Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: INS Vikrant
Mains level: Indigenization of defense production
The Indian Navy took delivery of IAC-1 the ‘Vikrant’, the nation’s first indigenously built aircraft carrier from its manufacturer, Cochin Shipyard Ltd.
Vikrant
- INS Vikrant also known as Indigenous Aircraft Carrier 1 (IAC-1), is an aircraft carrier constructed by the Cochin Shipyard Limited (CSL) for the Indian Navy.
- It is the first aircraft carrier to be built in India.
- It is named ‘Vikrant’ as a tribute to India’s first aircraft carrier, Vikrant (R11).
- The name Vikrant means “courageous” in Sanskrit.
- Work on the ship’s design began in 1999, and the keel was laid in February 2009.
- The carrier was floated out of its dry dock on 29 December 2011 and was launched on 12 August 2013.
Why is it important for India to have an aircraft carrier?
- An aircraft carrier is one of the most potent marine assets for any nation, which enhances a Navy’s capability to travel far from its home shores to carry out air domination operations.
- Many experts consider having an aircraft carrier as essential to be considered a “blue water” navy — that is, a navy that has the capacity to project a nation’s strength and power across the high seas.
- An aircraft carrier generally leads as the capital ship of a carrier strike/ battle group.
- As the aircraft carrier is a prized and sometimes vulnerable target, it is usually escorted in the group by destroyers, missile cruisers, frigates, submarines, and supply ships.
And why is it a big deal that this warship has been Made in India?
- Only five or six nations currently have the capability of manufacturing an aircraft carrier, and India has joined this prestigious club now.
- Experts and Navy officials said India has demonstrated the capacity and self-reliance to build what is considered to be one of the most advanced and complex battleships in the world.
- India’s has had aircraft carriers earlier too — but those were built either by the British or the Russians.
- The ‘INS Vikramaditya’, which was commissioned in 2013 and which is currently the Navy’s only aircraft carrier, started out as the Soviet-Russian warship ‘Admiral Gorshkov’.
- India’s two earlier carriers, the ‘INS Vikrant’ and the ‘INS Viraat’, were originally the British-built ‘HMS Hercules’ and ‘HMS Hermes’.
- These two warships were commissioned into the Navy in 1961 and 1987 respectively.
Why will this new warship be named ‘INS Vikrant’?
- IAC-1 — as the carrier is currently codenamed — has been designed by the Indian Navy’s Directorate of Naval Design (DND), and built at Cochin Shipyard Limited (CSL).
- Once commissioned, it will be called ‘INS Vikrant’, the name that originally belonged to India’s much-loved first aircraft carrier.
- It was a source of immense national pride over several decades of service before it was decommissioned in 1997.
- The original ‘Vikrant’, a Majestic-class 19,500-tonne warship, which was acquired from the UK in 1961, played a stellar role in the 1971 War with Pakistan.
What weapons and equipment will the new ‘Vikrant’ have?
- The new warship is comparable to India’s existing carrier ‘INS Vikramaditya’, which is a 44,500-tonne vessel and can carry up to 34 aircraft, including both fighter jets and helicopters.
- The Navy had earlier said that once commissioned, IAC-1 will be “the most potent sea-based asset”, which will operate the Russian-made MiG-29K fighter aircraft and Kamov-31 Air Early Warning Helicopters.
- The new ‘Vikrant’ will also operate the soon-to-be-inducted MH-60R Seahawk multirole helicopter manufactured by the American aerospace and defence company Lockheed Martin.
- It will also take onboard the Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH) built by Bengaluru-based Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: International Tiger Day
Mains level: Paper 3- Tiger conservation in India
Context
India is now reporting increased tiger numbers, and a recent International Union for Conservation of Nature assessment suggests that tiger numbers have increased by 40% since 2005. This is cause for celebration. But is the rise in tiger numbers enough to prevent their extinction?
Relations between distribution and genetic variation
- Decades of research in ecology and evolution suggest that numbers are critical to avoid extinction.
- Populations that are smaller than 100 breeding individuals have a high probability of extinction.
- At the same time, for populations to persist, they should be part of larger landscapes with other such populations that are connected.
- This is because small populations are subject to chance/random events.
- These chance events may cause them to lose advantageous genetic variants, while other, detrimental genetic variants might increase in frequency.
- This process is called genetic drift.
- Individuals in small populations are more likely to be related, leading to inbreeding.
- This exposes the many slightly disadvantageous genetic variants that are present in all genomes.
- When expressed together, these detrimental genetic variants cause inbreeding depression, and reduced survival and reproduction of inbred individuals.
- A closer look at the distribution of tigers across their range shows that most tiger ‘populations’ are smaller than 100.
- This raises a question why are we not seeing extinctions happening more often? Is this because tiger populations are connected to each other?
Research findings about movement of tigers
- One way to answer the question about not so frequent extinction is to use movement data sourced from radio-collared tigers, often difficult to come by for a rare and endangered species.
- Alternatively, tigers can be genetically sampled using their excreta/scat, hair and other biological samples from different tiger reserves and analysed in a laboratory.
- Genetic variants in tiger DNA can be identified and analysed and compared across tiger reserves.
- Genetic variation in landscape with connectivity: Sets of tiger reserves that show shared genetic variation are well connected — the inference is that the intervening landscapes facilitate connectivity or movement.
- On the flip side, sets of tiger reserves that share less genetic variation must have barriers or landscapes that impede movement and connectivity.
- Most land-use types were not too bad for tiger connectivity, including agricultural fields.
- However, the presence of built-up areas and high traffic roads greatly impeded tiger movement.
- Results showed that extinction could be avoided if corridors were safeguarded.
- In summary, as long as we manage landscapes outside tiger reserves to allow tiger movement, and protect prey and tigers inside tiger reserves, tigers are sure to survive in landscapes such as central India.
Genetic changes in isolated tiger population
- Black tigers were found only in the Similipal tiger reserve in Odisha.
- Genome sequences of a litter of zoo tigers that included pseudo-melanistic cubs revealed that a single spelling mistake (or mutation) in a specific gene causes these tigers to look this way.
- Pseudo-melanistic or black tigers found in Odisha has demonstrated the genetic effects of isolation.
- Results of the research pointed to genetic drift, or random events that have lead to this genetic variant that causes pseudomelanistic coat colour becoming common only in Similipal.
- On the other side of India, in Rajasthan, genome sequences from wild tigers reveal that individuals in the Ranthambore tiger reserve show inbreeding.
- In short, we are seeing the genetic effects of isolation and small population size in wild tigers at some locations.
Way forward
- Focus on connectivity: While we celebrate the recovery of tiger populations only by looking at numbers, we must not lose sight of other factors that are critical to their continued survival, such as connectivity.
- Special attention is needed for populations that are becoming isolated and facing the genetic consequences of such isolation.
- The future of such populations may depend on genetic rescue or even the introduction of novel genetic variants.
Conclusion
We are fortunate that novel genome sequencing technology provides an opportunity to understand tigers much better in the context of their conservation. The future of tigers will require a ‘dialogue’ between such data and management strategies in order to ensure their survival. India is lucky to have so many wild tigers and we must work together to save them.
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Back2Basics: Pseudo-melanism
- Tigers have a distinctive dark stripe pattern on a light background of white or golden.
- A rare pattern variant, distinguished by stripes that are broadened and fused together, is also observed in both wild and captive populations.
- This is known as pseudo-melanism, which is different from true melanism, a condition characterised by unusually high deposition of melanin, a dark pigment.
- While truly melanistic tigers are yet to be recorded, pseudo-melanistic ones have been camera-trapped repeatedly, and only, in Simlipal, a 2,750-km tiger reserve in Odisha, since 2007
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ED, PMLA
Mains level: Read the attached story
The Supreme Court upheld the core amendments made to the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), which gives the government and the Enforcement Directorate (ED) virtually unbridled powers of summons, arrest, and raids, and makes bail nearly impossible while shifting the burden of proof of innocence on to the accused rather than the prosecution.
Did the judgement say?
- The Supreme Court called the PMLA a law against the “scourge of money laundering” and not a hatchet wielded against rival politicians and dissenters.
- Money laundering is an offence against the sovereignty and integrity of the country. It is no less a heinous offence than the offence of terrorism, the court noted.
Why in news?
- The verdict came on an extensive challenge raised against the amendments introduced in 2002 Act by way of Finance Acts.
- The three-judge Bench said the method of introduction of the amendments through Money Bills would be separately examined by a larger Bench of the top court.
What were the petitions?
- Petitions were filed against the amendments, which the challengers claimed would violate personal liberty, procedures of law and the constitutional mandate.
- The petitioners included many veteran politicians who all claimed that the “process itself was the punishment”.
- There were submissions that the accused’s right against self-incrimination suffered when the ED summoned them and made them sign statements on threats of arrest.
- But the court said these statements were recorded as part of an “inquiry” into the proceeds of crime.
- A person cannot claim right against self-incrimination at a summons stage.
About Enforcement Directorate (ED)
- It goes back to May 1, 1956, when an ‘Enforcement Unit’ was formed in the Department of Economic Affairs.
- It then aimed for handling Exchange Control Laws violations under the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA).
- The ED today is a multi-dimensional organisation investigating economic offences under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, Foreign Exchange Management Act and FERA.
From where does the ED get its powers?
- When proceeds of crime (property/money) are generated, the best way to save that money is by parking it somewhere, so one is not answerable to anyone in the country.
- Therefore, there was a need to control and prevent the laundering of money.
- The PMLA was brought in for this exact reason in 2002, but was enacted only in 2005.
- The objective was to prevent parking of the money outside India and to trace out the layering and the trail of money.
- So as per the Act, the ED got its power to investigate under Sections 48 (authorities under act) and 49 (appointment and powers of authorities and other officers).
At what stage does the ED step in when a crime is committed?
- Whenever any offence is registered by a local police station, which has generated proceeds of crime over and above ₹1 crore, the investigating police officer forwards the details to the ED.
- Alternately, if the offence comes under the knowledge of the Central agency, they can then call for the First Information Report (FIR) or the chargesheet if it has been filed directly by police officials.
- This will be done to find out if any laundering has taken place.
What differentiates the probe between the local police and officers of the ED?
Case study:
- If a theft has been committed in a nationalised bank, the local police station will first investigate the crime.
- If it is learnt that the founder of the bank took all the money and kept it in his house, without being spent or used, then the crime is only theft and the ED won’t interfere because the amount has already been seized.
- But if the amount which has been stolen is used after four years to purchase some properties, then the ill-gotten money is brought back in the market.
- Or if the money is given to someone else to buy properties in different parts of the country, then there is ‘laundering’ of money.
- Hence the ED will need to step in and look into the layering and attachment of properties to recover the money.
- If jewellery costing ₹1 crore is stolen, police officers will investigate the theft. The ED, however, will attach assets of the accused to recover the amount of ₹1 crore.
What are the other roles and functions of the ED?
- The ED carries out search (property) and seizure (money/documents) after it has decided that the money has been laundered, under Section 16 (power of survey) and Section 17 (search and seizure) of the PMLA.
- On the basis of that, the authorities will decide if arrest is needed as per Section 19 (power of arrest).
- Under Section 50, the ED can also directly carry out search and seizure without calling the person for questioning.
- It is not necessary to summon the person first and then start with the search and seizure.
- If the person is arrested, the ED gets 60 days to file the prosecution complaint (chargesheet) as the punishment under PMLA doesn’t go beyond seven years.
- If no one is arrested and only the property is attached, then the prosecution complaint along with attachment order is to be submitted before the adjudicating authority within 60 days.
Can the ED investigate cases of money laundering retrospectively?
- If an ill-gotten property is acquired before the year 2005 (when the law was brought in) and disposed off, then there is no case under PMLA.
- But if proceeds of the crime were possessed before 2005, kept in storage, and used after 2005 by buying properties, the colour of the money is still black and the person is liable to be prosecuted under PMLA.
Under Section 3 of PMLA, a person shall be guilty of money-laundering, if such person is found to have directly or indirectly attempted to indulge or knowingly assist a party involved in one or more of the following activities:
- Concealment; possession; acquisition; use; or projecting as untainted property; or claiming as untainted property in any manner etc.
Also read:
[Burning Issue] Enforcement Directorate (ED): Dreaded nightmare of Indian Politicians & Businessmen
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: RLF
Mains level: Population stabilization in India
India has achieved replacement level fertility, with 31 States and UTs reaching a Total Fertility Rate (an average number of children per woman) of 2.1 or less, Union Minister of State for Health and Family Welfare has informed Parliament.
What is Replacement Level Fertility?
- Replacement level fertility is the level of fertility at which a population exactly replaces itself from one generation to the next.
- In simpler terms, it denotes the fertility number required to maintain the same population number of a country over a given period of time.
- In developed countries, replacement level fertility can be taken as requiring an average of 2.1 children per woman.
- In countries with high infant and child mortality rates, however, the average number of births may need to be much higher.
- RLF will lead to zero population growth only if mortality rates remain constant and migration has no effect.
Benefits of achieving RLF
- RLF helps ensure greater food security.
- The reduced demand for food would in turn lessen agri- culture’s impact on the environment.
- It would also likely lead to economic benefits through a “demographic dividend.”
- Finally, achieving replacement level fertility would yield significant social benefits―especially for women.
How did India achieve this?
- Between 2012 and 2020, the country added more than 1.5 crore additional users for modern contraceptives, thereby increasing their use substantially.
- India has witnessed a paradigm shift from the concept of population control to population stabilisation to interventions being embedded toward ensuring harmony of continuum care.
Way forward
- Although India has achieved replacement level fertility, there is still a significant population in the reproductive age group that must remain at the centre of our intervention efforts.
- India’s focus has traditionally been on the supply side, the providers and delivery systems but now it’s time to focus on the demand side which includes family, community and society.
- Significant change is possible with this focus, instead of an incremental change.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: HCES
Mains level: Not Much
The Centre has kicked off the process for conducting the quinquennial Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) this month.
What is the Household Consumer Expenditure Survey (CES)?
- The HCES is traditionally a quinquennial (recurring every five years) survey conducted by the government’s National Sample Survey Office (NSSO).
- It is designed to collect information on the consumer spending patterns of households across the country, both urban and rural.
- Typically, the Survey is conducted between July and June and this year’s exercise is expected to be completed by June 2023.
Why HCES?
- The HCES is used to arrive at estimates of poverty levels as well as review key economic indicators like Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
- The results of the survey are also utilised for updating the consumption basket and for base revision of the Consumer Price Index.
- It helps generate estimates of household Monthly Per Capita Consumer Expenditure (MPCE) as well as the distribution of households and persons over the MPCE classes.
- It is used to arrive at estimates of poverty levels in different parts of the country and to review economic indicators such as the GDP, since 2011-12.
Why need this survey?
- India has not had any official estimates on per capita household spending.
- It provides separate data sets for rural and urban parts, and also splice spending patterns for each State and Union Territory, as well as different socio-economic groups.
What about the previous survey?
- The survey was last held in 2017-2018.
- The government announced that it had data quality issues.
- Hence the results were not released.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Honkong, Taiwan
Mains level: Honkong, Taiwan issue
Hong Kong’s controversial national security law should be repealed, experts on the UN Human Rights Committee said, amid concerns the legislation is being used to crack down on free speech and dissent in the former British colony.
Why in news?
- Chinese and Hong Kong officials have repeatedly used the NSL imposed by Beijing in 2020 to restore stability after the city was rocked for months by sometimes violent anti-government and anti-China protests in 2019.
- The committee, which monitors the implementation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) by state parties, released its findings on Hong Kong following a periodic review.
- The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region is a signatory to the ICCPR but China is not.
About Hong Kong
- A former British Colony and Autonomous Territory: Hong Kong is an autonomous territory, and a former British colony, in south-eastern China.
- It became a colony of the British Empire at the end of the First Opium War in 1842.
- Sovereignty over the territory was returned to China in 1997.
- Special Administrative Region (SAR): As a SAR, Hong Kong maintains governing power and economic systems that are separate from those of mainland China.
- The 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration guarantees the Basic Law for 50 years after the transfer of sovereignty.
- It does not specify how Hong Kong will be governed after 2047.
- Thus, the central government’s role in determining the territory’s future system of government is the subject of political debate and speculation in Hong kong.
What is this law all about?
- Hong Kong was always meant to have a security law, but could never pass one because it was so unpopular.
- So this is about China stepping in to ensure the city has a legal framework to deal with what it sees as serious challenges to its authority.
- The details of the law’s 66 articles were kept secret until after it was passed. It criminalises any act of:
- Secession – breaking away from the country
- Subversion – undermining the power or authority of the central government
- Terrorism – using violence or intimidation against people
- Collusion– with foreign or external forces
What provisions do fall under the law?
- The law came into effect at 23:00 local time on 30 June 2020, an hour before the 23rd anniversary of the city’s handover to China from British rule.
- It gives Beijing power to shape life in Hong Kong it has never had before.
- Its key provisions include:
- Crimes of secession, subversion, terrorism and collusion with foreign forces are punishable by a maximum sentence of life in prison
- Damaging public transport facilities can be considered terrorism
- Those found guilty will not be allowed to stand for public office
- Companies can be fined if convicted under the law
- This office can send some cases to be tried in mainland China – but Beijing has said it will only have that power over a “tiny number” of cases
- In addition, Hong Kong will have to establish its own national security commission to enforce the laws, with a Beijing-appointed adviser
- Hong Kong’s chief executive will have the power to appoint judges to hear national security cases, raising fears about judicial autonomy
- Importantly, Beijing will have power over how the law should be interpreted, not any Hong Kong judicial or policy body. If the law conflicts with any Hong Kong law, the Beijing law takes priority
- Some trials will be heard behind closed doors.
- People suspected of breaking the law can be wire-tapped and put under surveillance
- Management of foreign non-governmental organizations and news agencies will be strengthened
- The law will also apply to non-permanent residents and people “from outside [Hong Kong]… who are not permanent residents of Hong Kong“.
What has changed in Hong Kong since the law was introduced?
- Hundreds of protestors, activists and former opposition lawmakers have been arrested since the law came into force.
- The arrests are an ominous sign that its crackdown on Hong Kong is only going to escalate.
- Beijing has said the law is needed to bring stability to the city, but critics say it is designed to squash dissent.
Why did China do this?
- Hong Kong was handed back to China from British control in 1997.
- But under a unique agreement – a mini-constitution called the Basic Law and a so-called “one country, two systems” principle.
- They are supposed to protect certain freedoms for Hong Kong: freedom of assembly and speech, an independent judiciary and some democratic rights – freedoms that no other part of mainland China has.
- Under the same agreement, Hong Kong had to enact its own national security law – this was set out in Article 23 of the Basic Law – but it never happened because of its unpopularity.
How can China do this?
- Many might ask how China can do this if the city was supposed to have freedoms guaranteed under the handover agreement.
- The Basic Law says Chinese laws can’t be applied in Hong Kong unless they are listed in a section called Annex III – there are already a few listed there, mostly uncontroversial and around foreign policy.
- These laws can be introduced by decree – which means they bypass the city’s parliament.
- Critics say the introduction of the law this way amounts to a breach of the “one country, two systems” principle, which is so important to Hong Kong – but clearly, it is technically possible to do this.
Must read:
[Burning Issue] National Security Law debate in Hong Kong
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Warehousing Act
Mains level: Read the attached story
The Union Food and Public Distribution Ministry has suggested major amendments to the Warehousing (Development and Regulation) Act of 2007.
Warehousing Act, 2007
- The GOI has introduced a negotiable warehouse receipt system in the country by enacting the Warehousing (Development and Regulation) Act, 2007 (37 of 2007).
- It has been made effective with effect from the 25th October, 2010.
- The Negotiable Warehouse Receipt (NWR) system was formally launched on the 26th April, 2011.
Why was this Act enacted?
- To make provisions for the development and regulation of warehouses, negotiability of warehouse receipts, establishment of a Warehousing Development and Regulatory Authority (WDRA) and related matters.
- The Negotiable Warehouse Receipts (NWRs) issued by the warehouses registered under this Act would help the farmers to seek loans from banks against NWRs.
- It will avoid distress sale of agricultural produce.
What is the amendment about?
- The aim is to help farmers get access to the services of quality warehouses.
- The amendment is:
- To make registration of godowns compulsory
- To raise the penalty for various offences and
- To do away the jail term as a punishment for the offences
- Central government will have powers to exempt any class of warehouses from registration with the Authority.
- At present, registration with the Warehousing Development and Regulation Authority (WDRA) is optional.
- After the proposed amendment, which is yet to be cleared by the cabinet, registration of all third party warehouses throughout the country, will be undertaken in a phased manner.
- The Act wants to establish a system of negotiable and non-negotiable warehouse receipt (NWR), which is now in electronic form.
Issues
- Farmers pressure groups fears that the amendments are for bringing back certain provisions of the repealed Farmers’ Produce Trade and Commerce (Promotion and Facilitation) Act through the backdoors.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Money Bill
Mains level: Issues with PMLA
The court has left it open for a seven-judge Bench to decide whether the amendments to the PMLA could have been made to the PMLA through the Money Bill route.
What was the case about Money Bill?
- In November 2019, a five-judge Bench led by then CJI Ranjan Gogoi had referred to a larger Bench the issue and question posed in the Roger Mathew vs South Indian Bank Ltd. Case.
- It inquired to whether amendments like these can be passed as a Money Bill in violation of Article 110 of the Constitution.
- The petitioners had questioned the legality of the PMLA amendments which were introduced via Finance Acts/Money Bills.
Correlation Money Bill
- A Money Bill is deemed to contain only provisions dealing with all or any of the matters under clauses (a) to (g) of Article 110(1), largely including the appropriation of money from the Consolidated Fund of India and taxation.
- In other words, a Money Bill is restricted only to the specified matters and cannot include within its ambit any other matter.
What is a Money Bill?
- A money bill is defined by Article 110 of the Constitution, as a draft law that contains only provisions that deal with all or any of the matters listed therein.
- These comprise a set of seven features, broadly including items such as-
- Imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or regulation of any tax
- Regulation of the borrowing of money by the GOI
- Custody of the Consolidated Fund of India (CFI) or the Contingency Fund of India, the payment of money into or the withdrawal of money from any such fund
- Appropriation of money out of the CFI
- Declaration of any expenditure charged on the CFI or increasing the amount of any such expenditure
- Receipt of money on account of the CFI or the public account of India or the custody or issue of such money, or the audit of the accounts of the Union or of a state
- Any matter incidental to any of the matters specified above.
Who controls such bills?
- In the event proposed legislation contains other features, ones that are not merely incidental to the items specifically outlined, such a draft law cannot be classified as a money bill.
- Article 110 further clarifies that in cases where a dispute arises over whether a bill is a money bill or not, the Lok Sabha Speaker’s decision on the issue shall be considered final.
Difference between money and finance bill
- While all Money Bills are Financial Bills, all Financial Bills are not Money Bills.
- For example, the Finance Bill which only contains provisions related to tax proposals would be a Money Bill.
- However, a Bill that contains some provisions related to taxation or expenditure, but also covers other matters would be considered a Financial Bill.
- Again, the procedure for the passage of the two bills varies significantly.
Issues with notifying a bill as Money Bill
- The Rajya Sabha (where the ruling party might not have the majority) has no power to reject or amend a Money Bill.
- However, a Financial Bill must be passed by both Houses of Parliament.
- The Speaker (nonetheless, a member of the ruling party) certifies a Bill as a Money Bill, and the Speaker’s decision is final.
- Also, the Constitution states that parliamentary proceedings, as well as officers responsible for the conduct of business (such as the Speaker), may not be questioned by any Court.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: USOF
Mains level: Expansion of internet connectivity
The Union Cabinet has approved a project for providing 4G mobile services in thousands of villages across the country under the USOF.
What do you mean by Universal Service?
- In the modern world, universal service refers to having a phone and affordable phone service in every home.
- It means, providing telecommunication service with access to a defined minimum service of specified quality to all users everywhere at an affordable price.
- In 1837, the concept was rolled on by Rowland Hill, a British educator and tax reformer, which included uniform rates across the UK and prepayment by sender via postage stamps.
What is USOF?
- The Universal Service Obligation Fund (USOF) was formed by an Act of Parliament, was established in April 2002 under the Indian Telegraph (Amendment) Act 2003.
- It aims to provide financial support for the provision of telecom services in commercially unviable rural and remote areas of the country.
- It is an attached office of the Department of Telecom, and is headed by the administrator, who is appointed by the central government.
Scope of the USOF
- Initially, the USOF was established with the fundamental objective of providing access to ‘basic’ telecom services to people in rural and remote areas at affordable and reasonable prices.
- Subsequently, the scope was widened.
- Now it aims to provide subsidy support for enabling access to all types of telecom services, including mobile services, broadband connectivity and the creation of infrastructure in rural and remote areas.
Funding of the USOF
- The resources for the implementation of USO are raised by way of collecting a Universal Service Levy (USL), which is 5 percent of the Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR) of Telecom Service Providers.
Nature of the fund
- USOF is a non-lapsable Fund.
- The Levy amount is credited to the Consolidated Fund of India.
- The fund is made available to USOF after due appropriation by the Parliament.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: United Nations Peacekeeping
Mains level: Read the attached story
Two BSF personnel recently got martyrdom who were part of the UN Peacekeeping Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).
Why in news?
- A total 175 Indian peacekeepers have so far died while serving with the United Nations.
- India has lost more peacekeepers than any other UN Member State.
What is United Nations Peacekeeping?
- UN Peacekeeping helps countries navigate the difficult path from conflict to peace.
- UN peacekeepers are often referred to as Blue Berets or Blue Helmets because of their light blue berets or helmets) can include soldiers, police officers, and civilian personnel.
UNPKF in operation
- Since 1948, UN Peacekeepers have undertaken 71 Field Missions.
- There are approximately 81,820 personnel serving on 13 peace operations led by UNDPO, in four continents currently.
- This represents a nine-fold increase since 1999.
- A total of 119 countries have contributed military and police personnel to UN peacekeeping.
- Currently, 72,930 of those serving are troops and military observers, and about 8,890 are police personnel.
India’s contribution to UN Peacekeeping
- India has a long history of service in UN Peacekeeping, having contributed more personnel than any other country.
- To date, more than 2,53,000 Indians have served in 49 of the 71 UN Peacekeeping missions established around the world since 1948.
- Currently, there are around 5,500 troops and police from India who have been deployed to UN Peacekeeping missions, the fifth highest amongst troop-contributing countries.
- India has also provided and continues to provide, eminent Force Commanders for UN Missions.
- India is the fifth largest troop contributor (TCC) with 5,323 personnel deployed in 8 out of 13 active UN Peacekeeping Missions, of which 166 are police personnel.
History of India’s contribution
- India’s contribution to UN Peacekeeping began with its participation in the UN operation in Korea in the 1950s.
- This is where India’s mediatory role in resolving the stalemate over prisoners of war in Korea led to the signing of the armistice that ended the Korean War.
- India chaired the five-member Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission, while the Indian Custodian Force supervised the process of interviews and repatriation that followed.
- The UN entrusted the Indian armed forces with subsequent peace missions in the Middle East, Cyprus, and the Congo (since 1971, Zaire).
- India also served as Chair of the three international commissions for supervision and control for Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos established by the 1954 Geneva Accords on Indochina.
Role of women in Indian Peacekeeping
- India has been sending women personnel on UN Peacekeeping Missions.
- In 2007, India became the first country to deploy an all-women contingent to a UN Peacekeeping Mission.
- The Formed Police Unit in Liberia provided 24-hour guard duty and conducted night patrols in the capital Monrovia, and helped to build the capacity of the Liberian police.
- These women officers not only played a role in restoring security in the West African nation but also contributed to an increase in the number of women in Liberia’s security sector.
Medical care as part of India’s Missions
- In addition to their security role, the members of the Indian Formed Police Unit also organized medical camps for Liberians, many of whom have limited access to health care services.
- Medical care is among the many services Indian Peacekeepers provide to the communities in which they serve on behalf of the Organization.
- They also perform specialized tasks such as veterinary support and engineering services.
India’s views on UN Peacekeeping
- India is of the view that the international community must grasp the rapid changes that are underway in the nature and role of contemporary peacekeeping operations.
- The Security Council’s mandates to UN Peacekeeping operations need to be rooted in ground realities, and co-related with the resources provided for the peacekeeping operation.
- It is critical that troop and police contributing countries should be fully involved at all stages and in all aspects of mission planning.
- There should be greater financial and human resources for peace-building in post-conflict societies, where UNPKOs have been mandated, according to officials.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: FRBM Act
Mains level: Paper 2- Freebies and related issues
Context
In a recent address, the prime minister shared his anguish on what he called the “revdi” or the freebies culture.
Populist policies and its impact over the states’ finances
- What are freebies? N K Singh defined freebies as “something that is given to you without having to pay for them, especially as a way of attracting your support for or interest in something.”
- A recent report of the RBI on states’ finances highlighted the perilous condition of states’ finances and enhanced debt stress on account of flawed policies.
- Nothing undercuts more irresponsibly India’s abiding international and national commitments than the perils of this reckless populism.
Factors that need to be considered in devising welfare policies
1] Quest for sustainable development
- The initiatives undertaken at COP21 in Paris, the International Solar Alliance and subsequently at the COP26 in Glasgow represent India’s national consensus to forge a path of growth geared towards intergenerational equity and to exponentially increase development.
- Our ability to adhere to this commitment depends on two other commitments.
- 1] An increase in the percentage of renewable energy in our energy consumption.
- While subsidies are being promised in one form or the other by way of free electricity, the deteriorating health of state distribution companies seriously undercuts their financial viability.
- Lowering the price for some consumers, offset through overcharging industrial and commercial contracts, reduces competitiveness, ushers slower growth both in incomes and employment.
- 2] The inability of discoms to actively encourage solar power is stymied by their financial condition and the inability to evolve tariff structures.
- Regulatory capture, a fixation on unrealistic tariffs and cross-subsidy in energy utilisation prevent a credible coal plan, which is central to our energy planning.
2] Challenges in providing basic facilities
- The government seeks to address the challenge of inequity by ensuring access to a wide range of basic facilities.
- These include banking, electricity, housing, insurance, water and clean cooking fuel, to mention a few.
- Removing this inequity to access helps boost the productivity of our population.
3] Issue of access
- Benefits under various welfare schemes such as PM Awas Yojana, Swachh Bharat Mission and Jal Jeevan Mission have eliminated the biggest barrier for citizens — the exorbitant upfront cost of access.
- Moreover, they are leading to irreversible empowerment and self-reliance.
- For instance, a house built under the PM Awas Yojana is a lifelong asset for the beneficiary household that cannot be taken back by any government.
4] Use of technology in direct benefit transfer
- Identification of beneficiaries through the SECC and prioritisation based on deprivation criteria has enabled the government to assist those who need it the most.
- Governments that end up taking the shortcut of universal subsidies or freebies often end up ignoring the poor and transferring public resources to the affluent.
5] Expenditure prioritisation
- The next issue that needs to be considered is of expenditure prioritisation being distorted away from growth-enhancing items, leading to intergenerational inequity.
- Investors, both domestic and foreign, and credit rating agencies look to macro stability in terms of sustainable levels of debt and fiscal deficit.
- After years of fiscal profligacy, we returned to the path of fiscal rectitude in 2014.
- The last time such an effort was made was by enacting the first FRBM Act on August 26, 2003.
6] Impact on future of manufacturing and employment
- The next factor that need to be considered is the debilitating effect of freebies on the future of manufacturing and employment.
- Freebies lower the quality and competitiveness of the manufacturing sector by detracting from efficient and competitive infrastructure.
- They stymie growth and, therefore, gainful employment because there is no substitute for growth if we wish to increase employment.
Conclusion
The poor state finance position should serve as a timely reminder to those promising fiscally imprudent and unsustainable subsidies.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: GDP
Mains level: Paper 3- Need for overhaul of India's economic performance measurement framework
Context
It is then apparent that GDP growth matters to the average Indian only if it can generate good quality jobs and incomes for them.
Background
- Nobel laureate Simon Kuznets, who conceived of GDP as a measure of economic performance, never intended it to be the single-minded economic pursuit for a nation that it has now become, and warned repeatedly that it is not a measure of societal well-being.
- Irrefutably, GDP is an elegant and simple metric that is a good indicator of economic progress which can be compared across nations.
- But a compulsive chase for GDP growth at all costs can be counter-productive, since it is not a holistic but a misleading measure.
- The excessive obsession over GDP growth by policymakers and politicians can be unhealthy and dangerous in a democracy.
- If growth in GDP does not translate into equivalent economic prosperity for the average person, then in a one person-one vote democracy, exuberance over high GDP growth can backfire and trigger a backlash among the general public.
- Global phenomenon: Sri Lanka’s mass uprising and people’s revolution can partly be explained through this prism of the structural break between headline GDP growth and economic prosperity for the people.
- The U.S. today produces fewer new jobs for every percentage point of GDP growth than it did in the 1990s.
- China produces one-third the number of new jobs today than it did in the 1990s for every percentage of its GDP growth.
Employment intensity of economic growth
- Data of ‘employment in public and organised private sectors’ published by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) shows that in the decade between 1980 and 1990, every one percentage point of GDP growth (nominal) generated roughly two lakh new jobs in the formal sector.
- In the subsequent decade from 1990 to 2000, every one percentage point of GDP growth yielded roughly one lakh new formal sector jobs, half of the previous decade.
- In the next decade between 2000 and 2010, one percentage point of GDP growth generated only 52,000 new jobs.
- The RBI stopped publishing this data from 2011-12.
- In essence, one percentage of GDP growth today yields less than one-fourth the number of good quality jobs that it did in the 1980s.
- It is amply clear that the correlation between formal sector jobs and GDP growth has weakened considerably.
Implications of decline in GDP growth’s contribution to job creation
- Irrelevant as a political measure: GDP growth may be an important economic measure, but it is becoming increasingly irrelevant as a political measure, since it impacts only a select few and not the vast majority.
- Indicates changed nature of economic development: This divorce of GDP growth and jobs is both a reflection of the changed nature of contemporary economic development with emphasis on capital-driven efficiency at the cost of labour and GDP being an inadequate measure.
- Political backlash: The perils of the obsession over GDP growth will be felt by politicians who have to answer voters on lack of jobs and incomes despite robust headline growth.
- Voter disenchantment over the economy not working for them is already rife in many democracies across the world that have catalysed agitations and social disharmony.
- Electoral outcomes in favour of extreme positions in mature democracies such as the U.S., the U.K., France and Germany in the last decade may partly be a reflection of voters’ sense of deception over economic gains.
Way forward
- It is time for India’s political leaders to not be drawn into argument over GDP growth every quarter and instead clamour for an overhaul of India’s economic performance measurement framework to reflect what truly matters to the common person.
Conclusion
GDP growth has turned into a misleading and dangerous indicator that portrays false economic promises, betrays people’s aspirations and hides deeper social problems.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: IBC
Mains level: Paper 3- Point of trigger for insolvency
Context
In the recent judgement the Supreme Court held that the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) cannot admit an insolvency application filed by a financial creditor merely because a financial debt exists and the corporate debtor has defaulted in its repayment.
Why the point of trigger is important in insolvency law
- A critical element for any corporate insolvency law is the point of trigger.
- The law must clearly provide the grounds on which an insolvency application against a corporate debtor should be admitted.
- If there is any confusion at this stage, precious time could be wasted in litigation.
- That would cause value destruction of the distressed business.
- On the other hand, if the law is clear and litigation can be minimised, the distressed business could be resolved faster.
- Its value could be preserved.
- And all stakeholders collectively would benefit.
- Evidently, objective legal criteria for admission are critical for an effective corporate insolvency law.
Determining insolvency and implications of the SC ruling
- The balance-sheet test is one method for determining insolvency at the point of trigger.
- This test, however, is vulnerable to the quality of accounting standards.
- That’s why the Bankruptcy Law Reforms Committee did not favour this test in the Indian context.
- Instead, it recommended that a filing creditor must only provide a record of the liability (debt), and evidence of default on payments by the corporate debtor.
- This twin-test was expected to provide a clear and objective trigger for insolvency resolution.
- The Supreme Court’s latest ruling is likely to radically alter these expectations.
Implications of the Supreme Court ruling
- Resisting the admission by debtor: Now due to the Supreme Court ruling, even if the NCLT is satisfied that a financial debt exists and that the corporate debtor has defaulted, it may not admit the case for resolution if the corporate debtor resists admission on any other grounds.
- Corporate debtors are likely to use this precedent to the fullest to resist admission into IBC.
- Risk of value destruction due to delay: The likely outcome would be more litigation and delay at the admission stage, enhancing the risks of value destruction in the underlying distressed business.
Conclusion
In all fairness, the Supreme Court has been extremely pragmatic in its interpretation and application of the IBC. Even in the recent ruling, the court has rightly cautioned that the NCLT should not exercise its discretionary power in an arbitrary or capricious manner. Yet, this decision may have opened a Pandora’s box. Policymakers would be well-advised to take note before history starts repeating itself.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: LEO
Mains level: Paper 3- 5G network with LEO satellites
Context
As terrestrial 5G mobile networks are being rolled out across countries, there is a renewed interest in integrating Non-Terrestrial Networks.
SatNets for 5G
- Satellites and terrestrial networks have always been considered two independent ecosystems, and their standardisation efforts have proceeded independent of each other.
- The primary non-terrestrial network that is being considered is the low latency Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite networks (SatNets), as a complement to terrestrial networks.
- Towards this, Starlink, operated by the Elon Musk-owned SpaceX, and OneWeb, promoted by Bharti Global, have launched about 2,500 and 648 LEO satellites respectively at an altitude of about 1,200 km with the objective of promoting global broadband connectivity.
- There are other players such as Reliance Jio in a joint venture with Luxembourg-based SES and Amazon’s Project Kuiper.
Benefits of using SatNets
- 1] Service continuity in emergency: service continuity to provide seamless transition between terrestrial networks and SatNets in case of public safety, disaster management and emergency situations;
- 2] Providing service in remote area: Service ubiquity to provide 5G services in unserved and underserved areas of the world, thereby bridging the digital divide;
- 3] Scalability: Service scalability that utilises the unique capabilities of SatNets in multicasting and broadcasting similar content over a large geographical area.
- 4] Service to in-motion user: The LEO SatNets can provide service not only to stationary but also to in-motion users.
- 5] Low latency over long distance: Wireless communications through LEO satellites over long distances is proven to be 1.47 times faster than communication over the same distance through terrestrial optic fibre. It is this advantage along with global coverage that provide a strong use case for LEO SatNets to complement terrestrial optic fibre networks.
- SatNet in standardisation: In view of the above advantages, standard-setting organisations such as the Third Generation Partnership project (3GPP), comprising telcos and equipment manufacturers around the world, started integrating SatNets in the standardisation process.
Measures by the government
- Realising the advantages, the Government, in its National Digital Communications Policy 2018, has indicated the development of an ecosystem for local manufacturing of satellite communication systems and promoting participation of private players for the strengthening of satellite communication infrastructure in the country.
- Accordingly, the New Space India Limited (NSIL), a public sector enterprise, was established in 2019 to re-orient space activities from a ‘supply driven’ model to a ‘demand driven’ model, thereby ensuring optimum utilisation of the space assets.
- The Department of Space also established in 2020 a new regulatory body named the Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (IN-SPACe).
- IN-SPACe is intended to provide a level playing field for private companies to use Indian space infrastructure.
Issues and challenges
- Allocation of frequency: Issues will involve addressing issues around frequencies to be allocated for satellite broadband, the methodology of allocation, the relatively higher cost of consumer equipment and the placement and interconnections of SatNets with terrestrial public landline/ mobile networks at the ground stations
- Cost: The other major challenge in LEO SatNets is the cost of user terminal and access charges to the end users.
- A recent research analysing both Starlink and OneWeb concludes that the standalone LEO SatNets have a distinct cost advantage only if the density is less than 0.1 person per square km compared to terrestrial broadband networks.
- Hence it is to the advantage of LEO SatNet providers to integrate their networks with terrestrial 5G networks to improve the cost economies.
Conclusion
All these, along with the proposed revisions to the Satellite Communications Policy of the Government, will provide the required fillip to LEO SatNets to become an integral part of the communication infrastructure of the country.
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Back2Basics: LEO satellites
- LEO satellites orbit between 2,000 and 200 kilometers above the earth. LEO satellites are commonly used for communications, military reconnaissance, spying and other imaging applications.
- A low earth orbit (LEO) satellite is an object, generally a piece of electronic equipment, that circles around the earth at lower altitudes than geosynchronous satellites.
- Satellites made for communications benefit from the lower signal propagation delay to LEO.
- This lower propagation delay results in less latency.
- Being closer to the earth has an obvious benefit for many types of earth observational satellites by resolving smaller subjects with greater detail.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Recessions
Mains level: Global economic slowdown
Surging inflation and sharp slowdowns in the United States and China prompted the IMF to cut its outlook for the global economy this year and next, while warning that the situation could get much worse.
By one common definition, the major global economies are on the cusp of a recession.
What is Recession?
- A recession is a significant decline in economic activity that lasts for months or even years.
- Experts declare a recession when a nation’s economy experiences negative GDP, rising levels of unemployment, falling retail sales, and contracting measures of income and manufacturing for an extended period of time.
- Recessions are considered an unavoidable part of the business cycle—or the regular cadence of expansion and contraction that occurs in a nation’s economy.
What causes Recessions?
These phenomena are some of the main drivers of a recession:
- A sudden economic shock: An economic shock is a surprise problem that creates serious financial damage. The coronavirus outbreak, which shut down economies worldwide, is a more recent example of a sudden economic shock.
- Excessive debt: When individuals or businesses take on too much debt, the cost of servicing the debt can grow to the point where they can’t pay their bills. Growing debt defaults and bankruptcies then capsize the economy.
- Asset bubbles: When investing decisions are driven by emotion, bad economic outcomes aren’t far behind. Investors can become too optimistic during a strong economy.
- Too much inflation: Inflation is the steady, upward trend in prices over time. Inflation isn’t a bad thing per se, but excessive inflation is a dangerous phenomenon. Central banks control inflation by raising interest rates, and higher interest rates depress economic activity.
- Too much deflation: While runaway inflation can create a recession, deflation can be even worse. Deflation is when prices decline over time, which causes wages to contract, which further depresses prices. When a deflationary feedback loop gets out of hand, people and business stop spending, which undermines the economy.
- Technological change: New inventions increase productivity and help the economy over the long term, but there can be short-term periods of adjustment to technological breakthroughs. In the 19th century, there were waves of labour-saving technological improvements.
What’s the difference between Recession and Depression?
- Recessions and depressions have similar causes, but the overall impact of a depression is much, much worse.
- There are greater job losses, higher unemployment and steeper declines in GDP.
- Most of all, a depression lasts longer—years, not months—and it takes more time for the economy to recover.
- Economists do not have a set definition or fixed measurements to show what counts as a depression. Suffice to say, all the impacts of a depression are deeper and last longer.
- In the past century, the US has faced just one depression: The Great Depression.
The Great Depression
- The Great Depression started in 1929 and lasted through 1933, although the economy didn’t really recover until World War II, nearly a decade later.
- During the Great Depression, unemployment rose to 25% and the GDP fell by 30%.
- It was the most unprecedented economic collapse in modern US history.
- By way of comparison, the Great Recession was the worst recession since the Great Depression.
- During the Great Recession, unemployment peaked around 10% and the recession officially lasted from December 2007 to June 2009, about a year and a half.
- Some economists fear that the coronavirus recession could morph into a depression, depending how long it lasts.
How long do recessions last?
- Gulf War Recession (July 1990 to March 1991): At the start of the 1990s, the U.S. went through a short, eight-month recession, partly caused by spiking oil prices during the First Gulf War.
- The Great Recession (2008-2009): As mentioned, the Great Recession was caused in part by a bubble in the real estate market.
- Covid-19 Recession: The most recent recession began in February 2020 and lasted only two months, making it the shortest US recession in history.
Can we predict a recession?
Given that economic forecasting is uncertain, predicting future recessions is far from easy. However, the following warning signs can give you more time to figure out how to prepare for a recession before it happens:
- An inverted yield curve: The yield curve is a graph that plots the market value—or the yield—of a range. When long-term yields are lower than short-term yields, it shows that investors are worried about a recession. This phenomenon is known as a yield curve inversion, and it has predicted past recessions.
- Declines in consumer confidence: Consumer spending is the main driver of the US economy. If surveys show a sustained drop in consumer confidence, it could be a sign of impending trouble for the economy.
- Drop in the Leading Economic Index (LEI): Published monthly by the Conference Board, the LEI strives to predict future economic trends. It looks at factors like applications for unemployment insurance, new orders for manufacturing and stock market performance.
- Sudden stock market declines: A large, sudden decline in stock markets could be a sign of a recession coming on, since investors sell off parts and sometimes all of their holdings in anticipation of an economic slowdown.
- Rising unemployment: It goes without saying that if people are losing their jobs, it’s a bad sign for the economy.
How does a recession affect individuals?
- We may lose your job during a recession, as unemployment levels rise. It becomes much harder to find a job replacement since more people are out of work.
- People who keep their jobs may see cuts to pay and benefits, and struggle to negotiate future pay raises.
- Investments in stocks, bonds, real estate and other assets can lose money in a recession, reducing your savings and upsetting your plans for retirement.
- Business owners make fewer sales during a recession, and may even be forced into bankruptcy.
- With more people unable to pay their bills during a recession, lenders tighten standards for mortgages, car loans, and other types of financing.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CPEC, BRI
Mains level: Read the attached story
India has severely criticized the reported move by both China and Pakistan for third-party participation in some projects on the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) that passes through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).
China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)
- The CPEC, one of the most ambitious components of Beijing’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), was announced to great fanfare in 2015.
- CPEC is a collection of infrastructure projects that are under construction throughout Pakistan beginning in 2013.
- Originally valued at $47 billion, the value of CPEC projects is worth $62 billion as of 2020.
- It is intended to rapidly upgrade Pakistan’s required infrastructure and strengthen its economy by the construction of modern transportation networks, numerous energy projects, and SEZs.
- On 13 November 2016, CPEC became partly operational when Chinese cargo was transported overland to Gwadar Port for onward maritime shipment to Africa and West Asia.
Why CPEC?
- CPEC has consistently been held up as a “gamechanger” for Pakistan’s economy.
- But the road to completion has proved long and winding. Reports indicate that the pace of CPEC projects has been slowing down in Pakistan in recent years.
- At the same time, China is the only country that is heavily investing in Pakistan.
Why in news?
- The lack of progress has led to numerous reports about CPEC being at a near standstill in the country.
- Gwadar, despite being the epicenter of multibillion-dollar projects, lacks basic necessities like reliable access to water and electricity, let alone other facilities.
- The baloch freedom movement is another impediment to the stalled project.
- There have been sporadic attacks in Gwadar and elsewhere in the province and the country to discourage Chinese investments in the province.
- China is also seeking to deploy its Army in the CPEC projects, to which Pakistan has contested.
India’s reservation
- The GoI, which shares tense relations with Pakistan, objects to the CPEC project as upgrade works to the Karakoram Highway are taking place in Gilgit-Baltistan.
- This is the territory illicitly occupied by Pakistan in 1947-48.
- During the visit of Indian PM Modi to China in 2015, the Indian FM, Sushma Swaraj reportedly told the Chinese.
- India did not object to the Chinese construction of the Karakoram Highway which was built between 1959 and 1979.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: International Space Station (ISS)
Mains level: Implications of Russia-Ukraine War
Russia will pull out of the International Space Station (ISS) after 2024 and focus on building its own orbiting outpost.
Why in news?
- Russia will end a symbolic two-decade orbital partnership between Moscow and the west.
International Space Station (ISS)
- The ISS was launched in 1998 as part of joint efforts by the U.S., Russia, Japan, Canada and Europe.
- The idea of a space station originated in the 1984 State of the Union address by former U.S. President Ronald Reagan.
- The space station was assembled over many years, and it operates in low-earth orbit.
- Since its inception, it has served as a laboratory suspended in space and has aided multiple scientific and technological developments.
- The ISS was originally built to operate for 15 years.
Why was ISS launched?
- A space station permits quantum leaps in research in science, communications, and in metals and lifesaving medicines which could be manufactured only in space.
- ISS has consistently maintained human presence for the past 21 years, providing astronauts with sophisticated technologies for scientific research.
What is Russia’s role in maintaining the ISS?
- The ISS is built with the cooperation of scientists from five international space agencies — NASA of the U.S., Roscosmos of Russia, JAXA of Japan, Canadian Space Agency and the European Space Agency.
- Each agency has a role to play and a share in the upkeep of the ISS.
- Both in terms of expense and effort, it is not a feat that a single country can support.
- Russia’s part in the collaboration is the module responsible for making course corrections to the orbit of the ISS.
- They also ferry astronauts to the ISS from the Earth and back.
- Until SpaceX’s dragon spacecraft came into the picture the Russian spacecraft was the only way of reaching the ISS and returning.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ramsar wetlands in India
Mains level: Not Much
India has added five more Ramsar sites, or wetlands of international importance, bringing the number of such sites in the country to 54.
Newly added Ramsar Sites
- Karikili Bird Sanctuary, Pallikaranai Marsh Reserve Forest and Pichavaram Mangrove in Tamil Nadu,
- Sakhya Sagar in Madhya Pradesh
- Pala Wetlands in Mizoram
What are Wetlands?
- A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally, where oxygen-free processes prevail.
- The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other landforms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants, adapted to the unique hydric soil.
Significance of Wetlands
- Wetlands provide a wide range of important resources and ecosystem services such as food, water, fibre, groundwater recharge, water purification, flood moderation, erosion control, and climate regulation.
- They are, in fact, are a major source of water and our main supply of freshwater comes from an array of wetlands that help soak rainfall and recharge groundwater.
- They provide many societal benefits: food and habitat for fish and wildlife, including threatened and endangered species; water quality improvement; flood storage; shoreline erosion control; economically beneficial natural products for human use; and opportunities for recreation, education, and research, etc.
India and Ramsar Wetlands
- India’s Ramsar wetlands are spread over 11,000 sq.km — around 10% of the total wetland area in the country — across 18 States.
- No other South Asian country has as many sites, though this has much to do with India’s geographical breadth and tropical diversity.
- The UK (175) and Mexico (142) — smaller countries than India — have the most Ramsar sites, whereas Bolivia spans the largest area with 1,48,000 sq.km under the Convention protection.
- The National Wetland Inventory and Assessment compiled by the ISRO estimates India’s wetlands to span around 1,52,600 square kilometres.
What makes Ramsar designation significant?
- Being designated a Ramsar site does not necessarily invite extra international funds.
- Acquiring this label helps with a locale’s tourism potential and its international visibility.
Criteria for Ramsar site designation
To be Ramsar site a place must meet at least one of the criteria as defined by the Ramsar Convention of 1961, such:
- Supporting vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities or,
- If it regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds or,
- Is an important source of food for fishes,
- Spawning ground,
- Nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks are dependent upon.
- Static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres
- Does not include river channels, paddy fields, human-made water bodies/ tanks specifically constructed for drinking water purposes
Back2Basics: Ramsar Convention
- The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (better known as the Ramsar Convention) is an international agreement promoting the conservation and wise use of wetlands.
- It is the only global treaty to focus on a single ecosystem.
- The convention was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975.
- Traditionally viewed as a wasteland or breeding ground of disease, wetlands actually provide fresh water and food and serve as nature’s shock absorber.
- Wetlands, critical for biodiversity, are disappearing rapidly, with recent estimates showing that 64% or more of the world’s wetlands have vanished since 1900.
- Major changes in land use for agriculture and grazing, water diversion for dams and canals, and infrastructure development are considered to be some of the main causes of loss and degradation of wetlands.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Unique Disability IDs (UDIDs)
Mains level: Not Much
The generation of unique disability IDs (UDIDs) had increased from an average of 5,000 a day to an average of 7,000 to 9,000 daily during the 90-day Azadi Se Antodaya Tak campaign.
Why such a move?
- According to the 2011 Census, there were 2.68 crore people with disabilities.
What is Unique Disability IDs (UDIDs)?
- “Unique ID for Persons with Disabilities” project is being implemented with a view of creating a National Database for PwDs, and to issue a Unique Disability Identity Card to each person with disabilities.
- It functions under the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
- The project aims only to encourage transparency, efficiency and ease of delivering the government benefits to the person with disabilities, and ensure uniformity.
- The project will also help in stream-lining the tracking of physical and financial progress of beneficiary at all levels of hierarchy of implementation – from village level, block level, District level , State level and National level.
Types of disabilities covered
As per the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights & Full Participation) Act, 1995 – A person with a disability can be defined as one with one or more of disabilities falling under any of the below-mentioned categories :
- Blindness
- Leprosy-cured
- Cerebral Palsy: It means a group of non-progressive conditions of a person characterized by abnormal motor control posture resulting from brain insult or injuries occurring in the pre-natal, peri-natal or infant period of development.
- Low vision: It means a person with impairment of visual functioning even after treatment of standard refractive correction but who uses or is potentially capable of using vision for the planning or execution of a task with appropriate assistive device;
- Locomotor disability: It means disability of the bones, joints or muscles leading to substantial restriction of the movement of the limbs or nay form of cerebral palsy;
- Mental retardation: It means a conditions of arrested or incomplete development of mind of a person which is specially characterized by sub normality of intelligence;
- Mental illness: It means any mental disorder other than Mental retardation
- Hearing Impairment: It means loss of sixty decibels or more in the better ear in the conversational range of frequencies
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Monkeypox
Mains level: Paper 2-Challenges of zoonotic diseases
Context
Monkeypox was previously limited to the local spread in central and west Africa, close to tropical rainforests, but has recently been seen in various urban areas and now in more than 50 countries.
About monkeypox
- A virus belonging to the poxviruses family causes a rare contagious rash illness known as monkeypox.
- This zoonotic viral disease (a disease transmitted from animals to humans) has hosts that include rodents and primates.
- It is a self-limiting disease with symptoms lasting two to four weeks and a case fatality rate of 3-6 per cent.
- Symptoms: A skin rash on any part of the body could be the only presenting symptom.
- Swollen lymph nodes are another distinguishing feature. Aside from these, other symptoms of a viral illness include fever, chills, headache, muscle or back aches, and weakness.
- Mode of transmission: Touching skin lesions, bodily fluids, or clothing or linens that have been in contact with an infected person can result in transmission.
- It’s also worth noting that monkeypox does not spread from person to person through everyday activities like walking next to or having a casual conversation with an infected person.
- Treatment: Monkeypox is mostly treated by managing symptoms and preventing complications if it is diagnosed.
- In the minor proportion who are immunocompromised, complications can occur; pulmonary failure was the most common complication with a high mortality rate.
Containment Measures
- Because symptoms usually appear 5-21 days after exposure, people with rashes, sores in the mouth, rash, eye irritation or redness, or swollen lymph nodes should be monitored.
- When symptoms appear, it is critical to isolate the infected from other people and pets, cover their lesions, and contact the nearest healthcare provider.
- It is also critical to avoid close physical contact with others until instructed to do so by our healthcare provider.
- It is preferable to use home isolation whenever possible.
- Priority should be given to educating grassroots workers about symptoms, specimen collection, disease detection, acquiring sample collection equipment, and maintaining cold storage of specimens.
- Increased surveillance and detection of monkeypox cases are critical for controlling the disease’s spread and understanding the changing epidemiology of this resurging disease.
- Preventive health measures, such as avoiding infected animal or human contact and practising good hand hygiene, are the best option.
Vaccines and drugs
- In the US, pre exposure vaccination with JYNNEOS® is available to healthcare workers and lab workers exposed to this group of poxviruses.
- The smallpox vaccine is 85 percent effective against the disease.
- Another vaccine, ACAM2000, is a live vaccinia virus vaccine that is otherwise recommended for smallpox immunisation and can also be used for high-risk individuals during monkeypox outbreaks.
- In addition, Tecovirimat, an antiviral drug used to treat smallpox, is recommended for monkeypox.
- Challenges: Smallpox vaccination programmes have been discontinued for the past 50 years, resulting in a scarcity of effective vaccines.
- There are approved drugs and vaccines, but they are not widely available to scale up controlling monkeypox.
Why WHO declared it as international concern?
- The increase in monkeypox cases in a short span of time in many countries necessitated the declaration of public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) and additional research studies.
- It is unclear whether the recent sudden outbreaks in multiple countries result from genotypic mutations that alter virus transmissibility. SARS-CoV-2 and monkeypox virus co-infection can alter infectivity patterns, severity, management, and response to vaccination against either or both diseases.
- As a result, there is a need to improve diagnostic test efficiency.
Way forward
- Plan for pandemic preparedness: This is not the last such difficulty we will face, as the world is still witnessing more such public health crises.
- Zoonotic diseases are caused by various factors, including unchecked deforestation, climate coupled with a failure to prioritise public health, poverty, and climate change.
- Instead, a robust plan for pandemic preparedness should be accelerated, guided by a single health agenda.
- The world is yet to recognise emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases as a genuine threat.
- The immediate priority is to strengthen the surveillance infrastructure, including hiring public health professionals and field workers who can participate in outbreak detection and response during many future PHEICs.
Conclusion
Without prioritising public health strengthening, the threat of new and re-emerging infectious diseases, as well as the enormous social and economic challenges that accompany them, is real and grave.
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