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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

[19th November 2025] The Hindu Op-ED: Time to sort out India’s cereal mess

op-ed snap | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: PDS, Buffer Stock & Food Security

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Elucidate the importance of buffer stocks for stabilizing agricultural prices in India. What are the challenges associated with the storage of buffer stock? Discuss.

Linkage: This PYQ is central to GS-III themes of food security, MSP, PDS and price stabilization. It links with the article’s focus on excess stocks and distorted procurement, showing why India’s buffer-stock management is becoming unsustainable.

Mentor’s Comment

India faces a cereal management crisis marked by procurement distortions, crop diversification failures, import dependence, and systemic leakages. This article unpacks the urgent concerns raised in “Time to sort out India’s cereal mess” and restructures them into an exam-oriented format that aligns with GS II and GS III themes such as food security, agriculture, subsidies, MSP, PDS, and federal coordination.

Introduction

India’s cereal ecosystem, procurement, storage, distribution, and diversification, stands at a difficult juncture. Excessive focus on paddy and rice under MSP, escalating procurement costs, growing import dependence in edible oils and pulses, and logistical inefficiencies have created structural vulnerabilities. The current controversy in Tamil Nadu’s paddy procurement highlights deeper national issues in cereal governance.

Why in the News

Tamil Nadu’s short-term kuruvai paddy procurement turned contentious due to time overruns and corruption charges, exposing systemic weaknesses in the procurement architecture. Despite years of surplus stock, India faces a paradox of simultaneous overproduction of rice and wheat and rising import dependence on pulses and edible oils, with 55% of edible oil demand met by imports. The scale of misalignment, such as rice stocks at 536.14 lakh tonnes in October, five times the requirement, reveals an unsustainable cereal management model requiring urgent correction.

Understanding the Current Procurement Distortions

  1. Excessive Paddy Procurement: Tamil Nadu’s system led by TNCSC and FCI shows delays, over-coverage, and corruption, with farmers preferring paddy due to assured returns.
  2. High Central Pool Stocks: Rice stocks reached 536.14 lakh tonnes (Oct 2024) against norms of about 102.5 lakh tonnes, reflecting procurement far beyond requirement.
  3. Skewed Crop Incentives: Procurement levels for rice and wheat remain consistently higher than norms, reducing incentives for diversification.

Why India’s Cereal Supply is Misaligned

  1. Surplus in Cereals: India maintains abundant stocks, e.g., rice procurement averaging 322 lakh tonnes over three years, indicating oversupply.
  2. Deficit in Pulses & Oilseeds: Despite large-scale cultivation, imports form a major share: India meets 55% of edible oil demand through imports.
  3. Stagnant Diversification: Farmers hesitate to shift due to uncertain support systems, weak price assurance, and inadequate crop guidance.

Rising Import Dependence and Its Consequences

  1. High Import Bills: Edible oil imports breached 30,000 crore in 2023-24 despite domestic production dips from 157 lakh tonnes to 138 lakh tonnes over a decade.
  2. Geopolitical Risks: Events like the Russia-Ukraine conflict directly increased global edible oil prices, impacting domestic inflation.
  3. Oilseed Production Stagnation: Even after 2004 reforms, domestic acreage rose but yields and self-sufficiency remained stagnant.

Structural Issues in India’s Crop Diversification Strategy

  1. Weak Extension Services: Farmers lack assured technical guidance and support for alternative crops.
  2. Higher Risk in Non-Paddy Crops: Limited MSP procurement outside cereals increases production risk.
  3. Fragmented Procurement Framework: Multiple agencies (FCI, State Corporations, NAFED) lead to inconsistent practices across states.

Why Procurement Reforms are Urgent

  1. Inefficient FPO Integration: FPOs, though expanding, remain nascent and face poor access to credit, logistics, and markets.
  2. Leakages and Diversions: Instances of paddy moving outside the procurement chain due to better prices in open markets distort the system.
  3. Need for Commodity-Specific Strategy: Uniform procurement policies for cereals, pulses, and oilseeds fail to reflect regional agro-ecology and market diversity.

Conclusion

India’s cereal management crisis is not of shortage but of imbalance, overproduction of rice and wheat coexisting with deficits in pulses and edible oils. Procurement distortions, poor diversification incentives, and high import reliance underline the need for structural reforms. A shift towards agro-ecology-based diversification, procurement redesign, and FPO strengthening can realign India’s food security architecture.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

Agentic AI: Tech’s newest buzzword

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

Agentic AI refers to a new class of artificial intelligence systems capable of executing multistep tasks, adapting to processes, and performing actions independently rather than merely responding to prompts. The term has witnessed a rapid surge in public and industry attention, driven by new academic reports and its promise of automating complex workflows. The development marks a notable shift from conventional chatbots that were largely conversational and instruction-bound.

Why in the News?

It is in the news due to a new report by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Boston Consulting Group describing it as a “new class of systems that can plan, act, and learn on their own.” Google searches for the term have skyrocketed, reflecting a sharp contrast from its obscurity just a year ago.

What Makes Agentic AI Different?

  1. Autonomous Execution: Moves beyond responding to instructions by executing multistep processes and adapting as they proceed.
  2. Planning Capability: Breaks high-level goals into sequential steps and performs them independently.
  3. Human-Like Behaviour: Sounds more natural and expressive, yet retains training-based limitations without genuine understanding.

Why Has the Term Skyrocketed?

  1. New MIT–BCG Report: Classifies agentic systems as a new AI class with independence in planning and learning.
  2. Search Spike: Google searches for the term hit a peak earlier this fall.
  3. Corporate Adoption: Major tech firms such as OpenAI, Google, IBM, Microsoft, and Salesforce are building or integrating agentic systems.

How Does Agentic AI Work in Real-world Tasks?

  1. Execution of Goal Chains: Systems take inputs like “Here are the great ideas” and “And then complete the task.”
  2. Application in Online Services: Includes personal finance assistance, bill interpretation, dispute resolution, or travel booking using card data.
  3. Complex Task Automation: Involves computer access and stepwise execution of guidelines for high-level objectives.

What Is Driving Industry Optimism?

  1. Workflow Automation Promise: Amazon sees agentic systems as key to automating cloud operations and enterprise-level tasks.
  2. Operational Transformation: Viewed as one of the biggest AI evolutions since early generative models.
  3. Security Applications: Potential as “personal shields” against spam, fraud, and phishing by acting on email and digital data.

What Are The Concerns or Limitations?

  1. Marketing Hype vs Utility: The term is being debated due to its sudden popularity and vague boundaries.
  2. Lack of True Autonomy: Systems act within training limits despite appearing highly capable.
  3. Ethical and Trust Issues: The blending of autonomous actions with sensitive tasks (finance/computers) raises oversight concerns.

Conclusion

Agentic AI represents a shift from conversational to autonomous process-executing systems. While the term has rapidly gained traction due to academic endorsement and industry optimism, its real potential depends on responsible deployment, ethical guardrails, and clarity around autonomy and control. Its emergence signals an important moment in the evolution of artificial intelligence with direct implications for governance, security, and digital administration.

Value Addition

Generative AI

  • Definition: AI systems capable of generating new content, text, images, audio, or code, based on patterns learned from training data.
  • Core Function: Produces responses to prompts; does not take independent action.
  • Examples: ChatGPT, Midjourney, DALL·E.

Large Language Models (LLMs)

  • Definition: Models trained on vast datasets to understand and produce human-like language.
  • Role: Backbone of generative AI.
  • Limitation: No planning ability; follows instructions linearly.

Agentic AI

  • Definition: A new class of AI systems that can plan, act, and learn on their own, breaking down goals into steps and executing them without constant user input.
  • Core Difference from Generative AI: Moves from responding to acting.
  • Example (from article): An agent that interprets medical bills, disputes charges, or handles complex computer tasks.

AI Agents

  • Definition: Software entities capable of autonomous actions in an environment to achieve goals.
  • Role in Agentic AI: Agents are the functional units that perform the tasks.

Multistep Automation

  • Definition: A system that converts a single instruction into multiple executable actions.
  • Agentic Relevance: This is the defining capability that transforms chatbots into autonomous systems.

High-level Goal Breakdown

  • Definition: Ability of an AI to take an abstract goal (e.g., “organise my travel”) and break it into actionable steps.
  • Example: Travel bookings using credit card data.

Autonomy in AI

  • Definition: The degree to which an AI system can act without human intervention.
  • Agentic Context: Full or partial autonomy is central to its functionality.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] How can Artificial Intelligence (AI) help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare?

Linkage: Agentic AI builds on this by not just assisting but autonomously executing tasks such as interpreting bills or acting on sensitive data. The privacy risks highlighted in the PYQ directly connect to concerns over AI agents accessing personal digital information while acting independently.

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Trade Sector Updates – Falling Exports, TIES, MEIS, Foreign Trade Policy, etc.

Excessive dependence: On India’s external trade landscape

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Introduction

India recorded a historic goods trade deficit in October ($41.68 billion), following a sharp rise from September’s $32.15 billion deficit. The decline in exports, driven largely by the U.S.’s steep tariffs, coincides with an abnormal spike in gold and silver imports, rupee depreciation, and heavy portfolio outflows. The article highlights how India’s dependence on the U.S. market has exposed it to both economic and diplomatic vulnerabilities, raising questions about whether the shift in trade patterns is structural or a temporary response to external shocks.

Why in the News

India’s record October trade deficit of $41.68 billion, the sharpest ever, signals a significant disruption in its external trade landscape. Exports plunged due to the U.S.’s sudden 50% tariffs, critical because the U.S. is India’s largest export market, while gold imports tripled and silver inflows rose fivefold, creating an unprecedented import spike.

A Rising Trade Deficit and What It Reveals

  1. Record Deficit ($41.68 bn): Reflects a sequential deterioration from September’s $32.15 bn deficit, signalling a disturbing shift.
  2. Export Fall (-11.8% YoY): Goods exports dropped to $34.38 bn (from $38.98 bn in 2024), driven primarily by U.S. tariffs.
  3. Heavy Import Surge: Driven by a dramatic rise in bullion inflows and the use of cheaper imported intermediates.

Why the U.S. Tariffs Hit India Hard

  1. 50% Tariff Shock: Imposed in August, directly affecting sectors for which the U.S. has been India’s major market since 2018-19.
  2. Large Market Dependence: The U.S. remains the biggest buyer of India’s textiles, yarn, readymade garments, and engineering goods.
  3. Export Decline (-9% YoY): Overall exports to the U.S. contracted sharply in October.

What Is Driving the Surge in Gold and Silver Imports?

  1. Gold Imports Tripled: Rising from $4.92 bn (last October) due to economic uncertainty.
  2. Silver Imports Up Fivefold: Indicates hedging behaviour rather than seasonal demand.
  3. Rupee Weakening (₹85.6 to ₹88.4): Encouraged investors to seek bullion as a safe asset.

Sector-Wise Export Stress

  1. Cotton Yarn & Handlooms (-13.31%): Major labour-intensive sector hit due to tariff-led slowdown.
  2. Man-Made Yarn (-11.75%): Reflects weakening competitiveness.
  3. Readymade Garments (-12.88%): Particularly vulnerable to U.S. demand contraction.
  4. Engineering Goods (-16.71%): Hit despite being a major export strength area.

Is the Import Surge a Structural Pattern?

  1. Cheaper Intermediate Goods: Firms increasingly rely on imported inputs to maintain export competitiveness.
  2. Depreciating Rupee: Makes imports costlier but also signals reduced domestic sourcing.
  3. Need for HS-Chapter Analysis: A breakdown by commodity and source country will clarify which imports are rising structurally.

Government Measures and Their Limitations

  1. Export Promotion (₹25,060 crore over 6 years): Centre has stepped in to cushion exporters.
  2. RBI Relief Measures: Target tariff-affected exporters.
  3. Too Early to Call It Structural: Realignment of supply chains and market diversification could take years.

Geopolitical Shifts and Bilateral Trade Dynamic

  1. India-U.S. Bilateral Trade Agreement: If concluded soon, October’s deficit spike may be temporary.
  2. Russian Imports Down (-27.73%): Sharp drop indicates effort to reduce crude dependence.
  3. U.S. Imports Up (13.89%): Suggests attempt to ease American concerns over trade imbalance.

Conclusion

India’s record trade deficit underscores the risks of concentrated export dependence and volatile imports driven by economic uncertainty. While the current shift may be partly reactionary, persistent decline in labour-intensive exports and rising reliance on imported intermediates signal deeper structural weaknesses. Managing this transition will require sustained policy intervention, diversification of markets, and a recalibration of India’s trade portfolio to mitigate vulnerability.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?

Linkage: The U.S. tariff shock and rupee weakening in the article directly mirror the PYQ’s theme, showing how protectionism and currency swings widen India’s trade deficit. Together, they illustrate the resulting stress on India’s macroeconomic stability.

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Judicial Pendency

[18th November 2025] The Hindu Op-ED: The lower-judiciary- litigation, pendency, stagnation

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Explain the reasons for the growth of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in India. As a result of it, has the Indian Supreme Court emerged as the world’s most powerful judiciary?

Linkage: Judiciary is one of the most important topics for GS-II. This PYQ tests how failures of the lower judiciary, delay, pendency, and weak remedies, drive the rise of PILs and expand the Supreme Court’s role. The article directly shows these systemic gaps, explaining why litigants bypass subordinate courts and seek relief through PILs.

Mentor’s Comment

The lower judiciary forms the backbone of India’s justice delivery system. Yet, a combination of procedural complexity, chronic pendency, and structural stagnation has now reached a point where even the Supreme Court has begun to publicly express concern. The following article unpacks the crisis using insights from the given text, presenting it in a UPSC-oriented, structured, exam-ready format.

Why in the News? 

A Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice, recently flagged the stagnation and systemic decay in India’s subordinate judiciary. With 4.69 crore pending cases in district courts (National Judicial Data Grid), the Court has now asked judges in Delhi to undergo training due to lack of basic knowledge, a move rarely made earlier. This highlights a deep structural crisis, where procedural rigidity, unclear statutes, and administrative delays have created a near-gridlock in India’s justice system, affecting millions of litigants.

Introduction

India’s subordinate judiciary, comprising district and lower courts, handles the vast majority of cases filed in the country. Despite its crucial role, it is plagued by procedural delays, inadequate training, unnecessary litigation, unclear statutes, and case mismanagement. The editorial highlights how routine court processes, outdated laws, poorly drafted statutes, and lack of judicial preparedness have cumulatively created low efficiency and high pendency. Strengthening the lower judiciary is essential for access to justice, rule of law, and economic productivity.

Why Are Procedural Rigidities Choking the Lower Judiciary?

  1. Mandatory procedures: Courts are bound to entertain pleadings, issue repeated summons, and ensure appearances, leading to wasted time and multiple adjournments. Example: Subordinate judges must call every suit for appearance or vakalatnama, often pointless.
  2. Inefficient daily case flow: Judges take up matters from 10:30 AM and continue till evening, leading to exhaustion and slow disposal. Result: Even if cases are adjourned, orders still need dictation.
  3. Heavy clerical & ministerial workload: Quality time is lost, reducing focus on adjudication.

Why Is the Subordinate Judiciary Functioning Below Optimal Capacity?

  1. Lack of experience: Many judges are fresh graduates without adequate training or exposure. Observation-based training plays a minimal role.
  2. Inadequate orientation: Civil judges rarely receive training with senior district or High Court judges in handling evidence, settlements, and procedural complexities.
  3. Absence of structured mentoring: No robust system for judge mentoring and skill development exists.

How Poorly Drafted Statutes Create Litigation Instead of Resolution?

  1. Negative impact of new provisions: Despite claims of faster disposal, many statutes increase complexity. Example: Section 12A of Commercial Courts Act on mandatory pre-institution mediation.
  2. Ambiguity causing additional litigation: Example: Confusion on whether a party that has already exchanged notices can skip mediation.
  3. Statutes creating contradictory interpretations: Judges are unsure whether processes are mandatory or directory, resulting in wastage of time.

What Makes Family and Civil Disputes Especially Burdensome?

  1. Six-month cooling-off confusion: Confusion on whether the six-month period in mutual-consent divorce is mandatory or waivable causes delays.
  2. Two-year separation interpretation: Courts differ on whether the couple must be separately living for two years before filing or after filing.
  3. Unclear appellate steps: Example: When the 90-day limitation begins for filing appeals if the written statement is delayed.
  4. Property disputes: Example: Whether a preliminary decree must be followed by a fresh application to pass a final decree.

How Do Outdated Procedural Laws Deepen Pendency?

  1. Archaic provisions retained: Several Code of Civil Procedure rules continue to burden courts.
  2. Unclear bars to appeal: Example: Whether written statements filed after 90 days can be accepted.
  3. Conflicting decrees: Parties get stuck when preliminary decrees are not automatically converted into final decrees.
  4. Excessive adjournments: Even when mediation fails, the litigant has to refile fresh applications, clogging the system.

Why Must Higher Judiciary Intervene in the Lower Judiciary Crisis?

  1. Review of subordinate court functioning: Supreme Court’s intervention highlights widespread stagnation.
  2. Training requirement: Judges asked to undergo training due to lack of basic knowledge, an unprecedented move.
  3. Need for systemic correction: Simplification of statutes, harmonized procedural laws, and modernization of case-management systems are essential.

Conclusion

The crisis in India’s lower judiciary is structural, not episodic. Procedural rigidity, unclear statutes, inexperienced judges, and outdated rules have combined to create massive pendency. Reform must focus on statutory simplification, judicial training, transparent case management, and harmonized procedural norms. Without systemic changes, the lower judiciary will continue to be a bottleneck in India’s justice delivery and governance framework.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

India needs to ‘connect, build and revive’ with Africa

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Introduction

India’s partnership with Africa is embedded in shared anti-colonial history, South-South cooperation, and long-standing developmental commitments. Over the last decade, India’s diplomatic presence, investments, training initiatives, and cultural engagement have expanded across the continent. However, shifting geopolitical equations, intensifying global competition, and Africa’s rising economic potential demand an upgraded, value-driven, and sustained approach. The article argues that India must now “connect, build and revive” its Africa policy to maintain its strategic foothold and align with Africa’s aspirations.

Why in the News?

A decade after hosting the largest-ever India-Africa Forum Summit, India’s engagement with Africa is again at a pivotal moment. India has added 17 new missions, trade has crossed USD 100 billion, and investment flows are surging. Yet Indian trade still lags behind China, and many flagship promises made in 2015 require renewed momentum. As Africa is set to become home to one-fourth of the world’s population by 2050, the scale, urgency, and strategic importance of India’s outreach makes this moment historically significant.

How has India’s outreach to Africa evolved in the past decade?

  1. Expanded diplomatic footprint: India added 17 new missions across Africa, enhancing its on-ground presence and bilateral engagement.
  2. Rising investment flows: India’s investment stock has crossed USD 100 billion, making it among Africa’s top five investors.
  3. Growth in trade partnerships: Bilateral trade has crossed USD 100 billion, demonstrating the growing economic synergy.
  4. Enhanced defence cooperation: Joint naval exercises such as AIMKEME (April 2025) saw participation from navies of Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, South Africa, and Tanzania.
  5. Stronger multilateral alignment: India played a key role in enabling African Union membership in the G20, elevating Africa’s global voice.

Why is Africa emerging as a strategic priority for India?

  1. Demographic transformation: By 2050, one in four people on Earth will be Africa, a major consumer, labour, and talent base.
  2. Economic potential: Africa will be the world’s third-largest economy, creating opportunities in technology, health, infra, and manufacturing.
  3. Geopolitical influence: Africa’s global role is expanding, and India aims to support African representation in global institutions and peacekeeping operations.
  4. Shared developmental priorities: From education to digital public goods, India’s model aligns naturally with African development aspirations.

What challenges persist in India-Africa trade relations?

  1. Lag behind China: India’s trade with Africa is expanding but still far behind China, which has deeper and wider market penetration.
  2. Logistical hurdles: Indian firms often face bureaucratic delays, small balance sheets, and scalability issues.
  3. Fragmented strategy: India’s UPID, digital stack, and trade missions have strengths but lack coordinated continental impact.
  4. Competition from Europe and Asia: New entrants are building deeper financial and infrastructural linkages across the continent.

How is India building capacity and knowledge partnerships in Africa?

  1. Human capital initiatives: India’s most enduring export to Africa is human capital, created through scholarships, training programs, and institutional partnerships.
  2. Education & digital training: The new IIT Madras campus in Zanzibar is a flagship example of education-based cooperation.
  3. Decadal knowledge ecosystems: Pan-African e-Network and India’s ITEC programme continue to train thousands across African nations.
  4. Institutional bridges: African experts, ministers, and students working in India create lasting diplomatic and economic linkages.

What future steps should India take to revitalise momentum?

  1. Move from promises to real outcomes: Lines of credit must become visible, viable, and deliverable rather than symbolic.
  2. Build the India-Africa Digital Corridor: Collaboration on UPI, Aadhaar-stack, and digital payments can create a shared digital infrastructure.
  3. Reinforce the institutional base: Revive the summit-based momentum of IAFS and reintroduce regular leadership exchanges.
  4. Integrate private sector participation: Encourage start-ups, MSMEs, and fintech companies to expand into African markets.
  5. Strengthen maritime cooperation: The Western Indian Ocean is becoming central to supply-chain security and blue-economy partnerships.

Conclusion

India’s partnership with Africa is rooted in trust, shared history, and developmental solidarity. But the world around both regions is changing rapidly. Africa’s demographic rise, digital aspirations, and geopolitical importance demand that India convert intent into implementation. “Connect, build, and revive” offers a timely blueprint for elevating India-Africa relations into a mature, inclusive, and futuristic partnership, one that benefits both regions and strengthens India’s global standing.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Explain the reasons for the growth of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in India. As a result of it, has the Indian Supreme Court emerged as the world’s most powerful judiciary?

Linkage: Judiciary is one of the most important topics for GS-II. This PYQ tests how failures of the lower judiciary, delay, pendency, and weak remedies, drive the rise of PILs and expand the Supreme Court’s role. The article directly shows these systemic gaps, explaining why litigants bypass subordinate courts and seek relief through PILs.

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

What are UNESCO new guidelines for the use of neurotechnology

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

Neurotechnology includes devices and procedures that access, assess, or act upon neural systems. Earlier limited to health care, it now merges neuroscience, AI, computing, and engineering to improve or manipulate brain function. Rapid investments, private-sector involvement, and research innovations, such as brain implants enabling paralysed patients to speak, have increased both possibilities and ethical risks. UNESCO’s new standard attempts to balance innovation and human rights, defining responsibilities for governments, researchers, and companies.

Why in the News? 

UNESCO has issued the world’s first global normative framework on the ethics of neurotechnology, marking a major shift in global governance of brain-data systems. This is historic because neurotechnology, once confined to medicine, now expands into marketing, political persuasion, employment screening, insurance, and behaviour profiling. With misuse risks escalating and national laws lagging behind, UNESCO’s framework seeks to protect mental privacy, cognitive liberty, and brain-derived data in an era where neurodata can be exploited commercially or politically.

How does the article define neurotechnology?

  1. Devices/Procedures: Used to access, assess, and act on neural systems including the brain.
  2. Neurodata: Brain-derived data that can reveal intentions, emotions, or mental states, posing risks of exploitation.
  3. Dual-use potential: While used for medical enhancement or disability support, the same can be misused for persuasion, surveillance, or profiling.

Why is neurotechnology expanding so rapidly?

  1. Investment surge: According to a UNESCO study (2023), neurotechnology investment reached $8.6 billion, with private investment growing from $7.3 billion by 2020.
  2. Big tech involvement: Projects like US BRAIN Initiative, Elon Musk’s Neuralink accelerating market adoption.
  3. Medical promise: Supports mental health, paralysis recovery, chronic illness treatment, and palliative care.
  4. Commercial incentives: Insurance sector, HR screening, political messaging all exploring neurodata applications.

What are the key challenges highlighted?

  1. Mental privacy threats: Neurodata gives deep access to personal thoughts; existing legal standards insufficient.
  2. Political misuse: Brain signals used to influence voters or detect political leanings.
  3. Employment misuse: Screening employees for suitability, stress tolerance, or hidden traits.
  4. Commercial exploitation: Recruiting applicants based on subconscious brain responses to marketing stimuli.
  5. Human rights concerns: Risk of discrimination, autonomy loss, and manipulation.

What does UNESCO’s new framework propose?

  1. Human rights foundation: Anchors mental privacy, liberty, dignity.
  2. Responsible innovation: Based on OECD principles, responsibility, inclusion, sustainability.
  3. Four-pronged strategy:
    1. Scope definition of neurotechnology and neurodata.
    2. Identification of ethical principles for countries.
    3. Recommendations focusing on health, education, and vulnerable groups.
    4. Governance considerations for safety and equity.
  4. Intellectual property balance: Calls attention to potential conflicts between innovation and human rights when brain data becomes privatised.
  5. Open science model: Encourages free sharing of discoveries for societal benefit.
  6. Inclusive innovation: Participation of public, stakeholders, scientists, vulnerable communities.

What are the implications for governance and public policy?

  1. AI-Neuro convergence: Need for regulations preventing manipulation or exploitation of neural activity.
  2. Global governance: Calls for adoption by states to standardize mental privacy protections.
  3. Sectoral impact: Health, education, military, and employment policies require safeguards.
  4. IP reform: Recommends new licensing structures to prevent monopolisation of brain-interfacing technologies.
  5. R&D ethics: Researchers to involve the public and align innovations with societal needs, not corporate priorities.

Conclusion

UNESCO’s guidelines mark a foundational step in governing an emerging field where technological capacity has outpaced ethics. By protecting mental privacy and anchoring innovation within a human-rights framework, the guidelines seek to ensure neurotechnology remains a tool for empowerment rather than manipulation. For India and other countries, the challenge lies in integrating these recommendations into national law and ensuring safe, inclusive, and responsible neuro-innovation.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] How can Artificial Intelligence (AI) help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare?

Linkage: This directly links to the PYQ on AI in clinical diagnosis because neurotechnology goes even deeper, AI can now read and interpret brain signals, making privacy risks far sharper than ordinary medical data. The same issue fits under Ethics too, since it raises questions about autonomy, consent, dignity, and the basic right to mental privacy.

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Sakurajima Volcano erupts in Japan’s Kyushu

Prelims OnlyWorld Mapping | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Salient Features Of World'S Physical Geography

Why in the News?

Japan’s Sakurajima volcano has erupted several times sending ash plumes up to 4.4 km into the atmosphere.

Sakurajima Volcano erupts in Japan's Kyushu

About Sakurajima Volcano:

  • Location: Kagoshima Prefecture, Kyushu, sitting on the southern rim of the Aira caldera inside Kagoshima Bay.
  • Geological Origin: Linked to formation of the Aira caldera (22,000–29,000 years ago); Sakurajima developed as a post-caldera cone about 13,000 years ago.
  • Volcano Type: A classic stratovolcano built from alternating lava and ash layers; active vents include Minamidake crater and the Showa flank crater.
  • Physical Features: Height 1,117 m, circumference ≈50 km; originally an island until 1914 lava flows connected it to the Osumi Peninsula.
  • Eruption Style: Dominantly Strombolian eruptions (ash, bombs, lapilli) but historically capable of large Plinian eruptions.
  • Historical Activity: Continuous eruptive record since 963 AD; major episodes in 1471–76, 1779–82, and the 1914 catastrophic eruption.
  • Risk Status: Considered one of Japan’s most dangerous volcanoes due to high activity, caldera-linked magma supply and extreme proximity to inhabited zones.

What makes it unique?

  • Near-Continuous Activity: Erupts hundreds of times annually, ranking among the world’s most persistently active volcanoes.
  • Caldera System: Built on the Aira caldera, giving it a deep, complex, highly active magma plumbing network.
  • Landform Transformation: The 1914 eruption converted Sakurajima from an island into a peninsula, an unusual event in recorded volcanology.
[UPSC 2005] Where is the volcanic mountain, Mount St- Helens located?

Options: (a) Chile (b) Japan (c) Philippines (d) United States of America*

 

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75th anniversary of National Sample Survey (NSS)

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Ministries & Departments Of The Government

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) is conducting the 75th-anniversary culmination ceremony of the National Sample Survey (NSS) along with World Statistics Day on 18 November 2025.

About National Sample Survey (NSS):

  • Origins: Started in 1950 to fill gaps in national income data; expanded into India’s largest multi-topic socio-economic survey system.
  • Institutional Home: Conducted by NSSO (set up 1970), now merged into the National Statistical Office (NSO) under MoSPI.
  • Organisational Structure: Four key divisions – SDRD (Kolkata) for survey design, FOD (Delhi/Faridabad) for fieldwork, DPD (Kolkata) for data processing, and SCD (New Delhi) for coordination.

Survey Design and Coverage:

  • Rounds Structure: Includes large thick rounds every five years (≈1.2 lakh households) and thin rounds on specialised themes.
  • Geographic Coverage: Expanded from 1,833 villages in 1950–51 to over 14,000 rural villages and urban blocks in recent rounds.
  • Scope: Generates national and state-level estimates on consumption, employment, migration, health, education, disability, housing, agriculture, elderly conditions, and more than 50 socio-economic themes over 75 years.
  • Representativeness: Provides robust national and regional estimates but does NOT offer district-level granularity.

Major Surveys Under NSS / NSO:

  1. Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS): Launched 2017; India’s key source on employment, unemployment, labour force participation, and quarterly urban labour indicators.
  2. Annual Survey of Industries (ASI): Tracks organised manufacturing — output, inputs, employment, productivity, structural change.
  3. Price Surveys: Produce CPI-Rural, CPI-Urban, CPI-AL/RL, and contribute to WPI, forming the backbone of inflation monitoring.
  4. Urban Frame Survey (2022–27): Updates the sampling frame for all urban socio-economic surveys.
  5. Agriculture and Crop Surveys: Estimate crop yields and support state agricultural statistics systems.

Significance of the NSS:

  • Policy Backbone: Critical for designing and evaluating programmes such as MGNREGA, PDS reforms, Ayushman Bharat, labour policies, rural development, and welfare targeting.
  • Macroeconomic Relevance: Supports GDP estimation, poverty assessment, consumption tracking, and inflation analysis.
  • Long-Term Value: Provides the most reliable, comparable household-level datasets in India, enabling analysis of structural change over decades.
[UPSC 2018] As per the NSSO 70th Round “Situation Assessment Survey of Agriculture Households”, consider the following statements:

1. Rajasthan has the highest percentage share of agriculture households among its rural households.

2. Out of the total households in the country, a little over 60 percent being to OBCs.

3. In Kerala, a little over 60 percent of agriculture households reported to have received maximum income from sources other than agriculture activities.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Finance Commission – Issues related to devolution of resources

Sixteenth Finance Commission submits its report for 2026-31 to the President 

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Why in the News?

The Sixteenth Finance Commission (16th FC), chaired by Arvind Panagariya, has formally submitted its report to the President of India on 17 November 2025.

Recommendations will be made public once tabled in Parliament under Article 281.

Back2Basics: Finance Commission

  • Constitutional Body: Established under Article 280 of the Constitution to define financial relations between the Union and the States.
  • Appointment: Constituted every 5 years or earlier by the President.
  • Composition: A Chairperson and 4 members, all appointed by the President.
  • Qualifications (under Finance Commission Act, 1951):
    • Chairperson must have experience in public affairs.
    • Members must be persons with expertise as:
      1. a High Court judge,
      2. an expert in government finance and accounts,
      3. a specialist in financial administration,
      4. an economist.
  • Functions: Recommends
    • Distribution of net proceeds of central taxes between Centre & States (vertical devolution);
    • Allocation of States’ share across individual States (horizontal distribution);
    • Principles governing grants-in-aid under Article 275;
    • Measures to augment State resources to support Panchayats and Municipalities;
    • Any additional financial matter referred by the President.
  • Submission & Tabling: Submits report to President; President lays it before both Houses of Parliament along with an explanatory memorandum.
  • Purpose: Ensures cooperative fiscal federalism, balanced revenue distribution, financial stability, and predictable Union–State relations.

About Sixteenth Finance Commission:

  • Constitution & Basis: Constituted by the President of India under Article 280(1) in November 2024 to examine Union and State finances and recommend tax-sharing for the period 1 April 2026 to 31 March 2031.
  • Chairperson & Members: Chaired by Dr. Arvind Panagariya with members Annie George Mathew, Dr. Manoj Panda, T. Rabi Sankar, Dr. Soumyakanti Ghosh, and Secretary Ritvik Pandey.
  • Report Submission: Submitted its report to the President on 17 November 2025; copies also presented to the Prime Minister and the Union Finance Minister.
  • Term of Work: Mandated to submit the report by 31 October 2025, covering a five-year award period starting FY 2026-27.
  • Mandate (Terms of Reference): Recommend
    • Vertical devolution – share of States in the Centre’s divisible pool;
    • Horizontal distribution – breakup of the States’ share across individual States;
    • Principles for grants-in-aid to States under Article 275;
    • Measures to augment State resources to support Panchayats and Municipalities;
    • Review of financing arrangements for Disaster Management, including National and State Disaster Response Funds;
    • Any other matter referred by the President.
  • Method of Work: Analysed finances of Union & States; held extensive consultations with
    • Central government, all State governments,
    • Local governments (urban & rural),
    • Chairpersons of previous Finance Commissions,
    • Multilateral institutions, academic & research bodies,
    • Advisory Council and domain experts.
  • Structure of Report: Final output organised in two volumes – Volume I (recommendations) and Volume II (annexures and analytical backup).
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following:

1. Demographic performance 2. Forest and ecology 3. Governance reforms 4. Stable government 5. Tax and fiscal efforts

For the horizontal tax devolution, the Fifteenth Finance Commission used how many of the above as criteria other than population area and income distance?

Options: (a) Only two (b) Only three* (c) Only four (d) All five

 

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

Remembering Batukeshwar Dutt (1910–1965)

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Why in the News?

This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.

Remembering Batukeshwar Dutt (1910–1965)

About Batukeshwar Dutt (1910 to 1965):

  • Early Life: Born 18 November 1910 in Burdwan, Bengal Presidency; educated at Theosophical High School and Prithvinath College, Kanpur.
  • Political Affiliations: Joined Hindustan Socialist Republican Association and Naujawan Bharat Sabha; became a close associate of Bhagat Singh during his Kanpur days.
  • Jail Endurance: Known for remarkable resilience in Multan, Jhelum, Trichinopoly, Salem, and Andaman Cellular Jail.
  • Later Imprisonment: Released in 1938; joined Quit India Movement in 1942 and jailed again for four years.
  • Life Post-Independence: Settled in Patna, married Anjali; daughter Bharti became a professor.
  • Death: Died on 20 July 1965 at AIIMS Delhi from bone cancer.
  • Last Wish: Cremated at Hussainiwala, beside Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev.

Important Revolutionary Activities:

  • Assembly Bombing (8 April 1929): Co-executed the Central Legislative Assembly bombing with Bhagat Singh to protest colonial repression; bombs were non-lethal.
  • Political Message: Threw pamphlets, shouted “Inquilab Zindabad,” and refused to escape, converting the trial into a political platform.
  • Sentencing: Received life imprisonment on 12 June 1929 in the Delhi Assembly Bomb Case.
  • Cellular Jail: Deported to Andamans; repeatedly led hunger strikes demanding recognition of political prisoners.
  • Long Fasts: Undertook multiple prolonged fasts, including two over a month long.
  • Prison Transfers: Shifted through Multan, Jhelum, Hazaribagh, Delhi and Patna jails.
  • Post-Illness Activism: Continued revolutionary involvement even after severe health decline; joined Quit India after release.
  • Cultural Protest: Criticised misrepresentation of revolutionaries in films; approved only Manoj Kumar’s 1965 film Shaheed.

Association with Bhagat Singh:

  • Early Bond: Met Bhagat Singh in Kanpur and was shaped by his discipline and ideological clarity.
  • Joint Action: Collaborated closely in HSRA; jointly executed the Assembly bombing as symbolic resistance.
  • Hunger Strike: Participated with Singh in the historic 114 day hunger strike for humane jail conditions.
  • After the Martyrdom: News of Singh’s execution (23 March 1931) reached him in Salem jail; he was haunted by visions of Singh.
  • Family Ties: Maintained lifelong connection with Bhagat Singh’s family; Mata Vidyawati stayed with him during his last illness.
  • Comradeship: Supported through final days by HSRA comrades like Shiv Verma, Sadashivrao Malkapurkar, and Kiran Das.
[UPSC 2022] Consider the following freedom fighters:

1. Barindra Kumar Ghosh 2. Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee 3. Rash Behari Bose

Who of the above was/were actively associated with the Ghadar Party?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only*

 

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Animal Husbandry, Dairy & Fisheries Sector – Pashudhan Sanjivani, E- Pashudhan Haat, etc

Centre announces National Gopal Ratna Awards

Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Economics Of Animal-Rearing

Why in the News?

The National Gopal Ratna Awards for 2025 has been announced by the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying (DAHD) under the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying.

About the National Gopal Ratna Awards:

  • Overview: Established in 2021 under the Rashtriya Gokul Mission to promote excellence in dairy management and indigenous breed conservation.
  • Target Groups: Recognises dairy farmers, Dairy Cooperatives, Milk Producer Companies (MPCs), Dairy FPOs, and Artificial Insemination (AI) Technicians for outstanding performance.
  • Breed Focus: Encourages scientific rearing and genetic improvement of indigenous cattle and buffalo breeds with high productivity and economic value.
  • Regional Inclusion: Contains a special category for North Eastern and Himalayan States to strengthen dairy development and acknowledge regional innovation.
  • Institutional Responsibility: Conferred annually by the Union Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying.
  • Award Categories: Best Dairy Farmer (indigenous breeds), Best Dairy Cooperative Society or MPC or FPO, Best AI Technician, and special regional awards for NER/Himalayan States.
  • Selection Parameters: Based on breed improvement results, milk yield, adoption of scientific practices, cooperative performance, and quality of AI service delivery.
  • Participation Scale: Receives thousands of applications annually (e.g., 2081 entries in the current cycle), reflecting wide national engagement.
  • Commemoration: Awards are presented on National Milk Day (26 November), marking the birth anniversary of Dr. Verghese Kurien.

Award Components and Cash Prizes:

  • Cash Awards: Given only in the first two categories: Best Dairy Farmer and Best Dairy Cooperative/MPC/FPO.
  • Prize Amounts:
    1. First prize- ₹5,00,000
    2. Second prize- ₹3,00,000
    3. Third prize- ₹2,00,000
  • Regional Prizes: Special NER and Himalayan category winners receive ₹2,00,000.
  • Artificial Insemination (AI) Technicians Category: No cash component; recognition only.
[UPSC 2025] Regarding the Rashtriya Gokul Mission:

I. It is important for the upliftment of rural poor as majority of low producing indigenous animals are with small and marginal farmers and landless labourers.

II. It was initiated to promote indigenous cattle and buffalo rearing and conservation in a scientific and holistic manner.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options; (a) I only (b) II only (c) Both I and II* (d) Neither I nor II

 

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Asiatic Caracal spotted at Ramgarh in Rajasthan’s Jaisalmer

Prelims OnlySpecies | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The elusive Asiatic Caracal (Caracal caracal schmitzi) has been rediscovered at Ramgarh, Jaisalmer, reaffirming its survival in the Thar Desert after years of uncertainty.

Asiatic Caracal spotted at Ramgarh in Rajasthan's Jaisalmer

About Asiatic Caracal:

  • Scientific Name: Caracal caracal schmitzi, the Asiatic subspecies of the globally distributed caracal species.
  • Distribution: Native to Africa, Middle East, Central Asia, Pakistan, and historically across northwestern and central India, now restricted mainly to Rajasthan and Gujarat.
  • Indian Population: Fewer than 50 individuals survive in India, with small, fragmented groups in the Thar Desert, Ranthambhore landscape, and Kutch region.
  • Habitat: Prefers semi deserts, savannahs, scrublands, steppes, dry forests, and open arid terrains; uses grassland scrub mosaics for hunting and denning.
  • Ecology: A shy nocturnal mesopredator feeding on rodents, hares, birds, and occasionally small ungulates; known for vertical leaps up to 3 metres to strike flying prey.
  • Legal Protection: Listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 and categorised as Least Concern globally but critically sparse within India.
  • Threats: Habitat loss from land conversion, solar parks, linear infrastructure, hunting, and misclassification of grasslands as wastelands reducing viable habitat.
  • Conservation Status in India: Included in the 2021 Species Recovery Plan by National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) and MoEFCC, with urgent need for grassland restoration, monitoring, and community based protection.
[UPSC 2019] Question: Consider the following statements:

1. Asiatic lion is naturally found In India only.

2. Double-humped camel is naturally found in India only.

3. One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only.

Which of the statements given above is / are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Air Pollution

[17th November 22] The Hindu Op-ed: Delhi’s air, a ‘wicked problem’ in need of bold solutions

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the WHO. How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve these revised standards?

Linkage: This PYQ directly links to Delhi’s recurring “severe” AQI episodes and the article’s emphasis on PM2.5 toxicity, life-expectancy loss, and structural regulatory failure. It is relevant because achieving WHO’s revised AQGs requires stronger, coordinated, long-term reforms, precisely what the article argues India’s NCAP currently lacks.

Mentor’s Comment

Delhi’s air crisis has again reached “public health emergency” levels, revealing the chronic and structural nature of India’s most persistent environmental challenge. This article breaks down Dr. Shashi Tharoor’s analysis of Delhi’s air pollution as a “wicked problem,” expands it with UPSC-relevant framing, and provides a structured, exam-oriented guide with value additions, PYQs, micro-themes, and practice questions.

Introduction

Delhi’s annual winter pollution has evolved from a seasonal inconvenience into a chronic public health emergency. Air Quality Index (AQI) levels routinely breach the 400+ “severe” category, shortening life expectancy by up to 10 years in highly exposed regions. The article argues that Delhi’s air crisis is a “wicked problem”, a complex mix of geographical, meteorological, and man-made factors requiring bold, holistic, and long-term solutions.

Why in the News 

Delhi’s air quality has once again plunged into the “severe” category post-Diwali, with AQI values exceeding 400 and triggering health alarms across NCR. What is striking is the persistence: for over a decade, seasonal pollution spikes have recurred despite policies, committees, bans, and monitoring systems. The article highlights the worsening public health impact, including a 10-year reduction in life expectancy, and shows that despite years of institutional attention, the crisis remains structurally unchanged, making this year’s episode another stark reminder of policy failure.

Delhi’s Air Pollution as a Wicked Problem

  1. Complex Interactions: Combines geographical, meteorological, and human-made factors.
  2. Valley-like Topography: Delhi is landlocked with restricted air flow.
  3. Temperature Inversions: Trap pollutants close to the ground in winter.
  4. No Single Villain: Emissions arise from vehicles, industries, agriculture, construction, and households simultaneously.

What Makes the Crisis Structurally Persistent?

  1. Chronic Health Emergency: PM2.5 toxicity linked to asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), strokes, cancers, anxiety, depression, and DNA damage.
  2. Reduced Life Expectancy: Exposure reduces life expectancy by up to 10 years in consistently high-PM areas.
  3. Population Movement: People relocate away from Delhi despite career opportunities due to health concerns.
  4. Elderly & Children at Risk: Respiratory illnesses sharply rise during winter.

Why Are the Existing Measures Not Working?

  1. Weak Enforcement: BS-VI vehicles, dust-control norms, and industrial regulations remain poorly enforced.
  2. Rapid Urbanisation: Construction adds 27% of PM emissions; monitoring is patchy.
  3. Outdated Technology: Many industries in NCR still use old boilers and furnaces.
  4. Vehicular Emissions Rising: Over 3 crore vehicles in NCR; old diesel vehicles persist.

Who Are the Major Contributors Highlighted in the Article?

  1. Stubble Burning: Seasonal crop residue burning in Punjab & Haryana adds massive smoke plumes.
  2. Firecrackers: Diwali and wedding fireworks spike PM levels.
  3. Waste Burning: Municipal waste, rubber, and plastic burning persists due to weak surveillance.
  4. Industries: Brick kilns, factories, and outdated machinery emit sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and PM.

Structural Reforms Advocated to Address the Air Pollution Crisis

  1. System-wide Pollution Control Plan: Not piece-meal bans; requires unified regional strategy.
  2. Relocating Polluting Industries: Move red-category industries away from dense areas.
  3. Urban Design Changes: Create green lungs, redesign mobility, and improve public transport.
  4. Electric Mobility Transition: Incentivise EV adoption and shared mobility.
  5. Agricultural Alternatives: Support farmers with smoke-free residue management.
  6. Firecracker Alternatives: Scale up “green crackers”; enforce bans with political will.

Conclusion

Delhi’s air pollution demands collective regional action, technological upgrade, and political resolve. Seasonal, reactive measures have repeatedly failed; the crisis is structural and chronic. Treating it as a “wicked problem” requires system-wide transformation in transport, agriculture, industry, and governance, with long-term investment in cleaner technologies and behavioural change. The window for incrementalism has closed.

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Corruption Challenges – Lokpal, POCA, etc

Growing unchecked, no guardrails: On Cryptocurrency

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Money-Laundering & Its Prevention

INTRODUCTION

India’s crypto ecosystem is witnessing rapid expansion, with millions of users participating through exchanges that operate in a regulatory grey zone. Even though cryptocurrencies are not recognised as legal tender, trading continues unchecked through global and domestic platforms. Simultaneously, enforcement agencies report increasing difficulty in conducting investigations, seizing digital assets, and identifying crypto flows due to lack of disclosure norms, anonymous digital wallets, and absence of a comprehensive cryptocurrency law.
As the RBI continues to caution against private crypto assets on grounds of financial instability, the mismatch between rapid adoption and weak regulatory architecture is emerging as a major economic and governance challenge.

WHY IN THE NEWS? 

The Indian crypto industry is projected to grow from $2.6 billion in 2024 to $15 billion by 2035, showing unprecedented expansion despite lack of regulatory oversight. This contrast, booming investments vs. near-absence of guardrails, has placed the industry at the centre of policy debate. Law-enforcement agencies have flagged that crypto-linked frauds, pump-and-dump schemes, and money-laundering networks are rising, while agencies lack legal backing and technical capability to tackle cases, making the issue urgent and nationally significant.

Understanding Cryptocurrencies and Exchanges

What are cryptocurrencies?

  • Decentralised Digital Assets: Built on blockchain, enabling encrypted, irreversible peer-to-peer transactions.
  • No Government Backing: Value based purely on demand-supply and market sentiment.
  • Popular Coins: Bitcoin, Ethereum; Indian users largely rely on global exchanges.
  • Not Legal Tender in India: Cannot be used for officially recognised payment obligations.

What are crypto exchanges?

  • Online Trading Platforms: Allow users to buy, sell, hold crypto.
  • Wide Accessibility: Millions of Indians use both domestic and offshore exchanges.
  • India’s Absence of Recognition: Exchanges operate as digital intermediaries without formal regulatory status.

How Crypto Scams Proliferate in India

What mechanisms drive frauds?

  1. Pump-and-Dump Rackets: Influencers artificially inflate coin prices before exiting.
  2. Social Media-Driven Scams: Fraudsters lure users through WhatsApp/Telegram channels promising unrealistic returns.
  3. Disappearing Exchanges: Operators collect deposits and shut down overnight.
  4. Lack of Investor Awareness: Complex technology makes retail investors vulnerable.

Magnitude of India’s Crypto Adoption

How large is the user base?

  • 11 Million Global Crypto Holders: India hosts one of the world’s largest user bases.
  • 7 Million Indian Users (approx. 7%): Indicating wide penetration despite lack of backing.
  • ₹45,000 Crore Transaction Volume: Public adoption remains high regardless of regulatory uncertainty.
  • Young Demography: Primarily 18-35 age group investing through mobile apps.

Why Does RBI Oppose Private Crypto Assets?

What risks concern the central bank?

  1. Threat to Monetary Stability: Crypto bypasses sovereign currency systems, undermining control.
  2. Capital Flight Risks: Easy cross-border transferability allows funds to move outside the formal system.
  3. Volatility Concerns: Extreme price swings harm financial stability and investor protection.
  4. IMF FSR Context: RBI flags that widespread crypto usage could weaken monetary transmission and destabilise macroeconomic foundations.

Why Crypto Investigations Are a Minefield in India

What obstructs law-enforcement agencies?

  1. Disclosing Data
    1. Opaquely Stored User Data: Off-shore exchanges hide ownership/trade history.
    2. No Mandatory Registration: Agencies struggle to compel disclosure.
    3. Jurisdictional Challenges: Crypto platforms operate globally.
  2. Wallet Complexities
    1. Self-Custody Wallets: Google/MetaMask wallets controlled solely by users; agencies cannot freeze.
    2. Unregulated Cross-Border Flows: Enable illegal transfers with no paper trail.
  3. Seizing Digital Assets
    1. Technical Restrictions: Investigators require passphrases; non-cooperation prevents seizure.
    2. Custodial Limitations: No authorised secure government platform for holding crypto.
    3. High-Risk Volatility: Digital assets fluctuate, affecting value during investigations.
  4. Legal Blocks
    1. No Comprehensive Law: India lacks a crypto-specific statute.
    2. Ambiguity for Officers: Enforcement provisions unclear; actions challenged in court.
    3. Regulatory Vacuum: Agencies rely on IT Act, PMLA,insufficient for decentralised tech.
  5. Technical Snag
    1. Privacy Coins (e.g., Monero): High anonymity and advanced obfuscation algorithms.
    2. Untraceable Transactions: Blockchain mixers complicate forensic trails.

Should Individuals Invest in Crypto?

What risks do investors face?

  1. High Market Volatility: No asset backing; price fluctuations extreme.
  2. Unregulated Exchanges: Shutdowns lead to permanent loss of funds.
  3. Cyberattacks and Hacks: Wallets vulnerable to phishing and malware attacks.
  4. RBI and Global Position: Institutions including the IMF, RBI, European regulators warn of structural risks.

CONCLUSION

India’s crypto sector is expanding rapidly without an accompanying regulatory architecture. While blockchain offers transformative potential, the risks of fraud, volatility, and money-laundering remain high. Strengthening legal frameworks, mandating registration of exchanges, and improving cross-border cooperation will be essential before mainstreaming digital assets. Balancing innovation with stability remains the core policy challenge.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Discuss how emerging technologies and globalisation contribute to money laundering. Elaborate measures to tackle the problem of money laundering both at national and international levels.

Linkage: This PYQ fits because the article shows how crypto and global digital platforms enable anonymous cross-border laundering. It also matches the article’s focus on legal gaps and enforcement challenges in tackling such flows.

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The legal hoodwinking of adivasis

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Salient features of Indian Society

Introduction

The cancellation of Ghatbarra (Chhattisgarh) Gram Sabha’s community forest rights (CFRs), despite earlier recognition under the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006, has triggered concerns about legal fairness, administrative overreach and the future of Adivasi forest governance. The High Court ruling, which upheld the revocation of CFRs based on procedural grounds, marks a sharp break from the FRA’s constitutional promise of recognising customary forest rights and ensuring Gram Sabha consent for diversion decisions. The episode highlights the broader developmental logic that prioritises mining over community rights, creating a precedent with wide implications for forest governance in India.

Why in the News 

The Chhattisgarh High Court upheld the cancellation of Ghatbarra’s community forest rights, a rare instance where formally recognised CFRs were later withdrawn. This marks a significant departure from the FRA’s legal protection of settled rights and reveals how administrative technicalities can override Gram Sabha authority. The case is significant because lakhs of trees were felled after diversion was cleared, villagers’ objections were repeatedly sidelined, and legal rights were dismissed as “mistakes”, revealing systemic weakening of Adivasi rights in mineral-rich regions.

How did the legal contest over Ghatbarra’s forest rights evolve?

  • Long history of disputes: The proposal to divert forests for mining dates back to 2011; reports noted ecological richness and unresolved rights.
  • Procedural irregularities: The Environment Minister allowed diversion despite technical objections; clearances were repeatedly granted and withdrawn.
  • Supreme Court intervention: The Court allowed mining to resume earlier without interfering with reconsideration of clearances.
  • Administrative fast-tracking: Mining proceeded while rights recognition lagged, leading to large-scale felling of forests.

Why was Ghatbarra’s CFR status revoked?

  • DLC unilateral action: The District Level Committee cancelled CFRs in 2016 while villagers were preparing to litigate.
  • Claim dismissed as ‘mistake’: Authorities argued earlier recognition of rights was erroneous, contradicting FRA’s foundational principle.
  • Failure to meet legal standards: Court held that land had already been diverted and thus claims did not meet FRA criteria.
  • Judicial reliance on technicalities: Court questioned whether legal procedures for settling rights and obtaining Gram Sabha consent were fulfilled, placing burden on petitioners.

What were the major shortcomings in the High Court’s reasoning?

  1. Misinterpretation of FRA Section 4(7): Court stated rights must be “free of encumbrances,” treating mining as an encumbrance rather than a violation of rights.
  2. Ignoring NGT findings: Earlier National Green Tribunal orders questioning the diversion process were not considered.
  3. Burden shifted to villagers: Petitioners were asked to prove procedural lapses by authorities, contrary to FRA’s mandate.
  4. Judicial shrinkage of community rights: The ruling prioritised administrative procedure over statutory recognition of customary rights.

Why does this case matter for Adivasi self-determination?

  1. Erosion of Gram Sabha authority: CFRs, intended as a safeguard against arbitrary diversion, were overridden through administrative orders.
  2. Contradiction with Niyamgiri precedent: Supreme Court’s 2013 verdict upheld the primacy of Gram Sabha decisions; Ghatbarra marks a deviation.
  3. Expansion of extractive model: Mines continue to operate even when rights are unsettled; recognition does not ensure control.
  4. Undermining of democratic forest governance: Decision signals that settlements of rights can be reversed for developmental imperatives.

What does the case reveal about India’s forest governance architecture?

  1. Development-first logic: Mining clearances were treated as faits accomplis, with rights adjudicated after damage was done.
  2. Weak institutional checks: DLCs, FAC, NGT and courts issued conflicting directions, creating procedural gaps that diluted rights.
  3. Strategic use of ambiguity: Authorities used technical ‘non-existence’ of rights to legitimise diversion.
  4. Administrative ritualism: Presence of procedures did not translate into justice; decision-making replicated colonial governance logic.

Conclusion

The Ghatbarra judgment illustrates how forest governance mechanisms can be used to dilute, rather than protect, Adivasi rights. Although the FRA envisions community autonomy and ecological stewardship, the ruling demonstrates how institutional language and procedural manoeuvres can sideline these safeguards. The case underscores the urgent need to re-establish statutory primacy of Gram Sabha consent and ensure that rights, once settled, cannot be reversed to accommodate extractive interests.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2016] Why are the tribals in India referred to as the Scheduled Tribes? Indicate the major constitutional provisions for their upliftment.

Linkage: This PYQ examines constitutional safeguards and identity recognition of STs. It links with the article as it exposes how policy practice fails ST protections, leading to exploitation despite constitutional guarantees.

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

India’s Emerging Frontier in Precision Biotherapeutics 

| Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

India’s growing burden of non-communicable diseases and its vast genetic diversity make precision biotherapeutics and targeted therapies a strategic medical priority.

About Precision Biotherapeutics:

  • Concept: Precision biotherapeutics are targeted medical treatments – gene therapies, biologics, mRNA drugs, engineered antibodies – designed according to a patient’s genetic, molecular, or cellular profile.
  • Scientific Basis: Integrates genomics, proteomics, cell engineering, computational biology, and AI to correct disease at its root rather than treating symptoms.
  • Genetic Targeting: Uses genomic and proteomic profiling to identify mutations and dysfunctional biological pathways.
  • Gene Editing: Employs CRISPR and related tools to repair faulty genes, including those causing haemoglobin disorders.
  • Nucleic-Acid Therapies: Uses mRNA, siRNA, and DNA-based platforms that instruct cells to produce or suppress specific proteins.
  • Biologics & Antibodies: Develops monoclonal antibodies and targeted biologics for cancer, autoimmune diseases, and metabolic disorders.
  • AI Integration: AI systems accelerate drug discovery, target prediction, and personalised therapy development.

Why India needs precision Biotherapeutics?

  • High Disease Burden: Non-communicable diseases cause ~65 percent of deaths; standard therapies ignore India’s biological diversity.
  • Genetic Variation: Indian populations show wide genetic diversity, making foreign-developed drugs less effective in many groups.
  • National Genome Projects: Initiatives such as GenomeIndia and IndiGen create datasets enabling population-specific therapies.
  • Healthcare Shift: Enables movement from reactive treatment to predictive, preventive, and personalised care.

Where does India stand today?

  • Policy Recognition: Identified as a major pillar in the BioE³ Policy of DBT and BIRAC.
  • Research Strength: Organisations like IGIB, NIBMG, THSTI are mapping Indian genetic variations.
  • Industry Growth: Rapid expansion in biosimilars, immunotherapies, precision oncology, gene therapy.
  • Key Players: Biocon Biologics, Dr Reddy’s, Zydus LifeSciences, Immuneel Therapeutics, ImmunoACT, 4baseCare, Akrivia Biosciences, Bugworks, miBiome Therapeutics.
  • Challenges: Nascent regulation limited advanced biomanufacturing, high therapy costs.

Global Progress and Benchmarks:

  • Regulatory Leaders: US and EU have clear approval pathways for cell and gene therapies.
  • Breakthroughs: Approvals like Zolgensma (SMA) and Casgevy (first CRISPR therapy).
  • Asia’s Momentum: China hosts 800+ active trials; Japan and South Korea use fast-track frameworks for regenerative medicine.

Opportunities:

  • Disease Impact: Precision therapies improve outcomes for genetic, metabolic, rare, and cancer conditions, reducing long-term costs.
  • Market Potential: Global precision medicine market projected to exceed 22 billion USD by 2027.
  • India’s Edge: Strong IT ecosystem, data science capacity, cost-efficient manufacturing, and large clinical trial base.

Risks:

  • Genomic Privacy: Sensitive data risks misuse without strict laws and consent rules.
  • Cost Barriers: High treatment costs may deepen health inequity.
  • R&D Gaps: Low domestic R&D investment can create dependence on foreign technologies.

Way Forward:

  • Regulation: Establish a dedicated CDSCO pathway for cell and gene therapies.
  • Data Protection: Enact a biobanking and genomic data law ensuring privacy and research access.
  • Affordability: Integrate precision therapies into public insurance and health schemes.
  • Ethics & Governance: Create national standards on consent, fairness, and data use.
  • Manufacturing: Expand domestic biologics and gene therapy infrastructure to reduce import reliance.
[UPSC 2024] In which of the following are hydrogels used?
1. Controlled drug delivery in patients
2. Mobile air-conditioning systems
3. Preparation of industrial lubricants
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

 

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Researchers to study rare Dolphin-Fisher kinship in Ashtamudi Lake

Prelims OnlySpecies | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

In Ashtamudi Lake, Kerala, artisanal fishers and Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins (Sousa plumbea) engage in a rare and sophisticated form of human–wildlife cooperative hunting.

Researchers to study rare Dolphin-Fisher kinship in Ashtamudi Lake

Unique Dolphin-Fisher in Ashtamudi Lake:

  • Cooperative Hunting: Dolphins herd fish towards artisanal fishers standing in shallow water.
  • Signals: Dolphins give tail-slaps or rolls to signal fishers to cast nets.
  • Mutual Benefit: Fishers get high catches; dolphins feed on escaping fish, forming a rare human–wildlife cooperation system.
  • Documentation: First studied by University of Kerala researchers; Similar systems studied in Brazil and Myanmar.
  • Expected Outcomes: Insights into animal culture, evolution of cooperation, and improved sustainable fishing practices.

About Indo-Pacific Humpback Dolphins (Sousa plumbea):

  • Distribution: Found from East Africa to India, the Middle East and western Indochina, with major populations along India’s west coast.
  • Appearance: Identified by a large hump under the dorsal fin, dark grey plumbeous body, white mottling, and occasional pink shading; adults grow up to 2.8 m, newborns 97–108 cm.
  • Identification Traits: Long slender beak, dorsal fin perched on a mid-back hump, adults darken with age and often show shark-related scars.
  • Habitat: Prefer shallow waters (<20 m) within 1.5 km of shore; commonly near estuaries, river mouths, bays and nearshore fish concentrations.
  • Group Behaviour: Groups of 50–100 reported in India; shy but often seen during dolphin-watching trips.
  • Diet: Feed mainly on mullet, mackerel, sardines, pomfret and other schooling fish; sometimes exploit fishing nets, increasing entanglement risk.
  • Conservation Status: Vulnerable (IUCN), Appendix I (CITES), NOT LISTED under India’s Wildlife Protection Act (only Ganges and Snubfin dolphins are listed).
  • Colour Variation: Pinkish tint comes from superficial blood vessels used for thermoregulation; calves are dark grey.

Researchers to study rare Dolphin-Fisher kinship in Ashtamudi Lake

About Ashtamudi Lake:

  • Location: A brackish estuarine lake in Kerala covering 5,700 hectares; designated a Ramsar Site (2002).
  • Name Origin: “Ashtamudi” refers to its eight channels, forming a gateway to the Kerala backwaters.
  • Hydrology: Fed mainly by the Kallada River; empties into the Arabian Sea via Neendakara estuary.
  • History: Once the ancient port of Quilon mentioned by Ibn Battuta.
  • Flora: Mangroves include Avicennia officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Sonneratia caseolaris; region hosts rare plants like Syzygium travancoricum and Calamus rotang.
  • Fauna: Supports 57 bird species (6 migratory, 51 resident).
  • Sustainable Fishery: Home to India’s first MSC-certified clam fishery (2014).
  • Livelihood & Ecology: Vital for traditional fisheries, estuarine biodiversity, and local livelihood systems.
[UPSC 2012] Which one of the following is not a lagoon?

Options: (a) Ashtamudi lake (b) Chilka lake (c) Preiyar lake * (d) Pulicat lake

 

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Contention over South China Sea

Senkaku-Diaoyu Islands Issue

World Mapping | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Why in the News?

A China Coast Guard formation patrolled the Senkaku waters as Beijing escalated tensions with Japan over recent remarks on Taiwan.

Senkaku-Diaoyu Islands Issue

About the Senkaku–Diaoyu Islands Issue:

  • Location & Status: A small uninhabited island group in the East China Sea, claimed by Japan, China, and Taiwan.
  • Names: Japan calls them Senkaku, China Diaoyu, and Taiwan Diaoyutai.
  • Administration: Japan has administered the islands since 1972 after the Okinawa Reversion Agreement with the United States.
  • Geography: Consists of five islands and three rocks, covering ~7 sq km; the largest is Uotsuri.
  • Strategic Location: Situated near major shipping lanes linking East Asia to global trade routes.
  • Natural Resources: Surrounding waters believed to hold oil and natural gas deposits, highlighted in a 1969 UN report.
  • Fisheries: Rich fishing grounds add significant economic importance.
  • Geopolitical Value: Located at the junction of interests of Japan, China, Taiwan, and the United States, making it a strategic flashpoint.

What is the Dispute?

  • Japanese Claim: Japan incorporated the islands in January 1895, asserting they were terra nullius based on surveys from 1885 that found no Chinese administration.
  • Chinese & Taiwanese Claim: Cite dynastic-era maps, navigation records, and Qing documents to argue sovereignty predates Japanese control.
  • Post–World War II Status: The US took control under the 1951 San Francisco Treaty, administering the islands as part of the Nansei Shoto region.
  • 1971 Shift: Transfer of Senkaku and Okinawa back to Japan under the Okinawa Reversion Agreement sparked protests from China and Taiwan.
  • Resource Trigger: China’s active claim strengthened after the 1969 UN report identified potential hydrocarbon reserves.
  • 2012 Escalation: Japan’s purchase of three privately owned islands led to widespread protests, attacks on Japanese businesses, and a surge in nationalist sentiment in China.
  • Current Tensions: Chinese Coast Guard vessels frequently enter surrounding waters to assert Beijing’s claim.
  • Broader Dynamics: Linked to nationalism, unresolved historical grievances, and strategic competition between China, Japan, and the United States across the Indo-Pacific.
[UPSC 2022] Which one of the following statements best reflects the issue with Senkaku Islands, sometimes mentioned in the news?

Options: (a) It is generally believed that they are artificial islands made by a country around South China Sea.

(b) China and Japan engage in maritime disputes over these islands in East China Sea.*

(c) A permanent American military base has been set up there to help Taiwan to increase its defence capabilities.

(d) Though International Court of Justice declared them as no man’s land, some South-East Asian countries claim them.

 

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Judicial Reforms

Article 32 of Indian Constitution

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Why in the News?

At an event marking 75 years of the Constitution, the Chief Justice of India B.R. Gawai, said Ambedkar saw Article 32 as the core provision allowing citizens to approach the Supreme Court for the enforcement of fundamental rights.

About Article 32:

  • Right to Constitutional Remedies: Article 32 allows any individual to directly approach the Supreme Court for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights under Part III of the Constitution.
  • Judicial Review Power: Empowers the Supreme Court to issue directions, orders, or writs to protect Fundamental Rights, making judicial review an essential constitutional feature.
  • Fundamental Right Status: The right to move the Supreme Court is itself a Fundamental Right and can be suspended only during a National Emergency under Article 359.
  • Jurisdiction: Grants the Supreme Court original but not exclusive jurisdiction; High Courts also have concurrent writ powers under Article 226.
  • Types of Writs Under Article 32:
    1. Habeas Corpus: Commands authorities to produce a detained person before the Court to prevent illegal detention.
    2. Mandamus: Orders public officials or bodies to perform a legal duty they have failed to discharge.
    3. Certiorari: Quashes orders of courts or tribunals that act without jurisdiction or violate due process.
    4. Prohibition: Stops lower courts or tribunals from exceeding their lawful authority during proceedings.
    5. Quo Warranto: Requires a person holding a public post to prove their legal authority, preventing illegal occupation of public office.

Ambedkar’s Rationale for Article 32:

  • Rights Need Remedies: Ambedkar held that rights are meaningless without enforceable remedies; therefore, Article 32 had to be placed within the Constitution itself.
  • Objective Resolution Gap: He noted that the Objective Resolution (1946) declared rights but failed to guarantee mechanisms for enforcement.
  • “Heart and Soul” of the Constitution: Ambedkar called Article 32 the heart and soul because it transforms Fundamental Rights into legally enforceable claims against the State.
  • Supreme Court as Protector: He believed the Supreme Court must act as the guardian of individual liberty, ensuring no authority can violate fundamental freedoms.
  • Living Constitution Principle: Article 32 works alongside the amendment power under Article 368, ensuring adaptability while preserving core civil liberties.
[UPSC 2012] Which of the following is included in the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court?

  1. Dispute between the Government of India and one or more States
  2. A dispute regarding elections to either House of the parliament or that of Legislature of a State
  3. A dispute between the Government of India and Union Territory
  4. A dispute between two or more States.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 and 2  (b) 2 and 3  (c) 1 and 4* (d) 3 and 4

 

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North-East India – Security and Developmental Issues

Army sets up three new garrisons near the Siliguri Corridor

India MappingPrelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Why in the News?

India has set up three new Army garrisons at Dhubri, Kishanganj, and Chopra to secure the vulnerable eastern frontier and protect the Siliguri Corridor amid instability in Bangladesh and rising Chinese activity.

Army sets up three new garrisons near the Siliguri Corridor

About Siliguri Corridor:

  • Overview: A narrow land strip connecting mainland India to the Northeast, popularly called the Chicken Neck due to its thin, vulnerable shape.
  • Dimensions: Roughly 60 km long and 17–22 km wide, making it one of India’s most strategically sensitive corridors.
  • Location: Lies in northern West Bengal, bordered by Nepal (west), Bangladesh (south), Bhutan (north), with China’s Chumbi Valley close to the tri-junction.
  • Link to Northeast: The only land route for supplying all eight northeastern states, carrying road, rail, fuel, food and military logistics (except limited Bangladesh transit routes).
  • Strategic Sensitivity: Its narrowness and proximity to the India–China–Bhutan tri-junction make it a potential chokepoint in conflict scenarios.
  • Military Importance: Acts as the primary logistical artery for moving Indian Army troops and equipment toward Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, especially during LAC tensions.
  • Security Challenges: Surrounded by multiple international borders, making it prone to illegal immigration, smuggling, cross-border crime, and potential external military pressure.
  • Economic Significance: Key route for trade with Nepal and Bhutan, and supports tourism to Darjeeling, Sikkim and Bhutan.

About the New Eastern Garrison Deployments:

  • Purpose: Developed to address rising security risks due to political changes in Bangladesh, demographic pressures along the border, and China’s increasing activity near the tri-junction.
  • Locations:
    1. Lachit Borphukan Military Station, Dhubri (Assam)
    2. Forward base, Kishanganj (Bihar)
    3. Forward base, Chopra (West Bengal)
  • Operational Role: Enables continuous surveillance, rapid troop movement, and strengthens defence preparedness across the India–Bangladesh frontier.
  • Local Support: Assam facilitated quick setup of the Dhubri station, named after Ahom general Lachit Borphukan, symbolising regional identity and military determination.

Drivers Behind the Reinforcement:

  • Regime Change in Bangladesh: Expected shifts in border behaviour, cross-border movement, and potential security spillovers.
  • Illegal Immigration Concerns: Union Home Ministry has flagged demographic changes in border districts linked to cross-border inflow.
  • China’s Expanding Influence:
    • Accelerated LAC military build-up in Arunachal Pradesh.
    • Growing ties with Pakistan and Bangladesh, including a trilateral meet in Kunming, raising regional security concerns.
  • Regional Military Activity: India has conducted major exercises like Poorvi Prachand Prahar and IAF flying displays in Assam to signal operational readiness.
  • Pakistan–Bangladesh Engagements: Recent visit of a Pakistan Navy ship to Chattogram (first since 1971) has added a fresh strategic dimension to India’s eastern security planning.

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