Why in the News?
Researchers have identified a new-to-science bat species, the Himalayan long-tailed myotis (Myotis himalaicus), from the Western Himalayas.
About Himalayan Long-Tailed Myotis:
- New Species: It is a newly described bat species from the Western Himalayas.
- Discovery: It was first recorded in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, in 2021 and matched with an earlier specimen collected in Pakistan in 1998.
- Class: It belongs to the Myotis frater complex, which includes bats found across East and Central Asia.
Key Features:
- Habitat: Found in high-altitude forests such as deodar, pine, and cedar.
- Distribution: Likely found across India, Pakistan, and Nepal.
- Tail: Notably features a long tail, setting it apart within the Myotis genus.
- Rarity: Considered uncommon, with limited sightings.
- Identification: Confirmed through morphological traits and genetic analysis.
- Scientific Significance: Enhances understanding of bat diversity in the Himalayas and supports transboundary biodiversity research.
| [UPSC 2009] In the context of Indian wildlife, the flying fox is a:
Options: (a) Bat* (b) Kite (c) Stork (d) Vulture |
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Why in the News?
Researchers at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST) have successfully created India’s first gene-edited sheep—a Kashmir Merino breed.
About Kashmir Merino Sheep:
- Overview: Kashmir Merino is a high-quality domestic sheep breed known for its fine wool and ability to thrive in cold climates.
- Genetics: It was developed by crossbreeding exotic Merino rams with local sheep breeds in Jammu and Kashmir.
- Characteristics: The breed produces soft, dense wool with high fibre quality, making it valuable for the textile industry.
- Resilience: It is well-adapted to high-altitude Himalayan conditions, including extreme cold and low oxygen levels.
- Significance: It plays a key role in regional livestock economies, contributing significantly to wool and mutton production in Jammu and Kashmir.
Gene-Editing Breakthrough in Kashmir Merino:
- Gene Targeted: Researchers used CRISPR-Cas9 technology to edit the myostatin gene, which normally inhibits muscle growth.
- Impact: Disabling this gene led to a 30% increase in muscle mass, resulting in higher meat yield and improved economic returns for farmers.
- Lab-to-Field Success: The edited embryo was developed in a laboratory and then successfully implanted into a surrogate mother, marking a full-cycle gene-editing achievement.
- Biotech Significance: This success represents a major advancement in India’s livestock biotechnology, opening new paths for research in disease resistance, wool quality enhancement, and production of transgenic proteins.
| [UPSC 2017] What is the application of somatic cell nuclear transfer technology?
Options: (a) Production of biolarvicides (b) Manufacture of biodegradable plastics (c) Reproductive cloning of animals* (d) Production of organisms free of diseases |
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Why in the News?
NASA’s Mars Odyssey orbiter has captured a spectacular image of Arsia Mons, one of Mars’ largest volcanoes.
About Arsia Mons Volcano:
- Location: Arsia Mons is a massive shield volcano on Mars, located in the Tharsis region near the planet’s equator.
- Volcanic Chain: It is part of the Tharsis Montes trio, which includes Pavonis Mons and Ascraeus Mons.
- Size and Structure: The volcano rises about 20 km (12 miles) in height and spans 450 kilometres in diameter, making it one of the largest in the Solar System.
- Summit Caldera: Arsia Mons has an enormous caldera, or summit crater, measuring 120 kilometres across, which is much wider than most Earth volcanoes.
- Volcano Type: It is a shield volcano, characterised by gentle slopes formed through successive lava flows.
- Surface Features: Signs of lava channels, landslides, and possible ancient glaciers have been observed on its flanks.
- Cloud Activity: Known as the cloudiest volcano on Mars, Arsia Mons regularly develops water-ice clouds near its summit, especially at sunrise and during aphelion, when Mars is farthest from the Sun.
Its Significance:
- Recent Imaging: A new image released by NASA shows Arsia Mons piercing through morning haze, offering scientists a horizon-level view of Martian terrain.
- Scientific Importance: Observations help researchers analyse Martian weather, seasonal climate patterns, and atmospheric behaviour.
- Mission Relevance: Arsia Mons plays a key role in understanding Mars’ volcanic history, dust storm formation, and identifying future landing zones.
- Exploration Support: Data from this region improve planetary weather models and assist in safe mission planning for upcoming robotic and human missions.
Back2Basics: NASA’s Mars Odyssey Orbiter
- Launch: Mars Odyssey was launched in 2001, making it NASA’s longest-operating spacecraft at Mars.
- Technology: The orbiter captured the Arsia Mons image using the THEMIS (Thermal Emission Imaging System) camera.
- Capabilities: This instrument detects both visible and infrared light, allowing scientists to study surface temperatures, mineral compositions, and atmospheric properties.
- Unique Technique: To photograph Arsia Mons against the Martian horizon, the orbiter rotated its camera 90 degrees, deviating from its usual ground-facing orientation.
- Contributions: It continues to monitor climate changes, study volcanoes and dust storms, and assist with landing site selection.
- Support Role: It also serves as a communication relay for other active Mars missions, enabling data transfer and navigation for landers and rovers.
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| [UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:
The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO 1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission 2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA 3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Axiom-4 Mission
Why in the News?
The launch of Axiom-4 (Ax-4), a private mission to the International Space Station (ISS), has been postponed to June 11 due to weather conditions.
About Axiom-4 Mission
- Axiom Mission 4 (Ax-4) is a private spaceflight organized by Axiom Space.
- It aims to transport a crew to the International Space Station (ISS) for a 14-day mission.
- This will be Axiom Space’s fourth mission to the ISS, following their previous missions (Ax-1, Ax-2, and Ax-3).
- The mission will launch from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida using SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket.
- The spacecraft for this mission is a SpaceX Crew Dragon, known for its advanced technology and safety features.
- This mission is organised in collaboration with NASA, highlighting a strong partnership between private space companies and government space agencies to further space exploration and research.
- Crew:
- Peggy Whitson: A veteran astronaut with extensive experience, having completed multiple missions to the ISS.
- Sławosz Uznanski: A Polish astronaut joining the mission, marking a significant milestone for Poland in space exploration.
- Tibor Kapu: A Hungarian astronaut, adding to the diversity of the mission crew.
- Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla: An Indian astronaut, making headlines as part of this international crew.
Significance of Ax-4 Mission for India
- The mission is a collaborative effort resulting from an agreement between ISRO and NASA.
- It provides ISRO with an early opportunity to test experiments in space, originally planned for Gaganyaan.
- Key Indian Experiments on Axiom-4:
- Microgravity’s impact on muscle dysfunction.
- Use of computer screens in zero gravity and their effects on human cognition and vision.
- Growth of six varieties of crop seeds in space conditions.
- Tardigrade survival study—these microscopic creatures can endure extreme environments and may provide insight into life support systems in space.
Back2Basics: International Space Station (ISS)
- The ISS, orbiting 430 kilometres above Earth, completes 16 orbits daily, witnessing 16 sunrises and sunsets.
- The ISS orbits Earth every 90 minutes at 8 km per second.
- Spanning 109 meters, it’s almost as long as an American football field.
- The ISS includes 6 sleeping areas, 2 bathrooms, a gym, and a panoramic view bay window.
- Its solar array wingspan is 109 meters, and the station houses about 13 km of electrical wiring.
- The ISS’s journey began on November 20, 1998, with Russia’s Zarya Control Module.
- The US added the Unity Node 1 module on December 4, 1998, marking the start of a functional space lab.
- The station evolved into its current form after 42 assembly flights.
|
PYQ:
[2019] What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme? |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.
Linkage: The article highlight that the world needs to “lower its dependence on fossil fuels” because “greenhouse gas emissions are increasing worldwide,” leading to “rising surface temperatures”. The discussion around Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI) in the sources is presented as a controversial technology proposed to “directly cool the planet rather than bank on reducing emissions alone” as a means of “reducing the impacts of climate change |
Mentor’s Comment: The world needs to rely less on fossil fuels, but progress has been slow because of problems like war, poverty, and rising prices. As a result, greenhouse gas emissions are still going up. To deal with this, some scientists suggest using new technologies to cool the Earth directly, instead of only focusing on cutting emissions. One such method is Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI), where tiny particles are sprayed into the upper atmosphere to block sunlight and reduce warming.
Today’s editorial discusses the Stratospheric Aerosol Injection technique, a key topic for GS Paper III (Science, Technology & Environment), highlighting its potential, challenges, and relevance to climate change mitigation efforts.
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
A recent study in the journal Earth’s Future shared a new idea that could make SAI cheaper and easier to use, even though many people are still against it.
What was the new idea?
- Use of Existing Aircraft: Instead of waiting a decade and spending billions to build special high-altitude planes, the study proposes modifying existing aircraft (like the Boeing 777F) to spray aerosols at lower altitudes.
- Low-Altitude Injection in Polar Regions: The study suggests carrying out aerosol injections at lower altitudes (around 13 km) in polar and extratropical regions, where the stratosphere is more easily reachable. This approach is more cost-effective, technically simpler, and can be implemented sooner.
What is Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)?
SAI is a proposed method of cooling the planet by injecting tiny reflective particles (aerosols) into the stratosphere. It is inspired by volcanic eruptions, which naturally cool the Earth by spewing particles that reflect sunlight. These aerosols reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface, creating a cooling effect. |
Why is the spraying of aerosol needed?
- To Reflect Sunlight and Cool the Planet: Aerosols (like sulphur dioxide) reflect some of the sun’s rays back into space, reducing the heat reaching Earth’s surface. Eg: The 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption released sulphur dioxide, cooling Earth by about 0.5°C for over a year.
- To Temporarily Reduce Global Warming Effects: SAI can lower atmospheric temperatures temporarily, helping to reduce severe climate effects like heatwaves, ice melt, and sea-level rise. Eg: A study showed spraying 12 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide at 13 km altitude could cool the planet by 0.6°C.
- To Buy Time for Emissions Reductions and Climate Adaptation: While long-term solutions like clean energy are built, SAI could provide a temporary buffer against extreme climate impacts. Eg: It could delay serious effects like crop failure or habitat loss, allowing time for sustainable reforms.
Why is low-altitude SAI seen as cost-effective?
- No Need for Specialized Aircraft: Low-altitude SAI can be conducted using existing aircraft, avoiding the high costs of developing planes that fly above 20 km. Eg: Standard jets like the Boeing 777F can reach stratospheric levels in polar regions, making deployment more affordable.
- Technically Less Challenging: Operating at lower altitudes reduces technical complexity, such as extreme temperature and pressure challenges faced at higher elevations. Eg: Modifying existing jets with pressurized tanks is easier than designing new high-altitude aircraft.
- Faster Implementation Timeline: It enables quicker deployment, avoiding the 10-year delay and multi-billion dollar investment needed for high-altitude SAI systems. Eg: Using current infrastructure, SAI programs could begin much earlier to address urgent climate risks.
Where is low-altitude injection feasible and why?
- Feasible in Polar and Extratropical Regions: In these regions, the stratosphere starts at lower altitudes, making it accessible to standard aircraft. Eg: Over the Arctic or Antarctic, the tropopause (boundary between troposphere and stratosphere) is around 8–13 km, suitable for existing jets.
- Infeasible Near the Equator: At equatorial regions, the stratosphere begins at 18 km or higher, which is beyond the reach of most commercial or military jets. Eg: Areas like Indonesia or the Amazon basin would require specially built aircraft for SAI.
- Altitude Determines Aerosol Effectiveness: While higher altitude injections last longer in the atmosphere, lower altitude in polar zones allows SAI to be conducted with less cost and effort. Eg: Studies show that even at 13 km altitude in polar spring and summer, SAI can cool the planet by ~0.6°C with 12 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide.
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How does the use of existing aircraft like the Boeing 777F influence the implementation of SAI technology?
- Reduces Deployment Costs: Using existing aircraft avoids the high capital expenditure needed to design and build specialized high-altitude jets. Eg: The Boeing 777F, a widely available cargo aircraft, can be adapted for SAI at lower stratospheric levels, cutting costs significantly.
- Speeds Up Implementation: Existing jets can be modified and deployed faster, enabling earlier testing and potential use of SAI to address urgent climate risks. Eg: Building high-altitude aircraft may take nearly a decade, but using modified commercial planes could allow operations to start much sooner.
- Requires Feasible Technical Modifications: Though not originally built for aerosol spraying, planes like the Boeing 777F can be retrofitted with specialized equipment. Eg: An August 2024 study proposed adding insulated double-walled pressurized tanks to safely carry and release sulphur dioxide.
What are the Risks and Controversies of SAI?
- Environmental and Health Side Effects: SAI could lead to acid rain, delayed ozone recovery, and unknown ecological disruptions due to aerosol particles in the atmosphere. Eg: Sulphur dioxide, commonly proposed for SAI, can form sulphuric acid in the atmosphere, harming ecosystems and human health.
- Uneven Global Effects: SAI’s cooling impact may not be uniform worldwide, potentially benefiting some regions while worsening droughts, rainfall patterns, or crop yields in others. Eg: Cooling could be stronger in polar regions, while tropical areas, which face the worst climate impacts, may not benefit equally.
- Governance and Ethical Concerns: SAI affects the entire planet, raising questions about who decides when, where, and how it’s used. It may lead to geopolitical tensions and misuse. Eg: A single country unilaterally injecting aerosols could trigger international disputes, especially if neighbouring regions suffer unintended consequences.
Way forward:
- Establish a Global Governance Framework: International collaboration is essential to regulate research, testing, and potential deployment of SAI, ensuring transparency, accountability, and consent from all affected nations.
- Focus on Complementary Climate Strategies: SAI should be treated as a temporary, supplementary tool, not a replacement for emission reduction. Massive investments must continue in renewables, carbon capture, and adaptation strategies.
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Why in the News?
India’s main financial regulators — the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) — have, for the first time, created clear step-by-step procedures for how they will create and update their rules.
What procedural reforms have the RBI and SEBI recently introduced in regulation-making?
- Mandatory Public Consultation: Both RBI and SEBI now require a 21-day window for public feedback before finalizing regulations. Eg: When SEBI proposes changes to investment guidelines, stakeholders can submit suggestions during this consultation period.
- Introduction of Impact Analysis and Regulatory Objectives: RBI must conduct an impact analysis to assess the effect of new regulations. SEBI must state the regulatory intent and objectives behind any proposed rule. Eg: Before introducing digital lending norms, RBI must assess how it affects NBFCs and consumers.
- Periodic Review of Existing Regulations: Both regulators are now required to periodically review existing laws to ensure relevance and effectiveness. E.g.: SEBI may revisit earlier mutual fund rules to assess if they align with current market dynamics.
Why is identifying economic rationale important for regulatory interventions?
- Targets Actual Market Failures: Ensures that regulations are introduced to solve real economic issues, not just perceived ones. Eg: RBI introducing regulations on digital lending platforms to tackle predatory lending practices.
- Improves Resource Allocation: Helps in the efficient use of regulatory capacity and government resources by focusing only where intervention is necessary. Eg: SEBI focusing surveillance on high-risk investment products rather than low-risk ones.
- Enables Evidence-Based Policy Making: Economic rationale demands data-backed decision-making, leading to more robust and defensible policies. Eg: Mandating minimum capital buffers after analysing risk exposure in banks post-2008 crisis.
- Strengthens Cost-Benefit Analysis: Clarifies whether the expected benefits outweigh the compliance and administrative costs. Eg: Before enforcing stricter disclosure norms, SEBI can evaluate if the benefits to investors justify the burden on companies.
- Increases Public and Stakeholder Trust: When the rationale is transparent, it builds confidence in the regulator’s objectivity and fairness. Eg: Clearly stating economic reasoning behind banning front-running in trading enhances credibility.
How do international practices like those in the US and EU guide regulatory impact assessment?
- Mandatory Cost-Benefit Analysis: US regulators must evaluate the economic impact of any regulation before adoption to ensure benefits outweigh costs. Eg: The Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) reviews federal regulations to minimize economic burdens.
- Problem Identification and Alternatives Assessment: The EU’s Better Regulation Framework requires identifying the core problem, evaluating alternative policy options, and selecting the most effective one. Eg: EU energy efficiency regulations involved assessing multiple alternatives before finalizing appliance labeling norms.
- Monitoring and Evaluation Frameworks: Both the US and EU emphasize post-implementation reviews to check if regulations achieve intended goals. Eg: The EU conducts ex-post evaluations as part of its regulatory cycle to ensure continuous improvement.
When should regulations be reviewed and why?
- At Pre-defined and Regular Intervals: Regulations should be reviewed periodically (e.g., every 3 years) to assess continued relevance. Eg: The IFSCA mandates review of its regulations every 3 years to align with changing market needs.
- After Significant Economic or Sectoral Changes: Major changes like market failures, technological advancements, or crises should trigger a regulatory review. Eg: The COVID-19 pandemic led to a re-evaluation of financial sector norms to support liquidity and credit flow.
- To Evaluate Effectiveness and Stakeholder Impact: Reviews help assess whether regulations have achieved their intended goals and consider public feedback. Eg: SEBI may review listing regulations based on feedback from companies and investors to enhance market transparency.
Who can ensure uniform regulatory standards in India?
- Parliament through Enactment of a Common Law: Parliament can introduce a standardised law (similar to the U.S. Administrative Procedure Act) to ensure consistent regulatory practices like impact assessments, public consultations, and periodic reviews across all regulators. Eg: A central Regulation-Making Procedure Act could mandate that all financial regulators follow uniform protocols.
- Government Agencies Issuing Common Guidelines: The Central Government or NITI Aayog can issue model guidelines or frameworks to harmonise regulation-making procedures among regulators. Eg: Like the UK and Canada, India can adopt unified regulatory guidelines to promote transparency and accountability across SEBI, RBI, IFSCA, etc.
Way forward:
- Enact a Unified Regulatory Procedure Law: Parliament should legislate a comprehensive framework for regulation-making that mandates impact analysis, public consultation, and periodic review across all regulators to ensure transparency and consistency.
- Strengthen Institutional Capacity and Oversight: Build the capacity of regulatory bodies through training, digital tools, and staffing, and set up an independent oversight mechanism to monitor compliance with procedural norms and ensure accountability.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] “Citizens’ Charter is an ideal instrument of organizational transparency and accountability, but it has its own limitations. Identify the limitations and suggest measures for greater effectiveness or the Citizens Charter.”
Linkage: The theme of “consultative regulation-making that should go further” as discussed in “Crafting India’s Regulatory Future”. In the article primarily discusses financial regulators and the PYQ addresses the Citizens’ Charter, both embody the fundamental principle of existing governance mechanisms needing to evolve and be strengthened to achieve their stated objectives of transparency, accountability, and more effective public engagement, moving beyond a “nascent stage” or “welcome start” to truly “go further.”
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Why in the News?
After Operation Sindoor, India’s military strike against Pakistan in May, there has been a lot of talk about strategy — but it has also given a strong boost to India’s defence sector, especially to private companies and small businesses (MSMEs) involved in defence manufacturing.
What impact did Operation Sindoor have on the performance of defence company stocks?
- Sharp Rise in Defence Stocks: Defence company stocks surged by nearly 21% in the week when India conducted Operation Sindoor, significantly outperforming the broader market’s 3.1% rise in the Nifty50 index during the same period.
- Sustained Positive Momentum: In the week following Operation Sindoor, defence stocks continued to rise by 5.4%, whereas the Nifty50 index actually declined by 0.5%, showing sustained investor confidence in the defence sector.
- Reversal of Previous Underperformance: Before Operation Sindoor, defence stocks were lagging behind the top 50 companies on the National Stock Exchange, but the operation acted as a catalyst that boosted their performance substantially.
Why is the growth in India’s defence production and exports significant?
- Enhances Self-Reliance: The growth signals India’s increasing capability to produce defence equipment domestically, reducing dependence on imports. Eg, defence production reached a record ₹1.3 lakh crore in FY24, showing strong progress in indigenous manufacturing.
- Boosts Economic and Strategic Strength: Rising defence exports, which have doubled since FY20 and crossed ₹20,000 crore in recent years, help strengthen India’s global defence market presence and contribute to economic growth. The government’s export target of ₹30,000 crore for the current fiscal reflects this ambition.
- Encourages Innovation and Industry Growth: Sustained double-digit growth since FY22 encourages innovation and investment in defence technology, benefiting both public and private sectors.
How have private companies and MSMEs contributed to India’s defence sector in recent years?
- Growing Share in Defence Production: Private defence companies increased their share of total defence production from about 20% in FY17 to nearly 24% in FY25, showing their expanding role in the sector. Eg, companies like Paras Defence and Space Technologies have become prominent players.
- Leading Role in Defence Exports: Private firms now account for the majority share of defence exports due to export authorisations, helping India expand its footprint in the global defence market. Eg, several private companies contribute to exports of small arms and protective gear.
- MSMEs as Key Component Suppliers: MSMEs supply crucial components to the defence industry, with government procurement from MSMEs doubling the target to ₹13,000 crore in FY25. Eg, MSMEs provided goods worth around ₹3,000 crore between FY18 and FY20, with larger orders thereafter.
When did defence production begin steady growth?
- Defence production contracted by 2.5% in FY20 (pre-pandemic).
- Since FY22, defence production has been seeing consistent double-digit growth.
- The growth momentum continues with production touching nearly ₹90,000 crore by December 2024 against a target of ₹1.6 lakh crore for FY25.
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What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- Promoting Domestic Manufacturing: The government has set ambitious targets to boost indigenous defence production, encouraging self-reliance. Eg, defence production crossed ₹1.3 lakh crore in FY24 and is targeted at ₹1.6 lakh crore in FY25.
- Supporting MSMEs through Procurement: Mandatory public procurement targets have been set to ensure MSMEs receive steady orders and support. Eg, goods worth ₹13,000 crore were procured from MSMEs in FY25, more than double the target.
- Encouraging Private Sector Participation: Policies have facilitated the growing involvement of private companies in defence production and exports. Eg, private companies increased their production share from 20% in FY17 to nearly 24% in FY25, and dominate defence exports.
Way forward:
- Enhance Technology Upgradation and Innovation: Invest more in R&D and foster collaboration between public and private sectors to develop cutting-edge defence technologies, ensuring global competitiveness and self-reliance.
- Strengthen MSME Integration and Export Support: Expand financial and policy support to MSMEs for scaling up production capacity and quality, and create dedicated export facilitation mechanisms to boost India’s defence exports further.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2014] Defence manufacturing in India is still in a nascent stage. What influence this is expected to have on Indian defence and economy in the short and long run?
Linkage: Recent data from the article clearly demonstrates a significant “fillip” in India’s defence production, directly linked with the “nascent stage” described in the 2014 PYQ. This 2014 question is highly relevant as it highlights a past perception that “defence manufacturing in India is still in a nascent stage. In this articel, the discussions on the efficacy and confidence in India’s home-grown defence capabilities have increased. Following “Operation Sindoor,” defence stocks of 18 companies on the Nifty Defence Index rose by almost 21% in a week in May, significantly outperforming the Nifty50 index.
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Why in the News?
Despite the imposition of President’s Rule in Manipur, the situation on the ground remains volatile, with fresh instances of violence being reported.
What is President’s Rule?
- About: It is the situation where the central government takes over a state’s administration due to the failure of constitutional machinery, as per Article 356 of the Indian Constitution.
- Historical Origins:
- Article 356 draws from Section 93 of the Government of India Act, 1935, where the British Governor could take over provincial governance.
- First used in 1951 in Punjab and later in 1959 to dismiss Kerala’s elected communist government under Jawaharlal Nehru.
- Indira Gandhi’s tenure saw frequent imposition of President’s Rule, often to topple opposition-ruled states, raising concerns over political misuse.
- Constitutional Articles involved:
- Article 355 mandates the Union to protect states against external aggression and internal disturbance.
- Article 356 empowers the President to impose President’s Rule when a state’s constitutional machinery fails.
- Article 357 allows Parliament to make laws on behalf of the state during President’s Rule.
- Article 365 provides that if a state fails to follow Union directions, it can be deemed as having a breakdown of constitutional governance.
- Grounds for Imposition:
- Under Article 356, if the President is satisfied, based on the Governor’s report or otherwise, that the state cannot function according to constitutional provisions.
- Under Article 365, if a state does not comply with Union directives, it can trigger the presumption of constitutional breakdown.
- Approval and Duration:
- The proclamation must be approved by both Houses of Parliament within 2 months.
- Once approved, it remains in force for 6 months and can be extended in 6-month intervals for up to 3 years.
- Revocation of Rule:
- President’s Rule can be revoked at any time by a new proclamation by the President.
- No parliamentary approval is required for revocation.
Consequences of President’s Rule:
- Effect on State Executive:
- The CM and the Council of Ministers are dismissed immediately.
- The Governor administers the state, often with the help of civil servants or advisors appointed by the President.
- Effect on State Legislature:
- The state assembly may be dissolved or suspended.
- The Parliament assumes the power to legislate on state subjects and to pass the state’s budget.
- During recess, the President can authorize expenditure from the state’s Consolidated Fund.
- All laws passed under President’s Rule remain valid until explicitly repealed by the newly elected assembly.
- Effect on State Judiciary:
- The High Court’s powers and jurisdiction remain unaffected.
- The President cannot assume judicial functions or alter the constitutional status of the judiciary.
- Misuse and Political Abuse:
- Over the decades, Article 356 was used as a political tool by successive central governments to undermine state autonomy.
- It became a controversial provision, criticized for damaging federalism and violating democratic norms.
Judicial Safeguard against arbitrary President’s Rule: S.R. Bommai Case (1994):
- The Supreme Court laid down strict guidelines to prevent the arbitrary use of Article 356.
- The Court ruled that President’s Rule must be based on objective material, not merely the Governor’s report.
- The majority of a state government must be tested on the floor of the assembly, not through the Governor’s personal opinion.
- Importantly, the Court stated that the President’s decision is subject to judicial review, reinforcing constitutional accountability.
- The judgment emphasized that Article 356 should only be used as a last resort, and not as a political weapon.
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| [UPSC 2018] If the President of India exercises his power as provided under Article 356 of the Constitution in respect of a particular State, then-
Options: (a) the Assembly of the State is automatically dissolved (b) the powers of the Legislature of that State shall be exercisable by or under the authority of the Parliament* (c) Article 19 is suspended in that State (d) the President can make laws relating to that State |
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Why in the News?
In a major achievement for adult education in India, Mizoram and Goa have declared themselves “fully literate” under the ULLAS Scheme (Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society).
What does “Fully Literate” mean under ULLAS?
- As per the Ministry of Education (August 2024):
- A person is literate if they can read, write, and compute with comprehension, including essential life skills.
- A state is considered fully literate if it achieves 95% literacy or more.
- This aligns with the National Education Policy, 2020 and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) target of achieving universal youth and adult literacy by 2030.
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About the ULLAS Scheme:
- Launch: It is a centrally sponsored scheme launched in 2022.
- Vision: It is based on the spirit of ‘Kartvya Bodh’ (DUTY) and is being implemented through volunteerism.
- Official Name: It is formally known as the New India Literacy Programme and is being implemented over a five-year period (2022–2027).
- Core Objective: The scheme aims to provide foundational literacy and numeracy to 5 crore non-literate individuals aged 15 years and above.
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- Beyond Basics: In addition to reading, writing, and arithmetic, learners are taught critical life skills, such as financial literacy and digital literacy.
- Beneficiary Identification: Individuals are identified through door-to-door surveys conducted by schools and local officials across states and UTs.
- Volunteer Teaching Model: Teaching is provided by volunteers, including school and college students, teacher trainees, and community members.
- Learning Support and Certification:
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- Learning Materials: The NCERT develops the core content, which is translated and adapted into 22 languages of India by state authorities.
- Digital and Offline Modes: A mobile app supports the learning process, though offline teaching is also included for inclusive access.
- Assessment Process: Learners appear for the Functional Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test (FLNAT) — a 150-mark exam in multiple languages.
- Certification: Those who pass the FLNAT are certified by the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) for achieving basic literacy and numeracy.
Key Achievements on Full Literacy under ULLAS:
- State Declarations:
- Ladakh: First region to be declared fully literate (June 2024)
- Goa: Declared fully literate with 99.72% literacy
- Mizoram: Declared fully literate with 98.2% literacy
- Performance Insights:
- 100% pass rate in Goa and Tamil Nadu
- Over 95% in Punjab, Assam, UP
- Women-majority participation in several states (over 70% in Mizoram, Jharkhand, Tamil Nadu, etc.)
- Historical Context: ULLAS Scheme builds on earlier adult literacy programs such as:
- Saakshar Bharat (2009–2018)
- National Literacy Mission (1988–2009)
- National Adult Education Programme (1970s–1980s)
| [UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements: As per 2001 Census:
1. the two States with the lowest sex ratio are Haryana and Punjab. 2. the two States with the lowest population per sq. km of area are Meghalaya and Mizoram. 3. Kerala has both the highest literacy rate and sex ratio.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 3 only* (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
IIT Gandhinagar researchers have found evidence that humans lived in the Great Rann of Kutch 5,000 years before the Harappans, likely as coastal hunter-gatherers.
About the Khadir Island Sites:
- Location: Khadir Island (Khadir Beyt) is in the Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, near the well-known Harappan site of Dholavira.
- Geographic Context: The island is one of 6 that were surrounded by water 5,000–6,000 years ago, due to higher sea levels.
- Discovery Site: In 2016, researchers discovered archaeological remains near Bambhanka, about 1 km from Dholavira.
- Site Features: Findings include house complexes, broken potsherds, marine shells, carnelian and agate flakes, and wall remnants made from random rubble masonry.
- Shell Deposits: A 30–40 cm thick shell deposit was found on a hillock’s western edge, exposed by a pipeline trench. Similar shells were first reported in 1872 by geologist Arthur Beavor Wynne.
- Shell Species: The Terebralia palustris shell species indicates a mangrove ecosystem once existed here.
- Other Sites: Additional shell midden sites were discovered at Laungwali, Kunduwari, Ganeshpar, and Janan, mostly located 2–2.5 km from the coast.
Key Findings:
- Archaeological Significance:
- Evidence suggests prehistoric hunter-gatherers lived here 7,000–7,500 years ago, before the Harappans.
- Carbon dating of 15 shell samples shows they are 5,000–5,500 years older than Harappan remains.
- A 400–500 year time lag may exist due to shellfish diets, meaning actual dates could be older.
- Diet and Food Practices:
- Broken shell middens and discoloured shells suggest people cooked and ate shellfish.
- The diet likely included plants, fruits, tubers, and nuts, though no plant remains have yet been found.
- Lifestyle and Settlement:
- These were mobile hunter-gatherers, not permanent agriculturalists.
- They likely moved seasonally, occupying each site for part of the year.
- Tool Use:
- Stone tools (flakes and cores) made of chert, jasper, chalcedony, basalt, limestone, and quartzite were found.
- Smaller fragments may have served as arrow tips.
- Agate, found locally, and other materials suggest trade or resource mobility.
- Trade and Cultural Links:
- Non-local tool stones indicate exchange networks.
- Similarities with tools from Las Bela (Pakistan) and coastal Oman point to long-distance prehistoric connections across the northern Arabian Sea.
| [UPSC 2021] Consider the following pairs:
Historical place : Well known for
1. Burzahom : Rock cut shrines
2. Chandraketugarh :Terracotta art
3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
According to a new World Bank report, extreme poverty in India has fallen from 27.1% in 2011–12 to just 5.3% in 2022–23, based on a revised international poverty line.
Understanding World Bank’s Poverty Lines:
- The World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than a fixed amount per person per day, adjusted using Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) to account for inflation and cost of living.
- PPP compares currencies by showing how much money is needed in different countries to buy the same goods. It helps measure real cost of living and economic strength.
- Previous thresholds:
- $1.90 per day (2011 PPP)
- $2.15 per day (2017 PPP)
- Revised in June 2025:
- Low-income countries: $3 per day
- Lower middle-income countries (LMIC): $4.20 per day (up from $3.65)
- Upper middle-income countries: $8.40 per day (up from $6.85)
- Why it matters: These new thresholds help track progress in poverty reduction and align better with today’s economic conditions.
India’s Progress and Challenges:
- Reduction in Poverty:
- At the $3/day level, poverty dropped from 27.1% (2011–12) to 5.3% (2022–23).
- At the $2.15/day level, poverty fell from 16.2% to 2.3%, lifting 171 million people.
- At the $4.20/day level, poverty declined from 61.8% to 28.1%, benefiting 378 million people.
- Rural-Urban Trends:
- Rural poverty dropped from 69% to 32.5%, and urban poverty from 43.5% to 17.2%.
- The rural-urban gap narrowed from 25 to 15 percentage points.
- Inequality Measures:
- Consumption inequality improved (Gini fell from 28.8 to 25.5).
- Income inequality, however, worsened (Gini rose from 52 to 62).
- Employment Trends:
- Since 2021–22, employment growth has outpaced the working-age population.
- Urban unemployment dropped to 6.6%, the lowest since 2017–18, but youth unemployment remains high at 13.3%, and 29% among graduates.
- State-Level Dynamics:
- UP, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and MP contributed to 65% of the extreme poor (2011–12) and now represent 54% of the remaining poor.
- Multidimensional Poverty:
- Declined significantly from 53.8% in 2005–06 to 15.5% in 2022–23, reflecting progress in health, education, and living standards.
| [UPSC 2019] In a given year in India, official poverty lines are higher in some States than in others because:
Options: (a) poverty rates vary from State to State (b) price levels vary from State to State* (c) Gross State Product varies from State to State (d) quality of public distribution varies from State to State |
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Why in the News?
IIT Kharagpur has made a web app called Dynamic Route Planning for Urban Green Mobility (DRUM) to help people choose travel routes that are not just fast but also have cleaner air and better energy use.
About DRUM:
- Purpose: It is a navigation tool that prioritises air quality and energy efficiency, offering a greener alternative to traditional mapping apps.
- Data Usage: DRUM uses real-time data on air pollution and traffic conditions to recommend optimal routes.
- Sources: Pollution information is collected from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the World Air Quality Index.
Important Features:
- Routing Logic: DRUM applies a rank-based elimination method that prioritizes time, followed by distance, pollution exposure, and energy use.
- Technical Tools: The app uses GraphHopper for route generation and Mapbox for live traffic updates.
- Route Options: Users can choose from 5 routes — shortest, fastest, least pollution (LEAP), least energy use (LECR), and a balanced suggested route.
- Live Updates: It retrieves real-time route data when a query is entered, not through scheduled updates.
- Performance: In Delhi trials, the LEAP route cut pollution exposure by over 50%, and the LECR route reduced energy use by up to 28%.
- Non-Motorized Inclusion: DRUM will expand to serve cyclists, pedestrians, and other non-motorized users.
- Predictive Upgrade: DRUM 2.0, currently in development, will use machine learning to forecast pollution and traffic and recommend best routes and departure times.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following types of vehicles:
I. Full battery electric vehicles II. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles III. Fuel cell electric hybrid vehicles How many of the above are considered as alternative (powertrain) vehicles?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three* (d) None |
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Why in the News?
In a groundbreaking discovery, an international team of nuclear physicists from Finland has measured the proton emission and half-life of 188Astatine (188At)—the heaviest proton-emitting isotope ever observed.
What is Proton Emission?
- Atomic Structure: Atoms are made up of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.
- Radioactive Decay: When atoms are unstable, they become stable by emitting particles through a process called radioactive decay.
- Common Emissions: Most atoms emit alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays during decay.
- Rare Emission: In very rare cases, an atom can emit a proton, a process known as proton emission.
- Conditions for Emission: Proton emission occurs only in proton-rich nuclei that lie on the extreme edge of nuclear stability.
- Detection Difficulty: These atoms are extremely hard to create in laboratories and usually exist for less than a second, making them hard to study.
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Discovery of Proton Emission in 188-Astatine:
- What is Astatine: Astatine (At) is a radioactive, halogenous element with atomic number 85, belonging to the halogen family (Group 17) on the periodic table. It’s a rarest natural element on Earth, not naturally occurring in significant quantities due to its short half-life.
- Research Breakthrough: Scientists from Finland, India, and Portugal jointly studied a rare isotope called 188-Astatine.
- Method: The atom was made by bombarding a silver target with strontium ions in a high-powered accelerator.
- Observed Event: After its formation, 188-Astatine emitted a proton and transformed into polonium within 190 microseconds.
- Role of Indian Scientists: Experts from IIT Roorkee used computer simulations to confirm the event and revealed that the atom’s shape resembled a watermelon, elongated and stretched.
Significance of the Discovery:
- Scientific First: This was the first recorded instance of proton emission from astatine, a rare and heavy element.
- Understanding Atomic Limits: The discovery helps scientists learn how unstable atoms behave and where the proton-holding limits of atomic nuclei lie.
- Contribution to Nuclear Science: It enhances our understanding of element formation in extreme environments like stars and nuclear reactors.
- Future Implications: Such discoveries can contribute to medical advances, especially in developing radioactive materials for cancer treatment.
| [UPSC 2024] With reference to radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), consider the following statements:
1. RTGs are miniature fission reactors. 2. RTGs are used for powering the onboard systems of spacecrafts. 3. RTGs can use Plutonium-238, which is a by-product of weapons development.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Centre has launched DIGIPIN, a geo-coded digital address system that aims to bring precision and efficiency to address identification across the country.
Tap to read more about PIN Codes in India.
What is DIGIPIN?
- About: DIGIPIN is a digital address system introduced by the Government of India to improve location identification across the country.
- Development Team: The system was developed by the Department of Posts, in collaboration with IIT Hyderabad and the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) under ISRO.
- Technology Base: It uses GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) data to geo-code each physical location with high accuracy.
- Key Features:
- Accessibility: Users can access their DIGIPIN through the India Post’s online portal, and it works seamlessly on any GPS-enabled device.
- Nature of the System: It is open source, interoperable, and privacy-focused, meaning it is publicly accessible, works across platforms, and does not store personal data.
- Code Format: Each location is assigned a unique 10-character alphanumeric code (e.g., 39J-53M-TJF9) that corresponds to an area of approximately 4×4 square meters.
- Coverage Area: DIGIPIN works across urban, rural, forest, and oceanic regions throughout India, even where no formal addresses exist.
Significance of DIGIPIN:
- Precision Mapping: DIGIPIN enables highly accurate geolocation, even in places without traditional street addresses or house numbers.
- E-Commerce Enhancement: The system boosts last-mile delivery efficiency for platforms like Amazon, Flipkart, and other logistics providers.
- Emergency Response: DIGIPIN supports police, ambulance, and fire services in reaching destinations quickly, especially in dense or unmapped areas.
- Public Service Delivery: It improves government outreach by making it easier to deliver welfare schemes, notices, and essential services in remote areas.
- Inclusion of Remote Regions: The system brings digital address visibility to forests, tribal regions, and maritime zones, aiding national mapping efforts.
| [UPSC 2022] Consider the following:
1. Aarogya Setu
2. CoWIN
3. DigiLocker
4. DIKSHA
Which of the above are built on top of open-source digital platforms?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4* |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2013] Constitutional mechanisms to resolve the inter-state water disputes have failed to address and solve the problems. Is the failure due to structural or process inadequacy or both? Discuss.
Linkage: India’s water management problems are explicitly stated to be a result of a “fragmented and sectoral approach”. This contrasts sharply with the need for a holistic “new course.” The existing situation is problematic because “rivers and other waterbodies are often interstate and multiple political jurisdictions are involved in administering the same waterbody”. |
Mentor’s Comment: In 2025, global water governance takes a historic turn as the United Nations declares it the International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation and launches the Decade of Action on Cryospheric Science (2025–2034). These initiatives, aligned with World Water Day 2025 and World Day for Glaciers (March 21), focus directly on the vital connections between mountain glaciers, freshwater, and ocean ecosystems. They promote the “Source-to-Sea (S2S)” approach, which integrates water governance from glacial sources all the way to ocean outlets, acknowledging their ecological and hydrological continuity.
Today’s editorial will talk about water governance in India and the world. It will help with GS Paper I (Geography), GS Paper II (Policy Making) and GS Paper III (Environment).
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Scientists and decision-makers need to pay attention to the Source to Sea (S2S) approach.
What is the theme of World Water Day 2025?
- Theme: Glacier Preservation
- 2025 is also declared the International Year of Glaciers Preservation by the United Nations.
- Marks the start of a Decade of Action on Cryospheric Science (2025-2034).
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Why is it significant?
- Crucial Source of Freshwater: Glaciers act as natural water reservoirs, supplying freshwater to millions downstream. Their preservation ensures sustained water availability for drinking, agriculture, and ecosystems. Eg: The Himalayan glaciers feed rivers like the Ganga and Brahmaputra, supporting millions of people in India.
- Indicator of Climate Change: Glaciers are sensitive to global warming; their rapid melting signals climate change impacts. Protecting them helps monitor and mitigate broader environmental risks. Eg: Melting Himalayan glaciers contribute to changing river flows, affecting flood and drought patterns in South Asia.
- Supports Sustainable Development: Preserving glaciers helps maintain mountain ecosystems and supports downstream communities dependent on glacier-fed waters for their livelihoods and economic activities. Eg: Alpine glaciers support mountain agriculture and tourism, critical to local economies in regions like Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.
Why is the Source-to-Sea (S2S) approach important for global water governance?
- Integrated Management of Water Systems: S2S treats freshwater and marine systems as a connected continuum, ensuring that actions upstream (rivers, lakes) consider their impact downstream (coastal and marine environments). Eg: Pollution control in river basins like the Ganges directly affects the health of the Bay of Bengal ecosystem.
- Improves Coordination Across Jurisdictions: S2S promotes cooperation among multiple stakeholders and political jurisdictions, bridging fragmented governance to manage shared water resources effectively. Eg: The Manila Declaration encourages countries to work together on ridge-to-reef management to protect water quality from land to ocean.
- Facilitates Sustainable Solutions for Water and Marine Challenges: By addressing the entire water cycle, S2S enables holistic strategies that tackle issues like pollution, water diversion, and habitat loss, benefiting both terrestrial and marine biodiversity. Eg: Initiatives under the SIWI Action Platform connect freshwater and marine experts to develop better water management practices globally.
What is the cryosphere?
The cryosphere includes all frozen water parts of Earth, such as glaciers, snow, sea ice, and permafrost. It helps regulate the climate, reflects sunlight, and stores Earth’s freshwater. |
How does the changing mountain cryosphere impact downstream water resources?
- Altered Water Flow Patterns: Melting glaciers and shrinking snowpacks change the timing and volume of water flow downstream, leading to seasonal water shortages or floods. Eg: Reduced glacial melt in the Himalayas affects the flow of rivers like the Ganges, impacting water availability for millions.
- Reduced Water Storage Capacity: Glaciers act as natural reservoirs, storing water during cold months and releasing it slowly. Their retreat means less buffering capacity during dry periods, causing water stress downstream. Eg: Declining glacier size in the Alps affects water supplies for European river basins in summer.
- Increased Risk of Natural Hazards: Glacier melt can lead to the formation and sudden breach of glacial lakes, causing flash floods and damaging downstream ecosystems and communities. Eg: Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) in the Himalayas pose risks to villages and infrastructure along rivers like the Indus.
What are the key challenges India faces in managing its water resources?
- Groundwater Depletion: Over-extraction of groundwater for irrigation, industrial use, and domestic consumption has led to alarming depletion rates of aquifers. This poses a significant threat to long-term water availability and agricultural productivity. Eg, states like Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan report over 100% utilization of groundwater resources, leading to critical water scarcity.
- Water Pollution: Water pollution from industrial effluents, untreated sewage, and agricultural runoff has made large quantities of freshwater unusable. According to the Central Pollution Control Board, more than 70% of India’s surface water is polluted, with rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna being majorly affected.
- Climate Change and Erratic Weather Patterns: Changing rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and frequent floods induced by climate change are altering water availability. The Indian Meteorological Department has noted a decline in monsoon rainfall, which is critical for replenishing rivers, lakes, and groundwater reserves.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- Formulation and Revision of National Water Policies: The government introduced the first National Water Policy in 1987, and since then, it has been periodically updated to address emerging challenges. The latest draft policies emphasize integrated water resource management and sustainability. Eg, the 2019 draft National Water Policy focuses on water conservation, efficient use, and equitable distribution.
- Institutional Reforms and Coordination Bodies: Committees have been set up to improve water governance by restructuring key institutions. Eg, in 2015, a committee was formed to merge the Central Water Commission and Central Ground Water Board into a unified National Water Commission to foster better coordination and planning.
- Promotion of Sustainable and Integrated Approaches: The government supports approaches like Source-to-Sea (S2S) management, which integrates land, freshwater, coastal, and marine resource management. Eg, pilot projects in the Indo-Gangetic basin and Delhi waterbodies are being explored under the S2S framework to address pollution and water quality comprehensively.
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Way forward:
- Adopt Source-to-Sea (S2S) Approach Nationwide: Implement integrated water governance that connects glacial sources to coastal ecosystems, ensuring coordinated action across sectors and regions.
- Strengthen Climate-Resilient Water Infrastructure: Invest in glacier monitoring, early warning systems, and sustainable groundwater management to adapt to climate-induced water variability and safeguard water security.
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Why in the News?
World Food Safety Day 2025 is observed with the theme “Food Safety: Science in Action.” It highlights India’s progress in food safety, though there are still some gaps to address.
What is the theme of World Food Safety Day 2025?
Theme: “Food Safety: Science in Action”. It emphasizes the importance of applying science to ensure food safety. |
How does it reflect India’s evolving approach to food safety?
- Shift from Adulteration to Risk-Based Framework: Earlier, the Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) Act, 1954 focused on whether food was adulterated or not. The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 introduced a scientific, risk-based approach through the creation of FSSAI.
- Adoption of International Scientific Standards: India aligned its food regulations with global norms like those of the Codex Alimentarius Commission. Eg: Standards for Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) and Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) values are now scientifically defined.
- Efforts to Strengthen Scientific Capacity: India is focusing on generating its own toxicological data and conducting Total Diet Studies (TDS) to suit local needs. Eg: Indian-specific dietary patterns and environmental factors are being considered to improve food safety regulations.
What are Toxicology Studies?
These are scientific assessments that evaluate the harmful effects of chemicals or substances (like pesticides, additives, contaminants) on living organisms, especially humans. |
Why are India-specific toxicology studies important for food safety?
- Reflect Local Dietary Habits: International toxicology data may not match Indian dietary patterns and consumption levels. Eg: An average Indian may consume more rice or spices than Western populations, affecting exposure to contaminants.
- Consider Unique Agricultural Practices: India’s crop varieties, pesticide usage, and farming methods differ from global practices. Eg: Pesticide residues on Indian-grown vegetables may vary significantly compared to Europe, requiring tailored safety limits.
- Account for Environmental and Genetic Differences: Climate, water quality, and genetic factors influence how toxins impact health in India. Eg: Heavy metal contamination in groundwater in Indian regions could cause higher cumulative exposure, not captured by foreign studies.
What is monosodium glutamate (MSG)?
MSG is a flavour enhancer commonly added to food to intensify the umami taste (a savoury flavour). It is the sodium salt of glutamic acid, a naturally occurring amino acid found in many foods. |
How has the regulation of monosodium glutamate (MSG) in India differed from global practices?
- Continued Use of Outdated Warning Labels: While global authorities like JECFA (Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives) have declared MSG safe since 1971, India still mandates a warning label stating it is unsafe for infants. Eg: Most countries have removed such warnings, but India continues them despite scientific consensus.
- Misleading Public Perception: The mandatory label in India has led to consumer fear and confusion, with many believing MSG is inherently harmful. Eg: This is misleading, as natural glutamates (chemically identical to MSG) are found in tomato, mushroom, garlic, and even breast milk.
- Lag in Regulatory Modernisation: India has been slow to align its food safety regulations with global scientific evidence. Eg: Despite MSG receiving an “ADI not specified” status globally (indicating high safety), India still treats it with caution due to legacy regulations.
What can improve food safety risk communication in India?
- Simplify Scientific Language: Communicate complex terms like MRLs (Maximum Residue Limits) and ADIs (Acceptable Daily Intake) in easy-to-understand formats for the public. Eg: Instead of stating “0.1 mg/kg,” explain it as a level safe for lifelong consumption in common quantities of food.
- Replace Misleading Labels with Evidence-Based Information: Outdated or alarming labels should be updated to reflect current scientific understanding. Eg: The MSG warning label in India should be replaced with factual information about its safety, as done in other countries.
- Enhance Public Engagement and Transparency: Build public trust through open communication with consumers, industry, and media to explain regulatory changes and safety updates. Eg: When MRL limits for pesticides were revised, clearer messaging could have prevented public fear and misunderstanding.
Way forward:
- Invest in India-Specific Scientific Research: Conduct localized toxicological studies and Total Diet Studies (TDS) to ensure food safety standards reflect Indian dietary habits, agricultural practices, and environmental conditions.
- Strengthen Risk Communication and Public Awareness: Simplify scientific terms for the public, revise outdated labels, and build transparent engagement with stakeholders to promote informed consumer choices and trust in regulatory decisions.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] Briefly discuss the status and significance of the food processing industry in India.
Linkage: The “status and significance of the food processing industry” in India is directly and fundamentally linked to the country’s food safety standards. For this industry to achieve and maintain a significant status, it must adhere to and uphold rigorous food safety standards. The perception and reality of food safety directly influence consumer trust, market access (both domestic and international), and overall economic contribution of the sector.
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Why in the News?
India has rejected the “scare stories” spread by Pakistan and others about China building dams upstream on the Brahmaputra River, especially the big 60,000 MW Medog Hydropower Project in Tibet.
What is the significance of the Brahmaputra’s flow originating mostly in India?
- Major Contribution to River Flow: Although India has only about 34.2% of the Brahmaputra basin area, it contributes over 80% of the river’s total water flow due to higher rainfall and tributary inflows. Eg: The Indian basin receives an average annual rainfall of 2,371 mm, much higher than Tibet’s 300 mm.
- Flood Management Potential: Control over a major share of the river’s flow gives India better scope to design flood control infrastructure and storage systems to reduce monsoon-related disasters. Eg: Assam CM stated that reduced flow from China could help mitigate annual floods in Assam.
- Strengthened Riparian Rights and Development Planning: India’s dominant share in flow enhances its claim as a principal riparian state, empowering it to undertake hydropower and irrigation projects without heavy external dependency. Eg: India is developing hydropower projects like Dibang and Subansiri in Arunachal Pradesh based on its flow share.
| Note: A “riparian state” refers to a state or country that shares a river or stream border with another state or country. |
What about the Medog Hydropower Project?
The Medog Hydropower Project is an ambitious and controversial initiative by China to construct the world’s largest hydropower dam on the Yarlung Tsangpo River in Tibet. With a planned capacity of 60,000 megawatts (MW) and an estimated cost of $137 billion, the project has significant environmental, geopolitical, and social implications for the region |
Why is China’s proposed Medog hydropower project raising concerns for India?
- Strategic Control Over Water Flow: China’s 60,000 MW Medog dam could allow manipulation of the Brahmaputra’s flow, risking reduced water in dry seasons or artificial floods during monsoons. Eg: Sudden releases from Chinese dams have previously caused flash floods in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.
- Environmental and Seismic Hazards: The dam’s location in a seismic zone threatens biodiversity, increases landslide risks, and may disrupt sediment flow critical for downstream agriculture. Eg: Trapped sediments can reduce soil fertility, impacting farming in India and Bangladesh.
- Absence of Water-Sharing Agreements: China’s unilateral actions without consultation violate equitable sharing norms, worsening trust deficits. Eg: Unlike the Indus Treaty with Pakistan, no formal pact exists between India and China on the Brahmaputra.
What steps has India taken or proposed to utilise the Brahmaputra’s water potential?
- Development of Hydropower Projects: India is actively constructing and planning large hydropower projects in Arunachal Pradesh to harness the Brahmaputra’s energy potential and establish water-use rights. Eg: Projects like the Dibang Multipurpose Project (2880 MW) and Subansiri Lower Hydroelectric Project (2000 MW) are designed to generate clean energy and regulate river flow.
- Construction of Multipurpose Storage Reservoirs: India is focusing on creating dams and storage facilities to control floods, store monsoon water, and ensure water availability in dry seasons. Eg: The proposed Upper Siang project aims to store floodwaters and generate electricity while supporting irrigation and drinking water needs in the region.
- Promotion of Inland Waterways and River Navigation: The Brahmaputra is being developed as a key navigable waterway under India’s Act East Policy to boost trade and regional connectivity. Eg: The National Waterway-2 (NW-2) on the Brahmaputra facilitates cargo movement between Assam and Bangladesh, promoting economic use of the river.
Way forward:
- Bilateral Water-Sharing Framework: India and China should initiate dialogue to establish a formal transboundary water-sharing agreement, ensuring data transparency, flow regulation, and emergency notification mechanisms—similar to the Indus Waters Treaty.
- Regional Environmental Assessment Mechanism: Promote a joint environmental impact assessment (EIA) involving India, China, and Bangladesh under a multilateral platform like the UN or SAARC, to ensure sustainable and equitable river basin management.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2013} What do you understand by run of the river hydroelectricity project? How is it different from any other hydroelectricity project?
Linkage: The articles talks about the Chinese infrastructure interventions on the Brahmaputra are “hydropower projects with minimal storage”. It also mentions the massive planned Medog project as the world’s largest hydropower facility, and India’s own Upper Siang Project which will generate power and serve as a buffer against flow variations. This question directly relates to a type of hydropower project pertinent to river development and control.
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Why in the News?
Prime Minister inaugurated the world’s highest railway bridge over the Chenab River in Jammu and Kashmir.
About the Chenab Rail Bridge:
- Location: The Chenab Rail Bridge is the world’s highest railway bridge, situated over the Chenab River in Reasi district, Jammu and Kashmir. It is part of the Udhampur–Srinagar–Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL).
- Height: The bridge rises to a height of 359 metres, which is 35 metres taller than the Eiffel Tower.
- Structure and Length: It has a total length of 1,315 metres, comprising a 530-metre approach bridge and a 785-metre steel arch bridge.
- Project Execution: Constructed by Konkan Railway Corporation, with contributions from Afcons Infrastructure, Ultra Construction & Engineering (South Korea), and VSL India.
- Design and Engineering:
- IISc Bengaluru designed the foundation.
- IIT Delhi and IIT Roorkee conducted seismic analysis.
- DRDO ensured it is blast-proof.
- Durability and Safety: The bridge can withstand magnitude 8 earthquakes, blasts up to 40 tonnes of TNT, temperatures as low as -20°C, and wind speeds of 266 km/h.
- Speed and Lifespan: It supports train speeds up to 100 km/h and has a lifespan of 120 years.
- Key Milestones: The arch closure was completed in April 2021, and the Golden Joint Ceremony was held on August 13, 2022.
PM also inaugurated Anji Bridge:
- About: The Anji Bridge is India’s first cable-stayed railway bridge, built over the Anji River, a tributary of the Chenab.
- Ranking: It is the second-highest railway bridge in India, after the Chenab Bridge.
- Design: Originally planned as an arch bridge, the design was changed to cable-stayed due to geological challenges.
- Structure Details: The total length is 725 metres, comprising an ancillary viaduct, approach bridge, and central embankment.
- Features: It is supported by 96 cables ranging from 82 to 295 metres, with a deck width of 15 metres.
- Resilience: The bridge is engineered to withstand seismic activity, unstable terrain, strong winds, heavy storms, and explosions.
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| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. Indian Railways have prepared a National Rail Plan (NRP) to create a future ready railway system by 2028. II. ‘Kavach’ is an Automatic Train Protection system developed in collaboration with Germany. III. ‘Kavach’ system consists of RFID tags fitted on track in station section.
Which of the statements given above are not correct?
Options: (a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only (d) I, II and III* |
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Why in the News?
The RBI, in its Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) meeting, cut the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) by 1% to release ₹2.5 lakh crore into the banking system by November 2025.
Key Changes Announced:
- Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) reduced by 1% in four tranches, bringing it down to 3% by November 29, 2025.
- This CRR cut will release ₹2.5 lakh crore liquidity into the banking system by December 2025.
- Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) remains unchanged at 18% of Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL).
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Key terms related to the MPC instruments:
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Explanation |
| Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) |
- CRR is the percentage of a bank’s total deposits that must be maintained as liquid cash with the RBI.
- Banks cannot use this amount for lending or investment. No interest is earned on CRR.
- It is used to control liquidity and inflation in the economy.
- Increasing CRR reduces bank lending capacity; decreasing it increases liquidity.
- Current CRR is 4.5% of Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL).
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| Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) |
- SLR is the minimum percentage of NDTL that banks must maintain in liquid form.
- It includes cash, gold, or approved government securities, kept with the bank itself.
- It helps ensure bank solvency and restricts excessive credit growth.
- Raising SLR reduces funds available for lending; lowering it boosts credit and growth.
- It also helps the government ensure demand for its securities.
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| Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL) |
- It includes public deposits and balances held with other banks.
- It excludes deposits the bank itself has with other banks.
- Demand liabilities include current accounts and demand drafts.
- Time liabilities include fixed deposits and recurring deposits.
- CRR and SLR are calculated as a percentage of NDTL.
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| Repo Rate |
- The repo rate is the rate at which the RBI lends short-term funds to commercial banks against government securities.
- Banks sell securities to RBI with an agreement to repurchase them later.
- Lower repo rate makes borrowing cheaper and boosts liquidity.
- Higher repo rate makes borrowing costlier, reducing liquidity.
- It is a key monetary policy tool to regulate inflation and money supply.
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| Variable Rate Repo (VRR) Auction |
- VRR auction is a method where RBI conducts repo operations at variable interest rates.
- Interest rate is determined through competitive bidding by banks.
- It reflects real-time demand and supply of liquidity.
- Enables more flexible and efficient liquidity management by RBI.
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| Standing Deposit Facility (SDF) |
- SDF allows banks to deposit surplus funds with the RBI without providing any collateral.
- Banks earn interest at a rate set by the RBI.
- It is used to absorb excess liquidity from the system.
- Part of RBI’s liquidity management framework.
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| Weighted Average Call Rate (WACR) |
- WACR is the weighted average interest rate at which banks borrow and lend overnight funds in the interbank call money market.
- It is an important indicator of short-term liquidity conditions.
- RBI monitors WACR to guide monetary policy decisions.
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| [UPSC 2020] If the RBI decides to adopt an expansionist monetary policy, which of the following would it not do?
1. Cut and optimise the Statutory Liquidity Ratio.
2. Increase the Marginal Standing Facility Rate.
3. Cut the Bank Rate and Repo Rate.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
India has been elected to the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) for the term 2026–2028.
About the UN’s Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC):
- Establishment: It is one of the 6 principal UN organs, created in 1945 under the UN Charter.
- Mandate: It coordinates the UN’s economic, social, humanitarian, and cultural work.
- Role: ECOSOC serves as the central platform for global policy dialogue, review, and development recommendations.
- Composition: ECOSOC has 54 member states, elected by the UN General Assembly for three-year terms.
- Decision-Making: Decisions are made by simple majority; no permanent members; presidency rotates annually.
- Functions and Powers:
- Coordination: Oversees 15 specialized agencies (e.g., WHO, ILO), 8 functional commissions, and 5 regional commissions.
- Promotion Areas: Focuses on living standards, employment, human rights, education, healthcare, and environmental protection.
- Engagement with NGOs: Grants consultative status to over 1,600 NGOs and organizes global conferences.
- UN Oversight: Supervises agencies such as UNICEF, UNDP, and UNHCR.
- Sessions and Meetings:
- Main Sessions: Held each July, along with an organizational session.
- Finance Dialogues: Hosts April meetings with finance ministers from the IMF and World Bank.
- SDG Monitoring: Organizes the High-Level Political Forum (HLPF) to track progress on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
- Legal and Institutional Details:
- UN Charter Basis: Defined under Chapter X (Articles 61–72) of the Charter.
- Headquarters: Located in New York.
- Scope: ECOSOC is the largest and most complex UN body, shaping global development policy.
India and ECOSOC:
- Membership: India is serving its 18th term as a member, elected for the 2026–28 period.
- Subsidiary Roles: India has held positions in bodies like the UN Statistical Commission, Commission on Narcotic Drugs, and UNAIDS Board.
- Recent Milestone: India recently joined the UN Committee of Experts on Big Data and Data Science for Official Statistics (UN-CEBD), highlighting its data expertise.
- Policy Priorities: India supports inclusive growth, SDG progress, and south-south cooperation through evidence-based multilateral leadership.
| [UPSC 2009] With reference to the United Nations, consider the following statements:
1. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of UN consists of 24 member States.
2. It is elected by a 2/3 majority of The General Assembly for a 3-year term.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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