Introduction
In August 2025, Parliament passed the Income Tax Bill, 2025, a shorter and simplified legislation with 23 chapters (down from 47) and 536 sections (down from 819). The Bill aims to reduce discretion with clearer provisions, introduce taxpayer-friendly reforms like longer timelines for return updation, and curb harassment. However, it has also expanded the powers of tax officials, especially over digital information and personal data, raising concerns about privacy and misuse.
Need for Overhauling the 1961 Income Tax Framework
- Obsolete framework: The Income Tax Act, 1961 had become outdated, riddled with amendments, and difficult for laypersons to interpret.
- Harassment potential: Excessive discretion allowed officials to harass taxpayers.
- Structural reform: New law cuts down chapters from 47 to 23 and sections from 819 to 536, simplifying compliance.
- Greater clarity: More tables (57, up from 18) and formulae (46, up from 6), along with examples to aid understanding.
From Draft Bill to Final Law: The Legislative Journey
- Initial draft (Feb 2025): Introduced in Parliament but referred to a Select Committee given the Bill’s significance.
- Committee review: Headed by Baijayant Panda, with MPs across parties; submitted a detailed report in July 2025.
- Withdrawal & replacement: Government withdrew the earlier version on August 8, 2025, to incorporate committee recommendations.
- Final Bill (Aug 11, 2025): Introduced and passed the same day, avoiding confusion through multiple versions.
Key Reforms and Structural Simplifications:
- No slab changes: Finance Minister clarified tax rates and slabs remain unchanged.
- Technical refinements: Clearer provisions for Minimum Alternate Tax (MAT) and Alternate Minimum Tax (AMT), separated into sub-sections.
- Taxpayer-friendly features: Returns can be updated up to 4 years from the end of the relevant assessment year without penalty; Assessment reopening period reduced to 5 years.
Simplification Gains and Emerging Concerns
- Expanded search powers: Tax officers can now demand passwords of electronic devices, emails, and social media accounts.
- Override access: Officials may bypass access codes to computer systems if passwords are not shared.
- Privacy concerns: Unlike earlier provisions (limited to inspection and lock-breaking), the new law extends to personal digital data, raising red flags.
Government’s Rationale for Expanding Digital Powers
- Rationale: Much of financial data today is exchanged via messaging apps, emails, or stored digitally.
- Committee stance: Though some dissent was recorded, the Select Committee accepted the government’s view that these provisions are essential for effective investigation.
Conclusion
The Income Tax Bill, 2025 is a watershed reform, simplifying one of India’s most complex laws. While the codification of taxpayer-friendly provisions marks a progressive step, the enhanced surveillance powers granted to tax authorities highlight the thin line between efficiency and overreach. The challenge ahead lies in ensuring that simplification does not come at the cost of citizens’ trust and constitutional rights.
Value Addition for UPSC
|
- Governance angle (GS-II): Balancing simplification of laws with citizen rights and privacy.
- Economic reforms (GS-III): Tax rationalisation improves compliance and ease of doing business.
- Ethics (GS-IV): Dilemma of state surveillance vs. individual liberty; Kantian duty-based ethics vs. utilitarian approach.
- Comparative context: Similar debates exist globallye.g., U.S. IRS’s digital access powers vs. EU’s stricter GDPR protections.
|
PYQ Relevance
| [UPSC 2020] Explain the rationale behind the Goods and Services Tax (Compensation to States) Act of 2017.How has COVID-19 impacted the GST compensation fund and created new federal tensions?
Linkage: The GST Compensation Act, 2017 aimed to build Centre–State trust during the GST transition but COVID-19 strained revenues, sparking federal tensions. Similarly, the Income Tax Bill, 2025 seeks to simplify direct taxes to build citizen trust but raises concerns over state overreach in digital surveillance. Both show that taxation is ultimately about trust and legitimacy in governance. |
Practice Mains Question
The Income Tax Bill, 2025 seeks to simplify India’s tax regime but also introduces stronger surveillance powers for officials. Discuss the balance between efficiency, transparency, and taxpayer rights. (250 words)
Mapping Microthemes for GS Papers
- GS-I: Evolution of economic policies post-Independence.
- GS-II: Governance, legislative reforms, fundamental rights (privacy).
- GS-III: Fiscal reforms, tax policy, ease of doing business.
- GS-IV: Ethics of surveillance, transparency, accountability.
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court for the very first time has recounted EVM votes on its premises and overturned a Haryana sarpanch election result.
Legal Framework for Challenging Election Results:
- Parliamentary, Assembly, State Council elections: Validity can be challenged by filing an election petition in the High Court of the state where the election was held.
- Local government elections: Petitions must be filed at district-level civil courts.
- Eligibility to file: Only a candidate or elector related to the election can file.
- Timeframe: Petition must be filed within 45 days of result declaration.
- Petition requirements:
- Must contain concise statement of material facts.
- Allegations of “corrupt practices” must include names of individuals, dates, and locations.
- Judicial Approach:
- SC considers corrupt practices as quasi-criminal, requiring high standard of proof.
- Vague or ambiguous petitions are dismissed.
-
- Representation of the People Act, 1951.
- State Panchayat Raj Acts.
Grounds for Invalidating an Election:
Courts can void an election on:
- Bribery or undue influence, e.g., hiding criminal antecedents or promoting enmity.
- Candidate disqualified/unqualified on the election date.
- Improper rejection of nomination paper.
- Improper acceptance of nomination or improper reception/rejection of votes, if shown to materially affect results.
- Non-compliance with Constitution or election laws/rules, if it materially impacted the outcome.
When can Courts order Recount of Votes?
- A recount is a possible judicial remedy but not granted lightly.
- Seen as affecting vote secrecy, which is vital to free and fair elections.
- Courts order recounts only if:
- Petitioner presents specific material facts.
- Evidence shows a prima facie case of probable counting error.
- Recount is deemed necessary for justice.
- Normally conducted at election location.
- Exception: Panipat case, where SC recounted votes in its own premises.
Can Courts declare a new Winner?
- Rare, but courts can declare a new winner if:
- Evidence shows petitioner (or another candidate) actually had majority of valid votes.
- Or petitioner proves they would have won but for votes gained through corrupt practices.
- Requires concrete, quantifiable evidence of tainted votes.
- Example: In Feb 2024 Chandigarh mayoral election, SC declared a new winner after:
- Presiding officer wrongly invalidated 8 paper ballots.
- All votes had been cast for the losing candidate.
- SC restored them as valid, making the losing candidate the winner.
| [UPSC 2004] Consider the following tasks:
1. Superintendence, direction and conduct of free and fair elections.
2. Preparation of electoral rolls for all elections to the Parliament, State Legislatures and the Office of the President and the Vice-President.
3. Giving recognition to political parties and allotting election symbols to political parties and individuals contesting the election.
4. Proclamation of final verdict in the case of election disputes.
Which of the above are the functions of the Election Commission of India?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3* (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 4 |
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Why in the news?
The Government informed Parliament that 23% of the 56.04 crore PM Jan Dhan Yojana accounts are inoperative.
About Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY):
- Launch: Introduced in 2014 as the world’s largest financial inclusion mission.
- Objective: To provide banking to the unbanked, insurance to the unsecured, and credit to the unfunded.
- Accounts: Basic Savings Bank Deposit (BSBD) accounts with zero balance, minimal paperwork, and e-KYC facility.
- Benefits: RuPay debit card with accident insurance, overdraft, micro-insurance, and pension coverage.
Key Features:
- Access: Universal banking through branches and Business Correspondents.
- Overdraft: Up to ₹10,000 for eligible account holders.
- Insurance: Accident cover of ₹1 lakh (₹2 lakh for new accounts post-2018); life cover of ₹30,000 for accounts opened between August 2014–January 2015.
- Interoperability: Enabled via RuPay cards and Aadhaar-linked platforms.
- Post-2018 Expansion: Coverage extended to all unbanked adults, overdraft limit enhanced, and eligibility age increased from 60 to 65 years.
- Direct Benefit Transfers: Strengthened subsidy delivery through the JAM Trinity (Jan Dhan–Aadhaar–Mobile).
Do you know?
As per the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) guidelines (2009), an account is considered dormant if no transaction occurs for over two years. |
| [UPSC 2015] Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana’ has been launched for
Options:
(a) providing housing loan to poor people at cheaper interest rates
(b) promoting women’s Self-Help Groups in backward areas
(c) promoting financial inclusion in the country*
(d) providing financial help to the marginalized communities |
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Why in the News?
This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in ‘The Hindu’.
About Soap:
- Composition: Soap is sodium (Na) or potassium (K) salt of fatty acids derived from vegetable oils or animal fats.
- Formula: Solid soaps are RCOONa, liquid soaps are RCOOK.
- Function: Cleansing agent due to dual hydrophilic (water-attracting) and hydrophobic (oil-attracting) nature.
- History: Used since 2800 BC in Mesopotamia and ancient India (soap nuts, bark, flowers). Became mass-produced during the Industrial Revolution, initially a luxury.
Soap-Making Process
- Raw Materials: Oils such as coconut, olive, palm, sunflower provide triglycerides.
- Hydrolysis: Oils hydrolysed with hot water under pressure → fatty acids + glycerin.
- Saponification: Fatty acids react with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) → soap (RCOONa) + water.
- Processing: Soap dried into noodles, blended with perfumes, colours, fillers, additives.
- Shaping: Extruded, cut, and stamped into bars.
- Quality: Total Fatty Matter (TFM) indicates quality; higher TFM = better cleansing.
- Production Scale: Modern automated lines make 600–700 soaps per minute.
Ecological Impact of Soap
- Biodegradability: Traditional soaps are biodegradable and safer for the environment.
- Detergents: Synthetic alternatives developed during World War I oil shortages; more efficient but harmful.
- Pollution: Surfactants and phosphates in detergents cause nutrient pollution and persist in ecosystems.
| [UPSC 2002] Consider the following statements:
Assertion (A) Synthetic detergents can lather well in hard water.
Reason (R): Synthetic detergents form soluble calcium and magnesium salts with hard water.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
Options:
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A *
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true |
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Why in the News?
Kerala’s health department has issued an alert in Kozhikode district after three consecutive cases of the rare and highly fatal disease Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM) were reported.
About Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM):
- Cause: Rare and usually fatal infection caused by Naegleria fowleri, known as the “brain-eating amoeba.”
- Habitat: Thrives in warm freshwater up to 46°C (115°F).
- Entry: Enters through the nose during swimming or water activities, travels via olfactory nerve to the brain.
- Impact: Destroys brain tissue and causes severe swelling.
- Transmission: Not communicable from person to person.
- Symptoms: Headache, fever, nausea, vomiting, stiff neck, confusion, seizures, hallucinations, coma, and death.
- Progression: According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), most cases result in death within 1–18 days of symptom onset.
Diagnosis and Treatment:
- Diagnosis:
- Treatment:
- No single therapy effectively established.
- Managed per CDC guidelines using drug combinations such as: Medical interventions typically involve a combination of drugs, including amphotericin B, azithromycin, fluconazole, rifampin, miltefosine, and dexamethasone.
| [UPSC 2008] Consider the following statements:
1. Femur is the longest bone in the human body.
2. Cholera is a disease caused by bacteria.
3. ‘Athlete’s foot’ is a disease caused by virus. Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 * (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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PYQ Relevance
| [UPSC 2017] To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful?
Linkage: The 2016 ECI reforms sought to strengthen electoral transparency and fairness, while the current debate on the 2023 Act vs. Baranwal judgment highlights how the independence of ECI itself is under threat. Together, they show that both institutional autonomy and procedural reforms are essential for improving the quality of democracy. |
Mentor’s Comment:
The credibility of elections is the lifeline of any democracy. Recent controversies around the appointment of Election Commissioners and the weakening of institutional safeguards have put India’s electoral integrity under the spotlight. This article unpacks the constitutional debates, judicial interventions, legislative countermeasures, and comparative global experiences to help aspirants understand the stakes involved in preserving the Election Commission of India (ECI) as an independent constitutional body.
Introduction
The Election Commission of India (ECI) ensures that elections are free, fair, and impartial. In 2023, the Supreme Court’s Anoop Baranwal case gave more independence to the ECI by including the Chief Justice of India (CJI) in the appointment process. But Parliament quickly passed a law removing the CJI and putting a Cabinet Minister in his place. The Court did not stop this change, and elections in 2024 were conducted under this new system. This has raised doubts about whether the ECI can act independently from the government.
Current debate over who controls ECI appointments
- Nullification of Baranwal judgment: The Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023. replaced the CJI with a Cabinet Minister (nominated by the PM) in the selection panel, reversing judicial attempts to ensure independence.
- Supreme Court’s refusal to stay the law: In Dr. Jaya Thakur v. Union of India (2024), the SC upheld the Act’s validity for the time being, allowing the government’s version to prevail in the 2024 Lok Sabha elections.
- Failure of judicial vigilance: A potentially independent ECI could have overseen elections more impartially, but judicial reluctance meant the executive retained control.
- Global parallels: Scholars like Landau and Dixon (2020) warn how courts sometimes legitimize authoritarian regimes by siding with executive dominance in electoral matters.
Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India (2023): The Supreme Court’s big step for ECI independence
- Article 324 interpretation: The Court held that appointments to the ECI must be insulated from the executive’s exclusive control.
- Role of CJI: Inclusion of the Chief Justice in the selection committee was seen as a safeguard against partisanship.
- Warning against pliability: The judgment noted that a “pliable ECI” could become a tool for perpetuating power, undermining free and fair elections.
The Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023: Parliament’s counter to the Court
- Executive dominance: By excluding the CJI and including a Cabinet Minister, the law tilted the balance back towards government control.
- Presumption of validity: The SC’s refusal to strike down or stay the Act demonstrated a conservative approach, prioritizing legislative supremacy over constitutional safeguards.
- Practical implications: The 2024 Lok Sabha and Assembly elections were conducted under an ECI shaped by this executive-heavy framework.
Global lessons on electoral manipulation
- Authoritarian strategies: According to Landau & Dixon, regimes in Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia used courts and electoral commissions to legitimize manipulated outcomes.
- Pre-election manipulation: Autocrats often consolidate institutions (courts, ECs) well before elections, creating a tilted playing field.
- Positive global model: South Africa’s Chapter Nine institutions, including its Electoral Commission, provide a framework for independent, fourth-branch institutions to safeguard democracy.
Fourth pillar of democracy: Autonomous Institutions
- Beyond traditional separation: Modern democracies recognize institutions beyond Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary such as independent ECs, CAGs, Information Commissions.
- Imaginative interpretation: In the Baranwal case, the Court attempted to evolve the ECI into such a fourth branch institution, enhancing checks on executive power.
- Legislative reversal: The 2023 Act effectively nullified this innovation, raising questions about India’s commitment to electoral impartiality.
The road ahead for electoral reforms: Restoring faith in Democracy
- Reinstating CJI in the selection panel: This would revive the spirit of the Baranwal verdict.
- Fresh appointments through a reformed process: Ensuring a genuinely independent ECI could require re-selection of commissioners.
- Truth Commission role: A reformed ECI could investigate alleged instances of electoral fraud, restoring voter confidence.
Conclusion
The ECI is not just another administrative body, it is the custodian of the democratic process. The dilution of judicial safeguards in its appointment mechanism risks eroding the integrity of elections, thereby weakening the very foundation of democracy. Restoring the spirit of Baranwal by reinstating the CJI’s role in appointments and insulating the ECI from executive control remains the most urgent democratic reform.
Mapping Microthemes (GS relevance)
- GS-II (Polity & Governance): Electoral reforms, Independence of constitutional bodies, Separation of powers.
- GS-I: Role of institutions in shaping democratic practices.
- GS-III: Impact of political manipulation on governance outcomes.
- GS-IV (Ethics): Constitutional morality, impartiality, institutional integrity.
Practice Mains Question
“The independence of the Election Commission is the cornerstone of free and fair elections in India.” Discuss in the context of recent judicial and legislative developments. (250 words)
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Introduction
In August 2025, Parliament passed the Income Tax Bill, 2025, a shorter and simplified legislation with 23 chapters (down from 47) and 536 sections (down from 819). The Bill aims to reduce discretion with clearer provisions, introduce taxpayer-friendly reforms like longer timelines for return updation, and curb harassment. However, it has also expanded the powers of tax officials, especially over digital information and personal data, raising concerns about privacy and misuse.
Need for Overhauling the 1961 Income Tax Framework
- Obsolete framework: The Income Tax Act, 1961 had become outdated, riddled with amendments, and difficult for laypersons to interpret.
- Harassment potential: Excessive discretion allowed officials to harass taxpayers.
- Structural reform: New law cuts down chapters from 47 to 23 and sections from 819 to 536, simplifying compliance.
- Greater clarity: More tables (57, up from 18) and formulae (46, up from 6), along with examples to aid understanding.
From Draft Bill to Final Law: The Legislative Journey
- Initial draft (Feb 2025): Introduced in Parliament but referred to a Select Committee given the Bill’s significance.
- Committee review: Headed by Baijayant Panda, with MPs across parties; submitted a detailed report in July 2025.
- Withdrawal & replacement: Government withdrew the earlier version on August 8, 2025, to incorporate committee recommendations.
- Final Bill (Aug 11, 2025): Introduced and passed the same day, avoiding confusion through multiple versions.
Key Reforms and Structural Simplifications:
- No slab changes: Finance Minister clarified tax rates and slabs remain unchanged.
- Technical refinements: Clearer provisions for Minimum Alternate Tax (MAT) and Alternate Minimum Tax (AMT), separated into sub-sections.
- Taxpayer-friendly features: Returns can be updated up to 4 years from the end of the relevant assessment year without penalty; Assessment reopening period reduced to 5 years.
Simplification Gains and Emerging Concerns
- Expanded search powers: Tax officers can now demand passwords of electronic devices, emails, and social media accounts.
- Override access: Officials may bypass access codes to computer systems if passwords are not shared.
- Privacy concerns: Unlike earlier provisions (limited to inspection and lock-breaking), the new law extends to personal digital data, raising red flags.
Government’s Rationale for Expanding Digital Powers
- Rationale: Much of financial data today is exchanged via messaging apps, emails, or stored digitally.
- Committee stance: Though some dissent was recorded, the Select Committee accepted the government’s view that these provisions are essential for effective investigation.
Conclusion
The Income Tax Bill, 2025 is a watershed reform, simplifying one of India’s most complex laws. While the codification of taxpayer-friendly provisions marks a progressive step, the enhanced surveillance powers granted to tax authorities highlight the thin line between efficiency and overreach. The challenge ahead lies in ensuring that simplification does not come at the cost of citizens’ trust and constitutional rights.
Value Addition for UPSC
|
- Governance angle (GS-II): Balancing simplification of laws with citizen rights and privacy.
- Economic reforms (GS-III): Tax rationalisation improves compliance and ease of doing business.
- Ethics (GS-IV): Dilemma of state surveillance vs. individual liberty; Kantian duty-based ethics vs. utilitarian approach.
- Comparative context: Similar debates exist globallye.g., U.S. IRS’s digital access powers vs. EU’s stricter GDPR protections.
|
PYQ Relevance
| [UPSC 2020] Explain the rationale behind the Goods and Services Tax (Compensation to States) Act of 2017.How has COVID-19 impacted the GST compensation fund and created new federal tensions?
Linkage: The GST Compensation Act, 2017 aimed to build Centre–State trust during the GST transition but COVID-19 strained revenues, sparking federal tensions. Similarly, the Income Tax Bill, 2025 seeks to simplify direct taxes to build citizen trust but raises concerns over state overreach in digital surveillance. Both show that taxation is ultimately about trust and legitimacy in governance. |
Practice Mains Question
The Income Tax Bill, 2025 seeks to simplify India’s tax regime but also introduces stronger surveillance powers for officials. Discuss the balance between efficiency, transparency, and taxpayer rights. (250 words)
Mapping Microthemes for GS Papers
- GS-I: Evolution of economic policies post-Independence.
- GS-II: Governance, legislative reforms, fundamental rights (privacy).
- GS-III: Fiscal reforms, tax policy, ease of doing business.
- GS-IV: Ethics of surveillance, transparency, accountability.
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Introduction
Plastic pollution represents one of the gravest environmental crises of our times. Despite decades of regulation and bans, plastics remain ubiquitous, cheap, and nearly indestructible. Talks in Geneva involving 180 countries failed to secure an internationally binding legal agreement to limit plastic pollution, reflecting deep divisions over whether the treaty should target waste alone or include production.
Global Plastic Treaty Deadlock: Why It Matters
- Global deadlock: 180 countries failed to agree on a binding treaty on plastic pollution in Geneva, despite a UNEP-backed resolution already in place.
- First-time sharp focus on health: Unlike earlier discussions centred only on waste management, the health impact of plastics is now central.
- Scale of problem: Plastics contain more than 16,000 chemicals, with little knowledge on 10,000+ of them. A Nature study showed 4,000 chemicals of concern are present across major plastic types.
- Striking evidence: Microplastics detected in blood, breast milk, placenta, bone marrow, bringing urgency to the debate.
The Persistence and Ubiquity of Plastics
- Symbol of consumption economy: Cheap and versatile, plastics reflect today’s global consumption.
- Persistence and flexibility: Synthetic, fossil-fuel-derived polymers are non-biodegradable and endure for decades.
- Waste mismanagement: Cheap production, ubiquity, and limited recycling capacity turn plastics into the prime source of litter.
Plastics and Human Health: Emerging Evidence
- Chemicals of concern: Plastics use ethylene, propylene, styrene derivatives, along with bisphenols, phthalates, PCBs, PBDEs, and PFAS.
- Products of exposure: Found in food containers, bottles, teething toys, polyester, IV bags, cosmetics, paints, electronics, adhesives.
- Health links: Studies link plastic chemicals to thyroid dysfunction, hypertension, kidney/testicular cancer, gestational diabetes.
- Evidence base: Around 1,100 studies, involving 1.1 million individuals, compiled by Boston College & Minderoo Foundation dashboard.
- Nature of studies: Mostly associative; longitudinal studies (gold standard) are still underway.
The Microplastic Menace
- Definition: Plastics smaller than 5 mm, found in additives or broken-down products.
- Recent discoveries: Detected in human blood, breast milk, placenta, bone marrow.
- Health uncertainty: Exact impacts still under study, but linked to multiple disorders.
Policy Responses: Global and Indian Perspectives
- Global scene: Negotiations divided on waste vs production; developing countries demand funding support.
- India’s stance:
- Ban on single-use plastics in ~20 States
- Administrative push for Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
- Views plastics as a waste management issue, not a health issue.
- Prefers health dimension to be dealt with at WHO, not in the plastics treaty.
Conclusion
The Geneva deadlock reflects not just a failure of diplomacy but the widening gap between scientific evidence and policy action. Plastics are no longer an invisible convenience; they are a pervasive health hazard. While India treats plastics as a waste issue, ignoring health risks leaves a blind spot in policy. A robust, binding treaty addressing both production and health impact is indispensable if the world is to prevent plastics from becoming the new tobacco of the 21st century.
PYQ Relavance
| [UPSC 2023] What is oil pollution? What are its impacts on the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil pollution particularly harmful for a country like India?
Linkage: Since UPSC has already asked about oil pollution (2023), it shows the exam’s focus on pollution and ecosystem impacts. Plastic pollution, like oil, originates from fossil fuels and has severe effects on marine life and human health. Hence, a direct question on plastic pollution and its health–environment nexus is highly probable. |
Practice Mains Question
Plastics are no longer merely a waste management problem but a serious health hazard. Critically examine the health risks associated with plastic use and evaluate India’s stance in global plastic treaty negotiations.
Mapping Microthemes
- GS-1: Impact of industrialisation and consumerism on environment.
- GS-2: International negotiations, India’s foreign policy stance in environmental treaties.
- GS-3: Pollution, waste management, health-environment nexus.
- GS-4: Ethics of sustainability, intergenerational justice, corporate responsibility.
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Why in the News?
A palm specie ‘Phoenix roxburghii’ first described in the 17th-century botanical treatise Hortus Malabaricus has been recently confirmed.
About Phoenix roxburghii:
- Origin: Named after William Roxburgh, regarded as the father of Indian Botany.
- Distribution: Found along India’s eastern coast, Bangladesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Pakistan.
- Height: Grows up to 12–16 metres, taller than Phoenix sylvestris.
- Distinct Features:
- Solitary trunk
- Larger leaves and leaflets
- Musty-scented staminate flowers
- Large, obovoid orange-yellow fruits
Back2Basics: India’s Oil Palm Scenario
- National Mission on Edible Oils – Oil Palm (NMEO-OP) (2021): Centrally sponsored, aims to boost domestic crude palm oil (CPO) production and reduce import dependence.
- Targets:
- Expand area to 10 lakh ha by 2025–26.
- Raise production from 0.27 lakh tonnes (2019–20) to 11.2 lakh tonnes (2025–26), further to 28 lakh tonnes (2029–30).
- Support Mechanisms: Viability Price (VP), Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT), planting subsidy (₹29,000/ha), and special aid for NE & Andaman regions.
- Cultivation States: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Kerala (98% of output); others include Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Gujarat, and NE states.
- Potential vs Current: 28 lakh ha potential; only 3.7 lakh ha cultivated.
- Imports: India is the world’s largest palm oil importer (9.2 million tonnes in 2023–24). Palm oil forms 60% of edible oil imports, sourced mainly from Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand.
- Unique Advantage: Palm oil yields are 5× higher than traditional oilseeds.
| [UPSC 2021] With reference to ‘palm oil,’ consider the following statements:
1. The palm oil tree is native to Southeast Asia.
2. Palm oil is a raw material for some industries producing lipstick and perfumes.
3. Palm oil can be used to produce biodiesel.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Researchers from UK and China have developed a bioelectronic device where genetically engineered E. Coli bacteria act as self-powered chemical bio-sensor.
About Escherichia coli (E. coli) Bacteria:
- Overview: Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that inhabits the lower intestine of warm-blooded animals.
- Family: Belongs to the Enterobacteriaceae family.
- Harmless vs Pathogenic: Most strains are harmless, but some (e.g., E. coli O157:H7) cause severe foodborne illness, diarrhoea, and kidney complications.
- Gut Role: Contributes to vitamin K₂ synthesis and maintains gut microbiota balance.
- Transmission: Pathogenic strains spread via contaminated food, water, or direct contact, leading to outbreaks.
- Diagnostic Importance: Presence in water is a key indicator of faecal contamination.
Bio-Sensors Generated Using E. coli
- Innovation: Genetically engineered E. coli used as self-powered chemical biosensors.
- Mechanism: Detect compounds, process signals, and produce electrical outputs compatible with low-cost electronics.
- Modules:
- Sensing Module: Detects target molecules.
- Processing Module: Amplifies or modifies signals.
- Output Module: Produces phenazines measurable via electrochemistry.
- Applications:
- Detected arabinose (plant sugar) within 2 hours.
- Detected mercury ions in water at trace levels (below WHO safety limits) within 3 hours.
- Demonstrated an “AND” logic gate, producing signals only when two molecules were present together.
- Significance:
- Cheaper, programmable, and robust alternative to enzyme-based biosensors.
- Potential in environmental monitoring, water safety, medical diagnostics, and bioelectronics.
| [UPSC 2010] Which bacterial strain, developed from natural isolated by genetic manipulations, can be used for treating oil spills?
(a) Agrodbacterium
(b) Clostridium
(c) Nitrosomonas
(d) Pseudomonas* |
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Why in the News?
The Gugga Naumi festival was widely celebrated across northern states of India on 17th August.
About Gugga Naumi Festival:
- Festival: Folk religious celebration in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, and northern states.
- Timing: Observed on the ninth day of Krishna Paksha in Bhadrapad month, usually after Janmashtami.
- Deity: Dedicated to Gugga (Gugga Pir / Gugga Zahir Pir / Guaaji), a Chauhan Rajput prince believed to control snakes.
- Tradition: Reflects syncretic worship by Hindus and Muslims, showcasing folk religiosity beyond formal religion.
Key Features:
- Duration: Begins on Rakhi and lasts nine days, with pilgrimages to Gugga Medi village in Hanumangarh, Rajasthan.
- Rituals: Garudas (snake charmers and healers) carry Gugga Pir’s Chahad (standard).
- Devotion: Pir ke Sole (songs) sung, fairs organised at shrines (Marhis).
- Depiction: Gugga shown riding a blue horse, with blue and yellow flags.
- Belief: Worshipped by mothers for children’s health, and by barren women for fertility blessings.
| [UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs: Tradition State
1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram
2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur
3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim
Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Recently, Chinese scientists identified a key gene, Chalk9, that controls chalkiness in rice, offering a breakthrough for crop improvement.
About Chalk9 Gene in Rice:
- Overview: Chalk9 is a gene found on chromosome 9 of rice.
- Function: Encodes the enzyme E3 ubiquitin ligase, which regulates protein degradation.
- Target Protein: Acts on OsEBP89, a regulator of starch-synthesis genes Wx and SSP.
- Chalk9-L Variant: Promotes OsEBP89 degradation → prevents excess starch accumulation → results in low chalkiness and translucent grains.
- Chalk9-H Variant: Fails to degrade OsEBP89 efficiently → leads to starch buildup → high chalkiness and brittle grains.
Significance:
- Grain Quality: Chalkiness lowers milling recovery and reduces rice’s commercial value.
- Genetic Solution: Discovery of Chalk9 offers a direct genetic tool to reduce chalkiness.
- Breeding Advantage: Rice breeding programs can introduce Chalk9-L to produce premium low-chalk rice.
- Economic Impact: Improves farmer income and enhances food security.
- Consumer Preference: Meets demand for better quality, translucent rice varieties.
| [UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements: DNA Barcoding can be a tool to :
1. assess the age of a plant or animal. 2. distinguish among species that look alike. 3. identify undesirable animal or plant materials in processed foods.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
MIT-led research suggests life may not need liquid water; ionic liquids (salts that stay liquid below 100°C) could support life on rocky super-Earths with volcanic activity and little water.
About Ionic Liquids (ILs):
- Overview: Salts in liquid form below 100°C, composed entirely of ions.
- Properties: Non-volatile, non-flammable, thermally stable, and tunable as hydrophobic or hydrophilic.
- Structure: Unlike water (neutral molecules), ILs consist of ions and ion pairs.
- Electrochemical Use: Excellent electrolytes with broad electrochemical windows.
- Applications: Used in synthesis, catalysis, electrochemistry, extraction, biotechnology, and as green alternatives to volatile solvents.
Breakthrough Findings of MIT Study:
- Life Without Water: Experiments showed life could potentially survive using ILs as solvents instead of water.
- Natural Formation: Sulfuric acid mixed with nitrogen compounds can naturally form ILs.
- Exoplanet Link: Such ILs may exist on rocky super-Earths with volcanic activity and thin atmospheres.
- Venus Research Origin: Discovery emerged from studying Venus, where sulfuric acid clouds interact with organic molecules to form ILs.
- Biological Relevance: ILs can provide stable environments for biomolecules, supporting metabolism.
Significance of the Study:
- Habitability Expansion: Broadens habitability definition beyond water-based models.
- Biosignatures: Suggests new chemical markers for exoplanet life detection.
- Venus Missions: Strengthens rationale for Venus’s exploration targeting IL-based chemistry.
- Wider Habitable Zones: Implies more planets could host life than previously thought.
| [UPSC 2015] The term ‘Goldilocks Zone’ is often seen in the news in the context of:
(a) the limits of habitable zone above the surface of the Earth
(b) regions inside the Earth where shale gas is available
(c) search for the Earth-like planets in outer space*
(d) search for meteorites containing precious metals |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2013] Left Wing Extremism (LWE) is showing a downward trend, but still affects many parts of the country. Briefly explain the socio-economic issues that contribute to LWE, and the measures taken by the government to address them.
Linkage: The question resonates with the article’s focus on the downward curve of Naxalism while stressing that socio-economic deprivations among tribals and the rural poor have historically sustained the movement. It also connects with the state’s twin approach of security operations and development interventions that are gradually weakening Left Wing Extremism. |
Mentor’s Comment: The narrative of militancy in India is shifting. While the world warns of AI-fuelled terrorism and increasingly sophisticated threats, India is witnessing a rare counter-trend, a decline in ideologically-driven insurgencies such as Naxalism. This moment is not just a statistic; it’s a significant turning point in the country’s internal security landscape, marking the potential closure of a decades-long chapter that once defined violent dissent in India.
Introduction
At a time when global terrorism persists ranging from lone-wolf attacks to fears of AI-enabled bio-terrorism India is witnessing an unprecedented success story. Naxalism, an ideologically-driven insurgency that once gripped large parts of the country, is in clear decline. For the first time, the Union Home Minister has set a timeline, predicting its “final demise” by mid-2026.
The Changing Global and Indian Terrorism Landscape
How does global terrorism contrast with India’s current experience?
- Persistent global threat: A quarter-century after 9/11, jihadist violence remains potent, with incidents such as IS-inspired vehicle rammings in Europe and the U.S.
- Emerging AI-driven dangers: Concerns over terrorists accessing bio-weapons or misaligned AI pose new challenges.
- India’s divergence: While global trends show intensification, India is experiencing a declining curve in ideologically-oriented militancy, particularly Naxalism.
From ‘Spring Thunder’ to a Fading Echo — The Rise and Decline of Naxalism
- Revolutionary origins: Inspired by Mao, Ho Chi Minh, and Che Guevara, the late 1960s Naxalite movement attracted students, intellectuals, and marginalized groups.
- Loss of ideological cohesion: Splits into regional factions eroded the all-India character of the movement.
- Degeneration into violence: From targeted political action, it shifted to indiscriminate killings, losing public sympathy.
Why is Naxalism Declining?
- Sustained Offensive (2024 onwards): Coordinated security operations across states have eliminated thousands of cadres.
- Major Losses: Even the banned CPI (Maoist) admitted 357 cadres killed in one year, over one-third of them women.
- Leadership & Territorial Shrinkage: The removal of top leaders like Ganapathi and confinement of the insurgency to the Dandakaranya region reflect its weakening base.
- Weakening: Infighting and loss of ideological cohesion have eroded its strength.
India’s Approach vs. U.S. ‘War on Terror’
- U.S. model: Heavy reliance on brute force in places like Somalia and Yemen.
- India’s model: A calibrated strategy with checks on use of force, mindful of the Naxalites’ local roots. The SAMADHAN Doctrine—Smart leadership, Aggressive strategy, Motivation, Intelligence, Technology use, Local action plans, and choking finances—has guided the campaign.
India’s Approach vs U.S. ‘War on Terror’
- Ideological vs non-ideological targets: U.S. campaigns focused on jihadists abroad; India’s on militants embedded in local communities.
- Checks and balances: India traditionally limited brute force, using it selectively.
- Community linkage: Naxalites often lived among villagers, complicating security responses.
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Original Naxalites vs. “Urban Naxals”
- Original movement: The 1960s “Spring Thunder Over India” drew inspiration from Mao and Che Guevara, but degenerated into fragmented violence.
- Contemporary misuse: Today’s “urban naxals” are loosely-knit intellectual critics of government policy, lacking the ideological foundation of the original movement. Misclassification of the two risks policy errors.
The ‘Urban Naxal’ Misclassification Problem
- Original movement’s structure: Marxist-Leninist framework with defined goals and ideology.
- Today’s ‘urban naxals’: Loosely connected intellectuals critical of government policies, lacking direct insurgent links.
- Policy risk: Mislabeling can distort understanding, leading to inappropriate responses and latent security risks.
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Conclusion
The decline of Naxalism marks an inflection point in India’s internal security narrative. Yet, premature declarations of victory must be avoided, as history shows insurgencies can mutate or re-emerge. Accurate threat classification, addressing root grievances, and avoiding cognitive blind spots will be key to ensuring that the “end of Naxalism” is indeed a lasting reality.
Value Addition
- Decline of the “Red Corridor”: Once widespread, Naxal influence is now confined to limited forest belts.
- Development & Governance: Infrastructure, education, healthcare, and tribal rights reforms have severed the Naxal-village link.
- Internal Security Gains: Security forces are freed for other challenges; development projects can now expand into previously inaccessible regions.
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Practice Mains Question
Discuss the factors contributing to the decline of Naxalism in India and examine the implications for the country’s internal security architecture.
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The Election Commission of India’s (ECI) Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls has become a focal point of debate, extending beyond a routine update. The ECI’s insistence on specific identity and citizenship proofs, most notably the birth certificate, has sparked a critical discussion. The core issue is the potential for widespread voter exclusion, which stands in stark contrast to the foundational democratic principle of ensuring the broadest possible inclusion of all eligible citizens. A recent Lokniti-CSDS survey, conducted across five states and one Union Territory, provides compelling data that challenges the feasibility and inclusivity of the SIR exercise as it is currently designed.
The Paradox of Electoral Reforms: Inclusion vs. Exclusion
The Unintended Consequences of the Special Intensive Revision
- Documentation Burden: Over half of all respondents lack a birth certificate. A similar proportion lacks a domicile or caste certificate, while at least two-thirds don’t have their parents’ birth certificates.
- Widespread Lack of Awareness: Only 36% of respondents were aware of the SIR exercise or its document requirements, indicating a massive information gap.
- Socio-Economic Disparities: The lack of necessary documents disproportionately affects vulnerable groups. Roughly 5% of respondents had none of the 11 documents required by the EC. This group of “No Document Citizens” had a higher percentage of women, and were predominantly from the lower economic half, with over one-fourth being SC and over 40% OBC.
Which groups are most vulnerable to exclusion?
- No-document citizens: 5% of respondents had none of the 11 documents.
- Marginalized impact: Majority of these were women, ¾ from lower economic strata, ¼ SC, and 40% OBC.
- Parental records: Absence of parental birth certificates was as high as 87% in Madhya Pradesh and 72% mothers in Uttar Pradesh.
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Impact of the SIR on Indian democracy
- Core democratic risk: Exclusion of eligible voters undermines the principle of universal adult suffrage.
- State capacity challenge: Weak record-keeping and low administrative accessibility deepen inequalities.
- Policy dilemma: While cleansing electoral rolls is important, the current framework risks mass deletion of legitimate voters.
Administrative challenges contributing to this problem
- Inconsistent Birth Certificate Possession: The possession of birth certificates varies sharply across states, revealing significant administrative and historical disparities. In Madhya Pradesh only 11% of respondents had a birth certificate and in West Bengal, with a 49% possession rate. Even in states with higher rates like West Bengal and Delhi, at least half the population still lacks this document.
- Difficulty in Obtaining Documents: The process is perceived as “very difficult” by a substantial portion of the population in major states, including 46% in Delhi, 41% in Kerala, 40% in Madhya Pradesh, and 41% in West Bengal.
- Parental Documents as a Major Hurdle: The requirement for parental documents for those born after 1987 (and for both parents for those born after 2003) is a near-impossible condition for many.
- State Capacity Gaps: The survey highlights the varying capacity of different states to provide and maintain official records, which is a major factor in the documentation gaps.
- Exclusion of Aadhaar: The EC’s decision to exclude Aadhaar creates an unnecessary barrier for voters, especially in states where other documents are rare.
The findings of the Lokniti-CSDS survey underscore that while cleansing electoral rolls is a valid goal, the current SIR framework is not inclusive. The reliance on documents that many citizens lack, coupled with significant state-wise and socio-economic disparities in document possession, creates a high risk of voter exclusion. The data show that the exercise, as it stands, is more likely to disenfranchise legitimate voters than to simply remove errors, highlighting the need for a more pragmatic and flexible approach that accounts for the ground realities of India’s diverse population.
Value Addition
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The SIR’s Challenge to Inclusive Democracy
The Election Commission’s Special Intensive Revision (SIR) aims to update voter lists but risks excluding many citizens. This is a problem because it goes against the core democratic principle of including all eligible voters.
- Cleansing vs. Exclusion: While cleaning up the voter list is a good goal, the SIR’s strict rules about documents could lead to the removal of many people who have a legal right to vote. The survey showed that 5% of people lack any of the required documents, with this problem hitting women and people from lower economic backgrounds the hardest.
- State Variation: The SIR’s uniform rules are problematic because the ability to get official documents varies greatly across India. For example, possession of a birth certificate is very low in Madhya Pradesh (11%) compared to West Bengal (49%).
- Democratic Principle: Democracy depends on everyone having the right to vote. By creating new barriers, the SIR exercise weakens the foundation of free and fair elections.
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Mapping Micro Themes:
- GS1: Social exclusion, regional disparities in documentation.
- GS2: Electoral reforms, governance capacity, rights of citizens.
- GS3: Use of technology (Aadhaar vs exclusions), administrative bottlenecks
- GS4: Ethical governance, fairness, justice in democracy.
PYQ Relevance:
| [UPSC 2017] To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful?
Linkage: The 2016 ECI reforms aimed at enhancing transparency and accountability (e.g., NOTA, state funding, criminal disqualification), while the SIR focuses on electoral roll accuracy. Both highlight the tension between integrity and inclusivity in democracy. The linkage shows that reforms must balance systemic credibility with citizens’ access, else democracy risks exclusion. |
Practice Mains Question:
Critically analyze the challenges posed by the Election Commission of India’s Special Intensive Revision of electoral rolls in the context of voter inclusion and democratic participation. Based on the findings of the Lokniti-CSDS survey, suggest measures to make the revision process more inclusive and equitable.
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India–U.K. Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), especially its Chapter 12 on Digital Trade, marks a shift from cautious digital policy to strategic global engagement. It brings major trade gains, but also sparks debate on data sovereignty and oversight. Chapter 12 of India–U.K. CETA exchanges some regulatory control for greater digital market access. Gains include mutual recognition of e-signatures, duty-free digital exports, and innovation-friendly provisions, while concerns focus on limited source-code checks and voluntary data sharing.
Digital Gains from the Agreement
- Recognition of Electronic Signatures and Contracts: Both nations commit to mutual recognition, reducing paperwork for SaaS firms and lowering entry barriers for SMEs.
- Paperless Trade & E-Invoicing: Eases cross-border documentation and payments, enhancing trade efficiency.
- Zero Customs Duties on Electronic Transmissions: Preserves a Commerce Ministry–estimated $30 billion software export pipeline.
- Regulatory Sandboxes for Data Innovation: Encourages pilot projects that allow payments and data-driven firms to test tools under supervision, boosting credibility abroad.
- Duty-Free Access for Indian Merchandise: Nearly 99% of exports could enter the U.K. duty-free; textile tariffs dropping from 12% to zero will aid hubs like Tiruppur and Ludhiana.
- Openings in British Public Procurement: Expands market opportunities for Indian IT suppliers.
- Social Security Waivers: Reduces payroll costs for short-term assignments abroad by about 20%.
Digital Costs and Concerns
- Source-Code Inspection Restrictions: Ban on routine checks; regulators can only demand access in investigations or court cases.
- Voluntary Government Data Sharing: No binding obligation; India decides what data to release, and in what format.
- No Automatic MFN for Data Flows: Only a forward review mechanism exists if stricter data rules appear in other agreements.
- Review Timelines: First formal review in 5 years; critics suggest 3-year reviews to match rapid AI developments.
- Domestic Readiness Gap: Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 rules are pending notification; absence of clear internal processes could weaken negotiation leverage.
Balancing Sovereignty and Openness
- Security Exceptions Preserved: National supervision over critical infrastructure like power grids and payment systems remains intact.
- Good Governance Safeguards: Prevents disguised restrictions on trade under the guise of regulation.
- Trusted Labs Proposal: Accrediting secure labs to review sensitive code could bridge the trust gap.
- Audit Trails for Cross-Border Data Flows: Ensures accountability follows the data.
- Institutionalised Consultations: Open, pre-negotiation dialogue to anticipate and address stakeholder concerns.
Steps for Future Digital Treaties
- Integrate market openness with regulatory oversight
- Set three-year review cycles to adapt to technological change
- Develop domestic readiness before external commitments
- Maintain a balance between security and trade facilitation
Conclusion
The India–U.K. digital trade compact is both a leap and a litmus test. It affirms India’s readiness to engage strategically in global digital commerce while underscoring the necessity of robust domestic regulation. The real challenge is not in signing such pacts but in ensuring that sovereignty, security, and innovation move forward together.
Value Addition
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Reports / Data
- Commerce Ministry (2024): India’s software exports via electronic transmissions valued at $30 billion annually.
- UNCTAD Report on Digital Economy (2023): India among top 5 global economies in digital services exports.
- NASSCOM 2023: Digital public infrastructure (UPI, Aadhaar, DigiLocker) key enablers of India’s digital leap.
Case Studies / Examples
- UPI in G20 (2023): India pushing UPI internationalisation – similar to how digital trade pacts expand India’s reach.
- Singapore & Australia FTAs: Precedent for including digital trade rules, but U.K. CETA is India’s first binding digital chapter.
- Textile exports from Tiruppur/Ludhiana: Example of how tariff elimination + digital facilitation = trade gains.
Concepts & Theories
- WTO-plus Agreements: Regional/bilateral pacts that go beyond WTO commitments (like CETA’s Chapter 12).
- Data Sovereignty vs Digital Openness: Core tension between national control over data and global free flows.
- Regulatory Sandboxes: Innovation-friendly regulatory spaces balancing innovation & oversight.
Quotes for Enrichment
- Nandan Nilekani: “India has built digital public goods at population scale, something no other democracy has attempted.”
- UNCTAD: “The digital economy is now the fastest growing trade frontier, but also the most contested.”
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PYQ Relevance
| Though there is no direct PYQ, the digital trade compact can be used in many questions like
[UPSC 2023] What is the status of digitalization in the Indian Economy? Examine the problems faced in this regard and suggest improvement.
Linkage: The India–U.K. CETA’s digital trade provisions—like e-signatures, paperless trade, and zero customs duty—highlight India’s progress in integrating digitalization into global commerce. At the same time, issues like restricted source-code access, weak data protection readiness, and voluntary data sharing mirror the broader problems of digitalization in India. Thus, the pact underlines both India’s digital gains and the urgent need for domestic reforms and safeguards to fully leverage such agreements. |
Mapping Micro Themes
- GS-2: Trade diplomacy, sovereignty.
- GS-3: Digital trade, AI regulation, cybersecurity.
- GS-4: Transparency, public trust.
Practice Mains Question:
Critically analyse the opportunities and risks from the digital trade provisions in India–U.K. CETA.
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Why in the News?
In August 2025, the Supreme Court intervened twice to prevent the misuse of criminal proceedings in essentially civil disputes.
About Civil and Criminal Cases:
- Civil cases involve disputes between individuals or organisations and are mostly governed by Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (CPC). The aim is to resolve rights and duties, usually through compensation (damages) or injunctions. Examples: property disputes, contract breaches, divorce, custody, money recovery.
- Criminal cases involve offences against the state or society. The objective is punishment and deterrence. Initiated by the state prosecutor. Examples: theft, cheating, assault, murder.
- Burden of proof:
- Civil cases: Decided on a preponderance of probabilities (more likely than not).
- Criminal cases: Guilt must be proven beyond reasonable doubt.
- Dual Cases: Some acts can give rise to both civil and criminal liability. For dual proceedings, there must be proof of criminal intent before entering the commercial or personal relationship.
- Timelines: Data from the National Judicial Data Grid (2025) shows civil cases are slower (avg. 4.91 years) compared to many criminal cases (70% disposed within a year).
Recent Supreme Court Actions:
- Rajasthan plywood dispute case (Aug 13, 2025): SC held there was no criminal breach of trust in a simple sale transaction. Denial of pre-arrest bail by the High Court was overturned.
- Allahabad HC case (Aug 4, 2025): SC criticised a judge for allowing criminal proceedings in a business transaction dispute, calling it a “mockery of justice”. The judge was temporarily barred from handling criminal cases, later reinstated after CJI intervention.
- The SC clarified that civil disputes cannot be turned into criminal prosecutions unless fraud or criminal intent is clearly shown.
| [UPSC 2016] With reference to the ‘Gram Nyayalaya Act’, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. As per the Act, Gram Nyayalayas can hear only civil cases and not criminal cases.
2. The Act allows local social activists as mediators/reconciliators.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The British conquest of Sindh in the 1840s was a key step in colonial expansion, reminding us that regions like Sindh, Punjab, and Bengal came under British rule long before the 1947 partition of India and Pakistan.
British Conquest of Sindh:
- Sindh was annexed by the British in 1843 after the battles of Miani and Dubbo.
- The resistance was led by Hosh Muhammad Sheedi, a general of the Talpur army and member of the African-origin Siddi community.
- His defiance symbolised the first major armed resistance to British expansion in northwest India.
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Political Background in Sindh:
- Kalhora Dynasty (1701–1779): Founded by Mian Yar Muhammad Kalhoro, recognised by Mughals; ruled northern and central Sindh. Prosperous period but weakened by internal disputes.
- Talpur Dynasty (1779–1843): Baloch Talpurs overthrew Kalhoras; consolidated Sindh under clan rule at Hyderabad and Khairpur.
- Geopolitical Context: Sindh lay at the crossroads of British–French–Russian rivalry (The Great Game). Britain feared Russian advances through Iran and Afghanistan.
- British Entry: East India Company forced treaties on Talpurs; captured Karachi (1839) after bombarding Manora fort.
British Advance and the Fall of Sindh:
- Battle of Miani (17 Feb 1843): British under Sir Charles Napier defeated Mir Nasir Khan Talpur near Hyderabad.
- Battle of Dubbo (24 Mar 1843): Hosh Muhammad Sheedi allied with Mir Sher Muhammad Talpur of Mirpur Khas. Sheedi raised the war cry “Marvesoon par Sindh na desoon” (I may die but will not give up Sindh). He was killed in action.
- British Annexation: After Dubbo, Sindh was annexed into the Bombay Presidency. Talpur rule ended.
- Aftermath: Within a decade, Punjab too was annexed (1849), bringing all of northwest India under British rule.
Legacy of Hosh Muhammad Sheedi:
- Born into the household of Talpur rulers; of African-Siddi descent.
- Valour acknowledged by both Indian and British chroniclers.
- Became a folk hero of Sindh, remembered by Hindus and Muslims alike.
- His legacy is central to the cultural memory of Sindh and highlights the role of the Siddi community in resisting colonialism.
| [UPSC 2007] The ruler of which one of the following States was removed from power by the British on the pretext of misgovernance?
Options: (a) Awadh* (b) Jhansi (c) French (d) Satara |
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Why in the News?
The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (Amendment) Bill, 2025 was introduced in the Lok Sabha by Finance Minister to streamline insolvency, cut tribunal delays, and add new tools like creditor-led resolution and cross-border insolvency.
About the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), 2016:
- IBC is India’s bankruptcy law, covering corporate persons, partnership firms, and individuals.
- Insolvency: Liabilities exceed assets; entity cannot meet obligations.
- Bankruptcy: Legal declaration of inability to pay debts.
- Objective: Time-bound, creditor-driven resolution to improve recovery and business confidence.
- Regulating Authority: Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI), a statutory body with members from Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Corporate Affairs, and Reserve Bank of India.
- Adjudicating Authority:
- National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) for companies/LLPs.
- Debt Recovery Tribunal (DRT) for individuals and partnership firms.
Key Amendments Proposed in IBC (2025):
- Creditor-Initiated Insolvency Resolution Process (CIIRP): Out-of-court creditor resolutions with NCLT approval; faster timelines and promoter involvement.
- Group Insolvency: Joint proceedings for related companies to preserve asset value and cut costs (e.g., Videocon Group case).
- Cross-Border Insolvency: Framework to handle overseas assets and debts, allowing Indian lenders access to foreign assets.
- Pre-Packaged Insolvency (PPIRP): Faster, affordable restructuring route for Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) while operations continue.
- Other Reforms: Segregated asset sales, more NCLT benches (now 16), extended claim timelines, sector-specific provisions, and debtor audits.
Achievements of IBC:
- Debt Resolution: Resolved ₹3.16 lakh crore in 808 cases since 2016 (CRISIL data).
- Recovery Rate: Average recovery of 32% of admitted claims, 169% of liquidation value.
- Comparison: Outperformed earlier mechanisms (DRT, SARFAESI Act, Lok Adalat) which achieved only 5–20% recovery.
- Deterrence: Borrowers pre-settled ₹9 lakh crore debt to avoid IBC proceedings.
- Large NPAs: Addressed RBI’s “Dirty Dozen” cases like Bhushan Steel, Essar Steel, Jaypee Infratech.
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| [UPSC 2017] Which of the following statements best describes the term ‘Scheme for Sustainable Structuring of Stressed Assets (S4A)’, recently seen in the news?
Options: (a) It is a procedure for considering ecological costs of developmental schemes formulated by the Government.
(b) It is a scheme of RBI for reworking the financial structure of big corporate entities facing genuine difficulties.
(c) It is a disinvestment plan of the Government regarding Central Public Sector Undertakings.
(d) It is an important provision in ‘The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code’ recently implemented by the Government. * |
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Why in the News?
On August 15, 2025, Prime Minister delivered the longest Independence Day speech (103 minutes) from the Red Fort, continuing a tradition started by Jawaharlal Nehru in 1947.
The fort’s choice as the venue reflects its historic role as Delhi’s seat of power and symbol of sovereignty.
About the Red Fort:
- Construction: Built in 1648 by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as the palace fort of Shahjahanabad, his new capital.
- Material: Enclosed by massive red sandstone walls with royal pavilions and apartments.
- Water Feature: Contained the Nahr-i-Behisht (“Stream of Paradise”), a continuous water channel.
- Architectural Value: Prime example of Mughal architecture, blending Islamic traditions with Indian craftsmanship.
- Recognition: Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007.
Historical Significance of Delhi and Red Fort:
- Delhi’s Role: Seat of power for nearly a thousand years, regarded as “capital of all Hindustan” by Babur.
- Shahjahanabad: Inaugurated in 1648 with the Red Fort at its centre.
- Symbol of Sovereignty: Even after Mughal decline, Delhi remained central; East India Company minted coins in the emperor’s name.
1857 Revolt and British Authority:
- Revolt Centre: Bahadur Shah Zafar was declared leader by sepoys in Delhi.
- Aftermath: Fall of Delhi ended Mughal rule; Zafar was exiled.
- Fort Damage: British converted Red Fort into a military garrison, destroying ~80% of interiors.
- Imperial Authority: Delhi Durbars (1877, 1903, 1911) asserted British control before capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911.
Significance of Red Fort for Independence Day:
- INA Trials: Held in Red Fort in 1946, igniting nationalist fervour.
- 1947 Ceremony: Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the national flag on 15 August 1947 and gave the first Independence Day address.
- Tradition: Since then, every Prime Minister hoists the flag and addresses the nation from its ramparts.
- Symbolism: Site once stamped with colonial dominance, now reclaimed as a symbol of India’s sovereignty.
| [UPSC 2021] What was the exact constitutional status of India on 26th January, 1950?
Options: (a) A democratic Republic (b) A Sovereign Democratic Republic* (c) A Sovereign Secular Democratic Republic (d) A Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic |
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