005) to enhance trade security and customs modernisation.
  • Core Aim: Ensures secure, legitimate trade through collaboration between Customs authorities and private traders.
  • Three Pillars:
    • Customs-to-Customs cooperation for border coordination.
    • Customs-to-Business partnership via AEO certification.
    • Customs-to-Other Agencies collaboration for integrated control.
  • AEO Concept: Certifies compliant entities as trusted operators, granting simplified and expedited procedures.
  • Benefits: Enables faster clearances, mutual recognition between countries, enhanced risk management, and lower transaction costs.
  • Global Adoption: Over 90 countries have operational AEO programmes with Mutual Recognition Arrangements (MRAs) ensuring standardisation.
  • India’s Alignment: India’s AEO model is fully harmonised with the WCO SAFE Framework, ranking among the most comprehensive customs–business partnership systems in the developing world.

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US policy wise : Visa, Free Trade and WTO

[23rd October 2025] The Hindu Oped: Immigration and the politics of fear

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2020] Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America and European Countries.” Comment with examples.

Linkage: This article explores how anti-immigration politics in the West, particularly in the UK and US, are reshaping narratives around migrants and minorities, directly affecting the Indian diaspora’s political influence, integration, and image abroad. It also relates to how domestic nativism in developed nations influences India’s soft power and global engagement strategy.

Mentor’s Comment

The debate on immigration has taken a darker turn across the Western world, shifting from managing illegal immigration to rejecting legal migrants on cultural or racial grounds. This piece examines the rise of fear-driven politics in the United Kingdom and the United States, where populist leaders exploit insecurities about identity and belonging. It connects these global trends to India’s own discourse on “infiltrators,” highlighting how such politics corrodes the moral and spiritual foundation of nationhood. For UPSC aspirants, this article is a rich resource for themes under GS Paper 2 (Polity & Governance, International Relations) and GS Paper 4 (Ethics & Society).

Introduction: The New Politics of Immigration

Immigration has always been an emotionally charged issue, balancing national security, cultural identity, and humanitarian values. But the tone of the conversation has changed drastically. Once focused on border control and illegal entry, the global discourse, led by figures like Donald Trump and echoed by British leaders, is now turning against legal migrants themselves. The recent developments in the United Kingdom, coupled with populist rhetoric in the U.S., mark a disturbing shift from policy debates to identity-based fear-mongering. It signals a new era where politics thrives on division, and where the very definition of nationhood is under siege.

Why in the News?

At the UN General Assembly, U.S. President Donald Trump openly urged Europe to “end the failed experiment of open borders,” marking the first time an American leader exported his anti-immigrant ideology so aggressively to other nations. The U.K. soon reflected similar sentiments, not just against illegal immigrants but against those living legally under Indefinite Leave to Remain (ILR). The political shift shows how nativist populism has evolved from fringe rhetoric to mainstream governance, posing moral and democratic questions for societies that once celebrated diversity.

How Has Immigration Politics Shifted in the UK?

  1. Shift from legality to identity: The focus has moved from illegal immigration control to questioning legal migrants’ right to belong.
  2. Historic continuity: Britain has witnessed recurring anti-immigrant waves, from Enoch Powell’s 1968 “Rivers of Blood” speech to Brexit’s “Take Back Control” slogan.
  3. Turning point: Trump’s UN speech and UK’s Reform Party rhetoric signify a pivot, from economic capability to cultural exclusion.

What Recent Events Sparked the Debate?

  1. Mass rallies: Far-right leader Tommy Robinson led a 1,50,000-strong “Unite the Kingdom” rally, posing as a free speech movement but fuelled by anti-immigration anger.
  2. Imported ideology: French politician Eric Zemmour warned of the “great replacement”, the idea that European people are being replaced by immigrants from Muslim-majority regions.
  3. Policy proposal: Nigel Farage’s Reform UK party proposed scrapping Indefinite Leave to Remain (ILR) and replacing it with stricter five-year visas.
  4. Consequences: Even current ILR holders and retirees would face uncertainty, eroding the social contract between the state and its residents.

How Has the Labour Government Responded?

  1. Raising the bar: New Home Secretary Shabana Mahmood extended ILR eligibility from 5 to 10 years, with higher English proficiency, employment verification, and volunteering requirements.
  2. Moral hierarchy: This creates a two-tier society, citizens who live freely and migrants forced to constantly prove their worth.
  3. Political motive: Labour’s move reflects a competitive hardline stance to match Reform UK’s popularity and counter populist fear politics.

How Is Race Re-entering the Immigration Discourse?

  1. Racial undertones: Conservative politician Robert Jenrick’s remark about “not seeing another white face” reveals how immigration rhetoric is slipping into racial anxiety.
  2. From migrants to race: The debate is no longer about work permits or visas; it’s now about who belongs and who looks British.
  3. American parallels: Trump’s attempt to revoke birthright citizenship and the spectacle of deporting Indian immigrants in shackles echo the same moral crisis, dehumanisation of the “other.”

What Lessons Does This Hold for India?

  1. Mirroring patterns: In India too, discourse on “infiltrators” and “termites” has been used for populist mobilisation.
  2. Ernest Renan’s vision: The 19th-century philosopher described a nation as a “spiritual principle”, based on shared memories and mutual consent, not race or religion.
  3. Moral erosion: When “present consent”, the will to live together, is weakened, nations lose their moral foundation.
  4. Performative cruelty: Treating migration as a threat rather than a socio-economic phenomenon serves political ends, not human progress.

Conclusion

The politics of fear around immigration reflects a deeper crisis, of identity, belonging, and moral leadership. When democratic societies redefine “worthiness” in racial or cultural terms, they betray the inclusive principles that built them. In both the West and India, the challenge is not just managing immigration but reaffirming what it means to be a nation. As Renan reminded us, a nation exists not by blood or border, but by the desire to live together. Upholding that desire, amid fear and division, is the true test of our times.

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Oil and Gas Sector – HELP, Open Acreage Policy, etc.

The Tailwinds from Lower Global Oil Prices

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News

Global oil prices have fallen by nearly 16% since the beginning of the year, with Brent crude now around $61 per barrel. This decline comes despite geopolitical disruptions such as Ukraine’s drone attacks on Russian energy assets and ongoing U.S.–China tariff frictions.
The fall signals a major shift in global oil dynamics, driven by technological advances, demand stagnation in OECD economies, and a surge in production from both OPEC+ and non-OPEC countries. For India, this could translate into substantial fiscal gains and macroeconomic stability, but the relief may be short-lived given the cyclical volatility of the oil market.

Introduction

Crude oil remains the world’s most traded and influential commodity, impacting not just transportation and industry but also fiscal and foreign policy. With over 100 million barrels produced daily, the oil market’s direction affects the global economy’s heartbeat.
In recent months, a fascinating shift has occurred — a supply-driven decline in prices, contradicting traditional geopolitical expectations. For India, this moment offers both an opportunity for economic strengthening and a reminder of the need for strategic resilience in energy planning.

Shifting Dynamics in the Global Oil Market

What is Driving the Decline in Global Oil Prices?

  1. Technological disruptions: Innovations like shale extraction, horizontal drilling, and deep-sea exploration have boosted supply, lowering dependency on traditional producers.
  2. Stagnant demand in OECD economies: Due to slow post-COVID recovery, climate action, and EV adoption, demand growth has flattened.
  3. Emerging market growth plateau: Even China’s demand is tapering, with electric vehicles forming 50% of all new car sales.
  4. Supply overhang — Global production rose by 5.6 mbpd, outpacing demand growth of 1.3 mbpd, creating a glut that pushed prices down.

How Have Global Producers and Consumers Reacted?

  1. OPEC+ internal friction: Saudi Arabia wants to restore full production to regain market share, while Russia seeks gradual output increases amid sanctions.
  2. Consumer advantage: Many countries have used this moment to replenish strategic petroleum reserves, stabilizing short-term demand.
  3. Floating stockpiles: Over 100 million barrels of unsold crude remain on tankers at sea, an indicator of market saturation.

What Are the Contradictory Forecasts from Key Agencies?

  1. OPEC’s projection: Expects a slight supply deficit by 2026 (~50,000 bpd short).
  2. IEA’s projection: Predicts an unprecedented oversupply of 4 mbpd, aligning with think-tank estimates of Brent falling to $50/barrel.
  3. Divergence significance: Reflects deep uncertainty and potential volatility, crucial for policy planners like India.

What Is the Broader Economic Context Influencing Oil Prices?

  1. IMF’s World Economic Outlook (2025): Describes global economy as “in flux, prospects remain dim.”
  2. Global growth slowdown: Projected at 3.2% in 2025 and 3.1% in 2026, with trade expansion slowing to 2.9%, down from 3.5% in 2024.
  3. Geopolitical wildcards: Any relaxation of sanctions on Russia, Iran, or Venezuela, or renewed West Asian tensions, could again disrupt supply-demand balance.

What Does It Mean for India’s Economy?

  1. Import advantage: India’s oil import bill was $137 billion in 2024-25; every $1 decline in prices improves the current account deficit by $1.6 billion.
  2. Fiscal gains: Lower prices reduce subsidies and inflation, improving fiscal space and boosting public capital expenditure.
  3. Diplomatic breathing room: Reduced reliance on discounted Russian crude may ease U.S. trade frictions.
  4. Risk of remittance slowdown: A weaker West Asian economy may hit Indian remittances, exports, and investments.
  5. Cyclical caution: The oil market’s volatility means current relief could be short-lived, underscoring the need for energy diversification.

Conclusion

The decline in global oil prices provides India a strategic tailwind: strengthening fiscal health, reducing inflation, and supporting growth. Yet, this momentary advantage must not breed complacency. The future demands long-term energy resilience, investment in renewables, and strategic petroleum reserves. In an interconnected world, India must use this window to transition towards sustainable and self-reliant energy security before the next price cycle strikes.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2013] It is said the India has substantial reserves of shale oil and gas, which can feed the needs of country for quarter century. However, tapping of the resources doesn’t appear to be high on the agenda. Discuss critically the availability and issues involved.

Linkage: The 2013 question on India’s untapped shale reserves links to the article’s theme of global oversupply driven by the shale revolution; India’s limited shale development has kept it import-dependent, making lower global oil prices a temporary boon rather than true energy security.

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Solar Energy – JNNSM, Solar Cities, Solar Pumps, etc.

Tapping the Shine: India must step in as a supplier of solar power to sustain its industry

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News

India’s solar energy sector has achieved a historic milestone — generating 1,08,494 GWh in 2024–25, overtaking Japan and becoming the third-largest producer globally. This achievement mirrors India’s rapid growth in renewable capacity — solar module manufacturing expanded from 2 GW in 2014 to a projected 100 GW in 2025. However, beneath this success lies a dilemma: despite its potential, Indian-made solar modules are 1.5–2 times costlier than Chinese ones, and without robust export markets, the new manufacturing capacity may struggle. Hence, India’s push to emerge as a solar supplier to Africa under the International Solar Alliance represents not just climate diplomacy but a crucial economic strategy.

Introduction

India’s solar revolution is a remarkable blend of climate responsibility, industrial policy, and global ambition. The cost of solar power fell below coal in 2017 — a landmark that catalyzed private and public investment alike. Yet, with China’s dominance in module exports and India’s limited domestic absorption, the future of India’s solar manufacturing depends on securing new markets and deepening its international role as a sustainable energy leader.

India’s Solar Power Success Story

  1. Massive Growth: India’s solar generation reached 1,08,494 GWh in 2024–25, overtaking Japan (96,459 GWh).
  2. Manufacturing Leap: Module manufacturing capacity expanded from 2 GW (2014) to 100 GW (2025 projection), a fiftyfold jump.
  3. Installed Capacity: India’s current installed solar capacity stands at 117 GW (as of September 2025).
  4. Comparative Rise: India now ranks 3rd globally, behind only China and the US, according to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IREA).

What are India’s Solar Targets for 2030?

  1. Climate Commitments: India aims to source 50% of its power from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030.
  2. Solar Share: Around 250–280 GW of this will come from solar energy.
  3. Annual Addition Needed: India must add 30 GW/year until 2030, but has managed 17–23 GW/year in recent years.
  4. Challenge: This gap reflects issues in scaling production, costs, and grid integration.

Why is Indian Solar Manufacturing Still Costlier?

  1. Higher Costs: Indian modules are 1.5–2x costlier than Chinese ones.
  2. Reasons:
    • China’s control over raw materials and solar supply chains.
    • Superior production lines and economies of scale.
    • India’s fragmented ecosystem and dependency on imported inputs.
  3. Export Comparison:
    • India exported 4 GW of modules to the US in 2024 (a temporary gain due to US restrictions on China).
    • China exported 236 GW the same year, a staggering 59x lead.

How Can India Sustain Its Solar Manufacturing Boom?

  1. Need for New Markets: Without external demand, India’s large new capacity may remain underutilized.
  2. Africa as Opportunity:
    • Africa uses only 4% of its arable land for irrigation due to lack of rural power.
    • India can leverage this gap with solar-powered pumpsets, modeled on its PM Kusum Scheme.
  3. Diplomatic Leverage: India can push its solar expertise through the International Solar Alliance (ISA), showcasing schemes like PM Surya Ghar (urban rooftop) and PM Kusum (rural solar).
  4. Strategic Goal: To become a credible second supplier after China in emerging markets like Africa.

Domestic Solar Initiatives as Models for Export

  1. PM Kusum Scheme: Promotes solar irrigation pumps for farmers, ideal for replication in Africa’s rural power-deficient regions.
  2. PM Surya Ghar Scheme: Encourages rooftop solar adoption in urban India, demonstrating scalable, decentralized power solutions.
  3. Outcome So Far: Adoption is moderate, but the models offer policy templates for developing nations.

Conclusion

India’s solar journey is a story of ambition and transition, from an energy importer to a renewable exporter. Yet, sustaining this momentum requires vision beyond borders. Becoming a solar supplier to Africa can ensure India’s manufacturing viability, strengthen climate diplomacy, and cement its place in the global green order. As the world tilts toward decarbonization, India’s light must not just illuminate its homes, but the developing world.

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Social Media: Prospect and Challenges

Labelling of AI-Generated Content on Social Media

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology proposed mandatory labelling of Artificial Intelligence–generated synthetic content on social media to curb deepfakes, under draft amendments to the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021.

2025 Draft Amendment on AI Content:

  • AI Regulation: Introduced by MeitY to address synthetic and AI-generated media such as deepfakes.
  • Mandatory Disclosure: Users must self-declare AI-generated content; platforms must detect and label undeclared synthetic material.
  • Labelling Standards: Labels to cover 10% of image/video area or duration (audio); applies to text, audio, and video formats.
  • Platform Obligations: Ensure metadata embedding and automated verification of user declarations.
  • Legal Liability: Non-compliance leads to loss of “safe harbour” protection under Section 79(1), making intermediaries liable for hosted content.
  • Public Consultation: Comments open till 6 November 2025.

Back2Basics: IT Rules, 2021:

  • Legal Basis: Framed under Sections 87(2)(z) and 87(2)(zg) of the Information Technology Act, 2000 to regulate social media, digital news, and OTT platforms.
  • Objective: To ensure accountability, transparency, and user protection in India’s digital ecosystem while balancing free speech with responsible governance.
  • Evolution: Replaced the IT (Intermediary Guidelines) Rules, 2011, expanding obligations for intermediaries like Facebook, X (Twitter), YouTube, and Instagram.
  • Scope: Applies to social media intermediaries, messaging services, digital news publishers, and OTT streaming platforms.
  • Compliance Framework: Platforms must appoint Chief Compliance Officer (CCO), Nodal Contact Person, and Resident Grievance Officer (RGO),  all based in India.
  • Traceability Clause (Rule 4(2)): Mandates messaging services to identify the “first originator” of unlawful content, raising privacy and surveillance concerns.

Regulation of Social Media Content in India:

  • Legislative Basis: Governed by the IT Act, 2000, notably Section 69A (blocking powers) and Section 79(1) (safe harbour for intermediaries).
  • Obligations: Intermediaries must remove unlawful content within 36 hours of a government or court order.
  • 2023 Amendment: Proposed removal of false content about the government; implementation stayed by Supreme Court.
  • Judicial Context:
    • Shreya Singhal (2015): Struck down Section 66A, upholding free speech.
    • K.S. Puttaswamy (2017):  Recognised privacy as a fundamental right influencing digital governance.

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Poverty Eradication – Definition, Debates, etc.

Kerala to be declared first State ‘Free of Extreme Poverty’

Prelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Poverty & Development Issues

Why in the News?

Kerala will be officially declared free from extreme poverty on November 1st, marking a national first in poverty eradication.

To assess this, Kerala relied on NITI Aayog’s assessment of Kerala using its Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI).

What is Extreme Poverty?

  • Overview: According to the World Bank, extreme poverty is defined as living on less than $2.15 per day (2017 Purchasing Power Parity), representing absolute deprivation.
  • Revised Thresholds: In 2025, the World Bank updated the extreme poverty benchmark to $3/day (PPP 2021) for low-income countries, reflecting inflation and rising living costs.
  • Measurement Basis: It uses Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) to compare cost of living across countries and Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) data as a proxy for income.
  • Nature: Extreme poverty signifies absolute poverty, unlike relative poverty, which measures inequality within societies.
  • Indicators: It encompasses lack of access to essentials such as food security, safe housing, healthcare, education, clean water, and sanitation.

Extreme Poverty in India:

  • Overview: India has achieved major success in reducing extreme poverty through inclusive growth and welfare-based redistribution over the past decade.
  • Global Benchmark: As per the World Bank (2025), India’s extreme poverty rate declined from 27.1% (2011–12) to 5.3% (2022–23), among the fastest reductions globally.
  • Population Impact: Nearly 270 million people were lifted out of extreme poverty; those living below the $3/day threshold fell from 344 million to 75 million.
  • Rural Transformation: The decline was steeper in rural India, supported by flagship programmes like MGNREGA, PM Awas Yojana, National Food Security Act (NFSA), and Ayushman Bharat.
  • Social Protection Role: Expansion of direct benefit transfers (DBT), PDS coverage, and rural employment improved income security and consumption stability.

What has Kerala achieved?

  • Milestone: Kerala has been officially declared free from extreme poverty as of November 1, 2025, becoming the first Indian state to achieve this feat.
  • Programme Launch: The Extreme Poverty Eradication Programme began in 2021, following one of the first Cabinet decisions of the Left Democratic Front (LDF) government.
  • Scale: Out of 64,006 families identified as extremely poor, 59,277 families have been uplifted after targeted interventions across housing, health, and livelihoods.
  • Interventions:
    • Houses built for 3,913 families and land allotted to 1,338 families.
    • Repairs up to ₹2 lakh provided for 5,651 homes.
    • Essential documents like ration and Aadhaar cards issued to 21,263 individuals.
  • Methodology: Each family was covered through a micro plan, integrating state welfare schemes and social audits with geo-tagged verification.
  • Outcome: Kerala now has 0% extreme poverty, aligning with UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 1) to eradicate poverty by 2030.
  • Significance: The achievement demonstrates Kerala’s model of inclusive governance, where local bodies, irrespective of political control, collaborated to ensure last-mile welfare delivery.
[UPSC 2012] The Multi-dimensional Poverty Index developed by Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative with UNDP support covers which of the following?
1. Deprivation of education, health, assets and services at household level
2. Purchasing power parity at national level
3. Extent of budget deficit and GDP growth rate at national level
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only *
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

Great Green Wall of Andhra Pradesh

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

Andhra Pradesh launched the Great Green Wall project, inspired by Africa’s Great Green Wall, to turn its 1,034 km Bay of Bengal coast into a bio-shield against cyclones and sea-level rise.

About Great Green Wall of Andhra Pradesh:

  • Overview: Launched as a flagship coastal afforestation and climate resilience project; Forms part of the state’s Coastal Green Mission, aligning with SDG 13 (Climate Action) and India’s National Coastal Mission.
  • Objective: To protect Andhra Pradesh’s 1,034 km Bay of Bengal coastline from cyclones, tsunamis, and sea-level rise.
  • Inspired by: Africa’s Great Green Wall, adapted for India’s eastern coastal ecosystems.
  • Target: Enhance Andhra Pradesh’s green cover from 30% (2025) to 37% by 2029 and 50% by 2047 through sustained plantation and protection efforts.

Key Features:

  • Geographical Coverage: Extends from Tirupati to Srikakulam, spanning the full 1,034 km coastline.
  • Width: Green belt stretches up to 5 km inland, with a variable width of 50–200 metres.
  • Core Species: Plantation includes mangroves, casuarina, palmyra, bamboo, and other shelterbelt trees.
  • Launch Site: Officially inaugurated at Surya Lanka Beach (Bapatla district) on 11 September 2025.
  • Community Role: Involves Self-Help Groups, eco-clubs, MGNREGS workers, fishermen, and local coastal communities.
  • Integration: Develops green buffers around ports, SEZs, industrial corridors, and aquaculture ponds.
  • Funding: Supported by CAMPA, MISHTI, Green Credit Programme, MGNREGS, CSR funds, and District Mineral Funds.

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Terrorism and Challenges Related To It

International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (CFT)

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

Iran has officially ratified the UN International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (CFT), signalling a major policy shift toward international financial reintegration.

Why such move by Iran?

  • Economic Isolation: Iran’s blacklisting by FATF in 2020 and U.S.-led sanctions have severely restricted its banking access, trade, and foreign investment.
  • Reformist Agenda: President Pezeshkian’s government seeks economic stabilization through engagement, not confrontation, with Western institutions.
  • Trade Barriers: Even traditional allies like Russia and China face difficulty trading with Iran due to its non-compliance with FATF norms.
  • Diplomatic Leverage: CFT accession signals willingness to reform and could help Tehran negotiate sanction relief or trade facilitation.
  • Political Balance: The government faces domestic opposition from hardliners who fear the law will expose Iran’s support for groups like Hezbollah and Hamas, but reformists view it as essential for economic recovery.

About the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (CFT):

  • Adopted: 1999 by the UN General Assembly; entered into force in 2002.
  • Parties: Ratified by 188 countries including India, making it one of the most widely accepted anti-terror treaties.
  • Objective: To criminalize, prevent, and punish the financing of terrorism and enhance international cooperation against terror-linked financial networks.
  • Definition: Financing terrorism includes collecting or providing funds—directly or indirectly—with intent or knowledge that they will be used for terrorist acts causing death or injury to civilians or non-combatants.
  • Key Provisions:
    • States must criminalize terror financing in domestic law.
    • Freeze, seize, and confiscate assets linked to terrorism.
    • Ban misuse of banking secrecy to block investigations.
    • Facilitate extradition, legal cooperation, and mutual assistance.
    • Ensure political or ideological motives cannot justify terrorist financing.
  • Legal Mechanism: Creates obligations for states to report suspicious transactions and cooperate across jurisdictions for enforcement.

FATF and CFT: Complementary Global Frameworks

  • CFT (1999): Provides the legal foundation, obligating states to define and criminalize terror financing under international law.
  • FATF (1989): Provides the operational and policy framework, setting 40 detailed recommendations for implementation, monitoring, and compliance.
  • Interaction:
    • FATF requires its members to implement CFT obligations in national systems.
    • CFT establishes criminalization and cooperation, while FATF ensures compliance, enforcement, and evaluation.
  • Iran’s Case:
    • FATF blacklisted Iran for failure to adopt CFT and AML standards.
    • Ratification of CFT is Iran’s first step toward FATF re-evaluation and possible removal from the blacklist.
    • Compliance would enable Iranian banks to restore correspondent relations and resume limited international transactions.

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

Scientists use ‘Atomic Stencils’ to make designer Nanoparticles

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Scientists from the United States and South Korea have developed a novel “atomic stencilling” method to coat gold nanoparticles with polymer patches, enabling unprecedented nanoscale precision in material design.

What is Atomic Stencilling?

  • Overview: A novel nanofabrication technique where iodide atoms act as nanoscale masks (stencils) on gold nanoparticle surfaces, allowing scientists to “paint” polymer patches with atomic-level precision.
  • Mechanism: These polymer-coated patches create distinct functional zones on each nanoparticle, enabling controlled self-assembly into complex 3D nanostructures.
  • Innovation Context: Represents a breakthrough in atomic-scale material patterning, advancing nanotechnology toward programmable matter and precision material design.

Advantages Offered:

  • Atomic Precision: Achieves atomic-scale patterning, precisely controlling patch size, geometry, and placement.
  • High Uniformity: Generates identical nanoparticles for consistent, predictable self-assembly behaviour.
  • Scalability: Allows large-scale synthesis of patchy nanoparticles with simplified processing.
  • Material Versatility: Compatible with multiple materials — gold, silver, silica — and adaptable to various polymer coatings.
  • Enhanced Self-Assembly: Promotes spontaneous formation of ordered 3D superlattices and metamaterials.
  • Functional Tunability: Enables customisation of surface chemistry, optical, and electronic properties.

Key Applications:

  • Targeted Drug Delivery: Functional patches enable selective binding and controlled release to specific biological targets.
  • Catalysis: Distinct surface domains improve reactivity and catalytic precision.
  • Optoelectronics & Photonics: Supports creation of plasmonic and light-responsive metamaterials.
  • Energy Systems: Enhances charge transfer and stability in batteries and solar cells.
  • Smart Materials: Forms basis for programmable, self-assembling nanostructures with adaptive functions.
[UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements:
1. Other than those made by humans, nanoparticles do not exist in nature.
2. Nanoparticles of some metallic oxides are used in the manufacture of some cosmetics.
3. Nanoparticles of some commercial products which enter the environment are unsafe for humans.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3 *

 

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Air Pollution

[22nd October 2025 ] The Hindu Op-ed: Unreliable air and noise data, real-time deception

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the WHO. How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve these revised standards?

Linkage: This PYQ directly links to the article’s focus on unreliable air quality data and weak monitoring under NCAP. Since pollution is a recurring UPSC theme, it highlights how aligning India’s policies with updated WHO standards demands scientific integrity and credible data.

Mentor’s Comment

When truth itself is blurred by flawed data, governance becomes an illusion. India’s air and noise monitoring systems, meant to be the foundation of environmental policy, are now under scrutiny for misleading the nation with inaccurate data. This is not just a story about malfunctioning sensors but about the collapse of scientific integrity, accountability, and public trust. The issue is no longer technical; it is constitutional, affecting citizens’ Right to Health and Life.

Why in the News

Two major failures in India’s environmental monitoring systems, Delhi’s Real-Time Air Pollution Network and Lucknow’s National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network, have exposed disturbing lapses in data integrity and governance. For the first time, even raw government data is being accused of misleading the public by understating pollution levels. Sensors placed in less polluted areas, faulty installations under tree cover, and outdated noise regulations have collectively raised alarm. This is significant because policy credibility, public health, and India’s global environmental reputation now stand compromised.

Introduction

Environmental governance in India has entered a critical phase. Despite massive investments and advanced technology, monitoring systems for air and noise pollution have failed to inspire confidence. When environmental data is unreliable, policies derived from it lose direction. As Delhi continues to suffocate under toxic smog and Lucknow’s soundscape exceeds permissible decibel levels, the larger question emerges — can real-time governance be meaningful when real-time data is deceptive?

Policy Built on Sand: When Data Loses Credibility

  1. Flawed Sensors: Multiple audits, including the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) report, reveal that several air-quality sensors in Delhi are placed behind walls or under tree cover, leading to inaccurate readings.
  2. Misleading Reports: Delhi’s official Air Quality Index (AQI) often shows “moderate” levels even as citizens gasp through toxic smog, undermining public trust.
  3. Governance Crisis: When data itself is unreliable, policy decisions on stubble burning, vehicular restrictions, and industrial emissions lose legitimacy.
  4. International Impact: Weak monitoring erodes India’s credibility under the Paris Agreement and WHO Air Quality Standards.

Sound of Silence: Noise Monitoring Failure in Lucknow

  1. Defective Network: Lucknow’s National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network fails to record accurate decibel levels; sensors are either malfunctioning or poorly calibrated.
  2. Outdated Regulation: India continues to rely on the Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000, which are inadequate and below WHO standards.
  3. Weak Enforcement: Penalties are minor, compliance is poor, and urban noise remains unregulated, especially around airports and religious places.
  4. Constitutional Concern: The Supreme Court recently transferred pleas on noise around Delhi Airport to the NGT, acknowledging that noise is a public health and fundamental rights issue under Articles 19 and 21.

Science or Spectacle: Technology Without Transparency

  1. Spectacle over Substance: Governments deploy shiny monitoring hardware but ignore scientific calibration and audits.
  2. Opacity in Data: Citizens are misled when real-time pollution data is selectively downplayed to show moderate levels.
  3. Public Deception: Misleading indices delay judicial intervention and suppress citizen voices demanding clean air.
  4. Democratic Erosion: Governance becomes a contest between citizens and industries, with flawed numbers protecting inaction.

The Human Cost: Health and Life Expectancy

  1. Health Impact: Exposure to NO₂ and PM2.5 not only weakens lungs but also accelerates myopia and aggravates asthma in children.
  2. Data from Reports: The Air Quality Life Index (Energy Policy Institute) shows that if Delhi met WHO air standards, life expectancy would rise by 8.2 years.
  3. National Toll: Across India, air pollution cuts life expectancy by nearly 5 years, making this a silent epidemic.
  4. Flawed Data = Lost Lives: When monitoring fails, policies fail, and citizens continue to breathe poison unknowingly.

Restoring Credibility: Science as the Foundation

  1. Independent Oversight: India lacks an independent audit panel for environmental monitoring, unlike global norms.
  2. Enforcement Gaps: Though CPCB has clear guidelines on sensor location and calibration, implementation remains lax.
  3. Need for Citizen Oversight: Making raw data publicly accessible and encouraging third-party audits will restore trust.
  4. Beyond Bureaucracy: Environmental monitoring should be treated not as a formality, but as a scientific and ethical duty.

Conclusion

India’s real-time air and noise monitoring crisis is a wake-up call. The credibility of environmental governance rests not on political optics but on scientific truth. Without transparent data and independent audits, policies lose legitimacy and citizens lose trust. The real cost is borne not in GDP but in children’s lungs and sleepless nights. Science, integrity, and public accountability must anchor India’s environmental data revolution, else we risk turning real-time monitoring into real-time deception.

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Rural Distress, Farmer Suicides, Drought Measures

Can rural education stop youth migration?

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Social Empowerment

Why in the News

India stands at a demographic crossroads. According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2020–21, nearly 29% of India’s population are migrants, with 89% hailing from rural areas. Over half of these migrants are aged 15–25, indicating that the nation’s most productive youth are leaving villages in search of livelihood. This is a turning point in India’s development trajectory, education, once seen as a ladder out of poverty, has lost its power to insulate youth from migration pressures. The mismatch between education and employment, coupled with the pandemic-driven reverse migration, has sparked urgent questions: Can India reimagine rural education and economies to retain its young talent?

Introduction

Migration has long shaped India’s economic and social fabric. But what was once seen as a path to progress is now exposing deep cracks in India’s development model. The migration of rural youth to urban centres reflects unmet aspirations, inadequate rural opportunities, and disillusionment with the promise of education.

The Covid-19 pandemic acted as a brutal reminder, as nearly 40 million workers were forced to return home during the first lockdown. It exposed the vulnerability of India’s informal urban workforce and, simultaneously, revealed the untapped potential of rural revitalization.

Rethinking the Roots of Migration

  1. Structural Imbalance: Migration is not purely about aspiration; it arises from rural distress and uneven regional development.
  2. Labour Force Data: PLFS data shows rural India continues to be the main supplier of labour, not a site of dignified livelihood.
  3. Educational Mismatch: Graduates are increasingly unemployed, revealing a disconnect between degrees and employable skills.

Why is Education Failing to Prevent Migration?

  1. Broken Linkage: Education no longer guarantees employment. Youth with degrees often find no dignified jobs in their hometowns.
  2. Graduate Unemployment: India’s expansion of higher education hasn’t translated into job creation, instead, it has produced educated unemployment.
  3. Informal Urban Absorption: About 49% of youth migrants work as daily wage labourers and 39% as industrial workers, mostly on temporary contracts.
  4. Gender Disparity: While 86.8% of women migrate for marriage, most men migrate for work, reflecting limited female labour participation despite mobility.

Pandemic: A Mirror to Rural Vulnerabilities

  1. Mass Exodus: Nearly 40 million workers returned home in 2020 (RBI, 2020), exposing the fragility of India’s urban informal economy.
  2. Urban Fragility: Cities like Delhi, Mumbai, and Bengaluru struggle with slums, pollution, waste, and overcrowding.
  3. Gendered Impact: Young women were more likely to lose jobs and slower to regain them (ILO, 2021), deepening gender inequality.

Reverse Migration: Stories of Hope and Resilience

  1. Agricultural Revival: Agriculture showed unexpected resilience, with a 39% increase in sown area in 2020 as returning workers revived farmlands.
  2. Success Stories:
    • Balaram Mahadev Bandagale (Raigad, Maharashtra) diversified into mango orchards using irrigation schemes, now earning higher income.
    • Chandrakant Pawar, once a migrant worker, returned to dairy farming and became Sarpanch, a symbol of empowered reverse migration.
  3. These examples highlight the potential of self-reliant rural ecosystems driven by local enterprise and education.

How Can Rural India Retain Its Youth?

  1. Diversified Rural Employment: Beyond agriculture, India needs to expand into dairy, poultry, food processing, handicrafts, rural logistics, renewable energy, and tourism.
  2. Rural Entrepreneurship: Government schemes like Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana, Start-Up India, and FPO expansion can empower youth — but need integration and youth-focused redesign.
  3. Digital & Renewable Energy Jobs:
    • Solar panel maintenance, microgrid operations, and biofuel units can create decentralized jobs.
    • Digital infrastructure is essential to bridge divides and enable e-commerce, telemedicine, and remote work.
  4. Agri & Eco-Tourism: Leveraging local ecology and culture can create sustainable livelihoods rooted in community pride.

Changing the Narrative: Migration as a Choice, Not Compulsion

  1. Breaking Stigma: Returning to villages must not be equated with failure. Reverse migrants should be portrayed as innovators, not dropouts.
  2. Portable Social Protection: Schemes for health, education, and pensions should be location-independent, following the worker wherever they go.
  3. Balanced Urban–Rural Growth: Development must prioritize equitable access to education, digital infrastructure, and markets in rural India.

Conclusion

India’s youth migration crisis is not merely about movement, it’s about meaning. It questions what development truly offers and whether education still promises empowerment. The path forward lies in integrating rural education with employable skills, expanding decentralized job ecosystems, and redefining success beyond cities. If India invests in its rural potential, migration will no longer be a story of escape, it will become a story of choice, dignity, and empowerment.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Why do large cities tend to attract more migrants than smaller towns? Discuss in the light of conditions in developing countries.

Linkage: This PYQ directly links with the article’s theme by highlighting how rural distress, weak educational–employment linkages, and uneven regional development push youth towards cities. It reflects the same structural imbalance where urban centres appear as opportunity hubs while villages remain economically stagnant.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Afghanistan

Turning Tides: Pakistan-Afghanistan Tensions

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Introduction

When the Taliban recaptured Kabul in August 2021, Pakistan perceived it as a strategic victory after two decades of covert support to the insurgents. However, the celebration was short-lived. Four years later, Pakistan faces an unprecedented internal security crisis, with over 2,400 people killed in militancy-related violence in 2025 alone. The rise of the Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and recent Pakistani airstrikes on Kabul (October 2025) signal a dangerous escalation — and a stark reversal of the country’s long-standing policy of using non-state actors as strategic assets.

Why in the News?

For the first time, Pakistan bombed Kabul, directly targeting militants across the Afghan border. This marks a major policy shift, as Islamabad traditionally treated the Taliban as an ally and buffer against India. The strikes came while Afghan Foreign Minister Amir Khan Muttaqi was visiting India, adding a symbolic twist to regional alignments. The scale of violence, with over 2,414 deaths this year, underscores the depth of Pakistan’s internal crisis and its failure to control militancy in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. This development has drawn comparisons to India’s own doctrine of cross-border strikes, raising questions about whether Pakistan is now borrowing from a playbook it once condemned.

The Illusion of Strategic Depth

  1. Taliban Patronage: Pakistan’s military establishment nurtured the Afghan Taliban for decades, offering refuge and logistical support during their insurgency against the U.S.-backed Afghan government.
  2. Strategic Depth Doctrine: Islamabad’s rationale was to create a friendly regime in Kabul that could serve as a buffer against India and offer “strategic depth” in case of war.
  3. Backfiring Reality: Instead, the Taliban’s rise empowered the TTP, an ideologically aligned but operationally separate entity, turning Pakistan’s proxy into its nemesis.

How the Taliban’s Return Changed the Equation

  1. End of Patron-Client Relationship: Once in power, the Taliban sought state-to-state relations, not subservience to Pakistan’s military agenda.
  2. Durand Line Dispute: Kabul never recognized the Durand Line, reigniting border tensions that colonial history had left unresolved.
  3. TTP Empowerment: Inspired by the Afghan Taliban’s triumph, the TTP now demands enforcement of strict Islamic law and reversal of the merger of tribal areas with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
  4. Refugee Crisis: Pakistan’s decision to deport thousands of Afghan refugees further worsened ties, adding a humanitarian dimension to political hostility.

Pakistan’s New Doctrine: Borrowing from India?

  1. Airstrikes as Deterrence: By bombing Kabul, Pakistan appears to be testing a new counter-terrorism strategy, directly holding Afghanistan responsible for cross-border militant attacks.
  2. India Parallel: The move is reminiscent of India’s 2016 and 2019 strikes on Pakistani territory after terror attacks in Uri and Pulwama.
  3. Diplomatic Irony: The timing, coinciding with the Afghan FM’s India visit, highlights shifting regional equations where India engages diplomatically, and Pakistan responds militarily.

The Security Crisis within Pakistan

  1. Rising Violence: The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province has become the epicenter of TTP-led insurgency.
  2. Contradictory Policy: Pakistan’s dual policy of fighting terrorism while nurturing militants targeting its neighbors has eroded domestic stability.
  3. Blowback Effect: Militancy now threatens Pakistan’s political order, economic recovery, and regional credibility.
  4. Qatar-Brokered Ceasefire: A fragile truce mediated by Qatar hints at the international community’s anxiety over a new South Asian flashpoint.

Why Pakistan’s Strategy is Self-Defeating

  1. Cycle of Violence: Airstrikes may offer short-term political gains but deepen long-term instability.
  2. Internal vs External Conflict: Pakistan’s greatest threat now emanates from within its borders, not across them.
  3. Loss of Moral Credibility: Its past of backing non-state actors undercuts its legitimacy when accusing others of the same.
  4. Strategic Isolation: Continued conflict risks alienating even traditional allies like China and Gulf states, who seek regional stability.

Conclusion

Pakistan’s experiment with militant patronage has collapsed under its own contradictions. The strategic depth doctrine that once defined its Afghan policy has morphed into a strategic liability. Peace in Pakistan cannot be achieved through bombs over Kabul, but through a coherent internal reform of its security, political, and ideological ecosystem. As the editorial aptly concludes, “Pakistan cannot ensure internal security by bombing Afghanistan.”

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2013] The proposed withdrawal of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) from Afghanistan in 2014 is fraught with major security implications for the countries of the region. Examine in light of the fact that India is faced with a plethora of challenges and needs to safeguard its own strategic interests.

Linkage: The 2013 PYQ and this 2025 editorial both explore the Afghan theatre as a pivot of regional security, then, in anticipation of instability; now, in its full manifestation. Both are invaluable for analysing India’s neighbourhood policy, counter-terror strategy, and regional diplomacy in the post-US Afghanistan order.

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Poverty Eradication – Definition, Debates, etc.

What is Rangarajan Poverty Line?

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Inclusive Growth & Issues

Why in the News?

After the C. Rangarajan Committee (2014) set India’s last official poverty line, economists from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) have now revisited and updated the estimates using new household consumption data from Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) 2022–23.

Evolution of Poverty Measurement in India:

  1. Planning Commission (1962): ₹20 (rural) and ₹25 (urban) per month; excluded health and education.
  2. Dandekar & Rath Committee (1971): Calorie-based standard (2250 kcal/day).
  3. Y. K. Alagh Committee (1979): Calorie-linked poverty line (2400 kcal rural; 2100 kcal urban).
  4. Lakdawala Committee (1993): Introduced state-specific and composite consumption baskets.
  5. Tendulkar Committee (2009): Uniform basket for rural/urban; ₹816 rural and ₹1000 urban (2011–12); shifted from calorie to expenditure-based poverty.

About C. Rangarajan Committee on Poverty Estimation:

  • Objective: To evolve a broader and realistic poverty metric incorporating food, health, education, clothing, and shelter costs, beyond calorie-based norms.
  • Overview: Formed by the Planning Commission in 2012, chaired by Dr. C. Rangarajan, former RBI Governor, to review India’s poverty measurement methodology.
  • Report Submission: Submitted in June 2014; became a major benchmark in the debate on India’s official poverty line and methodological framework.
  • Definition of Poverty: Based on Monthly Per Capita Expenditure (MPCE) ₹972 (rural) and ₹1,407 (urban) at 2011–12 prices, equating to ₹32/day (rural) and ₹47/day (urban).
  • Data & Methodology: Used Modified Mixed Reference Period (MMRP) consumption data with separate rural–urban baskets, adjusting for state-wise price differentials.
  • Poverty Estimate (2011–12): Found 29.5% of India’s population below the poverty line.
  • Key Revision over Tendulkar: Expanded consumption basket to include education, healthcare, rent, transport, and other essentials; replaced calorie-based with expenditure-based cost-of-living approach.

RBI 2025 Update (DEPR Study):

  • Source & Method: Conducted by RBI’s Department of Economic & Policy Research (DEPR) using HCES 2022–23 data for 20 states; retained Rangarajan framework.
  • New Price Index: Created a Poverty Line Basket (PLB) index instead of CPI reflecting actual consumption inflation more accurately.
  • PLB Composition: Rural PLB had 57% food share (vs 54% in CPI); Urban PLB had 47% (vs 36% in CPI).
  • Key Findings:
    • Rural Odisha poverty fell from 47.8% → 8.6%; Urban Bihar from 50.8% → 9.1%.
    • Lowest Poverty: Himachal Pradesh (0.4% rural), Tamil Nadu (1.9% urban).
    • Highest Poverty: Chhattisgarh (25.1% rural; 13.3% urban).
  • Significance: Confirms broad-based poverty decline yet highlights regional disparities; renews calls for a new official poverty line reflecting modern consumption trends.
[UPSC 2019] In a given year in India, official poverty lines are higher in some States than in others because
Options: (a) poverty rates vary from State to State
(b) price levels vary from State to State *
(c) Gross State Product varies from State to State
(d) quality of public distribution varies from State to State

 

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