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Minority Issues – SC, ST, Dalits, OBC, Reservations, etc.

SC on amended Waqf Act: What has been stayed, what remains

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Communalism, Secularism, Regionalism

Introduction

The Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025, passed by Parliament earlier this year, faced widespread opposition from political leaders, religious organisations, and civil society. Over 65 petitions were filed, challenging its constitutional validity. On September 15, the Supreme Court issued an interim order staying several key provisions, particularly those expanding the powers of district collectors, imposing a five-year Islam practice condition for creating a waqf, and capping non-Muslim representation in Waqf boards. At the same time, the Court upheld other significant changes such as the removal of “waqf-by-user” and the applicability of the Limitation Act. This selective intervention reflects the judiciary’s cautious approach in balancing equity, religious freedom, and governance.

Waqf

Why is the Supreme Court’s interim stay significant?

  1. First major judicial intervention: The SC’s order is the first substantive check on the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025 since its passage.
  2. Large-scale impact: With nearly 65 petitions filed, the matter affects thousands of properties and the rights of the Muslim community across India.
  3. Balance of powers: The Court flagged violation of the separation of powers doctrine by preventing revenue officers from adjudicating property titles.
  4. Guardrails against misuse: While not striking down the Act, the Court has added interim safeguards to prevent dispossession and misuse of powers.

What powers of District Collectors were stayed?

  1. Section 3C inquiry power: District Collectors could declare that land claimed as waqf is government property. The SC stayed the clause that made waqf status cease immediately upon inquiry.
  2. Arbitrariness highlighted: Entrusting title determination to a revenue officer was held to be prima facie arbitrary.
  3. Safeguard applied: Waqf properties will retain their status until adjudicated by a Waqf Tribunal. However, no third-party rights can be created until final resolution.

How did the Court deal with non-Muslim representation in Waqf Boards?

  1. Capping membership: Central Waqf Council (22 members) shall not have more than 4 non-Muslims; State Waqf Boards (11 members) shall not have more than 3 non-Muslims.
  2. Community rights upheld: This ensures that the Muslim community’s right under Article 26 to manage religious affairs is not diluted.
  3. Avoiding ambiguity: The SC clarified numbers to prevent misinterpretation of the law.

What about the ‘five years of practising Islam’ rule?

  1. New definition of waqf: The 2025 Act required proof of practising Islam for five years to create a waqf.
  2. Provision stayed: SC stayed this rule until the government frames rules and mechanisms for proof.
  3. Judicial caution: The Court noted concerns of arbitrariness and discrimination, but also recognised historical misuse of waqf as a tool to evade creditors.

Which provisions were not stayed?

  1. Abolition of ‘waqf by user’: The Court upheld its removal, citing misuse to encroach upon government lands.
  2. Applicability of the Limitation Act: Waqfs must now act within statutory limitation periods. This was upheld as removing previous discrimination.
  3. Registration compliance: SC emphasised that waqfs had 102 years (since 1923) to register, hence claims of arbitrariness were weak.

What is the larger constitutional and governance context?

  1. Presumption of constitutionality: Laws passed by Parliament carry weight until struck down.
  2. Balancing equities: The SC avoided blanket suspension, staying only contentious clauses.
  3. Protection of minority rights: Ensures Article 26 freedoms are not eroded.
  4. Preventing property misuse: Legislative intent to protect government property and curb misuse was acknowledged.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s interim order on the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025 reflects a nuanced judicial approach—protecting religious freedoms while respecting legislative authority. By drawing constitutional boundaries for state power and emphasising procedural fairness, the Court has reinforced its role as a guardian of equity and minority rights. The final verdict will have long-lasting implications for governance of religious endowments and minority trust in legal institutions.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2019] What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of secularism.

Linkage: The Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025 has been challenged for allegedly curbing the Muslim community’s right under Article 26 to manage its religious endowments, showing how state intervention can threaten cultural practices. The Supreme Court’s interim stay on provisions like non-Muslim majority in Waqf Boards and “five years of practising Islam” directly reflects the tension between secular governance and religious autonomy. Thus, the case exemplifies the broader challenge of balancing secularism with protection of cultural practices, as asked in the 2019 question.

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Social Media: Prospect and Challenges

The conduct of social media companies amid political unrest

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Social Media Networks & Internal Security

Introduction

The insurrection in Nepal, which led to the fall of the K.P. Sharma Oli government after just two days, brought with it an immediate digital clampdown: a ban on 26 social media platforms. While such state actions are not unprecedented, what deserves scrutiny is the consistent passivity of social media companies in moments of political crisis. Despite marketing themselves as champions of free expression, Big Social firms often prioritise profit motives and regulatory compliance over defending user rights. The Nepal episode is not an isolated case but part of a global pattern spanning Russia, Myanmar, Nigeria, and Iran.

Why is this issue in the news?

The Nepal unrest marks the latest instance of governments weaponising internet shutdowns, but the bigger story is the role of social media platforms. Instead of resisting, they largely issued boilerplate statements, leaving millions of users disconnected. This sharp contrast between their claims of empowering citizens and their reluctance to act exposes the gap between rhetoric and responsibility. The scale of the problem is massive, bans disrupt civic life, cost economies billions, and exacerbate inequality in times of crisis.

The Conduct of Social Media Companies Amid Political Unrest

Why do social media companies stay passive?

  1. Profit Motives: Companies fear losing access to lucrative markets more than reputational harm.
  2. Government Pressure: Host states can fine, jail, or exclude companies, discouraging open resistance.
  3. Commercial Interests vs. Civic Responsibility: Platforms project neutrality but continue profiting while users bear risks.

How has this pattern unfolded globally?

  1. Russia (2018): Telegram fought bans technically but gave little political solidarity to users facing arrests.
  2. Myanmar (2021): Facebook ban cut off protestors from news and organising tools.
  3. Nigeria (2021): Twitter suspension cost the economy $26 million/day while the company stayed largely silent.
  4. Iran (2022): Instagram and WhatsApp issued generic appeals while small businesses collapsed.

What technological solutions exist but remain unused?

  1. Decentralised Networks: Tor, I2P, Mastodon, and Signal proxies allow traffic rerouting.
  2. Corporate Tools: Google’s Outline VPN, YouTube’s delivery networks, and WhatsApp piggybacking on HTTPS could bypass bans.
  3. Underdeployment: Companies avoid such measures due to fears of retaliation and loss of ad-driven surveillance models.

How does Big Social compare with other industries?

  1. Financial Sector: PayPal and Visa cut services in Russia citing ethics.
  2. Wikipedia: Won a legal battle against Turkey’s ban.
  3. Telecom Firms: Unlike them, SM companies market themselves as defenders of expression, making passivity starker.

What are the wider consequences of passivity?

  1. Digital Divide: Richer users bypass bans with VPNs, poorer citizens are excluded.
  2. Insecurity: Users shift to unsafe alternatives, scams rise, and access to trusted news collapses.
  3. Corporate Power Paradox: Meta’s revenue ($134 bn) and Alphabet’s ($300 bn) exceed GDPs of Nepal and Nigeria, yet they plead helplessness.

What could be the way forward?

  1. Transparency Mandates: Publish shutdown orders, legal justifications, and company responses.
  2. Technical Contingencies: Industry-wide standards for proxy modes, redundancy, and fallback networks.
  3. Regional Cooperation: Blocs like AU and SAARC can negotiate common demands.
  4. Moral Responsibility: Companies must balance profit motives with defending civic infrastructure.

Conclusion

The Nepal episode illustrates a broader global pattern where social media companies retreat into silence during political unrest. While they claim neutrality, their choices are deeply political, amplifying inequalities and weakening democratic resilience. Given their vast resources and influence, neutrality is no longer an option. Transparency, decentralisation, and moral responsibility must become cornerstones of their global operations, especially in the Global South where civic stakes are highest.

Value Addition
  • Santa Clara Principles (2018): 
    • Framework urging tech companies to publish government takedown requests, explain moderation decisions, and ensure due process in digital rights protection.
    • Highlights the need for transparency and accountability in content moderation.
  • UNHRC Resolution (2016):
    • Declared internet shutdowns as a violation of international law and an infringement on freedom of expression.
    • Recognises access to the internet as a fundamental enabler of human rights.
  • Economic Impact of Shutdowns:
    • Nigeria’s Twitter ban (2021) cost the economy nearly $26 million/day, showing how bans hurt not just civic spaces but also small businesses and livelihoods.
    • Similarly, India has often topped the list of internet shutdowns globally, costing billions annually.
  • Concept of Digital Authoritarianism:
    • Use of internet control, shutdowns, and surveillance by states to curb dissent. Seen in Myanmar (2021 coup), Iran (2022 protests), and Nepal (2025 unrest).
  • Surveillance Capitalism (Shoshana Zuboff):
    • Business model of Big Tech that monetises user data through targeted ads. Centralised control discourages adoption of decentralised, privacy-respecting technologies.
  • Civic Infrastructure at Risk:
    • Platforms are not neutral spaces but essential public utilities during crises. Their passivity undermines democratic resilience and widens the digital divide.
  • Technological Solutions & Precedents:
    • Signal Proxies (Iran, 2022) – volunteers hosted relays to bypass censorship.
    • Wikipedia vs. Turkey – fought a multi-year legal battle and restored access, unlike Big Social’s passivity.
    • Google’s Outline VPN – toolkit for journalists and activists, an example of proactive circumvention tools.
  • International Comparisons:
    • Financial Sector – PayPal & Visa cut ties with Russia citing ethics after Ukraine invasion.
    • Telecoms – forced into compliance immediately with shutdown orders, unlike Big Social which claims neutrality yet markets itself as pro-free expression.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2016] Use of internet and social media by non-state actors for subversive activities is a major security concern. How have these been misused in the recent past? Suggest Effective guidelines to curb the above threat.

Linkage: The Nepal case and similar crises show how governments misuse shutdowns while non-state actors exploit social media for mobilisation, misinformation, and violence. The passivity of Big Social aggravates risks by denying safe, transparent channels, widening the digital divide. Thus, effective guidelines must balance security imperatives with digital rights, corporate accountability, and technological safeguards.

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF)

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

Brazil, the host of COP30, has proposed the Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF) to finance conservation of standing forests.

What is Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF)?

  • Nature: A global blended finance fund that pays Tropical Forest Countries (TFCs) per hectare of forest conserved.
  • Adjustments: Deductions made for deforestation or degradation.
  • Equity Provision: At least 20% of payments reserved for Indigenous Peoples & Local Communities (IPLCs).
  • Monitoring: Payments tracked via satellite systems and managed by a TFFF Secretariat.
  • Relation to REDD+: Complements but does not replace REDD+; no carbon credits or project-based offsets.

Financial Mechanism:

  • Core Instrument: Tropical Forest Investment Fund (TFIF) under a Multilateral Development Bank (likely World Bank).
  • Funding Sources:
    • Sponsors (20%): High-income countries and philanthropies, via concessional loans/grants.
    • Market Investors (80%): Institutional investors, sovereign wealth funds, university endowments.
  • Investment Strategy: Invests in liquid public bonds (US Treasuries), corporate bonds (Apple), green/blue bonds; excludes fossil fuels.
  • Returns & Payments: Earnings from investments fund result-based payments to TFCs, with 2% annual increase for inflation.

Key Hurdles:

  • Financing Burden: Global South may indirectly finance its own conservation as TFIF invests in their markets with higher borrowing costs.
  • Credit Rating Dependence: Returns hinge on ratings by Fitch, S&P, Moody’s.
  • Geopolitical Risk: Reliance on World Bank (US dominance) may skew control.
  • IPLC Gap: Despite pledges, historically Indigenous Peoples & Local Communities (IPLCs) receive <1% of climate aid.
  • Forest Definitions: Disputes over canopy thresholds (20–30%) may disadvantage sparser forest nations.

Back2Basics: REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation plus)

  • Launch: 2008 as a UN collaborative initiative (FAO, UNDP, UNEP); now >65 partner countries.
  • Framework: Under UNFCCC; incentivizes developing nations to cut emissions and improve forest carbon stocks.
  • ‘+’ Component: Adds conservation, sustainable management, and carbon stock enhancement.
  • Objectives: Financial incentives for verified actions in (1) reducing deforestation, (2) reducing degradation, (3) conservation, (4) sustainable management, (5) carbon enhancement.
  • Mechanism: Countries prepare national strategies, monitor/report, and get results-based payments for verified emission reductions.

 

[UPSC 2025] Which one of the following launched the ‘Nature Solutions Finance Hub for Asia and the Pacific’?

(a) The Asian Development Bank (ADB)*

(b) The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)

(c) The New Development Bank (NDB)

(d) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

India secures International Seabed Authority (ISA) exploration contract

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

Why in the News?

India has secured the world’s first International Seabed Authority (ISA) licence to explore polymetallic sulphur nodules in the Carlsberg Ridge, northwest Indian Ocean.

India’s Engagement with ISA:

  • Exploration Contracts:
    1. 2002 – Polymetallic nodules, Central Indian Ocean Basin (valid till 2027).
    2. 2016 – Polymetallic sulphides, Indian Ocean Ridge (valid till 2031).
    3. 2025 – First global licence for polymetallic sulphides in Carlsberg Ridge.
  • Pending Application: Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount (ANS), Central Indian Ocean.
  • Strategic Goals:
    • Secure access to critical minerals (nickel, cobalt, manganese, copper).
    • Balance energy transition needs with environmental safeguards.
    • Counter competing claims (e.g., China in the Indian Ocean).
  • Role in ISA: Active participant in Mining Code negotiations; pushes for sustainable, equitable exploration.

About International Seabed Authority (ISA):

  • Establishment: Created under UNCLOS (1982) and the 1994 Agreement on Part XI; Based in Kingston, Jamaica.
  • Membership: 168 States (including India) + EU; the US is NOT a member or party to UNCLOS.
  • Mandate:
    • Regulate exploration/exploitation of minerals in the Area (beyond national jurisdictions, ~54% of oceans).
    • Ensure benefits for all humankind.
    • Protect marine environment from mining impacts.
    • Promote marine scientific research.
  • Regulatory Framework: Guided by the Mining Code (licensing, EIA, sustainability standards).
  • Functions:
    • Grants 15-year exploration contracts (extendable).
    • Monitors compliance of contractors.
    • Balances resource use with environmental safeguards.

About Carlsberg Ridge:

  • Location: A mid-ocean ridge in the northwest Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea region).
  • Extent: Covers ~3,00,000 sq. km, stretching from Rodrigues Island (SW Indian Ocean) to the Owen fracture zone.
  • Tectonic Setting: Boundary between the Indian Plate and the Arabian Plate.
  • Critical Minerals: Deposits contain manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, vital for clean energy, electronics, and defence.

 

[UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:

1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licenses for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.

2. India has received licenses for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.

3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3

 

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Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code

In news: Bank for International Settlements (BIS)

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

Why in the News?

The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) has cautioned that record-high global share prices appear detached from concerns over rising government debt.

About the Bank for International Settlements (BIS):

  • Establishment: Formed in 1930, making it the world’s oldest international financial institution.
  • Role: Known as the “central bank for central banks”, serving only central banks & international organisations, not private entities or governments.
  • Headquarters: Basel, Switzerland; offices in Hong Kong & Mexico City.
  • Membership: Owned by 63 central banks, covering ~95% of global GDP.
  • Purpose: Promotes international monetary and financial cooperation and ensures global monetary stability.
  • Functions:
    • Platform for policy coordination & information sharing among central banks.
    • Provides banking services: reserve management, gold/forex transactions, liquidity support.
    • Acts as trustee/agent in global financial operations.
    • Conducts research, training, and seminars on financial stability.
    • Hosts Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS), which frames Basel norms.

India and the BIS:

  • Membership: Represented by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) as a full member.
  • Representation: RBI Governor participates in BIS Board of Governors meetings.
  • Participation:
    • Engages in BIS research & policy discussions.
    • RBI officials join working groups on supervision, stability, and fintech.
  • Basel Norms: India, via RBI, has adopted Basel standards on capital adequacy, liquidity & risk management.
  • Innovation Hub: Collaborates with BIS on digital payments, central bank digital currencies (CBDCs), and cross-border fintech solutions.
[UPSC 2015] ‘Basel III Accord’ or simply ‘Basel III’ often seen in the news, seeks to

Options: (a) develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity

(b) improve banking sector’s ability to deal with financial and economic stress and improve risk management*

(c) reduce the greenhouse gas emissions but places a heavier burden on developed countries

(d) transfer technology from developed countries to poor countries to enable them to replace the use of chlorofluorocarbons in refrigeration with harmless chemicals

 

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Police Reforms – SC directives, NPC, other committees reports

Supreme Court Guidelines on DNA Evidence in Criminal Cases

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Civil Service

Why in the News?

The Supreme Court has issued guidelines in the Kattavellai @ Devakar v. State of Tamil Nadu Judgement to standardise DNA handling in criminal cases to prevent contamination and delays after evidence lapses in a major case.

Key Highlights of the Supreme Court Guidelines:

  • Case Context: It involved rape, murder, and robbery. Court flagged delays in Forensic Science Laboratory (FSL) submission, lack of chain of custody, and risk of contamination.
  • Need: Lack of uniform procedures across states despite scattered rules. Since Police and Public Order are in the State List, Supreme Court intervened for national uniformity.
  • Guidelines Issued:
    • Collection and Documentation: Samples must be packaged properly, labelled with FIR details, and signed by medical officer, Investigating Officer, and witnesses.
    • Transportation: Investigating Officer (IO) must deliver samples to FSL within 48 hours. Reasons for any delay must be recorded.
    • Storage Pending Trial: Packages cannot be opened or resealed without trial court approval.
    • Chain of Custody Register: Maintained until conviction or acquittal. IO responsible for explaining lapses.

Previous SC Observations on DNA Evidence:

  • Anil v. Maharashtra (2014): DNA reliable only if laboratory procedures are maintained.
  • Manoj v. Madhya Pradesh (2022): DNA rejected as recovery was from open area with contamination risk.
  • Rahul v. Delhi (2022): DNA held inadmissible after being kept in police custody for two months.
  • Pattu Rajan v. Tamil Nadu (2019): DNA value depends on corroborating evidence; absence not fatal.
  • Sharda v. Dharmpal (2003): DNA test orders valid; no violation of Article 21.
  • Das @ Anu v. Kerala (2022): DNA not self-incrimination under Article 20(3). Section 53A CrPC permits collection in rape cases.

Back2Basics: DNA Profiling

  • Overview: DNA profiling, also called DNA fingerprinting, is a forensic technique to identify individuals by analysing unique DNA regions, mainly Short Tandem Repeats (STRs).
  • How it works: Human DNA is 99.9% identical; the 0.1% variability forms the basis of personal identification.
  • Sources: DNA can be extracted from blood, semen, saliva, hair, bone, skin, or even “touch DNA.”
  • Processes: The process includes isolation, purification, amplification, visualization, and statistical comparison of DNA markers.
  • Methods:  miniSTRs and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) help in degraded or limited samples.
  • Legal Status: Treated as expert opinion under Indian Evidence Act Section 45 (now BSA 2023 Section 39). DNA is corroborative, not substantive evidence.

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Indian Navy Updates

[pib] Exercise Pacific Reach, 2025

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

Why in the News?

INS Nistar, the Navy’s new indigenous Diving Support Vessel, made its maiden port call at Singapore to join the multinational Exercise Pacific Reach 2025.

About Exercise Pacific Reach:

  • Overview: A biennial, multinational submarine rescue exercise initiated in 1996 (Asia-Pacific).
  • Objective: Enhances cooperation, interoperability, and readiness in submarine rescue.
  • Pacific Reach 2025 (XPR-25): 9th edition, hosted by Singapore.
  • Phases:
    • Harbour Phase: Seminars, Subject Matter Expert Exchanges (SMEE), medical symposium, cross-deck visits.
    • Sea Phase: Live submarine rescue drills, intervention ops, deep-water simulated emergencies, and Mass Evacuation Exercises (MASSEVEX).
  • Participation: 40+ countries (participants + observers).

India’s Participation:

  • INS Nistar: India’s indigenous Diving Support Vessel (DSV), mothership for Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV).
  • Submarine Rescue Unit (East): Taking part in live rescue drills.
  • Significance: Showcases 80% indigenous capability (built by Hindustan Shipyard Ltd), and positions India as a regional leader in humanitarian submarine rescue.

Back2Basics: INS Nistar

  • Commissioning: First indigenous DSV, commissioned July 2025 at Visakhapatnam.
  • Design: Built with 80% indigenous content, in line with Aatmanirbhar Bharat.
  • Capability: Supports DSRV rescue ops up to 300 m; equipped with ROVs, hyperbaric lifeboats, subsea cranes, helipad, and medical facilities.
  • Role: Provides endurance for long missions, reinforcing India’s deep-sea rescue & maritime safety architecture.

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Economic Indicators and Various Reports On It- GDP, FD, EODB, WIR etc

[15th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Improving Macros: Period of low inflation and relatively high growth

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Issues relating growth and development, employment

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] Do you agree with the view that steady GDP growth and low inflation have left the Indian economy in good shape? Give reasons in support of your arguments.

Linkage: The present scenario of low inflation (2.1%) coupled with high growth directly resonates with the 2019 PYQ, as it exemplifies how such a macro mix strengthens household purchasing power and policy space. However, just as in 2019, questions about data reliability and sustainability remain valid. Thus, India’s current economic outlook offers both affirmation and nuance to the earlier debate.

Mentor’s Comment

India’s macroeconomic trajectory has taken a remarkable turn, shifting from the troubling “low growth, high inflation” trap of last year to a far more favorable “high growth, low inflation” outlook. With inflation dipping within RBI’s comfort band and food prices contracting sharply, the macro story is compelling and holds lessons for India’s policy and global positioning. This article unpacks the nuances of the recent data, explores what it means for the future, and situates it within the UPSC Mains framework with value addition, practice questions, and micro-themes.

Introduction

The August 2025 retail inflation numbers marked a critical juncture in India’s economic narrative. Retail inflation, though it rose slightly, stood at 2.1%, comfortably within the Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) target range of 2%-6%. This snapped a nine-month declining streak but did not trigger alarm. Food inflation remained subdued, with striking contractions of 15.9% in vegetable prices and 14.5% in pulses. Combined with welfare provisions under the National Food Security Act, this ensured affordability of essential items. With low inflation across housing, fuel, and clothing, India’s macroeconomic picture looks vastly different from last year, when high inflation coupled with low growth defined the economic outlook. The gap between growth and inflation has widened from 2.1 percentage points last year to 5.5 percentage points now—an enviable reversal.

Understanding the Current Inflation Trends

  1. Retail inflation at 2.1%: Marginally within RBI’s comfort zone of 2%-6%, reflecting stability despite global uncertainty.
  2. Food prices contracting sharply: Vegetables fell by 15.9% and pulses by 14.5%, easing household expenditure.
  3. Other necessities stable: Housing, clothing, footwear, and fuel inflation are all lower in August than in July.
  4. Welfare cushioning: Free foodgrains under the NFSA ensure food affordability despite global volatility.

How Has the Macro Picture Changed Since Last Year?

  1. From high inflation to low inflation: Inflationary pressures last year eroded purchasing power, but now they remain subdued.
  2. From sluggish growth to robust growth: Growth has accelerated, giving policymakers breathing room.
  3. Growth–inflation differential widened: From 2.1 percentage points last year to 5.5 points this year, a striking macro improvement.
  4. Comparability holds: Concerns about data integrity existed last year too, hence the relative improvement is valid.

What Role Do Global and Domestic Policies Play?

  1. Russian oil purchases: Even if India abandons Russian crude under U.S. pressure, the inflationary impact will be limited due to already-low global crude prices.
  2. GST rate cuts: Effective September 22, lower GST rates are expected to reduce consumer prices further.
  3. RBI’s cautious optimism: While Q1’s low inflation-high growth dynamic raises hopes of a rate cut, global uncertainties may push this decision to December instead of September.

What Lies Ahead for India’s Economic Outlook?

  1. Benign inflation trajectory: Indicators point to sustained price stability.
  2. Limited global oil shock risk: Declining discounts from Russia and stable crude prices mean less volatility for India.
  3. Prospects for rate cuts: The Monetary Policy Committee may consider easing monetary policy in December, enhancing growth.
  4. Strengthened fiscal space: Low inflation allows government welfare and investment measures to operate without inflationary spirals.

Conclusion

India’s macroeconomic outlook in 2025 is a story of resilience and reversal. The sharp transition from a vulnerable high-inflation, low-growth setup to a robust high-growth, low-inflation phase underscores effective price stabilization and cushioning mechanisms like NFSA. While global uncertainties remain, the benign inflation trajectory coupled with strong growth provides a foundation for India’s economic policy to focus on sustainable and inclusive development.

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Cutting off online gaming with scissors of prohibition

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Introduction

In a surprising move at the end of the Monsoon Session 2025, the Parliament passed the Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act, 2025. The Act outlaws online real money games, citing societal harms such as addiction and financial ruin, while aiming to encourage e-sports. What makes this development significant is the abruptness of the ban, absence of stakeholder consultation, and the wiping out of a sunrise sector that had attracted heavy foreign investment and promised thousands of quality tech jobs.

The Fallout of the Ban

  1. Job Losses: The industry was projected to employ 1.5 lakh people by 2025 in programming, design, analytics, and customer support. The ban curtails these opportunities in a job-scarce economy.
  2. Revenue Sacrifice: Online real money games were expected to generate ₹17,000 crore in GST revenues, benefiting both Centre and States. The ban erases this fiscal opportunity.
  3. Investor Confidence: Sudden policy reversals discourage foreign direct investment (FDI), raising doubts about India’s policy stability.
  4. Innovation Slowdown: Online gaming sits at the intersection of technology, payments, and digital content, key drivers of Digital India. The ban risks stifling entrepreneurship and innovation.

Why Did the Government Ban Real Money Gaming?

  1. Societal Harm: The government argues online gaming has led to addiction, financial ruin, and behavioral issues comparable to drug dependence.
  2. Public Pressure: State-level cases of suicides and debt traps pushed policymakers to respond.
  3. Moral Positioning: The Centre framed the issue as a public health crisis requiring urgent intervention.

Could Regulation Have Been a Better Alternative?

  1. Responsible Gaming Tools: Platforms had developed age-gating, self-exclusion, deposit/time limits, KYC/AML checks, and bot-detection to promote safer gaming.
  2. International Practices: Globally, ethical advertising and technological safeguards regulate the sector rather than outright bans.
  3. State Frameworks: States like Tamil Nadu were experimenting with balanced regulatory frameworks, creating scope for a middle path.

Risks of the Ban

  1. Illegal Networks: Players may migrate to offshore and underground apps, which pay no taxes and are beyond Indian jurisdiction.
  2. Loss of Accountability: With regulated firms shut down, compulsive gamers are left vulnerable to fraud and unsafe practices.
  3. Federal Overreach: Betting and gambling fall under the State List; the Centre’s unilateral move undermines federalism.
  4. Constitutional Challenge: Article 19(1)(g) guarantees the Fundamental Right to practice any trade or business. The ban raises issues of proportionality and constitutional validity.

The Middle Ground

  1. Licensing System: Grant licenses to vetted firms with strict compliance norms.
  2. Clear Distinction: Differentiate between games of skill (legitimate) and games of chance (gambling).
  3. Taxation Regime: Ensure predictable and fair taxation, boosting both revenue and compliance.
  4. Capacity Building: Strengthen regulatory institutions instead of relying on prohibition.

Conclusion

The Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act, 2025, highlights the clash between state paternalism and economic freedom. While societal concerns around addiction are real, prohibition is a blunt instrument that risks pushing activity underground, sacrificing jobs, revenues, and investor trust. A regulatory middle path could have safeguarded both citizens and India’s economic interests.

Value Addition

Understanding the Online Gaming Sector

  1. E-sports: Organised competitive digital sports requiring strategy, coordination, decision-making; emerging as a legitimate sport.
  2. Online Social Games: Casual, skill-based games for recreation, learning, or social interaction; considered safe with minimal social risks.
  3. Online Money Games: Involve financial stakes (chance/skill/mixed); linked to addiction, financial losses, money laundering, and suicides.

Game of Skill vs Game of Chance in India

Game of Skill

  1. Outcome depends predominantly on knowledge, training, strategy, or judgment.
  2. Examples: Chess, Rummy, Fantasy sports (judicially recognised in some cases).
  3. Legal Status: Judicially upheld as legitimate business activity, not gambling. Protected under Article 19(1)(g) (right to trade/profession).

Game of Chance

  1. Outcome depends mainly on luck or randomness, not player skill.
  2. Examples: Lotteries, Roulette, Dice-based betting.
  3. Legal Status: Considered gambling; regulated/prohibited by States (as per State List, Entry 34 of 7th Schedule).

Regulation in India

Judicial Precedents:

  1. R.M.D. Chamarbaugwala v. Union of India (1957) – distinguished games of skill from gambling.
  2. K.R. Lakshmanan v. State of Tamil Nadu (1996) – horse racing recognised as a game of skill.

Federal Context: Betting & gambling are State subjects; hence regulation differs across states.

Digital Loophole: Many online games operate in a grey zone → recent legislation like the Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act, 2025 seeks to ban money games irrespective of skill/chance classification.

Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Acy, 2025

Why the Bill was Brought

  1. Addiction & Financial Ruin: 45 crore people affected; losses of over ₹20,000 crores due to online money games.
  2. Mental Health & Suicides: Financial distress linked to addiction resulted in suicides.
  3. Fraud & Money Laundering: Offshore platforms used for illegal financial flows.
  4. National Security Risks: Evidence of terror financing and illegal messaging.
  5. Closing Legal Loopholes: Existing gambling laws did not cover the digital domain.
  6. Balanced Approach: Distinguishes between exploitative money games and constructive e-sports/educational games.

Key Provisions of the Bill

  1. Applicability: Applies to all of India, including offshore platforms targeting Indian users.
  2. Promotion of E-Sports: Recognised as legitimate sport; guidelines by Ministry of Youth Affairs & Sports; incentives, training, research centres.
  3. Promotion of Social & Educational Games: Registration of safe, age-appropriate games; focus on skill-building, culture, education.
  4. Ban on Online Money Games: Complete prohibition on games involving stakes (chance/skill/mixed); advertising and transactions banned.
  5. Online Gaming Authority: National regulator to register/categorise games, issue guidelines, handle grievances.
  6. Strict Penalties:
    1. Offering money games → up to 3 years jail + ₹1 crore fine.
    2. Advertising → up to 2 years jail + ₹50 lakh fine.
    3. Repeat offences → up to 5 years jail + ₹2 crore fine.
  7. Corporate Liability: Company officers accountable; independent directors exempt if due diligence is shown.
  8. Powers of Enforcement: Search, seizure, and arrests without warrant under BNSS, 2023.

Complementary Measures Already in Place

  1. IT Act & Rules: Intermediaries must register; illegal platforms blocked (1,524 blocked between 2022–2025).
  2. Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023: Sections 111 & 112 criminalise unlawful betting/cyber fraud.
  3. IGST Act, 2017: Offshore suppliers must register; GST Intelligence empowered to block non-compliant platforms.
  4. Consumer Protection Act, 2019: CCPA cracks down on misleading ads and celebrity endorsements.
  5. Advisories: MoIB & Education Ministry issued guidelines on safe gaming practices.
  6. Cybercrime Portal & Helpline (1930): Citizens enabled to report fraud and financial scams.
  7. International Reference: WHO: Recognises gaming disorder in ICD classification – loss of control, neglect of daily activities, continuation despite harm.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2020] Recent amendments to the Right to Information Act will have profound impact on the autonomy and independence of the Information Commission. Discuss.

Linkage: Both the RTI Amendments (2020) and the Online Gaming Bill (2025) highlight rising executive control at the cost of autonomy and federal balance. In RTI, the independence of Information Commissions was weakened; in Gaming, sweeping central powers risk arbitrariness and undermine states’ jurisdiction. Both raise questions of transparency, proportionality, and constitutional freedoms, showing a trend of centralisation in governance.

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Waste Management – SWM Rules, EWM Rules, etc

How serious is the global plastic pollution crisis?

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

Plastic—once hailed as a symbol of modern convenience—has now become a global menace. Its non-biodegradable nature, rising consumption, and weak waste management systems have led to an unprecedented ecological and socio-economic challenge. This year’s World Environment Day theme, Ending Plastic Pollution, reflects the international recognition of the crisis. The issue cuts across dimensions of environment, economy, health, governance, and ethics, making it a critical topic for civil services preparation.

Why is Plastic Pollution Making Headlines?

Plastic consumption and waste generation are reaching historic highs. In 2024 alone, 500 million tonnes of plastic were produced, generating 400 million tonnes of waste. The OECD projects that if current trends persist, plastic waste could almost triple to 1.2 billion tonnes by 2060. Such data marks a tipping point in human-environment relations. For the first time, experts warn that by mid-century there may be more plastic in the ocean than fish, a striking reversal of natural balance.

How Severe is the Plastic Pollution Crisis?

  1. Rising consumption: Plastics production doubled between 2000 and 2019, reaching 460 million tonnes.
  2. Waste surge: Global plastic waste touched 353 million tonnes in 2019, with packaging alone contributing 40%.
  3. Recycling failure: Only 9% of waste is recycled; 50% ends up in landfills, and 22% escapes into open environments.
  4. Oceanic threat: About 11 million tonnes enter oceans annually, adding to the estimated 200 million tonnes already present.
  5. Climate connection: Plastics contribute 3.4% of global GHG emissions and could consume 19% of the global carbon budget by 2040.

Why is Plastic Pollution So Difficult to Manage?

  1. Non-biodegradability: Plastics fragment into micro- and nano-particles, contaminating soil, water, and even human bloodstreams.
  2. Global spread: From Mount Everest to ocean trenches, no ecosystem is spared.
  3. Health risks: Microplastics pose risks to food chains, water safety, and respiratory and cardiovascular health.
  4. Economic burden: Poorer nations, with weak waste management, face disproportionate costs of uncontrolled plastic dumping.

What Global Remedies Are Being Proposed?

  1. Legally binding agreement: In 2022, all 193 UN member states pledged at UNEA-5 to negotiate an international treaty to end plastic pollution.
  2. UNEP target: Ambition to cut plastic waste by 80% in two decades through innovation, design, and recycling.
  3. Reduce single-use plastics: Phasing out unnecessary items made from petrochemical feedstock is urgent.
  4. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Holding manufacturers accountable through deposit refunds, landfill taxes, and pay-as-you-throw systems.
  5. Recycling revolution: Currently, only 6% of plastics come from recycled sources. Scaling this up requires technology and market incentives.

What Role Do Individuals and Media Play?

  1. Greener alternatives: Shifting to traditional, reusable products and eco-friendly materials.
  2. Awareness campaigns: Media’s power in shaping consumer habits and pressuring governments is significant.
  3. Behavioural change: Collective reduction in consumption is as important as systemic reform.

Conclusion

Plastic pollution exemplifies the contradictions of modern development—where convenience has bred crisis. The data suggests humanity stands at a civilisational crossroads: either continue unsustainable consumption or pivot towards circular, sustainable economies. For India, with its population, coastline, and developmental challenges, the issue is not peripheral but central to environmental governance, climate action, and public health.

UPSC Relevance

[UPSC 2023] What is oil pollution? What are its impacts on the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil pollution particularly harmful for a country like India?

Linkage: Plastic and oil pollution are both marine pollutants of petrochemical origin, threatening biodiversity, fisheries, and coastal livelihoods. Like oil, plastics enter oceans in massive quantities (11 MT annually), fragmenting into microplastics that disrupt ecosystems. For India, with a long coastline and dependence on marine resources, the risks of livelihood loss, food insecurity, and ecological imbalance are particularly acute.

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Electronic System Design and Manufacturing Sector – M-SIPS, National Policy on Electronics, etc.

PLI Scheme for White Goods

Schemes | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

Why in the News?

The Centre has announced reopening of the application window for the Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme for White Goods, following the strong response and success of earlier rounds.

Note: White goods refer to large household appliances like refrigerators, washing machines, and air conditioners, so named because they were traditionally white.

About the PLI Scheme for White Goods:

  • Objective: To create a complete component ecosystem for ACs and LED lights, integrating India into global supply chains and boosting domestic manufacturing.
  • Approval: Cleared by the Union Cabinet in April 2021; implemented by the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT).
  • Duration: Implemented over seven years (FY 2021–22 to FY 2028–29) with a total outlay of ₹6,238 crore.
  • Incentives: Provides 4–6% incentive on incremental turnover (over base year 2019–20) for both domestic sales and exports, applicable for five years to eligible companies.
  • Eligibility:
    • Applicant must be a company incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013.
    • Eligibility depends on achieving threshold levels of incremental sales and investments.
    • Entities availing benefits under any other PLI scheme for the same products are not eligible.
  • Beneficiaries So Far: 83 companies with committed investment of ₹10,406 crore have been approved under the scheme, covering AC and LED components across the entire value chain.
  • Employment and Exports: Expected to create jobs, expand exports, and enhance self-reliance in components that were earlier imported.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

Statement I: India accounts for 3.2% of global exports of goods.
Statement II: Many local companies and some foreign companies operating in India have taken advantage of India’s ‘Production-linked Incentive’ scheme.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I
(c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
(d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct *

 

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Interstate River Water Dispute

In news: Cauvery River Dispute

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Why in the News?

On the Cauvery dispute, Karnataka CM has said that water will be released to Tamil Nadu since the rainfall is adequate, while stressing the Mekedatu Dam’s role in water balance and clean energy.

 

Back2Basics: Cauvery River

  • Origin & Course: Rises at Talakaveri, Brahmagiri range (Kodagu, Karnataka); flows ~800 km through Karnataka & Tamil Nadu into the Bay of Bengal.
  • Catchment: Spreads across Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry.
  • Tributaries: Harangi, Hemavati, Kabini, Suvarnavathi, Bhavani.
  • Nature: Perennial river, sustained by both advancing & retreating monsoons.
  • Protected Areas: Cauvery WLS, Biligirirangan Hills, Pushpagiri, Muthathi, Ranganathittu, Bhimeshwari, Nagarhole, Bandipur.

About Cauvery Water Sharing Dispute:

  • Colonial Origins: Began in 1892 (Madras Presidency vs Mysore); 1924 Agreement (50 years, expired 1974).
  • Post-Independence: Disputes arose with dam projects by Karnataka (1960s–80s); Supreme Court referred to Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT).
  • Interim Phase: Cauvery River Authority (CRA, 1998) issued temporary orders.
  • CWDT Final Award (2013): Tamil Nadu 419 TMC, Karnataka 270, Kerala 30, Puducherry 7.
  • Karnataka’s Obligation: In normal years, release 177.25 TMC to TN, including 123.14 TMC in SW monsoon.
  • Challenges: Disputes sharpen in weak monsoons, triggering use of a “distress formula”.
  • Legal Basis: Governed by Article 262, Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956; Seventh Schedule entries 17 (State List) & 56 (Union List).

cauvery

About Mekedatu Dam Project:

  • Location: Deep gorge at Cauvery–Arkavathi confluence near Kanakapura, Karnataka.
  • Design: Balancing reservoir of ~66 TMC capacity.
  • Objectives: Provide Bengaluru drinking water, generate 400 MW hydropower, regulate flows to TN in drought years.
  • Importance: Karnataka argues it benefits both states by ensuring regulated water release.
  • Opposition: Tamil Nadu objects, fearing reduced downstream availability.
  • Current Status: Karnataka insists on moving ahead, requiring Centre & TN’s clearance.
[UPSC 2022] Gandikota canyon of South India was created by which one of the following rivers?

Options: (a) Cauvery (b) Manjira (c) Pennar* (d) Tungabhadra

 

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Places in news: Erra Matti Dibbalu

Places in newsPrelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Why in the News?

This newscard is an excerpt from a photo published in ‘The Hindu’.

About Erra Matti Dibbalu:

  • Location: Found between Visakhapatnam and Bheemunipatnam in Andhra Pradesh, stretching 5 km along the coast, with widths ranging from 200 m to 2 km.
  • Meaning: In Telugu, “Erra Matti” means red soil and “Dibbalu” means mounds, describing the reddish sand dunes.
  • Geological Heritage: Listed among the 34 National Geological Heritage Monument Sites of India by the Geological Survey of India (GSI).
  • Formation: Created around 12,000–18,500 years ago through the combined effect of tectonic activity (2.5 million–11,000 years ago), sea-level changes, monsoonal variability, and global climatic shifts.
  • Composition: Derived mainly from Khondalite rocks of the Eastern Ghats hinterland, with the red colour due to oxidation of iron-rich sediments.

Significance:

  • Geological Value: Acts as a paleo-environment indicator, providing evidence of climate change, sea-level fluctuations, and coastal evolution during the late Quaternary period.
  • Archaeological Importance: Artefacts from Mesolithic and Neolithic periods and sediment layers dating back to the Late Pleistocene epoch have been found here.
  • Conservation Status: Declared a National Geo-heritage Monument (2016) and included in UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites (2025) for global recognition and protection.
  • Unique Landscape: Features badland topography with sand dunes, buried channels, gullies, and dendritic drainage patterns.
  • Rare Formation: Only two other similar red sand dune systems exist globally—the Teri dunes in Tamil Nadu and one site in Sri Lanka.
[UPSC 2014] When you travel in Himalayas, you will see the following:

1. Deep gorges 2. U-turn river courses 3. Parallel mountain ranges 4. Steep gradients causing land sliding

Which of the above can be said to be the evidence for Himalayas being young fold mountains?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4*

 

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Contention over South China Sea

Scarborough Shoal in South China Sea

world map | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Why in the News?

China’s State Council has approved the creation of a national nature reserve at Scarborough Shoal (Huangyan Dao in Chinese, Bajo de Masinloc/Panatag Shoal in the Philippines).

About Scarborough Shoal:

  • Geography: A triangle-shaped chain of reefs and rocks in the South China Sea, about 200 km from Luzon (Philippines) and 800+ km from Hainan (China).
  • Status: Uninhabited but strategic, located near shipping lanes carrying $3 trillion in trade annually.
  • Significance: The lagoon shelters boats, and surrounding waters hold rich fish stocks vital for Zambales and Pangasinan communities.

Disputes about it:

  • Sovereignty Claims: Both China and the Philippines claim ownership.
  • 2016 Arbitration Ruling: Permanent Court of Arbitration (The Hague) held China’s nine-dash line claim invalid, declaring Scarborough a traditional fishing ground under UNCLOS; China rejected the verdict.
  • Philippines’ Grounds: Lies within Manila’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), making China’s reserve “illegitimate and unlawful.”
  • International Response: The US, Japan, Australia, and Canada conduct naval patrols/drills supporting the Philippines and freedom of navigation.
[UPSC 2022] Which one of the following statements best reflects the issue with Senkaku Islands, sometimes mentioned in the news ?

Options: (a) It is generally believed that they are artificial islands made by a country around South China Sea.

(b) China and Japan engage in maritime disputes over these islands in East China Sea.*

(c) A permanent American military base has been set up there to help Taiwan to increase its defence capabilities.

(d) Though International Court of Justice declared them as no man’s land, some South-East Asian countries claim them.

 

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Biofuel Policy

PM inaugurated India’s first Bamboo-based Ethanol Plant

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

PM has inaugurated the world’s first bamboo-based ethanol plant in Golaghat district, Assam, marking a significant step in India’s green energy journey.

Note: Ethanol is prepared from bamboo using a multi-step biochemical conversion process that transforms its rich cellulose content into fermentable sugars, which are then fermented and distilled into ethanol.

About Assam Bioethanol Plant:

  • Overview: World’s first 2G bamboo-based bioethanol facility, developed jointly by Numaligarh Refinery Limited (NRL), Fortum (Finland), and Chempolis OY.
  • Feedstock: Uses 5 lakh tonnes of green bamboo annually, sourced from Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and other NE states.
  • Production Capacity: Generates 48,900 MT ethanol, 11,000 MT acetic acid, 19,000 MT furfural, and 31,000 MT food-grade CO₂ per year.
  • Benefits: Adds ~₹200 crore annually to Assam’s rural economy; supports farmers and tribal communities with assured markets.
  • Policy Enabler: Reclassification of bamboo (no longer a tree) allowed free cultivation and harvesting, unlocking industrial potential.

Back2Basics: Regulation of Bamboo in India

  • Earlier Status: The Indian Forest Act, 1927 classified bamboo as a “tree”, though botanically it is a grass.
  • Regulatory Impact: Even in non-forest areas, felling, cutting, and transport of bamboo required permits like timber, discouraging farmers and traders.
  • 2017 Amendment: The Act was amended to remove “bamboos” from the definition of “tree” under Section 2(7), but only for non-forest areas.
  • Policy Goal: Intended to ease regulatory burdens, promote bamboo cultivation and trade, and strengthen agroforestry.
  • Current Rule: Bamboo on private/agricultural land can now be freely grown, cut, and transported without permits; bamboo in forest areas remains regulated.
  • Scientific Alignment: Recognises bamboo correctly as a grass (Poaceae family).
  • Significance: Supports rural farmers, artisans, and tribal communities by making bamboo a viable cash crop.

 

[UPSC 2023] According to India’s National Policy on Biofuels, which of the following can be used as raw materials for the production of biofuels?

1. Cassava 2. Damaged wheat grains 3. Groundnut seeds 4. Horse gram 5. Rotten potatoes 6. Sugar beet

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1, 2, 5 and 6 only * (b) 1, 3, 4 and 6 only (c) 2, 3, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6

 

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Tribes in News

Ho Tribes’ Manki-Munda System

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

Members of the Ho tribe in Jharkhand’s West Singhbhum district staged a protest for alleged interference in their traditional Manki-Munda governance system by removing village heads (Mundas).

About Ho Tribes:

  • Location: Major community of Jharkhand (Kolhan, West Singhbhum), with presence in Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
  • Language: Speak Ho language (Munda branch, Austroasiatic family), traditionally written in Warang Citi script.
  • Livelihoods: Primarily agriculturalists, with farming, hunting, and forest produce as traditional occupations.
  • Festivals: Mage Parab, Ba Parab, Sohrai, tied to agriculture, celebrated with dance, music, rituals.
  • Resistance: Historically fought outsiders; staged Ho Revolt (1821–22) and Kol Revolt (1831) against British.
  • Social Fabric: Clan-based, community-oriented, guided by customary law and collective decision-making.

What is the Manki-Munda System?

  • Structure:
    • Munda: Village head (hereditary), resolves disputes, represents village.
    • Manki: Head of pidh (cluster of 8–15 villages), adjudicates inter-village disputes.
  • Pre-British: Purely internal self-rule, no taxation or external sovereign authority.
  • British Codification:
    • Wilkinson’s Rules (1833–37) codified system into 31 rules, formally recognising Mankis/Mundas as British agents.
    • Introduced private property; Ho became raiyats (tenants) instead of communal landholders.
    • Led to demographic influx of dikkus (outsiders), rising from ~1,500 (1867) to ~15,700 (1897).
  • Post-Independence: Kolhan Government Estate dissolved (1947) but Wilkinson’s Rules still operative; Kolhan largely exempt from civil laws.
  • Judicial View: In Mora Ho vs State of Bihar (2000), Patna HC treated Wilkinson’s Rules as customs, not law, but upheld their continuance.
  • Current Practice: System governs village disputes; ~200 vacant posts filled by Gram Sabhas.
  • Criticism: Hereditary leadership limits efficiency; many leaders lack education for modern administration.
  • Reform Debate: Youth demand limiting hereditary succession and inclusion of non-tribal raiyats.
  • Contemporary Role: Remains a symbol of tribal autonomy yet requires modernisation for democratic governance.
[UPSC 2010] Which one of the following pairs of primitive tribes and places of their inhabitation is not correctly matched?

(a) Buksa : Pauri-Garhwal

(b) Kol : Jabalpur

(c) Munda : Chhotanagpur

(d) Korba : Kodagu*

 

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RTI – CIC, RTI Backlog, etc.

[13th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: RTI’s shift to a ‘right to deny information’

op-ed snap | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2020] Recent amendments to the Right to Information Act will have profound impact on the autonomy and independence of the Information Commission. Discuss.

Linkage: The RTI’s strength lay in ensuring both citizens’ access to information and the independence of Information Commissions as watchdogs of transparency. Amendments such as those under the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023–25, which expand the scope of “personal information” and override disclosure norms, severely limit this autonomy. This erosion risks converting RTI into a “Right to Deny Information,” thereby weakening institutional independence and citizen empowerment.

Mentor’s Comment

The Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005 was once celebrated as a revolutionary step in India’s democratic journey, giving citizens a direct tool to hold the State accountable. But recent amendments through the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023 have been termed a “fundamental regression of democracy.” By transforming RTI into a potential “Right to Deny Information (RDI),” the amendments threaten transparency, accountability, and the fight against corruption. This article unpacks the gravity of these changes, their implications for governance, and why the muted public response is a cause for deep concern.

Introduction

The RTI Act (2005) rests on the principle that in a democracy, government-held information belongs to the people. It has empowered ordinary citizens to expose corruption, inefficiency, and arbitrariness in governance. Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act, originally a balanced safeguard to protect personal privacy, has now been drastically curtailed by the DPDP Act, reducing it to six words. This shift fundamentally alters the spirit of transparency, tilting the Act from being a “Right to Know” towards a “Right to Deny.”

Why is this in the news?

For the first time since its enactment, the RTI Act faces a drastic truncation of one of its most crucial provisions. Section 8(1)(j), which earlier struck a delicate balance between privacy and transparency, has now been reduced in length and scope, effectively allowing authorities to deny a vast range of information. The problem is massive, nearly 90% of RTI requests could now be rejected as “personal information.” Yet, unlike earlier RTI amendments that triggered massive public protests, the current change has seen notable public and media apathy, making this a silent but severe assault on India’s democratic ethos.

How has the original Section 8(1)(j) changed?

  1. Balanced safeguard: Earlier, information could be denied only if it had no connection to public activity or was an unwarranted invasion of privacy, unless larger public interest was served.
  2. Acid test provision: Any information that could not be denied to Parliament or State legislatures could not be denied to citizens.
  3. Case-by-case privacy: Privacy, as acknowledged in Justice K.S. Puttaswamy vs Union of India, was contextual and evolving, requiring nuanced interpretation.
  4. New truncated version: Reduced to just six words, making it vague and easier for Public Information Officers (PIOs) to deny information.

What is the ambiguity around ‘personal information’?

  1. Natural person view: “Person” means a normal human being.
  2. DPDP definition: Expansive—includes companies, firms, associations, Hindu undivided families, and even the State.
  3. Result: Almost all government-held information can be linked to some “person,” enabling blanket denials.
  4. Overriding clause: DPDP Act overrides all other laws, with penalties up to ₹250 crore for violations, making PIOs fearful and risk-averse.

How does this impact transparency and anti-corruption efforts?

  1. Loss of citizen monitoring: Citizens as watchdogs against corruption lose power. Other mechanisms like vigilance bodies or Lokpal have been ineffective.
  2. Denial of essential documents: Even mundane details, like corrected marksheets or pension beneficiary lists, can be refused. Rajasthan’s earlier use of such data to weed out “ghost employees” will now be impossible.
  3. Scope for corruption: By labeling corruption-related details as “personal information,” the law makes it easier to hide wrongdoing.
  4. Larger public interest clause weakens: Though Section 8(2) allows disclosure in larger public interest, it is rarely applied (<1% of cases).

Why is there limited public outrage?

  1. Guise of data protection: Amendments are packaged under “privacy,” which appears benign or even desirable.
  2. Ego-driven perception: People instinctively think their information should remain private, ignoring how transparency aids collective accountability.
  3. Muted media response: Compared to earlier protests (e.g., changes to Information Commissioner tenure and salaries), public discussion is minimal.

What needs to be done?

  1. Media engagement: Widespread discussion in print, digital, and regional media.
  2. Political accountability: Citizens must push parties to commit reversal of amendments in manifestos.
  3. Public opinion building: Civil society must highlight the democratic regression caused.
  4. Recognising gravity: The assault on RTI must be treated as seriously as threats to any other fundamental right.

Conclusion

The RTI Act, 2005  is not just a legal framework but a democratic ethos, where citizens are owners, not petitioners, of government-held information. The DPDP Act’s amendment transforms this ethos into an ethos of denial, threatening both transparency and accountability. Unless citizens, media, and political actors mobilise to resist, India risks losing one of its most powerful democratic tools.

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Tribes in News

Property rights, tribals, and the gender parity gap

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Salient features of Indian Society

Introduction

Property ownership is not merely an economic question; it is fundamentally about power, dignity, and equality. For tribal women in India, exclusion from statutory inheritance rights has been one of the deepest forms of gender injustice. The Supreme Court’s July 2025 judgment striking down customary exclusions in tribal property rights represents both a historic corrective and a challenge: how to reconcile tribal customs with constitutional equality. The debate is timely, following International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples (August 9) and growing recognition of indigenous rights worldwide.

Why in the News

In Ram Charan and Ors. vs Sukhram and Ors. (July 17, 2025), the Supreme Court equated the exclusion of daughters from ancestral property in tribal communities with a violation of their fundamental right to equality. This is a landmark first, since earlier judgments such as Madhu Kishwar vs State of Bihar (1996) had refrained from striking down such customs. The judgment underscores the scale of injustice: as per the Agriculture Census 2015–16, only 16.7% of ST women own land compared to 83.3% of men. This ruling, therefore, marks a dramatic departure from precedent and could fundamentally reshape tribal women’s access to property, inheritance, and dignity.

Why are tribal women excluded from property rights?

  1. Customary laws: Tribals in Scheduled Areas follow customary laws on marriage, succession, and adoption, which largely exclude women from land inheritance.
  2. Economic contributions ignored: Despite tribal women contributing more to farms than men, they are legally excluded.
  3. Fear of land alienation: Communities argue that women marrying outside the tribe may lead to loss of tribal land to outsiders.
  4. Communitarian land ownership myth: Though land is termed “communitarian,” in practice, compensation from land sales rarely goes to gram sabhas; male members retain control.

How did the courts address this case?

  1. Trial and appellate courts: Initially dismissed the claim, holding that no Gond custom granted daughters property rights.
  2. High Court intervention: Rejected Hindu Succession Act application but granted equality, noting that denying women rights under “custom” entrenched discrimination.
  3. Supreme Court ruling: Declared exclusion of daughters unconstitutional, setting a precedent for gender justice in tribal inheritance.

What does the historical judicial background reveal?

  1. Madhu Kishwar (1996): SC upheld customary exclusions, citing possible chaos in existing law.
  2. Prabha Minz vs Martha Ekka (2022, Jharkhand HC): Recognized Oraon women’s inheritance rights, since defendants could not prove a valid exclusionary custom.
  3. Kamala Neti (2022, SC): Affirmed tribal women’s property rights in land acquisition compensation.

Why is codification or a new law necessary?

  1. Exclusion from Hindu Succession Act: Section 2(2) leaves tribal women outside its ambit.
  2. Proposal for Tribal Succession Act: A separate codified framework could balance equality with respect for indigenous identity.
  3. Precedent in Hindu & Christian laws: Their codification addressed similar issues of gender parity and succession, showing a workable model.

What makes this issue urgent and significant?

  1. Data on landholding: Only 16.7% ST women own land, highlighting systemic exclusion.
  2. Link to empowerment: Property rights directly determine women’s bargaining power, social security, and protection against violence.
  3. Constitutional mandate: Article 14 (equality), Article 15 (non-discrimination), and Article 21 (dignity) demand urgent correction.
  4. Global context: International Day of Indigenous Peoples (August 9) reaffirms focus on indigenous rights.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s July 2025 judgment marks a historic turning point in advancing gender justice for tribal women. Yet, lasting reform requires more than judicial intervention, it needs legislative codification, social sensitization, and integration of constitutional values into tribal governance frameworks. Recognizing tribal women as equal stakeholders in ancestral property is not just a matter of law, but of justice, dignity, and true nation-building.

Value Addition

Important Data & Reports

  1. Agriculture Census 2015–16: Only 16.7% of ST women own land vs. 83.3% of ST men.
  2. NITI Aayog Report on Women and Land (2020): Land ownership is key to reducing vulnerability and increasing empowerment.
  3. UNDP Gender Inequality Index (2023): India ranked 108/191, reflecting persistent gaps.
  4. FAO Report: Women with secure land rights invest more in family nutrition and education.

Judicial Landmarks on Tribal Women’s Property Rights

  1. Madhu Kishwar vs State of Bihar (1996):
    1. Petition challenged customary laws that excluded tribal women from inheritance.
    2. SC majority upheld exclusion, fearing “chaos” if customs were struck down.
    3. Significance: Reflected judicial conservatism, prioritizing customary law over equality.
  2. Prabha Minz vs Martha Ekka (2022, Jharkhand HC):
    1. Inheritance rights of Oraon tribal women upheld.
    2. Court said no proven custom showed continuous exclusion.
    3. Significance: Shift towards demanding evidentiary proof of discriminatory customs.
  3. Kamala Neti vs Special Land Acquisition Officer (2022, SC)
    1. Affirmed tribal women’s rights to compensation in land acquisition.
    2. Significance: Opened the door to gender equality in compensation and land rights.
  4. Ram Charan vs Sukhram (2025, SC):
    1. Landmark ruling equating exclusion of daughters in ancestral property to violation of fundamental right to equality.
    2. First time SC directly struck down discriminatory tribal custom.
    3. Significance: A watershed in gender-justice jurisprudence, aligning tribal customs with constitutional morality.

Committees & Commissions

  1. Xaxa Committee (2014): Noted that customary laws often disadvantage tribal women; recommended reforms.
  2. Law Commission of India (2008, 205th Report): Stressed codification of tribal customary laws to ensure women’s rights.

Schemes & Policies

  1. Forest Rights Act, 2006: Joint titles in land given to both spouses, but implementation remains skewed towards men.
  2. National Tribal Policy (Draft, 2006): Proposed codification of tribal laws and ensuring gender parity, but never fully adopted.
  3. Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao: Though focused on education, land inheritance could complement its goals.

International Conventions

  1. CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 1979): India is a signatory, obligating reforms against gender-based discrimination.
  2. UNDRIP (United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 2007): Recognizes indigenous women’s equal rights in land and property.

Analytical Enrichment

  1. Custom vs Constitutional Morality: As per Justice Chandrachud (Navtej Johar, 2018), customs must yield to constitutional morality when in conflict.
  2. Intersectionality: Tribal women face a double disadvantage: gender + tribal identity.
  3. Nation-building dimension: Empowering tribal women in land rights ensures inclusive growth, reduces poverty, and strengthens democratic justice.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Despite comprehensive policies for equity and social justice, underprivileged sections are not yet getting the full benefits of affirmative action envisaged by the Constitution. Comment.

Linkage: This 2025 Supreme Court judgment on tribal women’s property rights directly illustrates the gap between constitutional promises of equality (Articles 14 & 15) and the reality of customary exclusions. Despite decades of affirmative action, only 16.7% of ST women own land, showing underutilization of protective policies. The case highlights how judicial intervention is now bridging the gap left by incomplete legislative and policy measures

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Promoting Science and Technology – Missions,Policies & Schemes

Trumps’ crackdown on science gives India a great opportunity

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

Critical technologies are emerging as the new currency of global power. Yet India, despite ranking among the top five in 29 such domains, contributes only 2.5% of the world’s most highly cited papers and has just 2% of scientists in the global top 2% (Stanford–Elsevier). Meanwhile, China dominates 37 of 44 critical technologies (ASPI). A unique opening has now emerged: Donald Trump’s crackdown on US science funding has left many Indian-origin and global researchers stranded, while Europe and China are aggressively recruiting. India has announced large-scale mission-oriented funding for the first time in decades, but without a strategy to embed top-tier talent, the window may close.

Why is this in the news?

For the first time in decades, India faces a rare alignment of global and domestic factors: massive cuts in US federal science funding, visa restrictions, and declining tenure-track opportunities have created a glut of stranded researchers, while India has simultaneously launched the Anusandhan National Research Foundation and a ₹1 lakh crore R&D Innovation Fund. However, unless India builds mechanisms to absorb this talent as China did with its “Young Thousand Talents” programme  the opportunity will be lost. The stakes are enormous: missing this cohort could mean losing breakthroughs in semiconductors, quantum communication, synthetic biology, and propulsion for decades.

What is India’s current research imbalance?

  1. Low global presence: India accounts for only 2.5% of most cited papers and 2% of top researchers globally.
  2. China’s dominance: Controls 37 of 44 critical technologies, producing 4x more high-impact research than the US in advanced aircraft engines.
  3. Structural weakness: India ranks in the top five in 29 technologies but lacks the ecosystem for consistent breakthroughs.

Why does Trump’s crackdown matter for India?

  1. Massive US cuts: Trump has slashed 50%+ budgets of NSF and NASA.
  2. Bleak academic jobs: Only 15% of STEM PhDs in the US secure tenure-track jobs within 5 years (down from 25%).
  3. Visa restrictions: Many Indian-origin postdocs are stranded, creating a ready talent pool in critical technologies.

How are other countries responding?

  1. Europe’s push: The “Choose Europe for Science” initiative; Macron announced a €100 million France 2030 fund.
  2. China’s precedent: The Young Thousand Talents Program (2011–17) recruited 3,500 scientists, boosting China’s institutions to 8 of the top 10 in the Nature Index by 2024.

Why has India struggled to attract talent?

  1. Uncompetitive pay: Compensation not aligned with global benchmarks.
  2. Weak infrastructure: Lack of world-class labs and sustained grants.
  3. No clear pathways: Absence of long-term absorption and career progression.
  4. Fragmented recruitment: Not tied to mission-oriented streams, leading to scattered efforts.

What institutional reforms are proposed?

  1. Focused Research Organisations (FROs): Modeled on the India Urban Data Exchange at IISc.
  2. Target: Attract 500 top researchers in 5 years.
  3. Integration: Involve existing Indian academics via joint appointments, rotational leadership, and competitive entry.
  4. Public–private–academy model: FROs as Section 8 companies with 51% industry stake, ensuring long-term sustainability.
  5. Case study: IIT Delhi–DRDO’s milestone in quantum entanglement-based free-space secure communication (1 km) makes it a natural anchor for an FRO on quantum communication.

Conclusion

India cannot afford to miss this historic opportunity. With Trump’s cuts destabilising US science and Europe and China already acting, India must move beyond funding announcements to credible, permanent talent pathways. Focused Research Organisations, with industry participation and global integration, can build sovereign capabilities in critical domains. Delay would mean losing not just researchers, but also the future of India’s technological autonomy.

Value Addition

Data/Reports

  1. Stanford–Elsevier Citation Report (2024) → India accounts for only 2.5% of the most highly cited papers and has just 2% of scientists in the global top 2%, reflecting poor global presence.
  2. ASPI Tech Dominance Index → China dominates 37 of 44 critical technologies, showing how talent recruitment directly builds sovereign capability.
  3. NSF/NASA Budget Cuts (Trump Administration) → US federal science agencies face 50%+ cuts, creating a glut of displaced researchers — a historic opportunity for India.

Concepts

  1. Sovereign Capability → Building self-reliant strength in strategic domains (e.g., biotech, quantum communication) to reduce dependence on external powers.
  2. Mission-Oriented Research → Aligning R&D with national priorities like semiconductors, propulsion, synthetic biology, ensuring targeted breakthroughs rather than scattered efforts.
  3. Focused Research Organisations (FROs) → Permanent, Section 8 company–style entities with 51% industry stake, pooling government + private + academic resources to attract top scientists.

Comparative Models

  1. China’s Young Thousand Talents Programme (2011–17) → Attracted 3,500 early-career scientists, leading to China’s leap in research outputs (e.g., 8/10 top global institutions in Nature Index by 2024).
  2. Europe’s “Choose Europe for Science” Initiative → Macron announced a €100m France 2030 fund, signalling Europe’s urgency in talent recruitment post-US cuts.
  3. US Example → Despite strong universities, declining tenure-track jobs (from 25% → 15% in 20 years) and visa restrictions are pushing talent outward — India can tap this pool.

Schemes/Institutions (India)

  1. Anusandhan National Research Foundation (NRF) → India’s new umbrella funding agency for large-scale, mission-driven research.
  2. ₹1 Lakh Crore R&D Innovation Fund → First time in decades that India committed such large-scale funding to science, signalling intent to shift from incremental to transformational research.
  3. India Urban Data Exchange (IISc Model) → Early version of an FRO; shows how domain-specific research hubs can create national data/tech ecosystems.
  4. Ease of Doing Science Measures → Fast-tracked grants, simplified approvals, but missing element = talent attraction and long-term absorption pathways.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of society?

Linkage: India’s weak global research profile and failure to attract top talent have limited breakthroughs in applied biotechnology, despite its potential to revolutionise agriculture, health, and industry. The editorial stresses the need for mission-oriented research and Focused Research Organisations to ensure sovereign capability in biotech, much like China’s success in critical technologies. If harnessed effectively, such achievements can directly benefit the poorer sections by improving crop yields, affordable healthcare, and job creation.

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Bengaluru gets its 2nd Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS)

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Karnataka government declared 8.6 acres of green cover at Cantonment Railway Colony in Bengaluru as a Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS), the second such site in the city after Gandhi Krishi Vigyan Kendra (GKVK).

About Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS):

  • Legal Basis: Recognized under Section 37(1) of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 as ecologically sensitive areas of high biodiversity.
  • Notifying Authority: The State Government, in consultation with local bodies, can declare an area as a BHS.
  • Objective: Conserves wild and domesticated species, including rare, threatened, and keystone species, vital for ecological balance.
  • Significance: Marked as ecologically fragile zones, essential for sustaining local ecosystems and long-term sustainability.
  • Community Role: Local communities and institutions are actively involved in management and protection.
  • Restrictions Put: Declaration does NOT restrict customary uses; aims to enhance quality of life through conservation.
  • Institutional Support: State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) assist in proposing, managing, and monitoring BHS.
  • First BHS in India: Nallur Tamarind Grove, Bengaluru, Karnataka, notified in 2007.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

1. In India, the Biodiversity Management Committees are key to the realization of the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol.

2. The Biodiversity Management Committees have important functions in determining access and benefit sharing, including the power to levy collection fees on the access of biological resources within its jurisdiction.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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