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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Cheetahs likely to arrive in Kuno before August 15

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Asiatic Cheetah

Mains level: Cheetah reintroduction project

 

India came one step closer to bringing back the world’s fastest animal, the Cheetah to the country with an agreement signed in New Delhi with Namibia.

Asiatic Cheetah

  • Cheetah, the world’s fastest land animal was declared extinct in India in 1952.
  • The Asiatic cheetah is classified as a “critically endangered” species by the IUCN Red List, and is believed to survive only in Iran.
  • It was expected to be re-introduced into the country after the Supreme Court lifted curbs for its re-introduction.

Distribution of cheetahs in India

  • Historically, Asiatic cheetahs had a very wide distribution in India.
  • There are authentic reports of their occurrence from as far north as Punjab to Tirunelveli district in southern Tamil Nadu, from Gujarat and Rajasthan in the west to Bengal in the east.
  • Most of the records are from a belt extending from Gujarat passing through Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Odisha.
  • There is also a cluster of reports from southern Maharashtra extending to parts of Karnataka, Telangana, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
  • The distribution range of the cheetah was wide and spread all over the subcontinent. They occurred in substantial numbers.
  • The cheetah’s habitat was also diverse, favouring the more open habitats: scrub forests, dry grasslands, savannahs and other arid and semi-arid open habitats.

What caused the extinction of cheetahs in India?

  • The major reasons for the extinction of the Asiatic cheetah in India:
  1. Reduced fecundity and high infant mortality in the wild
  2. Inability to breed in captivity
  3. Sport hunting and
  4. Bounty killings
  • It is reported that the Mughal Emperor Akbar had kept 1,000 cheetahs in his menagerie and collected as many as 9,000 cats during his half-century reign from 1556 to 1605.
  • The cheetah numbers were fast depleting by the end of the 18th century even though their prey base and habitat survived till much later.
  • It is recorded that the last cheetahs were shot in India in 1947, but there are credible reports of sightings of the cat till about 1967.

Conservation objectives for their re-introduction

  • Based on the available evidence it is difficult to conclude that the decision to introduce the African cheetah in India is based on science.
  • Science is being used as a legitimising tool for what seems to be a politically influenced conservation goal.
  • This also in turn sidelines conservation priorities, an order of the Supreme Court, socio-economic constraints and academic rigour.
  • The issue calls for an open and informed debate.

Issues in re-introduction

  • Experts find it difficult whether the African cheetahs would find the sanctuary a favorable climate as far as the abundance of prey is concerned.
  • The habitat of cheetahs is needed to support a genetically viable population.

 

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Heat Waves across the Europe

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Heat waves

Mains level: Read the attached story

The UK posted its highest temperature ever recorded — crossing 40°C.  Parts of France, Spain and Portugal recorded temperatures between 42 and 46 degrees.

Why in news?

  • Dozens of towns and regions across Europe reeled under what has been described as a “heat apocalypse”, which has caused widespread devastation this year.
  • Wildfires caused by a combination of extreme heat and dry weather have destroyed 19,000 hectares of forest in southwestern France.

What is a Heatwave and when is it declared?

  • Heatwaves occur over India between March and June.
  • IMD declares a heatwave event when the maximum (day) temperature for a location in the plains crosses 40 degrees Celsius.
  • Over the hills, the threshold temperature is 30 degrees Celsius.

How are they formed?

  • Heatwaves form when high pressure aloft (3,000–7,600 metres) strengthens and remains over a region for several days up to several weeks.
  • This is common in summer (in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres) as the jet stream ‘follows the sun’.
  • On the equator side of the jet stream, in the upper layers of the atmosphere, is the high pressure area.
  • Summertime weather patterns are generally slower to change than in winter. As a result, this upper level high pressure also moves slowly.
  • Under high pressure, the air subsides (sinks) toward the surface, warming and drying adiabatically, inhibiting convection and preventing the formation of clouds.
  • Reduction of clouds increases shortwave radiation reaching the surface.
  • A low pressure at the surface leads to surface wind from lower latitudes that brings warm air, enhancing the warming.
  • Alternatively, the surface winds could blow from the hot continental interior towards the coastal zone, leading to heat waves.

Following criteria are used to declare a heatwave:

To declare heatwave, the below criteria should be met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days and it will be declared on the second day.

a) Based on Departure from Normal

  • Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
  • Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C

b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)

  • Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≄ 45°C
  • Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≄47°C

How long can a heatwave spell last?

  • A heatwave spell generally lasts for a minimum of four days.
  • On some occasions, it can extend up to seven or ten days.

Impact of Heat Waves

  • Heat Strokes: The very high temperatures or humid conditions pose an elevated risk of heat stroke or heat exhaustion.
  • Healthcare crisis: Effects from extreme heat are also associated with increased hospitalisations and emergency room visits, increased deaths from cardio-respiratory and other diseases, mental health issues, adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes, etc.
  • Productivity loss: Extreme heat also lessens worker productivity, especially among the more than 1 billion workers who are exposed to high heat on a regular basis.
  • Risk of Wildfires: The heat domes act as fuel to wildfires, which destroys a lot of land area every year in countries like the US.
  • Prevents Cloud Formation: The condition also prevents clouds from forming, allowing for more radiation from the sun to hit the ground.
  • Effect on Vegetation: The trapping of heat can also damage crops, dry out vegetation and result in
  • Increased Energy Demands: The sweltering heat wave also leads to rise in energy demand, especially electricity, leading to pushing up rates.
  • Power Related Issues: Heat waves are often high mortality disasters.
  • Infrastructure failure: Avoiding heat-related disasters depends on the resilience of the electrical grid, which can fail if electricity demand due to air conditioning use exceeds supply.

What is behind the extreme heat waves in Europe?

Ans. Climate change, but exactly how

  • Scientists are near-unanimous that the heat waves are a result of climate change caused by human activity.
  • Global temperatures have already risen by more than 1°C , and studies in the UK had shown that a one degree rise in temperature raises the probability of the country witnessing 40°C by ten times.
  • The rising global temperature, which this year led to deviations above the normal by as much as 15 degrees in Antarctica, and by more than 3 degrees in the north pole.

Major factor: Changes in old wind patterns

  • In the case of the US, the record temperatures are being linked to changes in the jet stream — a narrow band of westerly air currents that circulate several km above the earth’s surface.
  • While a conventionally strong jet stream would bring cooler air from the northern Atlantic, in recent years the jet stream has weakened and split into two.
  • This has led to intense and more frequent heat waves over parts of the American continent.

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Pacific Island Nations

Micronesia: the remote Pacific Islands

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Micronesia

Mains level: Not Much

The Federated States of Micronesia is one of the latest places on Earth to experience an outbreak of Covid-19, after two and a half years of successfully protecting itself from the virus.

Where is Micronesia?

  • FSM is located in the Western Pacific, in the Micronesia sub-region of Oceania.
  • It consists of four island states, Yap, Chuuk, Kosrae and Pohnpei (where the capital Palikir is located), all in the Caroline Islands.
  • Also known as the Carolines, it is a scattered archipelago of small islands that are divided between Micronesia and the Republic of Palau.
  • FSM is composed of 607 islands and islets with a total land area of 702 square km.

Its geography

  • While this area is rather small, the islands stretch across an estimated 2,900 sq. km of sea, giving the nation the 14th largest Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in the world.
  • EEZs grant countries special right over marine resources up to 370 km from their coasts.
  • The Federated States of Micronesia shares its sea borders with other small island nations and territories in the Micronesia region like Guam, the Republic of Marshall Islands, Palau, Kiribati, and the Mariana Islands.
  • Its larger neighbouring states — separated by large swathes of the Pacific Ocean — including the Philippines in the west, Hawaii in the east, Papua New Guinea and Australia to the south, and Japan to the north.

 

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Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

What are Tetrapods?

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Tetrapods

Mains level: Not Much

In Mumbai, the unusual vibrations (like earthquakes), coinciding with high-tide times, were the result of the relocation of tetrapods as part of the ongoing Coastal Road Project (MCRP).

What are tetrapods?

  • Tetra pod in Greek means four-legged.
  • These are four-legged concrete structures that are placed along coastlines to prevent erosion and water damage.
  • Tetrapods were first used in France in the late 1940s to protect the shore from the sea.
  • They are typically placed together to form an interlocking but porous barrier that dissipates the power of waves and currents.
  • These are large structures, sometimes weighing up to 10 tonnes, and interlocked tetra pods act as a barrier that remains stable against the rocks when buffeted by waves.
  • Tetrapods, each weighing about 2 tonnes, were placed along Marine Drive in the late 1990s to break and dissipate waves and maintain the reclaimed shoreline in South Mumbai.

How do we know that the removal of the tetrapods was responsible?

  • The BMC has provided vibration monitoring instruments at the site to study the impact of the phenomenon.
  • While the corporation has not officially stated that the removal of the tetrapods caused the vibrations, it has agreed to re-install the structures.
  • They would be put back over the next two-three days during low tide.

 

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Defence Sector – DPP, Missions, Schemes, Security Forces, etc.

India’s Defence Exports have grown up 7x: PM

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: NA

Mains level: India's defence exports

Our defence exports have increased seven times in the last eight years, informed the Prime Minister. We had achieved defence exports worth â‚č13,000 crore and of this 70% was from the private sector.

Why in news?

  • The Indian Defence sector, the second largest armed force is at the cusp of revolution.

India’s Defence Exports

  • India has put out a range of military hardware on sale which includes various missile systems, Light Combat Aircraft (LCA), helicopters, warship and patrol vessels, artillery guns, tanks, radars etc.
  • From 2016-17 to 2018-19, the country’s defence exports have increased from â‚č1,521 crore to â‚č10,745 crore, a staggering 700% growth.

Steps taken by the Centre to boost defence production

  • Licensing relaxation: Measures announced to boost exports since 2014 include simplified defence industrial licensing, relaxation of export controls and grant of no-objection certificates.
  • Lines of Credit: Specific incentives were introduced under the foreign trade policy and the Ministry of External Affairs has facilitated Lines of Credit for countries to import defence product.
  • Policy boost: The Defence Ministry has also issued a draft Defence Production & Export Promotion Policy 2020.
  • Indigenization lists: On the domestic front, to boost indigenous manufacturing, the Government had issued two “positive indigenization lists” consisting of 209 items that cannot be imported.
  • Budgetary allocation: In addition, a percentage of the capital outlay of the defence budget has been reserved for procurement from domestic industry.
  • Defence Industrial Corridors: The government has also announced 2 dedicated Corridors in the States of TN and UP to act as clusters of defence manufacturing that leverage existing infrastructure, and human capital.
  • Long-term vision: The vision of the government is to achieve a turnover of $25 bn including export of $5 bn in Aerospace and Defence goods and services by 2025.
  • Push for self-reliance: The govt has identified the Defence and Aerospace sector as a focus area for the ‘Aatmanirbhar Bharat’ or Self-Reliant India initiative.

Issues retarding defence exports

  • Excess reliance on Public Sector: India has four companies (Indian ordnance factories, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) and Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL)) among the top 100 biggest arms producers of the world.
  • Policy delays: In the past few years, the government has approved over 200 defence acquisition worth Rs 4 trillion, but most are still in relatively early stages of processing.
  • Lack of Critical Technologies: Poor design capability in critical technologies, inadequate investment in R&D and the inability to manufacture major subsystems and components hamper the indigenous manufacturing.
  • Long gestation: The creation of a manufacturing base is capital and technology-intensive and has a long gestation period. By that time newer technologies make products outdated.
  • ‘Unease’ in doing business: An issue related to stringent labour laws, compliance burden and lack of skills, affects the development of indigenous manufacturing in defence.
  • Multiple jurisdictions: Overlapping jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defence and Ministry of Industrial Promotion impair India’s capability of defence manufacturing.
  • Lack of quality: The higher indigenization in few cases is largely attributed to the low-end technology.
  • FDI Policy: The earlier FDI limit of 49% was not enough to enthuse global manufacturing houses to set up bases in India.
  • R&D Lacunae: A lip service to technology funding by making token allocations is an adequate commentary on our lack of seriousness in the area of Research and Development.
  • Lack of skills: There is a lack of engineering and research capability in our institutions. It again leads us back to the need for a stronger industry-academia interface.

Way forward

  • Reducing import dependence: India was the world’s second-largest arms importer from 2014-18, ceding the long-held tag as the largest importer to Saudi Arabia, says 2019 SIPRI report.
  • Security Imperative: Indigenization in defence is critical to national security also. It keeps intact the technological expertise and encourages spin-off technologies and innovation that often stem from it.
  • Economic boost: Indigenization in defence can help create a large industry which also includes small manufacturers.
  • Employment generation: Defence manufacturing will lead to the generation of satellite industries that in turn will pave the way for a generation of employment opportunities.

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

What are Fast Radio Bursts (FRB)?

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Fast Radio Burst (FRB)

Mains level: Not Much

A strange radio signal (called Fast Radio Bursts) has been detected in a galaxy several billion light-years from Earth, a recent study claimed.

What is an FRB?

  • The first FRB was discovered in 2007, since when scientists have been working towards finding the source of their origin.
  • Essentially, FRBs are bright bursts of radio waves (radio waves can be produced by astronomical objects with changing magnetic fields).
  • Its durations lie in the millisecond scale, because of which it is difficult to detect them and determine their position in the sky.

Who discovered it?

  • The X-ray portion of the simultaneous bursts was detected by several satellites, including NASA’s Wind mission.
  • Further, a NASA-funded project called Survey for Transient Astronomical Radio Emission 2 (STARE2) also detected the radio burst.

Why are they significant?

  • First noticed in 2018 by the Canadian observatory the waves have created ripples across the globe for one reason — they arrive in a pattern.
  • This gave birth to theories that they could be from an alien civilization.
  • Initially, it was believed that the collision of black holes or neutron stars triggers them.
  • But the discovery of repeating FRBs debunked the theory of colliding objects.

 

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Capital Markets: Challenges and Developments

What are External Commercial Borrowings (ECBs)?

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: ECB

Mains level: Not Much

The Reserve Bank of India has relaxed norms for companies raising external commercial borrowings (ECBs), as part of a set of measures to stem the slide in the rupee.

What are ECBs taken by Indian companies?

  • ECBs are commercial loans that eligible resident entities can raise from outside India, i.e. from a recognized non-resident entity.
  • ECBs can be buyer’s credit, supplier’s credit, foreign currency convertible bonds, foreign currency exchangeable bonds, loans etc.
  • ECBs can be raised via the automatic route where cases are examined by the Authorized Category Dealer, or the approval route where borrowers are mandated to forward their request to RBI through their authorized dealers.
  • Borrowers must follow norms on minimum maturity period, maximum all-in-cost ceiling, end-uses etc.

What is the relaxation offered by the RBI?

  • RBI earlier had raised borrowing limit under the automatic route from $750 million or its equivalent per financial year to $1.5 bn up till up to 31 December, 2022.

Why such move?

  • The objective was to increase the supply of foreign exchange reserves.
  • This in turn would thereby prevent the fast depreciation of the rupee witnessed over the last few months.

What clarity do foreign lenders want from RBI?

  • Lenders want to know whether the investment grade needs to be rated by domestic or international agencies.
  • If it is only by global agencies, it would limit the number of potential borrowers.
  • This is because companies which might be rated high domestically might not necessarily have made the investment grade when rated by international agencies.

Why do Indian firms go for ECBs?

  • Low cost: ECBs give companies the benefit of borrowing abroad at lower interest rates.
  • Long term repayment: They are also an avenue to borrow a large volume of funds for a relatively long period of time.
  • Surpassing exchange fluctuation: Also, borrowing in foreign currencies enables companies to pay for their machinery import etc., thereby nullifying the impact of varying exchange rate.
  • Long term profitability: ECBs can help diversify the investor base and funds available at lower cost, helping improve profitability of companies.
  • Better credit ratings: ECB interest rates are also a function of their ratings in the international market.

What are the risks for firms raising ECBs?

  • Though companies get attracted to ECBs due to lower interest rates, the comfort level of the borrower depends on how stable the rate of exchange is.
  • Depreciation of the rupee will raise debt servicing burden as compared to what has been worked out at the time of availing of the ECB facility.
  • Thus, the companies might need to incur hedging costs (amount equal to the aggregate costs, fees, and expenses) to cover the exchange rate risk.

 

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Economic Indicators and Various Reports On It- GDP, FD, EODB, WIR etc

Key terminologies in news: Yield Inversion, Soft-Landing and Reverse Currency Wars

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Read the attached story

Mains level: NA

This article provides a quick summary of what has been happening in the global economy. These are few key terms that one is likely to hear repeatedly in the coming days and weeks:

  1. Yield Inversion
  2. Soft-landing and
  3. Reverse Currency War

Here’s a quick look at what they mean and why they are significant at present.

(1) Bond Yield Inversion

What is Bond Yeild?

  • Bonds are essentially an instrument through which governments (and also corporations) raise money from people.
  • Typically government bond yields are a good way to understand the risk-free interest rate in that economy.
  • This 2019 piece provides an introduction to government bonds and explains how yields are calculated.

What is Yield Curve?

  • The yield curve is the graphical representation of yields from bonds (with an equal credit rating) over different time horizons.
  • In other words, if one was to take the US government bonds of different tenures and plot them according to the yields they provide, one would get the yield curve.

The chart below provides a sense of the different types of yield curves one could have.

How to see this?

  • Under normal circumstances, any economy would have an upward sloping yield curve.
  • That is to say, as one lends for a longer duration — or as one buys bonds of longer tenure — one gets higher yields. This makes sense.
  • If one is parting with money for a longer duration, the return should be higher.
  • Moreover, a longer tenure also implies that there is a greater risk of failure.
  • An inversion of the yield curve essentially suggests that investors expect future growth to be weak.

Inversion of bond yield

  • However, there are times when this bond yield curve becomes inverted.
  • For instance, bonds with a tenure of 2 years end up paying out higher yields (returns/ interest rate) than bonds with a 10 year tenure.
  • Such an inversion of the yield curve essentially suggests that investors expect future growth to be weak.

Here’s how to make sense of this?

  • When investors feel buoyant about the economy they pull the money out from long-term bonds and put it in short-term riskier assets such as stock markets.
  • In the bond market, the prices of long-term bonds fall, and their yield (effective interest rate) rises.
  • This happens because bond prices and bond yields are inversely related.
  • However, when investors suspect that the economy is heading for trouble, they pull out money from short-term risky assets (such as stock markets) and put them in long-term bonds.
  • This causes the prices of the long-term bonds to rise and their yields to fall.

Why use inversion curve?

  • Over the years, inversion of the bond yield curve has become a strong predictor of recessions. Of course, for it to be taken seriously, such an inversion has to last for several months.
  • Over the past few weeks, such inversion is happening repeatedly in the US, suggesting to many that a recession is in the offing.
  • In the current instance, the US Fed (their central bank) has been raising short-term interest rates, which further bumps up the short-end of the yield curve while dampening economic activity.

(2)  Soft-Landing

  • The process of monetary tightening that the US is currently unveiling involves not just reducing the money supply but also increasing the cost of money (that is, the interest rate).
  • US is doing this to contain soaring inflation.
  • Ideally, the US Fed or any central bank doing this would like to bring about monetary tightening in such a manner that slows down the economy but doesn’t lead to a recession.
  • When a central bank is successful in slowing down the economy without bringing about a recession, it is called a soft-landing — that is, no one gets hurt.
  • But when the actions of the central bank bring about a recession, it is called hard-landing.

(3) Reverse Currency War

  • A flip side of the US Fed’s action of aggressively raising interest rates is that more and more investors are rushing to invest money in the US.
  • This, in turn, has made the dollar become stronger than all the other currencies. That’s because the dollar is more in demand than yen, euro, yuan etc.
  • On the face of it, this should make all other countries happier because a relative weakness of their local currency against the dollar makes their exports more competitive.
  • For instance, a Chinese or an Indian exporter gets a massive boost.
  • In fact, in the past the US has often accused other countries of manipulating their currency (and keeping its weaker against the dollar) just to enjoy a trade surplus against the US.
  • This used to be called the currency war.

What explains this reverse currency war unfolding at the moment?

  • The important thing to understand is that a stronger dollar has had a key benefit — importing cheaper crude oil.
  • A currency which is losing value to the dollar, on the other hand, finds that it is getting costlier to import crude oil and other commodities that are often traded in dollars.
  • But raising the interest rate is not without its own risks.
  • Just like in the US, higher interest rates will decrease the chances of a soft-landing for any other economy.

 

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Goods and Services Tax (GST)

GST Slab Changes

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: GST Slabs

Mains level: Rationalization of GST

Customers will have to pay a 5% Goods and Services Tax (GST) on pre-packed, labelled food items such as atta, paneer and curd, besides hospital rooms with rents above â‚č5,000.

What is GST?

  • GST launched in India on 1 July 2017 is a comprehensive indirect tax for the entire country.
  • It is charged at the time of supply and depends on the destination of consumption.
  • For instance, if a good is manufactured in state A but consumed in state B, then the revenue generated through GST collection is credited to the state of consumption (state B) and not to the state of production (state A).
  • GST, being a consumption-based tax, resulted in loss of revenue for manufacturing-heavy states.

What are GST Slabs?

  • In India, almost 500+ services and over 1300 products fall under the 4 major GST slabs.
  • There are five broad tax rates of zero, 5%, 12%, 18% and 28%, plus a cess levied over and above the 28% on some ‘sin’ goods.
  • The GST Council periodically revises the items under each slab rate to adjust them according to industry demands and market trends.
  • The updated structure ensures that the essential items fall under lower tax brackets, while luxury products and services entail higher GST rates.
  • The 28% rate is levied on demerit goods such as tobacco products, automobiles, and aerated drinks, along with an additional GST compensation cess.

Why rationalize GST slabs?

  • From businesses’ viewpoint, there are just too many tax rate slabs, compounded by aberrations in the duty structure through their supply chains with some inputs taxed more than the final product.
  • These are far too many rates and do not necessarily constitute a Good and Simple Tax.
  • Multiple rate changes since the introduction of the GST regime in July 2017 have brought the effective GST rate to 11.6% from the original revenue-neutral rate of 15.5%.
  • Merging the 12% and 18% GST rates into any tax rate lower than 18% may result in revenue loss.

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

Anayoottu Ritual of Kerala

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Anayoottu

Mains level: Not Much

Anayoottu, an annual ritual at the Sree Vadakkunnathan Temple, Thrissur was recently held.

Why in news?

  • There is a history behind this annual ritual at the temple.
  • Kerala’s elephant pooram was selected, along with other cultural forms of the country, for display at the opening ceremony of the Asian Games held in Delhi in 1982.
  • Elephants were transported all throughout the country to New Delhi.

What is Anayoottu?

  • The Aanayoottu (gaja pooja/ feeding of elephants) is a festival held in the precincts of the Vadakkunnathan temple in City of Thrissur, in Kerala.
  • The festival falls on the first day of the month of Karkkidakam (timed against the Malayalam calendar), which coincides with the month of July.
  • It involves a number of unadorned elephants being positioned amid a multitude of people for being worshipped and fed.
  • Crowds throng the temple to feed the elephants.

Mythology behind

  • It is believed that offering poojas and delicious feed to the elephants is a way to satisfy Lord Ganesha—the god of wealth and of the fulfillment of wishes.
  • The Vadakkunnathan temple, which is considered to be one of the oldest Shiva temples in southern India, has hosted the Aanayottoo event for the past few years.

 

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Land Reforms

Political tussle over Podu Cultivation and Forest Lands in Telangana

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Podu, Rythu Bandhu

Mains level: Shifting Cultivation prevalent in India

Activists have taken up the issue of Podu cultivation of adivasis and tribals in forest areas in Telangana.

What one means by Podu?

  • Podu is a traditional system of cultivation used by tribes in India, whereby different areas of jungle forest are cleared by burning each year to provide land for crops.
  • It is a form of shifting agriculture using slash-and-burn methods. The word comes from the Telugu language.
  • Traditionally used on the hill-slopes of Andhra Pradesh, it is similar to the jhum method found in north-east India and the bewar system of Madhya Pradesh.

What is the ‘Podu’ Land Issue?

  • The Telangana government had decided in 2021 to move landless, non-tribal farmers engaged in shifting cultivation inside forests to peripheral areas in an effort to combat deforestation.
  • It ensured that all steps would be taken to ensure that forest land was not encroached upon.
  • It is observed that podu progressively degrades large areas of the forest.

Shifting cultivation in India

  • In this type of agriculture, first of all a piece of forest land is cleared by felling trees and burning of trunks and branches.
  • After the land is cleared, crops are grown for two to three years and then the land is abandoned as the fertility of the soil decreases.
  • The farmers then move to new areas and the process is repeated.
  • Dry paddy, maize, millets and vegetables are the crops commonly grown in this type of farming.

This practice is known by different names in different regions of India:

1. Jhum in Assam,

2. Ponam in Kerala,

3. Podu in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha and

4. Bewar masha penda and Bera in various parts of Madhya Pradesh.

 

What TS has to offer as alternative to Podu?

  • To stop this deforestation, the government wants to move out cultivators from deep inside forests to the periphery by allotting them land for cultivation.
  • Tribal farmers who have been traditionally cultivating for decades would not be affected by this drive against illegal encroachers.
  • The land ownership titles have been given to tribals and more than 3 lakh acres have been allocated to tribal farmers state-wide.

And what about non-tribal farmers?

  • These farmers can apply to the state government to allocate them land outside the forests.
  • Those who are moved out of the forests would be given land ownership certificates, power and water supplies and Rythu Bandhu benefits.

Back2Basics: Rythu Bandhu

  • Rythu Bandhu is a scheme under which the state government extends financial support to land-owning farmers at the beginning of the crop season through direct benefit transfer.
  • The scheme aims to take care of the initial investment needs and do not fall into a debt trap.
  • This in turn instills confidence in farmers, enhances productivity and income, and breaks the cycle of rural indebtedness.

DBT under the Scheme

  • Each farmer gets Rs 5,000 per acre per crop season without any ceiling on the number of acres held.
  • So, a farmer who owns two acres of land would receive Rs 20,000 a year, whereas a farmer who owns 10 acres would receive Rs 1 lakh a year from the government.
  • The grant helps them cover the expenses on input requirements such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and labor.

 

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Crop Insurance – PMFBY, etc.

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: PMFBY, Beed Model of Crop Insurance

Mains level: Crop insurance

Andhra Pradesh has decided to rejoin the crop insurance scheme Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) from the ongoing kharif season.

Why in news?

  • Andhra Pradesh was one of six states that have stopped the implementation of the scheme over the last four years.
  • The other five, which remain out, are Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Jharkhand, and Telangana.

What is PMFBY?

  • The PMFBY was launched in February 2016. It is being administered by Ministry of Agriculture.
  • It provides a comprehensive insurance cover against failure of the crop thus helping in stabilising the income of the farmers.
  • It is implemented by general insurance companies.

Its functioning

  • PMFBY insures farmers against all non-preventable natural risks from pre-sowing to post-harvest.
  • Farmers have to pay a maximum of 2 per cent of the total premium of the insured amount for kharif crops, 1.5 per cent for rabi food crops and oilseeds as well as 5 per cent for commercial / horticultural crops.
  • The balance premium is shared by the Union and state governments on a 50:50 basis and on a 90:10 basis in the case of northeastern states.

Farmers covered

  • All farmers growing notified crops in a notified area during the season who have insurable interest in the crop are eligible.
  • Earlier to Kharif 2020, the enrolment under the scheme was compulsory for following categories of farmers:
  1. Farmers in the notified area who possess a Crop Loan account/KCC account (called as Loanee Farmers) to whom credit limit is sanctioned/renewed for the notified crop during the crop season. and
  2. Such other farmers whom the Government may decide to include from time to time.

Risks covered under the scheme

  • Comprehensive risk insurance is provided to cover yield losses due to non-preventable risks, such as Natural Fire and Lightning, Storm, Hailstorm, Cyclone, Typhoon, Tempest, Hurricane, Tornado.
  • Risks due to Flood, Inundation and Landslide, Drought, Dry spells, Pests/ Diseases also will be covered.
  • Post-harvest losses coverage will be available up to a maximum period of 14 days from harvesting for those crops which are kept in “cut & spread” condition to dry in the field.
  • For certain localized problems such as loss/damage resulting from the occurrence of identified localized risks like hailstorm, landslide, and Inundation affecting isolated farms in the notified area would also be covered.

Why many states has opted out?

The opting-out states had mentioned several reasons:

  • The scheme should be voluntary.
  • States should be given options to choose the risks covered and the scheme should be universal.
  • State should be given option to use their own database of E-crop, an application used by the state government to collect information about crops.
  • Many state government wanted zero premium for farmers (meaning the entire premium should be paid by the government.
  • The non-payment of the State Share of premium subsidy within the prescribed timelines as defined in the seasonality discipline lea to the disqualification of the State Government.
  • The reason for West Bengal not implementing the PMFBY is purely “political” as it wants to implement the scheme without mentioning Pradhan Mantri in the name.

How was the scheme structured, and what has changed since?

  • Initially, the scheme was compulsory for loanee farmers; in February 2020, the Centre revised it to make it optional for all farmers.
  • Now states and UTs are free to extend additional subsidy over and above the normal subsidy from their budgets.
  • In February 2020, the Centre decided to restrict its premium subsidy to 30% for unirrigated areas and 25% for irrigated areas (from the existing unlimited). Earlier, there was no upper limit.
  • Food crops (cereals, millets and pulses); oilseeds; and annual commercial / annual horticultural crops are broadly covered under the scheme.

 

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Trade Sector Updates – Falling Exports, TIES, MEIS, Foreign Trade Policy, etc.

Increase in Current Account Deficit (CAD)

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: CAD

Mains level: Not Much

The Finance Ministry has asserted that the current account deficit (CAD) could, however, deteriorate this year mainly due to rising trade deficits.

What is Current Account Deficit (CAD)?

  • A current account is a key component of balance of payments, which is the account of transactions or exchanges made between entities in a country and the rest of the world.
  • This includes a nation’s net trade in products and services, its net earnings on cross border investments including interest and dividends, and its net transfer payments such as remittances and foreign aid.
  • A CAD arises when the value of goods and services imported exceeds the value of exports, while the trade balance refers to the net balance of export and import of goods or merchandise trade.

Components of Current Account

Current Account Deficit (CAD) = Trade Deficit + Net Income + Net Transfers

(1) Trade Deficit

  • Trade Deficit = Imports – Exports
  • A Country is said to have a trade deficit when it imports more goods and services than it exports.
  • Trade deficit is an economic measure of a negative balance of trade in which a country’s imports exceeds its exports.
  • A trade deficit represents an outflow of domestic currency to foreign markets.

(2) Net Income

  • Net Income = Income Earned by MNCs from their investments in India.
  • When foreign investment income exceeds the savings of the country’s residents, then the country has net income deficit.
  • This foreign investment can help a country’s economy grow. But if foreign investors worry they won’t get a return in a reasonable amount of time, they will cut off funding.
  • Net income is measured by the following things:
  1. Payments made to foreigners in the form of dividends of domestic stocks.
  2. Interest payments on bonds.
  3. Wages paid to foreigners working in the country.

(3) Net Transfers

  • In Net Transfers, foreign residents send back money to their home countries. It also includes government grants to foreigners.
  • It Includes Remittances, Gifts, Donation etc

How Current Account Transaction does takes place?

  • While understanding the Current Account Deficit in detail, it is important to understand what the current account transactions are.
  • Current account transactions are transactions that require foreign currency.
  • Following transactions with from which component these transactions belong to :
  1. Component 1 : Payments connection with Foreign trade – Import & Export
  2. Component 2 : Interest on loans to other countries and Net income from investments in other countries
  3. Component 3 : Remittances for living expenses of parents, spouse and children residing abroad, and Expenses in connection with Foreign travel, Education and Medical care of parents, spouse and children

What has been the recent trend?

  • In Q4 FY 2021-22, CAD improved to 1.5% of GDP or $13.4 billion from 2.6% of GDP in Q3 FY 2021-22 ($22.2 billion).
  • The difference between the value of goods imported and exported fell to $54.48 million in Q4FY 2021-22 from $59.75 million in Q3 FY2021-22.
  • However, based on robust performance by computer and business services, net service receipts rose both sequentially and on a year-on-year basis.
  • Remittances by Indians abroad also rose.

What are the reasons for the current account deficit?

  • Intensifying geopolitical tensions and supply chain disruptions leading to crude oil and commodity prices soaring globally have been exerting upward pressure on the import bill.
  • A rise in prices of coal, natural gas, fertilizers, and edible oils have added to the pressure on trade deficit.
  • However, with global demand picking up, merchandise exports have also been rising.

How will a large CAD affect the economy?

  • A large CAD will result in demand for foreign currency rising, thus leading to depreciation of the home currency.
  • Nations balance CAD by attracting capital inflows and running a surplus in capital accounts through increased foreign direct investments (FDI).
  • However, worsening CAD will put pressure on inflow under the capital account.
  • Nevertheless, if an increase in the import bill is because of imports for technological upgradation it would help in long-term development.

 

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Trade Sector Updates – Falling Exports, TIES, MEIS, Foreign Trade Policy, etc.

Govt. extends RoSCTL Scheme for Garment Exports

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: RoSCTL Scheme

Mains level: Not Much

The RoSCTL scheme will continue for export of garments/apparels, and made-ups till March 31, 2024, according to a press release from the Union Ministry of Textiles.

What is RoSCTL Scheme?

  • RoSCTL stands for Rebate of State and Central Taxes and Levies (RoSCTL).
  • It is an export incentive in the form of transferable and sellable duty credit scrips (certificate) offered on the basis of the value of the export.
  • It replaces the Rebate of State Levies (RoSL) scheme, a monetary incentive scheme under which Customs would deposit the rebate directly into the exporter’s bank account.
  • This scheme was seen as India’s reaction to the increasing international pressure on export incentives provided by the Indian government.

Why was this scheme introduced?

  • The US, in particular, has been very vocal, urging the discontinuation of export incentive schemes like the Merchandise Exports from India Scheme (MEIS).
  • It held that they flouted the WTO Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures.

Why was this scheme extended to textile sector?

  • With a view to boost exports and job creation in the textile sector, the government has approved the continuation of the scheme.
  • The scheme aims to help them cut high logistics and other costs and enable them to compete globally.

 

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

Kerala reports India’s first Monkeypox Case

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Monkeypox

Mains level: Rise in zoonotic diseases

The first known lab-confirmed case of monkeypox in India has been reported in a 35-year-old man in Kerala.

What is Monkeypox?

  • The monkeypox virus is an orthopoxvirus, which is a genus of viruses that also includes the variola virus, which causes smallpox, and vaccinia virus, which was used in the smallpox vaccine.
  • It causes symptoms similar to smallpox, although they are less severe.
  • While vaccination eradicated smallpox worldwide in 1980, monkeypox continues to occur in a swathe of countries in Central and West Africa, and has on occasion showed up elsewhere.
  • According to the WHO, two distinct clade are identified: the West African clade and the Congo Basin clade, also known as the Central African clade.

Its origin

  • Monkeypox is a zoonosis, that is, a disease that is transmitted from infected animals to humans.
  • Monkeypox virus infection has been detected in squirrels, Gambian poached rats, dormice, and some species of monkeys.
  • According to the WHO, cases occur close to tropical rainforests inhabited by animals that carry the virus.

Symptoms and treatment

  • Monkeypox begins with a fever, headache, muscle aches, back ache, and exhaustion.
  • It also causes the lymph nodes to swell (lymphadenopathy), which smallpox does not.
  • The WHO underlines that it is important to not confuse monkeypox with chickenpox, measles, bacterial skin infections, scabies, syphilis and medication-associated allergies.
  • The incubation period (time from infection to symptoms) for monkeypox is usually 7-14 days but can range from 5-21 days.
  • There is no safe, proven treatment for monkeypox yet.

 

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Anti Defection Law

Election Symbol Disputes and ECI

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Read the attached story

Mains level: Anti-defection law

A political party in Maharashtra has approached the Election Commission of India (ECI), requesting it to hear its side before deciding claims to the party’s bow-arrow symbol.

What is the news?

  • A party has lost a large number of members in the rebellion that eventually caused the fall of the government in Maharashtra.
  • The rebel has claimed to be the only original leader of the party on the basis of the support of more than two-thirds of the party’s legislators in the Maharashtra Assembly.

Options for ECI

  • The ECI in all likelihood can freeze the symbol so that neither of the two sides is able to use it until a final decision is made.
  • EC hearings are long and detailed, and may take at least six months.

EC’s powers in Election Symbol Dispute

  • The question of a split in a political party outside the legislature is dealt by Para 15 of the Symbols Order, 1968.
  • It states that the ECI may take into account all the available facts and circumstances and undertake a test of majority.
  • The decision of the ECI shall be binding on all such rival sections or groups emerged after the split.
  • This applies to disputes in recognised national and state parties.
  • For splits in registered but unrecognised parties, the EC usually advises the warring factions to resolve their differences internally or to approach the court.

How did the EC deal with such matters before the Symbols Order came into effect?

  • Before 1968, the EC issued notifications and executive orders under the Conduct of Election Rules, 1961.
  • The most high-profile split of a party before 1968 was that of the CPI in 1964.
  • A breakaway group approached the ECI in December 1964 urging it to recognise them as CPI(Marxist). They provided a list of MPs and MLAs of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and West Bengal who supported them.
  • The ECI recognised the faction as CPI(M) after it found that the votes secured by the MPs and MLAs supporting the breakaway group added up to more than 4% in the 3 states.

What was the first case decided under Para 15 of the 1968 Order?

  • It was the first split in the Indian National Congress in 1969.
  • Indira Gandhi’s tensions with a rival group within the party came to a head with the death of President Dr Zakir Hussain on May 3, 1969.

Is there a way other than the test of majority to resolve a dispute over election symbols?

  • In almost all disputes decided by the EC so far, a clear majority of party delegates/office bearers, MPs and MLAs have supported one of the factions.
  • Whenever the EC could not test the strength of rival groups based on support within the party organisation (because of disputes regarding the list of office bearers), it fell back on testing the majority only among elected MPs and MLAs.

What happens to the group that doesn’t get the parent party’s symbol?

  • The EC in 1997 did not recognise the new parties as either state or national parties.
  • It felt that merely having MPs and MLAs is not enough, as the elected representatives had fought and won polls on tickets of their parent (undivided) parties.
  • The EC introduced a new rule under which the splinter group of the party — other than the group that got the party symbol — had to register itself as a separate party.
  • It could lay claim to national or state party status only on the basis of its performance in state or central elections after registration.

 

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

In news: National Emblem of India

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Ashokan Pillar

Mains level: Not Much

A day after the National Emblem cast on top of the under-construction Parliament unveiled, controversy has erupted over its aggressive posture.

National Emblem of India

  • On 26 January 1950, a representation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka placed above the motto, Satyameva Jayate, was adopted as the State Emblem of India.
  • The emblem is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, an ancient sculpture dating back to 280 BCE during the reign of the Maurya Empire.
  • It was originally made of Chunar sandstone.
  • The statue is a three-dimensional emblem showing four lions.

Features of the emblem

  • The actual Sarnath capital features four Asiatic lions standing back to back, symbolizing power, courage, confidence, and pride, mounted on a circular base.
  • At the bottom is a horse and a bull, and at its center is a Dharma chakra.
  • The abacus is girded with a frieze of sculptures in high relief of The Lion of the North,
  • The Horse of the West, The Bull of the South, and The Elephant of the East, separated by intervening wheels, over a lotus in full bloom, exemplify the fountainhead of life and creative inspiration.
  • Carved from a single block of sandstone, the polished capital is crowned by the Wheel of the Law.

Historical significance

  • One of the Buddha’s names is ‘Shakya Simha’, meaning ‘Lion of the Shakyas’.
  • The Buddha’s first sermon at Sarnath was known as the ‘Simhanada’ (Lion roar) of the Buddha.

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

James Webb Space Telescope

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: JSWT

Mains level: Not Much

NASA has unveiled images from the James Webb Space Telescope, the largest and most powerful orbital observatory ever launched.

What is the image about?

  • NASA released a deep field photo of a distant galaxy cluster, SMACS 0723, revealing the most detailed glimpse of the early universe recorded to date.
  • The collection also included fresh images of another galaxy cluster known as Stephan’s Quintet, first discovered in 1877.

James Webb Space Telescope

  • JWST is a joint NASA–ESA–CSA space telescope that is planned to succeed the Hubble Space Telescope as NASA’s flagship astrophysics mission
  • It is the most powerful space telescope ever built.
  • It will enable a broad range of investigations across the fields of astronomy and cosmology, including observing some of the most distant events and objects in the universe,
  • It would help understand events such as the formation of the first galaxies, and detailed atmospheric characterization of potentially habitable exoplanets.

Its significance

  • Some have called JSWT the “telescope that ate astronomy.”
  • It is said to look back in time to the Dark Ages of the universe.

What does the ‘Dark Ages’ of the universe mean?

  • Evidence shows that the universe started with an event called the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago, which left it in an ultra-hot, ultra-dense state.
  • The universe immediately began expanding and cooling after the Big Bang.
  • One second after the Big Bang, the universe was a hundred trillion miles across with an average temperature of an incredible 18 billion F (10 billion C).
  • Around 400,000 years after the Big Bang, the universe was 10 million light-years across and the temperature had cooled to 5,500 F (3,000 C).
  • Throughout this time, space was filled with a smooth soup of high-energy particles, radiation, hydrogen and helium.
  • There was no structure. As the expanding universe became bigger and colder, the soup thinned out and everything faded to black.

This was the start of what astronomers call the Dark Ages of the universe.

How will JWST study this?

Ans. Looking for the first light

  • The Dark Ages ended when gravity formed the first stars and galaxies that eventually began to emit the first light.
  • Astronomers aim to study this fascinating and important era of the universe, but detecting first light is incredibly challenging.
  • Compared to massive, bright galaxies of today, the first objects were very small and due to the constant expansion of the universe, they’re now tens of billions of light years away from Earth.
  • Also, the earliest stars were surrounded by gas left over from their formation and this gas acted like fog that absorbed most of the light.
  • It took several hundred million years for radiation to blast away the fog. This early light is very faint by the time it gets to Earth.

 

 

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Russian Invasion of Ukraine: Global Implications

What is the Nord Stream 1 Gas Link?

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Nord Stream Pipelines

Mains level: NA

The Nord Stream 1, Germany’s main source of gas from Russia, was recently shut down for scheduled maintenance work.

Why in news?

  • There are growing concerns in European countries that Russia would shut down its gas supplies in retaliation against the current sanctions against Moscow.

What is Nord Stream 1?

  • It is a system of offshore natural gas pipelines running under the Baltic Sea from Russia to Germany.
  • Nord Stream 1 is a 1,224 km underwater gas pipeline that runs from Vyborg in northwest Russia to Lubmin in northeastern Germany via the Baltic Sea.
  • Two further pipelines under construction running from Ust-Luga to Lubmin termed Nord Stream 2.
  • Majority owned by the Russian energy giant Gazprom, the pipeline is the primary route through which its gas enters Germany.

Worry for Europe

  • There have been growing concerns that there could be further restrictions to European gas supplies.
  • European countries rely on Russian energy for their cold winters.
  • But now they believe that Russia could weaponized their dependency as a response to their sanction due to the conflict in Ukraine.

What are Europe’s alternative sources of energy?

  • As an alternative source for energy, European countries have increasingly turned towards the US, from whom they purchase liquified natural gas (LNG) that comes via ships.
  • Since ship-delivered gas ends up being far more expensive, there are also attempts to get non-Russian pipeline gas from Norway and Azerbaijan.
  • While EU countries were earlier seeking to phase out fossil fuels and emphasize renewable forms of energy, many are now returning to coal to deal with the energy crisis.

 

 

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

Sannati and Kanaganahalli Buddhist Sites

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Ashokan edicts, Stupa Architecture

Mains level: NA

Left almost unattended to for 20 years after excavation, the ancient Buddhist site on the bank of Bhima river near Kanaganahalli (forming part of Sannati site) in Kalaburagi district, has finally got some attention.

About Sannati

  • Sannati is a small village on the banks of the River Bhima in Chittapur Taluka of Kalaburagi (Gulbarga).
  • It came into prominence after the collapse of the roof of the Kali temple in Chandralamba temple complex in 1986.
  • The collapse revealed the historically valuable Ashokan edicts written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script at the foundations of the temple, attracting historians from across India.
  • While the Stupa is believed to be one of the largest of its time.
  • The stone-portrait is considered to be the only surviving image of the Mauryan Emperor which had the inscription ‘Raya Asoko’ in Brahmi on it.

Significance of Sannati

  • Further revelations led to the discovery of the magnificent Maha Stupa, which had been referred to as Adholoka Maha-Chaitya (The Great Stupa of the Netherworlds) in the inscriptions.
  • More importantly, a sculpture-portrait of Ashoka seated on his throne with his queens was also discovered.
  • Historians believe that the Sannati Ranamandal (war zone) was a fortified area spread over 210 acres, of which only a couple of acres have been excavated so far.

Try this PYQ:

In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashokan’ (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka?

(a) Kanganahalli

(b) Sanchi

(c) Shahbazgarhi

(d) Sohgaura

 

Post your answers here.

 

 

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