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Bharat Emission Standards

Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE) Norms

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under the Ministry of Power has issued draft CAFE-3 and CAFE-4 norms, applicable from April 2027 to March 2037.

About Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE) Norms:

  • What is it: Standards that mandate automakers to maintain a sales-weighted fleet average of fuel efficiency and CO₂ emissions across all passenger vehicles.
  • Origin:
    • First introduced in the United States in 1975 after the Arab Oil Embargo, aimed at lowering oil dependency.
    • In India, first notified in 2017 under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, framed by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Ministry of Power.
  • Objective:
    • Reduce CO₂ emissions and oil imports, improve energy security.
    • Push adoption of EVs, hybrids, flex-fuels, and fuel-efficient technologies.
  • Applicability: Passenger vehicles (< 3,500 kg gross vehicle weight) across petrol, diesel, LPG, CNG, hybrid, and electric categories.
  • Phased Implementation in India:
    • CAFE I (2017–2022) → CO₂ emission limit of 130 g/km.
    • CAFE II (2022–2027) → stricter limit of 113 g/km.
    • CAFE III (Draft, 2027–2032) → 91.7 g/km CO₂ limit, aligned with WLTP (World Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure).
    • CAFE IV (Draft, 2032–2037) → 70 g/km CO₂ limit (most stringent stage yet).
  • Recent Updates (Draft CAFE-3 & CAFE-4, Sept 2025):
    • Automakers allowed to form pools of up to 3 manufacturers.
    • Pooling treated as one fleet for compliance; pool manager bears penalty if limits breached.
    • A manufacturer can join only one pool per year but can switch in later years.
    • Special relief for small cars (under 4m, <909 kg, <1200 cc): eligible for up to 9 g/km CO₂ relief.
    • Incentives for flex-fuel vehicles (ethanol-petrol blends) and strong hybrids alongside EVs.
    • Aim: Balance decarbonisation with consumer affordability and revive the small car segment (which saw 71% sales decline in 6 years).
  • Compliance & Penalties:
    • Exceeding CO₂ limits: Regulatory fines under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
    • CAFE credits may be earned, traded, or carried forward to offset temporary lapses.
  • Green Impact:
    • Complements India’s Net Zero 2070 goals.
    • Encourages fuel-efficient models, biofuels, and EV adoption.

How are CAFE Norms different from Bharat Stage (BS) Norms?

CAFE Norms Bharat Stage (BS) Norms
Full Form Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency Bharat Stage Emission Standards
Primary Focus Fleet-wide fuel efficiency & CO₂ emissions Individual vehicle toxic exhaust pollutants (NOx, PM, CO, HC, SOx)
Objective Reduce oil imports, improve energy efficiency, cut CO₂ Reduce air pollution & public health risks
Regulating Authority BEE, Ministry of Power (Energy Conservation Act, 2001) MoEFCC & CPCB
Scope Passenger vehicles (<3,500 kg GVW; petrol, diesel, LPG, CNG, hybrids, EVs) Mainly ICE vehicles; tailpipe pollutants from petrol & diesel
Parameters Measured Fleet average CO₂ (g/km) Pollutants: NOx, CO, PM, HC, SOx
Basis of Measurement Sales-weighted fleet average across all models Individual vehicle emissions tested
Phases in India CAFE I (2017–22: 130 g/km) → CAFE II (2022–27: 113 g/km) → Draft CAFE III (2027–32: 91.7 g/km) → Draft CAFE IV (2032–37: 70 g/km) BS-I (2000) → BS-II (2005) → BS-III (2010) → BS-IV (2017) → BS-VI (2020; leapfrogged BS-V)
Testing Standard Fuel efficiency & CO₂ per km (lab-tested, WLTP cycle for future) Pollutant emissions measured under regulated driving cycles
Impact on Industry Forces OEMs to balance fleet mix (e.g., SUVs offset by EVs/hybrids) Forces OEMs to adopt clean fuel & emission-control tech (e.g., DPF, SCR)
Penalties Heavy fines for fleet CO₂ non-compliance; penalties apply to pool manager in pooled fleets Non-compliant vehicles cannot be sold; penalties & recalls
Global Parallel U.S. CAFE norms (1975) Euro emission standards

 

[UPSC 2020] Which of the following are the reasons/factors for exposure to benzene pollution?

1. Automobile exhaust 2. Tobacco smoke 3. Wood burning 4. Using varnished wooden furniture 5. Using products made of polyurethane

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only * (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Pacific Island Nations

[pib] Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC)-III Summit

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

India recently hosted a meeting of foreign ministers of Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC) in New York.

About Forum for India–Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC):

  • Launch: Established in 2014 during PM Narendra Modi’s visit to Fiji under the Act East Policy.
  • Members: Comprises 14 Pacific Island Countries (PICs) i.e Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
  • Objectives: Strengthen cooperation in trade, investment, health, agriculture, renewable energy, disaster management, digital connectivity, and climate change adaptation.

  • Summits Held:

    • Suva (2014)
    • Jaipur (2015)
    • Port Moresby (2023)
  • Key Initiatives: $1 million climate fund, Pan-Pacific Islands e-network, visa on arrival, cooperation in space technology, and training of diplomats.
  • Trade: Current bilateral trade is about $300 million annually (exports $200 million, imports $100 million).

Strategic Importance of FIPIC:

  • Indo-Pacific Outreach: Expands India’s role in maritime governance and regional security.
  • Countering China: Acts as a soft-power tool to balance China’s influence in the Pacific.
  • Maritime Leverage: PICs control vast Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) crucial for shipping lanes, fisheries, and seabed resources.
  • Climate Diplomacy: Strengthens India’s leadership with climate-vulnerable PICs under South-South cooperation.
  • Global Forums: PICs often vote as a bloc in UN, WTO, and other multilateral institutions, enhancing India’s diplomatic weight.

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[pib] Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA)

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Why in the News?

The Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) has imposed a penalty of ₹2,00,000 FirstCry for false and misleading price representations on its e-commerce platform.

Background of the Case: You Must Know

  • Complaint: Products were displayed with the claim “MRP inclusive of all taxes,” but additional GST was levied at checkout.
  • Effect: Misled consumers by showing higher discounts than actually offered.
  • Findings:
    • A product advertised at 27% discount was effectively sold at 18.2% discount after GST.
    • Such pricing amounted to misleading advertisements (Section 2(28)) and unfair trade practices (Section 2(47)).
  • Dark Pattern: The practice qualified as “drip pricing”, a dark pattern under the Guidelines for Prevention and Regulation of Dark Patterns, 2023.
  • Violation of E-Commerce Rules: Contravened Rule 7(1)(e) of Consumer Protection (E-Commerce) Rules, 2020, which mandates displaying the total price inclusive of all charges and taxes upfront.

About Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA):

  • Established: Under Section 10 of Consumer Protection Act, 2019 (effective July 20, 2020).
  • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution.
  • Functions & Powers:
    • Protects and enforces consumer rights as a class.
    • Prevents unfair trade practices and misleading advertisements.
    • Can initiate class-action suits (recalls, refunds, license cancellation).
    • Investigates through Investigation Wing headed by a Director-General.
    • Can order discontinuation of unfair practices and impose penalties.
  • Composition of CCPA: Chief Commissioner (Head); 2 Commissioners-
    • One for goods-related issues.
    • One for services-related complaints.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following organizations/bodies in India:

1. The National Commission for Backward Classes

2. The National Human Rights Commission

3. The National Law Commission

4. The National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission

How many of the above are constitutional bodies?

(a) Only one * (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

 

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North-East India – Security and Developmental Issues

[26th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Eight North-Eastern states with International borders, 0.13% of exports

op-ed snap | | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] India has a long and troubled border with China and Pakistan, fraught with contentious issues. Examine the conflicting issues and security challenges along the border. Also give out the development being undertaken in these areas under the Border Area Development Programme (BADP) and Border Infrastructure and Management (BIM) Scheme.

Linkage: This PYQ on BADP/BIM links with the article’s focus on the Northeast, where 5,400 km of borders yield only 0.13% exports. Both stress that borders must be treated as developmental, not just security, frontiers — a recurring UPSC theme.

Mentor’s Comment

India’s trade story is dominated by coastal powerhouses, while the Northeast, despite its 5,400 km of international borders and strategic location, contributes a meagre 0.13% of exports. The recent 25% U.S. tariff on Indian goods has exposed not just external vulnerabilities but also deep structural and spatial imbalances in India’s trade economy. This article dissects the marginalisation of the Northeast in India’s export architecture, the missed opportunities in border trade, and the urgent need to diversify resilience across regions.

Introduction

When the United States imposed an additional 25% tariff on imports from India in August 2025, New Delhi responded with restraint, continuing its familiar strategy of quiet diplomacy. But beneath this diplomatic choreography lies a deeper crisis: India’s export economy is dangerously centralised. While four States, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka, account for more than 70% of exports, the entire Northeast contributes only 0.13%, despite sharing long borders with multiple countries and lying at the crossroads of South and Southeast Asia. This exclusion is not incidental but structural, reflecting decades of neglect in infrastructure, policy, and representation.

Why is this in the news?

The U.S. tariff hike of 25% against India is significant not just for its external trade implications but for the internal fault lines it exposes. For the first time, the spotlight has shifted from India-U.S. friction to India’s own spatial imbalance in trade. Striking numbers illustrate the scale of the problem: Gujarat alone contributes 33% of exports, while eight northeastern States together contribute only 0.13%. This stark contrast shows that India negotiates global trade deals while leaving its eastern frontier out of the economic map. It highlights a major failure in policy design, where infrastructure and incentives remain clustered in a few industrial enclaves, leaving large swathes of the country economically orphaned.

Why is India’s export economy so centralised?

  1. Export concentration: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka together account for over 70% of exports, with Gujarat alone contributing 33%.
  2. Policy alignment: Infrastructure, political continuity, and incentives have been systematically channelled to these States.
  3. Peripheral neglect: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh together contribute barely 5%, showing how populous regions remain trade lightweights.

Why does the Northeast remain marginalised in trade?

  1. Minuscule share: Eight northeastern States, despite 5,400 km of international borders, contribute only 0.13% of exports.
  2. Security apparatus over trade: Borders are securitised for counterinsurgency, not for commerce. Goods do not move, but surveillance forces do.
  3. Policy exclusion: No representation from the Northeast in the PM’s Economic Advisory Council or the Board of Trade.
  4. Ignored in planning: The DGFT’s 2024 export strategy ran into 87 pages without a single mention of Northeast corridors.

What are the ground-level impacts of neglect?

  1. Tea economy in crisis: Assam produces over half of India’s tea output, but branding and packaging are almost absent. A 25% tariff hike threatens viability, with planters in Dibrugarh warning of job losses.
  2. Oil vulnerability: Numaligarh Refinery’s expansion requires imports, increasingly relying on discounted Russian crude. U.S. sanctions risk choking supplies, with Golaghat bearing the brunt, not Mumbai.

How has border trade with Myanmar collapsed?

  1. Vanishing corridors: Zokhawthar (Mizoram) and Moreh (Manipur) have withered into skeletal outposts.
  2. Free Movement Regime scrapped (2024): Severed kinship ties, daily trade, and hill economies.
  3. Performative infrastructure: Roads and customs offices exist on paper, cold-chain facilities are missing.
  4. Security logic over market demand: Borders function more as containment grids than trade hubs.

How does global context deepen India’s challenge?

  1. China’s influence: Consolidating control in northern Myanmar through infrastructure investments and militia alliances.
  2. India’s inertia: The India-Myanmar-Thailand Highway remains unfinished, symbolic of missed opportunities.
  3. Global supply chains shifting: Southeast Asia builds new corridors, but India clings to colonial-era coastal routes.

What does this reveal about India’s trade resilience?

  1. Dependence on few corridors: A flood in Gujarat or strike in Tamil Nadu can paralyse exports.
  2. Northeast excluded by design: Not just oversight, but structural neglect in infrastructure, logistics, and institutions.
  3. Strategic hollowness: India claims Indo-Pacific leadership but leaves its eastern flank brittle and disconnected.

Conclusion

India cannot aspire to regional leadership while its Northeast remains economically orphaned. The 25% U.S. tariffs are not just a foreign policy irritant but a reminder that trade resilience must mean dispersion, not dependence. The Northeast needs roads, warehouses, and representation, not rhetoric. Integrating this frontier into the export map is essential for both economic equity and strategic credibility. Without it, India risks negotiating global trade while ignoring the geographies that could anchor its cohesion.

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J&K – The issues around the state

Listen to Ladakh

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Introduction

Ladakh has historically been a symbol of loyalty, sacrifice, and national integration. From its soldiers’ valour in wars to its monasteries embodying peace, it has stood by India unfailingly. However, the grant of Union Territory status in 2019 has created unexpected discontent, with Ladakhis now demanding constitutional safeguards, ecological balance, and meaningful empowerment. Delhi’s response to Ladakh is not just a matter of regional governance but also of strategic national importance.

Why in News (Timeline of Demands)

  1. August 2019: Ladakh granted Union Territory (UT) status after abrogation of Article 370. Initially welcomed in Leh but caused discontent in Kargil.
  2. 2020–21: Fears of demographic change, land alienation, and ecological damage surface; demand for inclusion in the Sixth Schedule grows.
  3. 2021: Formation of Leh Apex Body (Buddhist leaders) and Kargil Democratic Alliance (Muslim leaders). Despite historic rivalry, both groups unite demanding constitutional safeguards.
  4. 2022–23: Protests intensify for empowerment of Hill Councils, job reservation, and land protection.
  5. 2024–25: Discontent spills into the streets; Ladakh witnesses unprecedented Buddhist–Muslim solidarity. Calls grow louder for legislative assembly or statehood, beyond Sixth Schedule status.

Ladakh’s legacy of loyalty and sacrifice

  1. Military contributions: From 1947 raids to the 1999 Kargil War, Ladakhis have consistently defended India’s frontiers. Heroes like Colonel Chewang Rinchen and Sonam Wangchuk embody this spirit.
  2. Cultural resilience: Monasteries, mosques, and local traditions reflect Ladakh’s unique identity and trust in India’s unity.

Why discontent has emerged after 2019

  1. Union Territory status: While celebrated initially, it stripped Ladakh of legislative empowerment, leaving governance centralised.
  2. Fear of marginalisation: Locals worry about land, jobs, and ecology in the absence of Sixth Schedule protections.
  3. Geostrategic location: Proximity to Chinese and Pakistani borders heightens the stakes of dissatisfaction.

Community unity and mobilization

  1. Leh Apex Body and Kargil Democratic Alliance: For the first time, Buddhists and Muslims have forged a common platform.
  2. Shared agenda: Demands include strengthened Hill Councils, greater representation, and protection of Ladakh’s unique ecological and cultural heritage.
  3. Grassroots mobilization: Local movements are engaging with Delhi directly, seeking dialogue and recognition.

Delhi’s challenge and way forward

  1. Triangular balance: Policies must reconcile development, ecology, and empowerment.
  2. Prudent engagement: The Centre must avoid delay, ensure quiet consultations, and expand local representation.
  3. Strategic necessity: Addressing Ladakh’s demands is vital to prevent alienation in a sensitive frontier region.

National and strategic significance

  1. Security implications: Every decision has ripple effects across the Line of Actual Control and Pakistan frontiers.
  2. Democratic ethos: Empowering Ladakh demonstrates India’s ability to blend federalism with strategic caution.
  3. Symbolic importance: How Delhi treats Ladakh will echo in other sensitive regions seeking greater autonomy.

Conclusion

Ladakh’s loyalty to India has been unquestionable. Yet its current grievances demand sensitive handling. By combining development with ecological protection and democratic empowerment, Delhi can reaffirm Ladakh’s trust and secure this frontier for future generations. This is a test of India’s governance maturity and strategic foresight.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] While the national political parties in India favour centralisation, the regional parties are in favour of State autonomy. Comment

Linkage: Ladakh after its 2019 Union Territory status is a live case of the centralisation vs. autonomy debate. The Centre justified direct control citing security and integration, reflecting the national parties’ bias for centralisation. Yet, Ladakh’s Buddhist and Muslim groups now demand Sixth Schedule safeguards and stronger Hill Councils, echoing the regional push for autonomy to protect land, ecology, and culture. This tension captures the essence of the PYQ — the challenge of balancing national integration with regional aspirations in India’s federal system.

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Citizenship and Related Issues

Citizens, domicile, migrants: Why should we worry about Provincial Citizenship?

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Communalism, Secularism, Regionalism

Introduction

Indian citizenship was envisioned as singular and uniform, rising above provincial or ethnic divides. Yet, as Ranjan’s recent research (2025) and Sarkar’s reflections suggest, the rise of provincial citizenship has complicated this narrative. Rooted in nativist politics and tied to emotional belonging to one’s State, this phenomenon is altering the politics of domicile, migration, and rights. While the COVID-19 migrant crisis exposed vulnerabilities of inter-state labour, subsequent domicile policies and debates around NRC, SIR, and regional protectionism have re-opened constitutional fault lines. The issue compels us to revisit constitutional provisions, historical warnings, and contemporary challenges to Indian federalism.

Why in the News

The discussion on provincial citizenship has gained traction because it reflects a sharp break from the constitutional promise of uniform Indian citizenship. Jharkhand’s domicile politics, post-2000, demonstrates how regional grievances can weaponize ‘sons of the soil’ sentiment. J&K’s domicile rules post-2019 abrogation illustrate how domicile is used as a tool of inclusion and protection. Assam’s migration-linked exclusions add another layer of contestation. For the first time, an “unofficial citizenship” has become powerful enough to rival the official national framework, forcing judicial interventions and challenging the foundational principle of equality under Article 16(2). This is no longer a marginal issue but a structural problem, shaping electoral politics and democratic legitimacy.

What is meant by Provincial Citizenship?

  1. Concept: Rooted in nativist politics, it emphasizes belonging to a State rather than to India as a whole.
  2. Political use: Gains leverage in regional elections by mobilising ‘locals’ against ‘outsiders’.
  3. Entanglement: Blurs lines between spatial identity, freedom of movement, and constitutional citizenship.

Issues with Provincial Citizenship

  1. Exclusion & Discrimination: Creates second-class citizens among internal migrants, violating the spirit of Articles 15, 16(2), 19.
  2. Fragmentation of National Unity: Undermines the principle of one nation, one citizenship, fostering parochialism and regionalism.
  3. Economic Inefficiency: Restricts labour mobility, hurting industries and services in cities dependent on migrant workers.
  4. Judicial Burden: Conflicts between migrants’ rights and domicile rules often end up in Supreme Court adjudication, showing gaps in political resolution.

Benefits of Provincial Citizenship

  1. Local Identity & Belonging: Strengthens emotional connection of “sons of the soil” to their State.
  2. Protection of Vulnerable Groups: In J&K, domicile rules safeguarded historically excluded groups like Valmikis, Gorkhas, and West Pakistan refugees.
  3. Equitable Resource Allocation: Ensures locals are not overshadowed by migrants in jobs, education, and land rights.
  4. Democratic Mobilisation: Acts as a rallying point in regional politics, giving voice to sub-national concerns.

How has Jharkhand become a case study?

  1. Statehood in 2000: Did not end sub-nationalist demands but transformed them into domicile-based politics.
  2. Domicile politics: Used to articulate majoritarian grievances against minority elites.
  3. Departure: Unlike Sixth Schedule areas, it encompassed the entire State, challenging federal norms and Article 16(2).

What role does Jammu & Kashmir and Assam play?

  1. J&K (Post-2019): Domicile introduced to safeguard minorities like Valmikis, Gorkhas, West Pakistan refugees after abrogation of Article 370.
  2. Assam: NRC and SIR processes highlight anxieties around migration and exclusion.

How does this challenge the idea of One Citizenship?

  1. Undermines Article 15, 16, 19: Domicile restrictions contradict equality and mobility rights.
  2. Supreme Court interventions: Conflicts between migrants and provincial citizenship often need judicial resolution.
  3. Multiple vocabularies: Terms like citizen-outsiders (Roy), differentiated citizenship (Jayal), paused citizens (Sharma), hyphenated nationality (Sarkar) capture fragmented realities.

Is this a new phenomenon or an old concern?

  1. Historical context: Myron Weiner’s Sons of the Soil (1978) already flagged migration-linked conflicts.
  2. SRC Report 1955: Explicitly warned that domicile rules undermine the concept of common Indian citizenship.
  3. Newness: The idea has now moved from reports and theory to an active political reality.

Way Forward

  1. Constitutional Balance: Uphold national citizenship guarantees while allowing limited affirmative safeguards for locals.
  2. Labour Protections: Create a national migrant workers framework to ensure portability of rights and benefits.
  3. Dialogue & Federal Coordination: Encourage Centre–State mechanisms to harmonise domicile policies with constitutional provisions.
  4. Judicial & Policy Oversight: Courts to curb excesses, and Parliament may revisit domicile laws as warned by the States Reorganisation Commission (1955).
  5. Promote Inclusion: Foster constitutional morality and fraternity so regional protections don’t become exclusionary.

Conclusion

The rise of provincial citizenship shows that the unity of Indian citizenship is being tested not by foreign threats but by internal contestations of belonging. Jharkhand’s domicile struggles, Assam’s NRC anxieties, and J&K’s experiments demonstrate that citizenship is increasingly layered, contested, and politicised. Unless reconciled, such provincial claims may fracture the inclusive national vision of Akhanda Bharat and weaken democratic federalism.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Why do large cities tend to attract more migrants than smaller towns? Discuss in the light of conditions in developing countries.

Linkage: This article is best linked with the GS1 PYQ “Why do large cities tend to attract more migrants than smaller towns?” as it directly discusses internal migration, mobility vs sedentarism, and the allure of metropolises for rural workers despite precarity, highlighted starkly during COVID-19. It also adds depth by showing how migrants face exclusion through provincial citizenship and domicile politics, raising constitutional questions under Articles 15, 16(2), and 19 and reflecting federal tensions. For UPSC, it is relevant across GS1 (urbanisation, migration, regionalism), GS2 (citizenship, federalism, rights), GS3 (labour and economic vulnerabilities), and GS4 (constitutional morality vs exclusion), making it a rich theme that connects social realities with polity and governance debates.

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Indian Missile Program Updates

Intermediate Range Agni-Prime Missile

| Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Why in the News?

The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and the Strategic Forces Command (SFC) successfully test-fired the Agni-Prime missile from a rail-based mobile launcher, marking India’s first such operational test.

About Agni-Prime Missile:

  • About: 6th missile in the Agni family, developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP).
  • Design: Two-stage, solid-propellant, canisterised surface-to-surface ballistic missile.
  • Range and Payload: 1,000–2,000 km; covering both China and Pakistan; Payload: Up to 1.5 tonnes (1,500–3,000 kg).
  • Navigation: Dual redundant guidance system; Maneuverable Re-entry Vehicle (MaRV) with delta fins to evade missile defence systems.
  • Deployment: Already inducted in road-mobile canisterised version; now tested with rail-based mobile launcher.

Global Context: Rail-Based Missile Technology:

With Agni-P rail launch, joins this select strategic group.

  • Soviet Union: Operated RT-23 Molodets Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) on rail; dismantled after START Treaty.
  • Russia: Planned Barguzin rail-mobile ICBM system, shelved to focus on hypersonics.
  • United States: Explored rail-mobile Minuteman and Peacekeeper ICBMs, cancelled post-Cold War.
  • China: Tested rail-mobile DF-41 ICBM in 2016.
  • North Korea: Tested rail-based Short-Range Ballistic Missile system in 2021.

Significance of Rail-Based Launch:

  • Mobility & Concealment: Railcars move across the network, hide in tunnels, evade satellite detection.
  • Survivability: Unlike silos, less vulnerable to pre-emptive strikes.
  • Rapid Response: Enables quick deployment and shorter reaction time.
  • Strategic Deterrence: Boosts credible second-strike nuclear capability.
  • Technological Showcase: Demonstrates India’s maturity in missile systems.

Back2Basics: Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP)

  • Launch: Conceived in 1983 by Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam to achieve self-reliance in missile technology.
  • Completion: 2012.
  • Missile Family (P-A-T-N-A):
    • Prithvi – Short-range ballistic missile.
    • Agni – Ballistic missiles of multiple ranges (Agni I–V, Agni-P).
    • Trishul – Short-range surface-to-air missile.
    • Nag – 3rd generation anti-tank guided missile.
    • Akash – Medium-range surface-to-air missile.

Agni Series and its Development:

  • Origins: Began in 1983 under the IGMDP led by Dr. Kalam.
  • Evolution: Started as technology demonstrators for re-entry vehicles; later developed into full-fledged strategic missiles.
  • Variants:
    • Agni-I: 700–1,200 km range, inducted 2007.
    • Agni-II: 2,000–3,000 km range, inducted 2010.
    • Agni-III: 3,500 km range, highly accurate, tested 2007.
    • Agni-IV: 4,000 km range, advanced avionics, tested 2011.
    • Agni-V: 5,000+ km range, ICBM, MIRV capable.
    • Agni Prime (Agni-P): 1,000–2,000 km, lighter, tested 2021.
    • Agni-VI: Under development, 6,000–10,000 km, MIRV + submarine launch capable.
  • Significance: Backbone of India’s nuclear triad, enhancing deterrence against regional and global adversaries.

 

[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.

2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

 

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MGNREGA Scheme

Centre amends MGNREGA for Water Conservation in Scarcity Zones

Schemes | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

Why in the News?

The Central Government has amended the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (2005) to mandate a minimum share of funds for water conservation and harvesting works. Earlier this month, MGNREGA completed 20 years of its implementation.

What is entailed in this MGNREGA (2005) Amendment?

  • Objective: Prioritise long-term water management, shift focus from reactive drought relief to preventive groundwater conservation.
  • Provision Amended: Paragraph 4(2), Schedule I of MGNREGA (2005).
  • Mandate: Minimum share of MGNREGA funds earmarked for water conservation & harvesting works.
  • Allocation Criteria: Based on groundwater stress classification (Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) assessment):
    • 65% in over-exploited / critical (dark zones).
    • 40% in semi-critical blocks.
    • 30% in safe/non-critical blocks.
  • Responsibility: District Programme Coordinator / Programme Officer must ensure compliance.
  • Earlier Provision: Gram Panchayats could prioritise works; at least 60% of funds had to go to agriculture & allied works, including water.

About MGNREGA:

  • Overview: MGNREGS is a rights-based Centrally Sponsored Scheme launched under the MGNREGA Act of 2005 to ensure the Right to Work for rural households.
  • Origins:
    • The idea of employment guarantee in India began with Maharashtra’s pilot, Employment Guarantee Scheme (MEGS), in 1965 under the Vasantrao Naik government.
    • At the national level, the idea was first proposed in 1991 by then PM P. V. Narasimha Rao and later enacted in 2005.
  • Employment Guarantee: It provides 100 days of wage employment per year to any adult willing to do unskilled manual labour in rural India.
  • Legal Obligation: It is the first law in India that imposes a legal duty on the government to provide employment and compensate for non-compliance.
  • Development Goal: The scheme aims to promote livelihood security, inclusive growth, and rural development.

Key Features:

  • Statutory Right: Employment under MGNREGS is a legal entitlement, not just a welfare scheme.
  • Eligibility: Any rural adult aged 18 or above can apply and must be offered work within 15 days.
  • Proximity and Wages: Work must be provided within 5 km of the applicant’s residence with minimum wage, and delays attract compensation.
  • Unemployment Allowance: If work is not provided on time, the state must pay an allowance.
  • Demand-Driven Model: The scheme is worker-initiated, requiring the government to respond to demand.
  • Transparency and Audits: Regular social audits and online updates ensure accountability in job cards, muster rolls, and fund use.
  • Local Implementation: It is decentralised, led by Gram Panchayats, with support from block and state officials, and centrally funded.
  • Women’s Inclusion: At least one-third of beneficiaries must be women, enhancing gender equity.
  • Sustainable Assets: Projects focus on durable rural infrastructure like ponds, roads, canals, and plantations.
[UPSC 2011] Among the following who are eligible to benefit from the “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act”?

(a) Adult members of only the scheduled caste and scheduled tribe households

(b) Adult members of below poverty line (BPL) households

(c) Adult members of households of all backward communities

(d) Adult members of any household *

 

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Iran’s Nuclear Program & Western Sanctions

What is Uranium Enrichment?

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Iran’s supreme leader recently said Tehran has limited uranium enrichment to 60% U-235 and will not pursue further enrichment to ~90% (weapons grade).

About Uranium Enrichment:

  • What is it: The process of increasing the proportion of U-235 isotope in uranium samples. Natural uranium has only 0.7% U-235, while the rest is mostly U-238.
  • Types of Enrichment:
    • Low-Enriched Uranium (3–5%): Used in civilian nuclear power reactors.
    • Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU, >20%): At 90%+ enrichment, uranium becomes weapons-grade, usable for efficient nuclear weapons.
  • Methods: Physical separation methods such as gas centrifuges, requiring advanced infrastructure and technology.
  • Implications:
    • Low enrichment: Controlled power generation.
    • High enrichment: Proliferation risks, shorter path to nuclear weapons capability.

What is Uranium Enrichment?

Controversy about Iran’s Pursuit:

  • Declared Program: Iran enriches uranium to 60% U-235, claiming peaceful purposes, but insists it will not pursue 90%+ enrichment.
  • Global Concerns:
    • Civilian irrelevance: 60% has no reactor use, only shortens the “breakout time” to weapons-grade.
    • IAEA Monitoring: International Atomic Energy Agency reports show significant 60% stockpiles, heightening suspicion.
  • Geopolitical Context:
    • Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) capped enrichment at 3.67% but collapsed after U.S. withdrawal in 2018.
    • Western governments see 60% enrichment as undermining trust, while Iran argues it is a deterrence and bargaining tool.
  • Strategic Dimension: Keeps Iran on the nuclear threshold, enabling leverage in negotiations and projecting deterrence without overt weaponisation.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

Statement-I: India, despite having uranium deposits, depends on coal for most of its electricity production.

Statement-II: Uranium, enriched to the extent of at least 60%, is required for the production of electricity.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I

(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-1

(c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect *

(d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

 

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Horticulture, Floriculture, Commercial crops, Bamboo Production – MIDH, NFSM-CC, etc.

Coffee Board to hold awareness program on EUDR compliance

Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Major Crops & Cropping Patterns

Why in the News?

The Coffee Board of India has launched extensive awareness and capacity-building programmes to help coffee growers register on its mobile application for EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR) compliance.

What are EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR)?

  • About: Effective from June 2023; Prevent imported products like coffee, cocoa, palm oil, soy, rubber, cattle, wood (and derivatives) from being linked to deforestation.

  • Requirements:

    • Proof of production on non-deforested land (post-2020).
    • Mandatory due diligence statement with geo-coordinates.
  • Penalties: Non-compliance may attract fines up to 4% of EU turnover, seizure of products, and temporary bans.

About Coffee Board of India:

  • Establishment: In 1942 under the Coffee Act, Section 4; Functions under the Ministry of Commerce & Industry; Headquartered at Bengaluru, Karnataka.
  • Structure: A statutory organisation comprising 33 members, with the Chairperson/CEO appointed by the Government of India.
  • Focus areas: Research, Extension, Development, Market Intelligence, Export Promotion, Domestic Promotion.
  • Early years: Coffee marketing was under the pooling system until 1995, after which liberalisation shifted marketing to the private sector.
  • Initiatives: Runs promotional campaigns like India Coffee, Walk With Coffee, and awareness on EUDR compliance for exports.

Back2Basics: Coffee Cultivation in India:

  • Overview: Coffee introduced in 1600 AD by Baba Budan in Chikmagalur, Karnataka.
  • Geographical Spread: Grown in the Western Ghats (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) and in smaller areas of Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Northeast India.
  • Production Share: Karnataka ~ 70%, Kerala ~ 20%, Tamil Nadu ~ 7%.
  • Agro-climatic Conditions: Requires 16°–28°C temperature, 150–250 cm rainfall, and well-drained slopes; sensitive to frost, dry spells, and harsh sunlight.
  • Soil: Grows best in laterite soils of Karnataka and rich, well-drained loams.

  • Varieties:

    • Arabica: Mild aromatic flavour, high export value, but more susceptible to pests/diseases.
    • Robusta: Hardy, disease-resistant, stronger taste, higher yields.
    • Liberica:  Rare, niche cultivation.
  • Seasonality: Coffee exports peak during March–June.
  • Domestic Consumption: Rising gradually; Coffee Board promoting events like International Coffee Day (October 1) to increase per capita intake.

Production Statistics (2025-26):

  • India’s coffee production:  It is projected at a record 4.03 lakh tonnes in 2025 up 11% from last year’s 363,000 tonnes.
    • Arabica output forecast: 118,000 tonnes, up 12% year-on-year.
    • Robusta output forecast: 285,000 tonnes, up 9.5%.
  • Karnataka contributes ~70% of output, followed by Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
  • India is the world’s 7th largest producer and 5th largest exporter, contributing 3.5% of global production and 5% of global exports.
  • Exports: Reached $1.8 billion in 2024-25, a 125% growth over 11 years (from $800 million in 2014-15).
    • Around 70% of Indian coffee is exported, mainly to Europe (Italy, Germany, Belgium), the Middle East, Japan, and Korea.

 

[UPSC 2022] With reference to the “Tea Board” in India, consider the following statements :

1. The Tea Board is a statutory body.

2. It is a regulatory body attached to the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.

3. The Tea Board’s Head Office is situated in Bengaluru.

4. The Board has overseas offices at Dubai and Moscow.

Which of the statements given above are correct ?

Options: (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 *

 

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New Species of Plants and Animals Discovered

New species of finless Snake Eel named after Kanniyakumari

Species | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

ICAR- National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources (NBFGR) researchers in Kochi have discovered a new finless snake eel species, Apterichtus kanniyakumari, named after Kanniyakumari district.

New species of finless Snake Eel named after Kanniyakumari

About Finless Snake Eel (Apterichtus kanniyakumari):

  • Location: Discovered off the Colachel coast, Kanniyakumari (Tamil Nadu), at ~100 m depth during deep-sea trawling.
  • Etymology: Named kanniyakumari in honour of the district’s cultural, linguistic, historical, and geographical heritage.
  • Taxonomy: Belongs to the genus Apterichtus, family Ophichthidae, commonly known as finless snake eels.
  • Morphological traits: Golden-yellow body, pale white ventral head with yellow jaw lines, three black blotches (behind eyes, at rictus, behind rictus origin), conical uniserial teeth, 3 preopercular & 9 supratemporal pores.
  • Molecular confirmation: Mitochondrial CO1 gene analysis shows it as a distinct clade, closely related to Apterichtus nanjilnaduensis.
  • Significance: Marks the 16th new species described from the Indian coast by NBFGR; adds to India’s marine biodiversity records.
[UPSC 2016] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 meters and has orange coloured fruit pulp. In which part of India has it been discovered?

(a) Andaman Islands *

(b) Anaimalai Forests

(c) Maikala Hills

(d) Tropical rain forests of northeast

 

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Urban Floods

[25th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Follow the rains, not the calendar to fight floods

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2016] The frequency of urban floods due to high-intensity rainfall is increasing over the years. Discussing the reasons for urban floods, highlight the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the risk during such events.

Linkage: This PYQ is directly linked to the article as both focus on increasing urban floods due to high-intensity, untimely rainfall and the need for better preparedness. It is important for UPSC as it tests understanding of climate change impacts, urban governance, and disaster management, all of which the article highlights through outdated drainage design, rainfall compression, and the need to “follow the rains, not the calendar.

Mentor’s Comment

Urban floods are no longer seasonal accidents; they are recurring crises that expose the mismatch between traditional planning calendars and the realities of a changing climate. This article unpacks the failures of outdated urban flood management and suggests a roadmap for building resilient cities. Aspirants must note its direct relevance to GS 1 (urbanisation), GS 2 (governance), GS 3 (disaster management, environment), and GS 4 (ethics in governance).

Introduction

Every monsoon, India’s cities brace for floods with desilting of drains, deploying contractors, and activating emergency protocols. Yet, reality unfolds differently, roads submerge, homes flood, and transport grinds to a halt. The core problem lies not only in the intensity and unpredictability of rainfall but also in city systems designed for a climate that no longer exists. Urban resilience now demands shifting from “seasonal schedules” to real-time rainfall preparedness.

Why in the News?

This year, northern states like Punjab (all 23 districts), Delhi, and Gurugram witnessed severe floods in September, well beyond the traditional monsoon period. Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh saw frequent cloudbursts, while Kolkata faced torrential rains. Such untimely, intense, and regionally widespread flooding marks a sharp departure from past rainfall behaviour. With single floods now causing damages worth ₹8,700 crore, the urgency to rethink urban flood management cannot be overstated.

Understanding Changing Rainfall Patterns

  1. Shift in Timing: Mumbai recorded 135.4 mm rainfall in May (normally a pre-monsoon month), followed by 161.9 mm the next day. Delhi saw 81 mm fall in a few hours, overwhelming drains.
  2. Rise in Frequency: CEEW analysis shows 64% of tehsils across states like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Karnataka have seen heavy rainfall days increase by 1–15 days.
  3. Compression of Rainfall: Rainfall that earlier spanned a day is now compressed into hours, intensifying floods.

Why are Indian Cities Flooding so Frequently?

  1. Outdated Drainage Design: Systems still rely on seasonal averages rather than short-duration, high-intensity rain data.
  2. Unmanaged Waste: Plastic and debris block drains; even after desilting, poor waste collection leads to quick clogging.
  3. Poor Coordination: Storm water, sanitation, and municipal waste departments work in silos, creating gaps in preparedness.
  4. Static Planning: Drainage infrastructure often relies on rainfall data decades old, ignoring evolving IDF (Intensity-Duration-Frequency) curves.

What Solutions are Proposed?

  1. Sub-daily Rainfall Analysis: Municipalities must adopt rainfall data in smaller time frames (1–3 hours) to plan drainage.
  2. Drainage-Waste Synchronisation: Waste collection and drain cleaning must be coordinated; rainfall alerts should trigger joint drives.
  3. Updating IDF Curves: Curves must be revised every 5–10 years; new drainage should factor in topography and micro-catchments.
  4. Infrastructure Upgradation: Example – BMC’s plan to widen drains to handle 120 mm/hour rainfall and prepare a new drainage master plan.
  5. Separate Sewerage and Stormwater Networks: To prevent overload and improve efficiency.

Broader Implications for Urban Planning

  1. Disaster Management: Floods are now the leading cause of life and property loss among natural disasters in India.
  2. Economic Impact: Each major flood inflicts damages of nearly ₹8,700 crore.
  3. Climate Resilience: Cities must adapt to “rain already falling” instead of waiting for calendar-based monsoon onset.

Conclusion

India is not losing to rain, but to outdated assumptions about rain. The fight against urban floods requires breaking the illusion of a uniform monsoon season. By following the rain, not the calendar, cities can design adaptive infrastructure, improve inter-departmental coordination, and protect citizens’ lives and livelihoods.

Value Addition

Case Study: Vijayawada’s Monsoon Response Teams

  • Integrated approach: The city administration created special monsoon response teams that brought together officials from the sanitation, engineering, and planning departments to work in coordination during high-risk rainy periods.
  • Real-time action: Instead of relying on rigid seasonal schedules, these teams responded dynamically to rainfall alerts and forecasts, immediately conducting joint sanitation drives and drain inspections.
  • Drainage & waste sync: Garbage clearance and storm water drain cleaning were aligned, preventing freshly desilted drains from being blocked again by unmanaged waste.
  • Impact: This reduced waterlogging and urban flooding, improved road accessibility, and lessened health risks for residents during monsoons.
  • Learning: Vijayawada shows how inter-departmental coordination, proactive planning, and rainfall-triggered response systems can make cities more resilient to changing monsoon patterns.

Global Context in Urban Flood Management

Rotterdam, Netherlands – “Room for the River” approach

  • Idea: Instead of resisting water, the city creates water plazas that double as playgrounds during dry weather and hold excess rainwater during storms.
  • Infrastructure: Underground reservoirs, widened canals, and lowered floodplains to absorb water.
  • Learning: Shows the importance of adaptive urban design that accommodates rainfall variability.

Copenhagen, Denmark – Cloudburst Management Plan

  • Trigger: After a massive cloudburst in 2011 caused $1 billion in damages.
  • Action: Developed over 300 projects including green roofs, permeable pavements, detention basins, and blue-green corridors that store and channel stormwater.
  • Learning: Proactive planning with a mix of nature-based and engineered solutions.

New York City, USA – Green Infrastructure Plan

  • Focus: Reduce stormwater runoff that overwhelms combined sewer systems.
  • Measures: Rain gardens, bioswales, green roofs, permeable streets to capture rainfall locally.
  • Learning: Urban flooding is not just a drainage issue but requires land-use and design-based solutions.

Singapore – ABC Waters Programme (Active, Beautiful, Clean)

  • Approach: Transforms canals, rivers, and drains into multifunctional spaces.
  • Measures: Retention ponds, vegetated swales, rain gardens integrated with urban landscapes.
  • Learning: Integrates aesthetics, ecology, and flood management, showing flood resilience can coexist with urban beauty.

Tokyo, Japan – Underground Flood Tunnels (G-Cans Project)

  • Infrastructure: World’s largest underground floodwater diversion facility with 6.5 km tunnels and giant silos to store stormwater.
  • Impact: Protects Tokyo’s dense urban areas from typhoon rains and river overflow.
  • Learning: Mega-engineering projects can be effective in high-density megacities with extreme rainfall.

 

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Differentiated Banks – Payment Banks, Small Finance Banks, etc.

Swipe, Tap, Spend: How UPI is a decisive step towards formalization of Indian Economy

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Introduction

India’s journey towards a cash-lite economy has been marked by a staggering rise in UPI transactions, reflecting a decisive shift in household and business payment patterns. From groceries to loans, from investments to utility bills, UPI has emerged as the backbone of everyday economic life. This transformation is not merely technological but a structural change towards the formalisation of the economy, reducing cash-dependency while boosting transparency and traceability in transactions.

Why is UPI making news now?

  1. Staggering growth: In April–June 2025, 34.9 billion person-to-merchant transactions occurred through UPI, worth ₹20.4 lakh crore, equal to 40% of private final consumption expenditure, up from 24% two years ago.
  2. Shift from ATMs: Cash withdrawals, once dominant, have halved despite the economy doubling in size—falling from ₹2.6 lakh crore (2018) to ₹2.3 lakh crore (2025).
  3. Wider impact: UPI is now used not only for routine consumption but also for debt repayments, investments, and financial services, signalling a major step in economic formalisation.

How has household spending been transformed?

  1. Digital dominance: Household payments, earlier cash-heavy, are increasingly routed through UPI across income classes.
  2. Food & beverages: In April–June 2025, households spent ₹3.4 lakh crore on food and beverages via UPI—17% of all UPI transactions and 21% of household expenditure.
  3. Non-food items: Payments include utilities, medicines, petrol, taxi rides, and electronics, accounting for two-thirds of person-to-merchant transfers.

What about precautionary savings and cash usage?

  1. Decline in cash holdings: Household currency holdings fell from 12.5% of gross savings (2020–21) to just 3.4% in 2023–24.
  2. Changing behaviour: While cash remains important for land, gold, and election financing, its share in household savings has been on a consistent decline.

How is UPI impacting financial formalisation?

  1. Formalisation of firms and workers: Increased traceable transactions complement reforms like GST registrations and EPFO contributions, enhancing formalisation.
  2. Beyond consumption: UPI in July 2025 facilitated ₹93,857 crore debt repayments and ₹61,080 crore investments into securities—indicating a structural integration of households into formal financial markets.

What are the larger implications for the economy?

  1. Scaling up formal economy: Digital payments extend across small, medium, and big-ticket transactions, shrinking the space for the informal sector.
  2. Global context: Countries like Germany also have high cash usage despite digitisation—India’s transformation is striking in scale.
  3. Policy question: With the public currency-to-GDP ratio falling from 12.9% (2022) to 10.9% (2025), the debate is whether India has reached an inflection point towards becoming a sustained cash-lite economy.

Conclusion

UPI’s ascendancy reflects not just a technological success but a social and economic restructuring of India. By shifting transactions from cash to traceable platforms, it has enhanced formalisation, reduced leakages, and encouraged financial inclusion. The challenge ahead lies in ensuring this transformation is sustainable while safeguarding against risks like digital divides, cybersecurity threats, and over-dependence on electronic infrastructure.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2023] What is the status of digitalization in the Indian economy? Examine the problems faced in this regard and suggest improvements.

Linkage: This PYQ is important as UPSC often tests themes of digitalisation, financial inclusion, and formalisation of the economy under GS3. The article helps answer it by showing UPI’s role in reducing cash reliance and formalising payments, while also pointing to persisting challenges like cash use in land, gold, and elections.

Value Addition

Benefits of UPI

  • Digitalisation of the Economy: 
    1. UPI has made India the world’s largest real-time digital payments ecosystem (over 50% of global real-time transactions, as per the ACI Worldwide 2023 report).
    2. Strengthens transparency, traceability, and reduces black money circulation.
  • Financial Inclusion:
    1. UPI transactions span urban malls to rural kirana stores, enabling low-cost access for the unbanked.
    2. Integration with Aadhaar, Jan Dhan, and mobile numbers creates a seamless financial ecosystem.
  • Globalisation × Formal & Informal Economy:
    1. Shifts large segments from cash-heavy informal sector to traceable, formal payments.
    2. Helps MSMEs and street vendors gain access to credit as digital history substitutes collateral.
  • Economic Growth and Development:
    1. Boosts consumption visibility, enabling better policy targeting.
    2. Encourages formal lending and investments—e.g., ₹93,857 crore in debt repayments via UPI (article data).

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Right To Privacy

How are courts protecting personality rights?

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Introduction

Personality rights, the right to control one’s name, image, likeness, and voice, have become a critical issue in India’s courts. With AI enabling deepfakes, voice cloning, and digital impersonation, Bollywood celebrities like Aishwarya Rai Bachchan, Abhishek Bachchan, Anil Kapoor, and Jackie Shroff have approached courts to restrain unauthorised commercial exploitation of their persona. While these judicial interventions protect individual dignity and brand equity, they also raise complex questions about the balance between Article 21 (privacy and autonomy) and Article 19(1)(a) (freedom of speech and expression).

Why is this in the news?

The Delhi High Court recently issued orders protecting Aishwarya Rai Bachchan and Abhishek Bachchan from AI-generated misuse of their images and voices. This is significant because:

  1. Novel threat: It highlights how AI deepfakes and voice cloning are creating unprecedented risks for identity and privacy.
  2. Judicial trend: Courts are extending personality rights protections to celebrities such as Karan Johar, Amitabh Bachchan, Anil Kapoor, Jackie Shroff, and Arijit Singh.
  3. Big problem: Without regulation, AI-driven impersonation undermines trust, dilutes brand equity, and strips individuals of control over their identity.
  4. Turning point: Courts are now explicitly linking personality rights to Article 21 of the Constitution, signalling a constitutional recognition of digital dignity.

How are personality rights defined in India?

  1. Safeguards: Personality rights protect name, likeness, image, voice, signature, and other unique traits.
  2. Legal foundation: Rooted in common law doctrines of privacy, publicity, and defamation, supported by judicial precedents.

Statutory framework:

  1. Copyright Act, 1957: Sections 38A & 38B grant performers exclusive and moral rights over their performances.
  2. Trade Marks Act, 1999: Allows registration of names/signatures as trademarks (e.g., Shah Rukh Khan, Priyanka Chopra).
  3. Tort of Passing Off: Prevents misrepresentation of a celebrity’s persona as endorsement.

How have courts shaped personality rights?

  1. R. Rajagopal v. State of Tamil Nadu (1994): Supreme Court recognised the right to control one’s identity, grounding it in privacy under Article 21.
  2. Rajinikanth case (2015): Madras HC restrained unauthorised use of the actor’s persona in a film.
  3. Anil Kapoor case (2023): Delhi HC granted wide-ranging protection, clarifying that free speech covers parody/satire but not commercial misuse.
  4. Jackie Shroff case (2024): Court restrained misuse of his persona on e-commerce and AI platforms.
  5. Arijit Singh case (2024): Bombay HC recognised risks of voice cloning through AI.

Do personality rights restrict free expression?

Free speech scope: Article 19(1)(a) allows criticism, parody, satire, and lampooning of public figures.

Judicial caution:

  1. DM Entertainment v. Baby Gift House (2010): Caricatures and parodies do not usually infringe publicity rights.
  2. Digital Collectibles v. Galactus Funware (2023): Material already in the public domain may be used without implying endorsement.
  3. Balancing test: Courts strike a balance between creative freedom and protection of dignity/brand equity.

Why is regulation urgently needed?

  1. Fragmented protections: Enforcement is currently piecemeal, relying on case law.
  2. Digital threats: Generative AI expands risks of impersonation and deepfakes.
  3. Disproportionate impact: Ordinary citizens, especially women targeted through revenge porn, face greater harm.
  4. Policy need: Experts call for a comprehensive legislative framework to clearly define exceptions and ensure free speech is not chilled.

Conclusion

The judiciary is laying down crucial guardrails for personality rights in the digital age, particularly against AI-driven impersonation. However, without a clear legislative framework, judicial interventions remain reactive. The challenge lies in balancing dignity and privacy with freedom of speech, ensuring that protections do not turn into censorship while still safeguarding individuals, from Bollywood celebrities to ordinary citizens, against misuse of their identity.

[UPSC 2024] Right to privacy is intrinsic to life and personal liberty and is inherently protected under Article 21 of the constitution. Explain. In this reference discuss the law relating to D.N.A. testing of child in the womb to establish its paternity.

Linkage: The PYQ on Right to Privacy under Article 21 examines autonomy over personal identity, like in DNA testing. This article is relevant as it shows courts extending privacy into personality rights against AI misuse, with case laws and statutes providing examples to balance privacy and free speech in UPSC answers.

Value Addition

Global Context & Reports

  1. WIPO Intellectual Property Report (2022): Notes rapid rise of personality/IP litigation due to digital commerce.
  2. UNESCO Report on AI & Ethics (2021): Warns against deepfakes undermining democratic discourse and human dignity.
  3. US “Right of Publicity” Laws: Celebrities can sue for unauthorised commercial use of their persona, providing comparative perspective.
  4. EU GDPR (2018): Protects personal data, extending indirectly to digital identity misuse.

 

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Monsoon Updates

South-west Monsoon: Its Onset and Retreat

| Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

Why in the News?

According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD), the southwest monsoon began its earliest withdrawal in a decade on September 14 from western Rajasthan, three days before the usual date of September 17.

What is Monsoon? 

  • Overview: A seasonal reversal of winds, southwest winds (wet) in summer and northeast winds (dry) in winter.
  • Onset Date: Officially begins June 1 over Kerala, advances northwards, covering entire India by mid-July.
  • Importance: Accounts for ~75% of India’s annual rainfall, critical for Kharif crops, water storage, and ecosystems.

Mechanism of Monsoon Onset:

  • Differential Heating: Indian landmass heats faster than the Indian Ocean, creating low pressure over NW India that pulls in moist winds.
  • Mascarene Highs:
    • Located near Mascarene Islands (east of Madagascar).
    • Strengthen during May–June winter in Southern Hemisphere.
    • Push strong cross-equatorial winds from the SE Indian Ocean towards India.
  • Cross-Equatorial Flow:
    • Southeast trades from Mascarene High cross the equator.
    • Deflected by Coriolis, they become southwest monsoon winds, feeding both Arabian Sea branch and Bay of Bengal branch.
  • ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone) Shift: Moves northwards over Ganga plains, anchoring the monsoon trough.
  • Tibetan Plateau Heating: Acts as an elevated heat source, deepening low pressure.
  • Jet Stream Influence:
    • Subtropical Westerly Jet (STWJ) shifts north of Himalayas, allowing the monsoon trough.
    • Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) develops, enhancing moisture flow.
  • Local Triggers: Orographic uplift along Western Ghats, NE Hills, and Indo-Gangetic plains causes heavy rains.

What is Retreat/Withdrawal of Monsoon?

  • Earliest Withdrawal (2025): Began Sept 14 from western Rajasthan — earliest in a decade (normal = Sept 17).
  • Withdrawal Process: Gradual, completes by mid-October.
  • IMD Withdrawal Criteria:
    1. Development of anti-cyclonic circulation at lower troposphere.
    2. No rainfall for 5 consecutive days over the region.
    3. Prevalence of dry weather conditions.
  • Seasonal Marker: IMD fixes Sept 30 as the official end of SW monsoon.
  • Agricultural Role: Retreat moisture crucial for Rabi crop sowing.

Influencing Factors for Monsoon Retreat:

  • Seasonal Cooling: Reduced solar heating over land in September weakens low pressure.
  • Pressure Gradient Reversal: High pressure redevelops over NW India, collapsing SW winds.
  • ITCZ Shift: Moves back southwards towards the equator, reversing wind patterns.
  • Jet Stream Role: TEJ weakens, westerlies return, pushing out moist winds.
  • Topography & Seas: Coastal and mountainous regions (e.g., SE peninsula, Bay of Bengal) may still receive residual/post-monsoon showers.
  • Mascarene Highs: As SH winter ends, Mascarene highs weaken, cross-equatorial inflow diminishes, aiding withdrawal.

Climatic Phenomena affecting the Indian Monsoon:

1. ENSO (El Niño–Southern Oscillation):

  • ENSO originates in the equatorial Pacific Ocean and strongly influences the Pacific Walker Circulation (PWC).
    1. El Niño years: The eastern and central Pacific waters warm up. This weakens the Walker circulation and reduces the flow of moisture-laden winds from the Mascarene Highs towards India. As a result, the monsoon becomes weak or deficient, often leading to droughts.
    2. La Niña years: The opposite happens; Pacific waters cool, the Walker circulation strengthens, and strong cross-equatorial winds from the Mascarene Highs bring more moisture into India. Monsoon rainfall is usually above normal, sometimes leading to floods.
  • Key point: ENSO acts like a “remote controller” sitting in the Pacific but directly influencing the strength of the Indian monsoon winds.

2. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD):

  • The Indian Ocean itself has its own seesaw pattern of sea surface temperatures.
    • Positive IOD: Western Indian Ocean (near Africa) is warmer, and eastern Indian Ocean (near Indonesia) is cooler. This strengthens cross-equatorial winds from the Mascarene Highs, feeding more moisture into India. Result: Good rainfall, strong monsoon, even if El Niño is present.
    • Negative IOD: Western Indian Ocean is cooler, eastern side is warmer. This pulls away monsoon winds from India and weakens the rainfall.
  • Key point: IOD is a “local driver” sitting in the Indian Ocean, which can either amplify or cancel out ENSO’s effect.

3. ENSO–IOD Interaction:

  • Monsoon outcome is not decided by ENSO or IOD alone, but by how they combine:
    • El Niño + Positive IOD: IOD can cancel El Niño’s bad effect (1997 monsoon was near normal).
    • El Niño + Negative IOD: Worst-case combo, often brings severe droughts.
    • La Niña + Positive IOD: Both reinforce each other, leading to very heavy rainfall and flood risk.
    • ENSO Neutral + Positive/Negative IOD: IOD becomes the deciding factor.

The Big Picture:

  • Pacific Walker Circulation is the “conveyor belt” moving rising and sinking air across the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
    • When it shifts east (El Niño): India gets less rain.
    • When it strengthens west (La Niña): India gets more rain.
  • IOD modifies this system locally in the Indian Ocean-  it can either buffer or worsen ENSO’s impact.
  • The Mascarene Highs act as the main “engine room” for cross-equatorial winds, but the Walker circulation and IOD decide how strong that engine runs.
  • Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO): An eastward-moving pulse of cloud and rainfall that travels around the equator every 30–60 days.
    • MJO decides the intra-seasonal variability: when it rains heavily (active phase) and when dry breaks occur.

 

[UPSC 2012] Consider the following statements:

1. The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern India to northern India.

2. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 Only (b) 2 Only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

[UPSC 2017] With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. The IOD phenomenon is characterized by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.

2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only  (b) 2 only * (c) Both 1 and 2  (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

Konkan Geoglyphs may be 24,000 years old

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

The prehistoric geoglyphs of the Konkan coast may date back as far as 24,000 years, based on new stratigraphic evidence from Koloshi caves in Maharashtra.

Konkan Geoglyphs may be 24,000 years old

About Konkan Geoglyphs:

  • Overview: Prehistoric rock engravings (geoglyphs/petroglyphs) carved on laterite plateaus of the Konkan coast (Maharashtra, Goa, southern Karnataka).
  • Depictions: Humans, animals (elephants, tigers, rhinos, stingrays, turtles, peacocks), and abstract motifs.
  • Technique: Created by scooping, etching, pecking into laterite; grooves 3–5 cm deep, 3–4 cm wide.
  • Unique Feature: Unlike painted caves (e.g., Bhimbetka), these are open-air geoglyphs, rare in India.
  • Cultural Value: Provide insights into prehistoric ecology, rituals, and transition from hunter-gatherer to agrarian societies.

Important Sites:

  • Maharashtra (Ratnagiri–Sindhudurg): Ratnagiri alone hosts 1,500+ carvings across 210 sq. km.
    • Kasheli: Giant elephant (13×18 m), 125+ carvings of sharks, stingrays, rhinos (though locally absent), tigers.
    • Barsu: Human figure flanked by two tigers, resembling Harappan seals. Local are protesting a proposed oil refinery which might demolish this site.
    • Rundhye Tali: Concentric circles, abstract motifs, jellyfish/tiger outlines.
    • Devache Gothane: Standing human figure; linked to magnetic deflection anomaly.
    • Devi Hasol: Snake-like square design (8 m); still part of Aryadurga temple rituals.
    • Jambharun, Ukshi, Kudopi: Faunal + abstract petroglyphs.
  • Goa:
    • Usgalimal (Phansaymal): Bulls, deer, spirals, cup marks, grinding grooves.

History and Antiquity:

  • Dating: Traditionally ~10,000 years old; new excavations at Koloshi caves push age back to 24,000 years (cultural layers ~38,000 years).
  • Continuity: Geoglyph-making persisted till the early historic period, showing ritual and symbolic evolution.
  • Ecological Record: Depict species long extinct in Konkan (rhinoceros, hippopotamus), indicating Pleistocene fauna.
  • World Context: Compared with Nazca Lines (Peru), Atacama Giant (Chile), and Blythe Intaglios (US) — Konkan geoglyphs are smaller but more intricate and ecologically detailed.
  • UNESCO Status: On India’s Tentative List (2022); nomination under preparation for 2027–28 cycle.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:

1. Shantiniketan 2. Rani-ki-Vav 3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya

How many of the above properties were included in 2023?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four  

 

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J&K – The issues around the state

Sixth Schedule demand for Ladakh

| Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Why in the News?

The recent protests in Ladakh led by activist Sonam Wangchuk, which turned violent, have been driven by demands for inclusion under the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution and a call for statehood.

Background: Ladakh’s Governance Post Article 370 Repeal

  • Union Territory Recognition: After the 2019 repeal of Article 370, Ladakh became a Union Territory without legislature, unlike Jammu & Kashmir.
  • Local Demands: The Apex Body Leh (ABL) and Kargil Democratic Alliance (KDA) have consistently demanded Sixth Schedule inclusion for autonomy and protection of tribal interests.

Centre’s earlier offer:  

  • Article 371-like Protections: Ministry of Home Affairs proposed safeguards similar to NE states, addressing land, jobs, and cultural protection.
  • Exclusion from Sixth Schedule: Centre ruled out Sixth Schedule inclusion, preferring alternative mechanisms for autonomy.

What is the Sixth Schedule?

  • Constitutional Basis: Mentioned under Article 244 in Part X of the Constitution.
  • Coverage: Applies only to Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram (ATM²).
  • Relation to Fifth Schedule: The Fifth Schedule covers scheduled areas in other states except these four.

Salient Features of the Sixth Schedule:

  • Autonomous Districts: Tribal areas are designated as autonomous districts; Governor empowered to create, reorganize, or alter boundaries.
  • District & Regional Councils:
    • Each district council has 30 members (26 elected, 4 nominated).
    • Councils can legislate on land, forest management, shifting cultivation, village administration, inheritance of property, marriage/divorce, and social customs.
    • They run schools, healthcare, markets, and village courts, and can levy certain taxes.
  • Law Application: Acts of Parliament/State may not apply directly or apply with Governor/President’s modifications.
  • Governor’s Authority: Can appoint commissions, examine issues of districts, and dissolve councils based on recommendations.
  • Areas under the Sixth Schedule:
    • Assam: Karbi Anglong, North Cachar Hills, Bodoland Territorial Areas District.
    • Meghalaya: Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, Garo Hills.
    • Tripura: Tripura Tribal Areas District.
    • Mizoram: Chakma, Mara, Lai districts.
[UPSC 2023] With reference to ‘Scheduled Areas’ in India, consider the following statements :

1. Within a State, the notification of an area as Scheduled Area takes place through an Order of the President.

2. The largest administrative unit forming the Scheduled Area is the District and the lowest is the cluster of villages in the Block.

3. The Chief Ministers of the concerned States are required to submit annual reports to the Union Home Ministry on the administration of Scheduled Areas in the States.

How many of the above statements are correct?

Options: (a) Only one * (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

 

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Air Pollution

Delhi to witness Artificial Rain through Cloud Seeding

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: S&T - Applications In Everyday Life

Why in the News?

The Delhi government is planning to trial cloud-seeding to trigger artificial rain to combat air pollution ahead of winters.

About Cloud Seeding:

  • About: It is a microclimate management technique aimed at altering precipitation patterns by dispersing substances into clouds to stimulate rainfall or snowfall.
  • Why it is used: It is used to mitigate hail, disperse fog, and either induce precipitation or prevent it from occurring in subsequent days.
  • Techniques include:
    • Static Cloud Seeding: Chemicals are introduced into cold clouds already containing supercooled water droplets, encouraging the formation of ice crystals.
    • Hygroscopic Cloud Seeding: Salts are sprayed into the base of warm clouds to act as condensation nuclei, increasing the number and size of water droplets.
    • Dynamic Cloud Seeding: This method involves boosting vertical air currents to enhance moisture passage through the clouds, leading to more rain.
  • Common Cloud Seeding Chemicals:
    • Silver iodide (AgI): Preferred for its ice-like crystalline properties.
    • Potassium iodide (KI): Functions similarly to silver iodide.
    • Dry ice (solid CO₂): Used to rapidly cool cloud droplets, aiding rain formation.
    • Liquid propane: Used in specific cloud types, effective at higher temperatures.
    • Sodium chloride and calcium chloride: Used in hygroscopic (warm) cloud seeding methods.
    • Bismuth tri-iodide (BiI₃): Sometimes used based on experimental or environmental considerations.
  • Dispersion methods range from aircraft and ground-based generators to newer approaches like drones delivering electric charges or infrared laser pulses.

Limitations: 

  • Concerns persist regarding the potential accumulation of seeding agents in sensitive ecosystems, although detailed studies have shown negligible impacts.
  • The chemicals used, such as silver iodide, may potentially damage the environment and cause health issues like iodine poisoning in high concentrations
[UPSC 2025] Artificial way of causing rainfall to reduce air pollution makes use of:

(a) silver iodide and potassium iodide *

(b) silver nitrate and potassium iodide

(c) silver iodide and potassium nitrate

(d) silver nitrate and potassium chloride

 

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Freedom of Speech – Defamation, Sedition, etc.

[24th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Criminal Defamation is incompatible with democratic debate

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2014] What do you understand by the concept ‘freedom of speech and expression’? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.

Linkage: The 2014 PYQ on freedom of speech, hate speech, and films directly links with criminal defamation as both test the limits of Article 19(1)(a) under Article 19(2). Just as films and hate speech face special restrictions, criminal defamation raises the question of whether jail for reputational harm is a proportionate curb on free expression.

Mentor’s Comment

The debate around criminal defamation in India has resurfaced with the Supreme Court itself acknowledging the growing misuse of the law. What began as a safeguard for reputation has increasingly turned into a tool of intimidation, propaganda, and political retribution. This article examines why criminal defamation is incompatible with democratic debate, the disproportionate nature of its penalties, and how its misuse has shaped India’s political and media landscape. We will also provide value additions, practice questions, and related UPSC linkages.

Introduction

In 2016, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of criminal defamation in the Subramanian Swamy v. Union of India case, equating reputation with the right to life. However, recent developments show that this reasoning has produced more problems than it has solved. On September 22, Justice M.M. Sundresh expressed concern over the growing use of criminal defamation by political actors and private individuals as a shield against criticism and as a weapon of retribution. With imprisonment prescribed as a penalty, the law now threatens democratic debate, fosters self-censorship, and risks turning the judiciary into a tool for silencing dissent.

Criminal Defamation in the News

The issue has returned to the spotlight because of rising judicial unease over its misuse. Justice M.M. Sundresh’s recent remarks highlight how criminal defamation cases are no longer rare or exceptional but routine weapons used by politicians, business interests, and individuals to stifle criticism. From Rahul Gandhi and Shashi Tharoor to journalists and opposition leaders, many face disproportionate litigation that results in prolonged trials, loss of political time, and harassment. This represents not just isolated misuse but a systemic problem that undermines free speech and democratic accountability.

Defamation (criminal) — statutory text & essentials

  1. Statutory definition: Section 499 of the Indian Penal Code defines defamation as making or publishing an imputation concerning any person intending to harm, or knowing or having reason to believe that such imputation will harm, that person’s reputation.
  2. Punishment: Section 500 prescribes simple imprisonment up to two years, or fine, or both.
  3. Exceptions: Section 499 contains ten exceptions (e.g., truth for public good, fair comment on public conduct, parliamentary proceedings, etc.) — these are crucial in practice and often determinative in defamation disputes.

  • Under Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023:

    • Section 354(2) – punishment up to 2 years simple imprisonment, or fine, or both, or community service.
    • Section 356 – covers words, signs, or visible representations harming reputation.
  • Scope: Applies to individuals, companies, and deceased persons if family reputation is harmed.
  • Essential Elements: False statement, harm to reputation, communication to third party, and intent/knowledge of likely harm.
  • Nature of Offence: Non-cognizable and bailable – requires a warrant for arrest; bail available.
  • Digital Extension: Covers defamatory posts on social media, websites, and messaging platforms.
  • Defences/Exceptions: Truth in public interest, fair comment on public servants, judicial proceedings, public performances, and cautionary statements made in good faith.

Supreme Court timeline (select landmark decisions on defamation) 

  1. S. Rangarajan v. P. Jagjivan Ram (1989): refined the reasonable-restriction test under Article 19(2); held that state action to restrain expression must demonstrate proximate danger (not remote/conjectural). Important when courts assess whether alleged speech is dangerously likely to cause harm.
  2. R. Rajagopal v. State of Tamil Nadu (Auto-Shankar case) (1994): balanced freedom of press with right to privacy; held privacy has constitutional status but public interest/public record may limit privacy claims. Relevant to defamation where publication concerns public servants/official acts.
  3. Subramanian Swamy v. Union of India (2016): Supreme Court upheld constitutionality of Sections 499 and 500, treating reputation as part of human dignity under Article 21 and holding criminal defamation a reasonable restriction on Article 19(1)(a). This remains the leading authority sustaining criminal defamation in India

Why is criminal defamation disproportionate?

  1. Imprisonment for speech: Criminal defamation proposes jail time for reputational injury, which is disproportionate compared to civil remedies like damages or injunctions.
  2. Nature of harm: Unlike physical injury, reputational harm can be addressed through compensation and retractions, not imprisonment.
  3. Global comparison: Many countries such as the U.K. have abolished criminal defamation laws as incompatible with democratic debate.

How has the law been misused in politics and media?

  1. Weaponisation of complaints: Political actors distort or take statements out of context, using the threat of jail to suppress opponents. Examples:
    • Editors of The Hindu faced cases under Jayalalithaa’s government.
    • Rahul Gandhi faced criminal defamation for remarks against political leaders.
    • Nitin Gadkari and Arun Jaitley’s cases against Arvind Kejriwal and AAP tied up governance in litigation.
  2. Judicial burden: Lower courts often issue summons without assessing whether the speech crosses the threshold of defamation.

What is the impact on journalism and public debate?

  1. Intimidation of journalists: Local reporters face harassment from politicians and business groups, including threats of arrest and travel to distant courts.
  2. Self-censorship: The chilling effect forces media houses and individuals to avoid criticism of powerful actors.
  3. Distortion of democratic debate: Criminal defamation converts political disagreements into legal battles, weakening accountability and transparency.

Are civil remedies a better alternative?

  1. Civil courts as recourse: Aggrieved individuals can seek damages, injunctions, or retractions through civil suits.
  2. Balanced protection: Civil remedies protect reputation without curbing free expression.
  3. Reduced misuse: Without the threat of imprisonment, civil proceedings reduce the scope of intimidation.

Comparative perspective and lessons for India

  1. U.K. model: Abolished criminal defamation, relying instead on civil law to handle reputational disputes.
  2. Global democratic practice: Democracies increasingly view criminal defamation as incompatible with free speech.
  3. India’s opportunity: Reforms are needed to align India’s legal framework with global standards and democratic values.

Conclusion

Criminal defamation in India has shifted from being a safeguard for dignity to a political weapon that curtails free expression and democratic accountability. Justice Sundresh’s remarks signal a broader judicial recognition that the law’s misuse has become systemic. Moving toward civil remedies while abolishing criminal defamation is necessary for strengthening free speech, protecting journalists, and ensuring political debates remain democratic rather than litigative. India must now act to strike the right balance between dignity and liberty.

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

India’s only active volcano in Andaman’s Barren Island erupts

India MappingPrelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Why in the News?

Barren Island, which is not only India’s but South Asia’s only active volcano, has erupted twice in a span of eight days.

barren island

About Barren Island:

  • Location: In the Andaman Sea, about 138–140 km northeast of Port Blair, within the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India).
  • Unique Status: The only confirmed active volcano in the Indian subcontinent and South Asia, lying on the volcanic arc between Sumatra (Indonesia) and Myanmar.
  • Geophysical Features: Roughly circular island (~3 km diameter); volcanic crater located 0.5 km from shore, rising to 354 m above sea level and classified as a stratovolcano made of lava, volcanic ash, and rock fragments.
  • Volcanic Activity
    • First Recorded Eruption: 1787.
    • Notable Eruptions: 1789, 1795, 1803–04, 1852, 1991, 2017, and minor eruptions in 2025.
    • 1991 Eruption: Lasted ~6 months, destructive to local fauna.
    • Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): Generally low, around 2.
  • Geological Significance:
    • Age of Flows: Oldest subaerial lava flows dated to 1.6 million years ago.
    • Crust: Built on 106 million-year-old oceanic crust.
    • Tectonics: Part of the subduction zone where the Indian Plate meets the Burmese Plate.
    • Research Value: Critical for geological and volcanic studies as India’s only active volcano.

Note:

Although there are no active volcanoes in mainland India, there are some extinct and dormant volcanoes in the country. These are: Narcondam Island (dormant, A&N Islands); Deccan Plateau (18.51°N 73.43°E; extinct, Maharashtra); Baratang Island (mud volcanoes; active, A&N Islands); Dhinodhar Hills (extinct, Gujarat); Dhosi Hill (extinct, Haryana–Rajasthan border); Tosham Hills (extinct, Haryana); and Loktak Lake (Supervolcanic caldera, Manipur).

[UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

  1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian territory.
  2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
  3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only*

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 3 only

(d) 1 and 3

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