Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Assam records 86% drop in Rhino Poaching since 2016

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Project Rhino

Why in the News?

Kaziranga National Park and other protected habitats of the one-horned rhinoceros in Assam have witnessed an 86% drop in poaching since 2016.

Reduction in Rhino Poaching

  • From 2000 to 2021, poachers killed 190 rhinos in Assam, with a significant drop occurring after 2016.
  • The announcement was made in a statement marking the celebration of World Rhino Day (22nd September).

About Project Rhino:

Details
Launch Year 2005 (Indian Rhino Vision, 2020)
Objective To achieve a wild population of at least 3,000 Greater One-Horned Rhinos spread over seven protected areas in Assam by 2020.
Habitat Terai floodplains of India and Nepal; currently found in Assam, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh.
Partners • Assam Forest Department
• Bodoland Territorial Council
• World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
• International Rhino Foundation (IRF)
• US Fish & Wildlife Service
Key Actions • Translocation of rhinos from Kaziranga and Pobitora to other protected areas (like Manas National Park) to reduce overcrowding.
• Improving protection and security against poaching.
Population Growth • From 2008 to 2012, 18 rhinos were translocated to Manas National Park.
• By 2020, 14 calves were born in Manas after translocation.
Conservation Status IUCN Status: Vulnerable
CITES: Appendix I
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I
Significance
  • Project has helped distribute the rhino population across multiple protected areas, making them less vulnerable to poaching and ensuring a stable and sustainable population.
  • The population has increased from around 200 in the 1990s to approximately 2,900 today.

 

PYQ:

[2019] Consider the following statements:

  1. Asiatic lion is naturally found in India only.
  2. Double-humped camel is naturally found in India only.
  3. One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Electronic System Design and Manufacturing Sector – M-SIPS, National Policy on Electronics, etc.

India, USA signed pact to set up Semiconductor Pact for National Security

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Shakti Partnership, QUAD

Why in the News?

India and the US have entered into an agreement to establish a semiconductor fabrication plant aimed at producing chips for national security, next-generation telecommunications, and green energy applications.

Key Features of the Semiconductor Fabrication Plant

  • The semiconductor fab will focus on advanced sensing, communication, and power electronics.
  • The India Semiconductor Mission will support the project and involves a strategic partnership between Bharat Semi, 3rdiTech, and the US Space Force.
  • The plant will manufacture infrared, gallium nitride, and silicon carbide semiconductors, critical components for national security and commercial sectors.

Shakti Partnership

  • The fab, titled “Shakti” (meaning power), is the first-ever technology partnership between Indian businesses and the US Space Force, and the first of its kind in the Quad, a strategic forum comprising India, the US, Japan, and Australia.
  • The project will focus on three key areas essential for modern warfare:
  1. Advanced sensing
  2. Advanced communications
  3. High-voltage power electronics
  • These areas also have significant applications in commercial sectors such as railways, telecom infrastructure, data centers, and green energy.

 

About India’s Semiconductor Mission (ISM):

Details
Launch Year 2021
Financial Outlay ₹76,000 crore under the Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY)
Objective • Develop a sustainable semiconductor and display ecosystem in India
• Reduce reliance on imports
• Position India as a global leader in semiconductor manufacturing
Core Focus Financial support for investments in:
– Semiconductor fabs
– Display fabs
– Semiconductor design
– Assembly, Testing, Marking, and Packaging (ATMP) facilities
Components of ISM
Scheme for Semiconductor Fabs • Provides fiscal support for setting up semiconductor wafer fabrication (fabs) facilities
• Aims to attract large investments for semiconductor fabs in India
Scheme for Display Fabs • Offers fiscal support for setting up TFT LCD/AMOLED display fabs
• Encourages investments in display fabrication technologies
Scheme for Compound Semiconductors • Provides 30% capital expenditure support for setting up Compound Semiconductors, Silicon Photonics, Sensors, and ATMP/OSAT facilities
Design Linked Incentive (DLI) Scheme • Offers financial incentives and design infrastructure support for semiconductor design

 

Significance of Next-Generation Telecom

  • Next-gen telecom (5G and beyond) will revolutionize industries with high-speed internet, IoT, AI, and smart infrastructure.
  • It is crucial for national security, economic competitiveness, and advancing green energy and sustainable development.
  • India’s adoption of 5G will drive innovation across sectors, promoting technological self-reliance and global leadership in telecommunications.

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Cyber Security – CERTs, Policy, etc

Global Cybersecurity Index, 2024

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Global Cybersecurity Index, 2024

Why in the News?

  • India has achieved Tier 1 status in the Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI) 2024, published by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
    • With a score of 98.49 out of 100, India is now among the top nations demonstrating role-model cybersecurity practices.

About Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI):

Details
Launch  2015, by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

About ITU

• Founded on 17 May 1865 as the International Telegraph Union
• Presently has 193 member states, with South Sudan joining most recently in 2011
• India became a member in 1869

Objective • Measures the commitment of countries to cybersecurity based on five pillars.
• Helps identify areas for improvement and encourages capacity and capability building.
Five Pillars Legal: Laws and regulations on cybercrime and cybersecurity
Technical: Implementation of technical capabilities via national and sector-specific agencies
Organizational: National strategies and organizations implementing cybersecurity
Capacity Development: Awareness, training, education, and incentives for cybersecurity
Cooperation: Partnerships between agencies, firms, and countries
Strengths and Weaknesses • Most countries are strongest in the Legal pillar.
• The Capacity Development and Technical pillars are where most countries are weakest.
GCI 2024 Five-Tier Analysis Tier 1 (Role-modelling): Score of 95-100
Tier 2 (Advancing): Score of 85-95
Tier 3 (Establishing): Score of 55-85
Tier 4 (Evolving):

 

PYQ:

[2020] In India, under cyber insurance for individuals, which of the following benefits are generally covered, in addition to payment for the loss of funds and other benefits?

1. Cost of restoration of the computer system in case of malware disrupting access to one’s computer

2. Cost of a new computer if some miscreant willfully damages it, if proved so.

3. Cost of hiring a specialized consultant to minimize the loss in case of cyber extortion

4. Cost of defence in the Court of Law if any third-party files a suit

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2 and 4 only

(b) 1, 3 and 4 only

(c) 2 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3, and 4

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: MRSA, Vancomycin

Why in the News?

In 2019, MRSA caused over 100,000 deaths, and although vancomycin has been the main treatment for 40 years, a new study shows it may not stay effective for long.

About Vancomycin

  • Vancomycin is an antibiotic that has been a cornerstone in the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections for over 40 years.
  • It is a glycopeptide antibiotic that works by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, making it particularly effective against gram-positive bacteria like MRSA.
  • It has remained effective against MRSA due to its ability to target bacteria that have become resistant to other antibiotics like methicillin.
  • For decades, vancomycin has been the first-line treatment for severe MRSA infections, such as those affecting the bloodstream, heart, bones, and lungs.

How Vancomycin is losing its effectiveness against MRSA?

MRSA rarely develops resistance to vancomycin, but when it does, it leads to the emergence of vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA).

  • Resistance Mechanism: When S. aureus acquires the vanA operon, a gene cluster responsible for vancomycin resistance, it can resist the antibiotic. However, this resistance usually comes with a fitness cost—the bacteria tend to grow slower, making them less virulent.
  • Fitness Compensation: Recent research shows that S. aureus can evolve to overcome this fitness cost, allowing VRSA to grow faster and remain resistant even in the absence of vancomycin. This adaptation means the bacteria are less likely to lose their resistance and can spread more easily.
  • Mutations: The study found that additional mutations in the VRSA strains exposed to vancomycin helped the bacteria adapt and maintain resistance. These mutations made the bacteria more fit, ensuring they could thrive even in the presence of vancomycin.
  • Diminishing Options: As VRSA continues to adapt, vancomycin may no longer be reliable for treating MRSA infections. This raises concerns about the long-term viability of the antibiotic, prompting the need for new treatment strategies.

PYQ:

[2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without Doctor’s prescription, be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.

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Telecom and Postal Sector – Spectrum Allocation, Call Drops, Predatory Pricing, etc

Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR)

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR)

Why in the News?

The Supreme Court has dismissed the curative petitions filed by major telecom service providers, seeking relief from the 2019 judgment regarding Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR) dues.

What is Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR)?

  • AGR is the usage and licensing fee that telecom operators are charged by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT).
  • It forms the basis for calculating telecom companies’ dues to the government, including the license fee and spectrum usage charges (SUC).
  • The AGR is divided into:
  1. Spectrum Usage Charges (SUC): These are pegged at 3-5% of AGR, depending on the telecom company’s spectrum holdings.
  2. License Fees: Telecom operators are required to pay 8% of their AGR as a license fee to the government.

Contention over AGR Calculation

  • The DoT maintains that AGR should include all revenues earned by telecom companies, including non-telecom sources such as deposit interest, asset sales, and dividends.
  • Telecom operators, on the other hand, insist that AGR should only include revenues generated from core telecom services, excluding income from non-telecom sources like interest and capital gains.

Legal Disputes on AGR

  1. Beginning of the Dispute (2005): The AGR saga began in 2005 when the Cellular Operators Association of India (COAI) challenged the government’s definition of AGR in court. The dispute centered on whether non-telecom revenue should be included in the AGR calculation.
  2. TDSAT Ruling (2015): In 2015, the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT) ruled in favor of telecom companies. TDSAT held that AGR should include only revenue from core telecom activities and exclude non-core sources such as rent, profit from the sale of assets, dividends, and interest income.
  3. Supreme Court Ruling (2019): Setting aside the TDSAT decision, the SC upheld the DoT’s definition of AGR on October 24, 2019, declaring that AGR must include all revenue sources, including non-telecom activities like interest and capital gains. This ruling significantly increased the financial liabilities of telecom companies, as they had to pay outstanding dues.

Financial Impact of the AGR Ruling

The Supreme Court ruling had serious financial implications for telecom companies:

  • Massive Liabilities: Telecom companies, especially Vodafone Idea and Bharti Airtel, faced huge financial liabilities. The ruling resulted in unpaid dues amounting to over ₹1.4 lakh crore, which included penalties and interest.
  • Vodafone Idea’s Crisis: Vodafone Idea, in particular, was hit hard by these liabilities and faced potential insolvency, with its future in the Indian telecom sector hanging in the balance.
  • Sector Consolidation: The financial pressure from the AGR liabilities led to the consolidation of the telecom sector, with smaller players exiting the market.

PYQ:

[2019] In India, which of the following review the Independent regulators in sectors like telecommunications, insurance, electricity, etc.?

  1. Ad Hoc Committees set up by the Parliament
  2. Parliamentary Department Related Standing Committees
  3. Finance Commission
  4. Financial Sector Legislative Reforms Commission
  5. NITI Aayog

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 1, 3 and 4

(c) 3, 4 and 5

(d) 2 and 5

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GI(Geographical Indicator) Tags

Nagaland’s King Chilli Festival

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Naga King Chilli

Why in the News?

The village of Seiyhama in Nagaland hosted the 3rd edition of the Naga King Chilli Festival, celebrating the importance of the Naga king chilli, one of the world’s hottest chillies.

About Naga King Chilli

  • The Naga King Chilli, also known as Raja Mircha or Bhut Jolokia, is one of the world’s hottest chillies, with heat levels exceeding 1 million Scoville Heat Units (SHU).
  • It is primarily grown in the Northeast Indian states of Nagaland, Assam, Manipur, and Arunachal Pradesh.
  • In 2006, it was certified by the Guinness World Records as the hottest chilli in the world, a title it held for several years.
  • In 2008, it received a GI tag, recognizing its unique origin and significance in the global spice market.
  • The chilli has a heat range of 800,000 to 1,041,427 SHU, making it significantly hotter than common chillies like the jalapeño, which has a SHU of 2,500 to 8,000.
  • Benefits offered:
    • Rich in capsaicin, it is known for its pain-relieving properties and potential health benefits, such as boosting metabolism, promoting heart health, and relieving pain and inflammation.
    • Traditionally, the chilli has been used to preserve food in Nagaland’s hot, humid climate, helping to extend the shelf life of food and reduce waste.
  • Cultivation:
    • The chilli is grown in bamboo groves using ancient cultivation methods.
    • Farming begins in December or January, with peak harvests in August and September.
    • Approximately 150 households in Seiyhama village, Nagaland, cultivate the Naga King Chilli, with the annual harvest reaching 14,000 kg, valued at ₹70 lakh.

PYQ:

[2015] Which of the following has/have been accorded ‘Geographical Indication’ status?

1. Banaras Brocades and Sarees

2. Rajasthani Daal-Bati-Churma

3. Tirupathi Laddu

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 only 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

[pib] Pest-Control Pheromone Dispenser

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Pest-Control Pheromone Dispenser

Why in the News?

A new sustainable pheromone dispenser has been developed through a collaborative research project by scientists from Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR) and ICAR–National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (ICAR–NBAIR).

What is the Pest-Control Pheromone Dispenser?

Details
What is it? A device designed to release pheromones that alter the behaviour of pests, primarily used in agriculture to control infestations and prevent crop damage.
Developed By A collaborative project by scientists from Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bengaluru, and ICAR–National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (ICAR–NBAIR), India.
How it Works
  • Releases synthetic pheromones that mimic natural insect signals.
  • Attracts pests to traps or disrupts mating cycles, preventing infestations.
Technology
  • Uses mesoporous silica matrix technology for controlled release.
  • Ensures consistent pheromone release, independent of external factors like temperature.
Benefits
  • Cost-effective: Fewer replacements of pheromones reduce overall costs.
  • Labor-saving: Longer intervals between replacements lower labor requirements.
  • Environmentally friendly: Reduces chemical pesticide use, promoting sustainable agriculture.
  • Increased efficacy: Stable release rate ensures effective pest control over extended periods.
Scalability Suitable for both small-scale farms and large industrial agricultural operations, making it highly scalable.

 

PYQ:

[2018] With reference to the Genetically Modified mustard (GM mustard) developed in India, consider the following statements:

1. GM mustard has the genes of a soil bacterium that give the plant the property of pest-resistance to a wide variety of pests.

2. GM mustard has the genes that allow the plant cross-pollination and hybridization.

3. GM mustard has been developed jointly by the IARI and Punjab Agricultural University.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 3 only

(b) 2 only

(c) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

Square Kilometer Array (SKA) becomes partially functional

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Square Kilometer Array (SKA) Project

Why in the News?

The Square Kilometer Array (SKA), the world’s largest radio telescope, has carried out its first observations, marking a major milestone.

About Square Kilometer Array (SKA) Project:

Details
Project Overview SKA is a global project aimed at building the world’s largest radio telescope network to explore the universe, galaxies, dark matter, and extraterrestrial life.
Construction Phases Two phases:

  1. SKA-Mid in South Africa operates in higher frequency ranges.
  2. SKA-Low in Australia operates in lower frequency ranges.

Phase 1 (SKA- Mid) began in December 2022. Full operations expected by 2029.

Headquarters Jodrell Bank Observatory, UK
Site Locations Telescope arrays in Australia (low-frequency) and South Africa (mid-frequency).
Design and Features
  • 197 parabolic radio antennae in South Africa
  • 131,072 low-frequency antennae in Australia

These are capable of detecting faint radio signals from vast distances.

Global Consortium 16 member countries, including Australia, South Africa, India, China, Japan, and several European nations.
India’s Role
  • India’s Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (NCRA, TIFR) is a key partner
  • SKA India consortium (20+ institutions) involved in software, signal processing, and digital hardware development
Key Technologies Advanced interferometer system using wave interference for data collection.
Scientific Objectives
  • Explore galaxies at the edge of the universe
  • Study the ‘Dark Ages’ and phenomena like dark matter and dark energy
  • Search for extraterrestrial life
Frequency Range Operates between 50 MHz to 15.4 GHz
Global Collaboration Key collaboration among India, Australia, South Africa, Italy, and other member nations for data generation, analysis, and installation of antennas.

 

PYQ:

[2022] Launched on 25th December, 2021, James Webb Space Telescope has been much in the news since then. What are its unique features which make it superior to its predecessor Space Telescopes? What are the key goals of this mission? What potential benefits does it hold for the human race?

[2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:

1. It is the world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic kilometre of ice.

2. It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter

3. It is buried deep in the ice.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3 only

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Animal Husbandry, Dairy & Fisheries Sector – Pashudhan Sanjivani, E- Pashudhan Haat, etc

White Revolution 2.0

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: White Revolution 2.0

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Cooperation unveiled White Revolution 2.0, focusing on empowering women farmers and creating job opportunities in the dairy cooperative sector.

What is White Revolution 2.0?

Details
Objective Transforming India’s dairy sector by empowering women farmers, increasing milk production, and modernizing dairy infrastructure.
Target  Increase procurement from the current 660 lakh litres per day to 1,000 lakh litres per day.
Funding • Initial funding of ₹40,000 per Multi-Purpose Primary Agricultural Credit Society (PACS) by National Dairy Development Board.
• Total outlay of ₹70,125 crore with full government budgetary support.
Provisions and Features 1. Women Empowerment: Focus on empowering women in the dairy sector and strengthening women’s cooperatives.
2. Increase in Milk Procurement: Aims to raise procurement by 50% over the next five years.
3. Cooperative Infrastructure: 100,000 new and existing cooperative societies (district cooperative societies and Primary Agricultural Credit Societies) to be set up or enhanced.
4. RuPay Kisan Credit Cards: Nationwide rollout for dairy farmers, with micro-ATMs at cooperative societies.
5. Computerisation of Primary Agricultural Credit Societies: 67,930 Primary Agricultural Credit Societies will be computerised for better management.
Significance 1. Women Empowerment: Creates leadership opportunities for women in dairy, promoting gender equality.
2. Boost to Rural Economy: Strengthening cooperatives and milk procurement will improve rural livelihoods.
3. Improved Infrastructure: Modern technology, micro-ATMs, and computerisation will increase efficiency.
4. Job Creation: Expanding cooperatives and modern practices will generate jobs for 130 million farmers.
5. Malnutrition Reduction: Enhances dairy quality to combat malnutrition.
6. Cooperative Modernisation: Focus on Artificial Intelligence and advanced technologies.
7. Dairy Exports Boost: Improved production and quality to enhance India’s dairy exports.

 

PYQ:

[2017] Explain various types of revolutions, took place in Agriculture after Independence in India. How these revolutions have helped in poverty alleviation and food security in India?

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

Amoebic Meningoencephalitis

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM); Naegleria fowleri.

Why in the News?

    • This year, Kerala faced a sudden surge in Amoebic Meningoencephalitis cases, caused by free-living amoebae (FLA) found in freshwater ponds, lakes, and rivers.
  • Kerala also saw a diverse range of amoebic infections, caused by Naegleria fowleri, Vermamoeba vermiforis, and Acanthamoeba.

What is Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM)?

  • PAM is caused by the Naegleria fowleri, often referred to as the “brain-eating amoeba“. It destroys brain tissue, causing severe swelling and is fatal in most cases.
    • An amoeba is a type of cell or unicellular organism with the ability to alter its shape, primarily by extending and retracting pseudopods.
    • Higher temperatures of up to 115°F (46°C) are conducive to its growth and it can survive for short periods in warm environments.
  • The amoeba enters the body through the nose, typically during activities like swimming, and travels to the brain, causing severe damage.
  • PAM is also non-communicable.
  • Symptoms: Headache, fever, nausea, vomiting, stiff neck, confusion, seizures, hallucinations, and coma.
    • According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), most people with PAM die within 1 to 18 days after symptoms begin. It usually leads to coma and death after 5 days.

Diagnosis and Treatment:

  • Currently, there are no established effective treatments for PAM.
  • Diagnosis involves PCR tests of cerebrospinal fluid, though detection can be challenging due to the rarity of PAM.
  • Treatment follows CDC guidelines, including miltefosine, Azithromycin, and Amphotericin B, with miltefosine recently procured by the State Health Department from Germany.
    • Medical interventions typically involve a combination of drugs, including amphotericin B, azithromycin, fluconazole, rifampin, miltefosine, and dexamethasone.

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

100 Years of Harappan Civilization

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Important sites of Indus valley Civilization

Why in the News?

It has been 100 years since the discovery of the Harappan Civilization, announced by John Marshall on September 20, 1924.

Harappa: Remains of a Civilization

  • The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, flourished between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE, with earlier settlements dating back to 3200 BCE.
  • The origins of this civilisation are traced back to Mehrgarh in Balochistan, which dates to 7000 BCE.
  • It is considered one of the three earliest civilizations, alongside Egypt and Mesopotamia.
  • The civilization covered over 1.5 million sq. km, stretching across modern-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
  • Remains of the civilization include:
    • Well-planned cities with a grid layout, intersecting streets, and fortified structures.
    • Advanced drainage systems with underground sewers and covered drains, showing a strong emphasis on hygiene.
    • Granaries, warehouses, and dockyards, indicating the presence of structured trade and food storage mechanisms.
    • The discovery of seals made of steatite, often engraved with animals and an un-deciphered script, suggesting a sophisticated administrative system.
    • Craftsmanship in pottery, bead-making, terracotta figurines, metal artefacts, and weaving.
    • Water management systems such as reservoirs, wells, and baths, indicating an advanced understanding of hydraulic engineering.

The Discoverers:

  • Two ASI archaeologists were credited with the discovery:
    • Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa in 1921-22, discovering seals, pottery, and beads.
    • Rakhal Das Banerji began excavating Mohenjo-daro in 1922, finding similar items such as seals and copper objects.
  • John Marshall noticed the similarity between the objects found at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, despite the sites being 640 km apart.

About the Mohenjo-daro Site:

  • Mohenjo-daro is one of the largest cities of the Harappan Civilization, located in the Sindh province of Pakistan, discovered in 1922 by Rakhal Das Banerji.
  • The city represents one of the finest examples of ancient urban planning:
    • Great Bath: A large, centrally located structure thought to be used for ritual bathing or religious ceremonies. It is considered one of the earliest public water tanks in history.
    • Granaries: Massive storage facilities near the citadel suggest an organized system of storing food for the community.
    • Citadel and Lower Town: The city was divided into a raised citadel for the ruling elite and a lower town for common people. Both areas had well-planned streets and residential complexes.
    • Drainage Systems: Mohenjo-daro featured covered drainage systems with individual toilets connected to the drainage network, showcasing an impressive public sanitation system.
    • Residential Buildings: Homes were built from uniform mud bricks, with courtyards and bathrooms, and were often multi-storied. The use of standardised brick sizes (ratio 1:2:4) and cubic weights showed their high degree of organisation.
  • Artefacts found at Mohenjo-daro include:
    • Seals with animal motifs and the un-deciphered Harappan script, believed to have been used for administrative or trade purposes.
    • Pottery and tools made of bronze and copper.
    • Terracotta figurines, jewellery, and toys that reflect a highly developed artistic culture.
    • Weights and measures based on a uniform standard, indicating the use of a standardized economic system.
  • The city’s streets were aligned north-south and east-west, cutting at right angles, allowing for efficient transportation, including bullock carts.
  • Mohenjo-daro is believed to have had trade links with Mesopotamia, as suggested by artefacts with Mesopotamian connections.

PYQ:

[2013] Which of the following characterizes/characterize the people of Indus Valley Civilization?

1. They possessed great palaces and temples.

2. They worshipped both male and female deities.

3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare.

Select the correct statement/statements using the codes given below.

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 only

(c) 1, 2 and 3

(d) None of the statements given above is correct

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Why Earth will temporarily get a ‘Mini-Moon’ in September?

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Mini-Moon, Asteroid 2024 PT5,

Why in the News?

In a rare celestial event, Earth’s gravitational field will witness a small asteroid, 2024 PT5, creating a “mini-moon” for two months.

What is Mini-Moon?

  • A mini-moon is a small asteroid temporarily captured by Earth’s gravitational field, orbiting the planet for a short period before escaping back into space.
  • Unlike Earth’s permanent moon, mini-moons only stay for a few months to a few years before being ejected from orbit.
  • Mini-moons are a rare occurrence because most asteroids either pass by Earth or burn up in the atmosphere rather than being captured by Earth’s gravity.
  • Mini-moons are usually small, often just a few meters in diameter.
    • For example, 2024 PT5 is only about 33 feet (10 meters) in length.
  • They are hard to detect and are usually discovered using advanced telescopic surveys like NASA’s Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS).

Significance of Mini-Moons

  • Mini-moons offer scientists a unique opportunity to study near-Earth objects, enhancing our understanding of asteroids’ behavior and composition.
  • Mini-moons could contain valuable minerals or water, making them potential targets for future space missions to extract resources.
  • Studying mini-moons helps scientists learn more about Earth’s gravitational influence and how it interacts with space objects.

PYQ:

[2011] What is the difference between asteroids and comets?

  1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky and metallic material.
  2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and Mercury.
  3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Indian Army Updates

[pib] A poem on ‘National War Memorial’ and a chapter on ‘Veer Abdul Hameed’ included in NCERT

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: National War Memorial, Abdul Hameed (PVC)

Why in the News?

A poem on National War Memorial and a chapter about Veer Abdul Hameed (PVC) introduced by the Ministries of Defence and Education has been included in the NCERT Class VI curriculum.

About National War Memorial

  • The National War Memorial was unveiled on 25th February 2019 to honor Indian soldiers who sacrificed their lives in conflicts with Pakistan, China, 1961 Goa war and Operation Pawan.
  • The monument is designed in a C-hexagon layout, with names of the fallen soldiers inscribed on its walls.
  • It was designed by Yogesh Chandrasan of WeBe Design Lab.
  • Key features include the Amar Chakra (Circle of Immortality) with the ‘Eternal Flame’ symbolizing the nation’s commitment to remembering the soldiers.
  • The Veerta Chakra showcases six bronze murals depicting acts of bravery.
  • The Rakshak Chakra symbolizes protection with trees representing troops safeguarding the nation.
  • Tyag Chakra (Circle of Sacrifice) features concentric granite walls honoring the soldiers who have died since Independence.
  • The memorial also features busts of 21 soldiers who have received the Param Vir Chakra, India’s highest gallantry award.

Who was Veer Abdul Hameed?

  • Abdul Hamid was a soldier in the 4th Grenadiers of the Indian Army.
  • He fought in the Battle of Asal Uttar during the 1965 India-Pakistan war, which took place near the India-Pakistan border in Punjab.
  • On 10th September 1965, he destroyed 3 Pakistani tanks and damaged a 4th near Chima village. He was killed during the battle.
  • For his exceptional bravery, he was posthumously awarded the Param Vir Chakra, India’s highest military honour.
  • A war memorial now stands at the site of his death, featuring a captured Pakistani Patton tank as a tribute to his courage.

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

TRISHNA Mission

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: TRISHNA Mission

Why in the News?

Philippe Baptiste, head of the French Space Agency, talked about the joint India-France “TRISHNA Mission.”

TRISHNA Mission:

Details
Overview A joint Indo-French Earth observation satellite project developed by ISRO and CNES (French Space Agency).

Acronym for “Thermal infraRed Imaging Satellite for High-resolution Natural resource Assessment” (TRISHNA Mission)

Launch Year Targeted for 2026.
Mission Lifespan Designed for a 5-year operational life.
Primary Objectives • Monitor water and energy budgets of the continental biosphere.

• Assess evapotranspiration for efficient water management.

• Improve agricultural water productivity and assist in irrigation water management.

• Provide high-resolution observations of water quality in coastal and inland waters. 

• Assess urban heat islands and detect heat anomalies.

Payloads Thermal Infrared (TIR) Payload: Provided by CNES, this sensor maps surface temperature and emissivity in high resolution.

Visible-Near Infrared-Short Wave Infrared (VNIR-SWIR) Payload: Developed by ISRO, this sensor uses seven spectral bands for detailed mapping of surface reflectance.

Orbit and Spatial Resolution • TRISHNA will operate in a sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 761 km.

• Spatial resolution: 57 meters for land and coastal areas, 1 km for ocean and polar regions.

Application and Significance   • Supports water resource management, agriculture, and urban planning through precise data on water stress, crop productivity, and urban heat islands.
• Enhances climate resilience by tracking droughts, evapotranspiration, and permafrost changes.
• Contributes to global environmental initiatives like GEOGLAM and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by providing key agricultural and climate variables.

 

PYQ:

[2016] Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology helped India in its socio-economic development?

[2010] In the context of space technology, what is “Bhuvan”, recently in the news?

(a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India

(b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II

(c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India

(d) A space telescope developed by India

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

The Volcanic Island of Rapa Nui

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Rapa Nui Island, Moai statues

Rapa Nui

Why in the News?

The Volcanic Island of Rapa Nui (also known as Easter Island) has always been mysterious due to its harsh geography and iconic Moai statues.

About Rapa Nui Island

Details
Location • Situated in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, Rapa Nui is part of Polynesia and a territory of Chile.
• One of the most remote islands, about 3,500 km from Chile.
Size • Covers an area of 160 sq. km.
Geographical details • The island has a volcanic origin, featuring lava-covered terrain and rocky soil.

• Notable volcanoes include Terevaka, Poike, and Rano Kau.

Tropical climate with average temperatures ranging between 18°C and 28°C.

Rainfall occurs mostly in the winter months.

Moai Statues • Famous for over 900 moai statues, some as tall as 40 ft and weighing 75 tonnes.
• These statues were built between the 13th and 16th centuries to honor revered ancestors.
• Carved from volcanic rock and transported across great distances.
Discovery • Discovered by European sailors on Easter Sunday, 1722, which gave it the name Easter Island.
• The island had been settled centuries earlier by Polynesian explorers who navigated thousands of kilometers of ocean.
Significance of New Findings • Recent studies, including the use of AI analysis of satellite images, have debunked earlier theories of ecological collapse.
• Genetic studies show Native American ancestry before European contact, indicating earlier interactions with South America.

 

PYQ:

[2018] Consider the following statements:

1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian territory.

2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.

3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 3 only

(d) 1 and 3

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

Chandrayaan-4, Venus orbiter gets approval from Cabinet

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Chandrayaan 4, Venus Orbiter Mission

Why in the News?

The Union Cabinet approved the expansion of the Chandrayaan-4 mission, Venus Orbiter Mission (Shukrayaan Misison), Gaganyaan, the development of India’s first space station (the Bharatiya Antariksh Station), and NextGen launch vehicles.

About Chandrayaan-4 Mission

  • Chandrayaan-4 is the fourth mission in India’s Chandrayaan program (2003).
  • The mission is currently under conceptualisation and expected to launch around 2027.
  • Aims: To develop technology for a successful moon landing and ensure a safe return to Earth.
  • The mission will be launched in two phases onboard two LVM3 rockets.
  • It will collect lunar samples for analysis on Earth.

About Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM)

  • The VOM, also called Shukrayaan-1, is an upcoming ISRO mission targeting a 2028 launch. 
  • The mission aims to study Venus’ surface, atmosphere, volcanic activity, and solar wind interactions with its ionosphere.
  • It will have a mission duration of 4 years.
  • The spacecraft will operate in an elliptical orbit, with distances of 60,000 km at apoapsis and 500 km at periapsis.
  • Its payload has a capacity of 100 kg, is powered by 500 watts, and will feature Indian and international instruments for comprehensive analysis.
  • For the mission’s payload and technology, collaborations with NASA, CNES (France), and Russia have been established.

PYQ:

[2016] The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO:

  1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission
  2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
  3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Fertilizer Sector reforms – NBS, bio-fertilizers, Neem coating, etc.

Ammonium Nitrate imports cause concern                                                                       

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Ammonium Nitrate

Why in the News?

  • Ammonium Nitrate (AN) imports from Russia have sharply increased affecting domestic fertilizer companies in India.
    • The import of Ammonium Nitrate is concerning due to increased dependence on foreign supply, price disparity impacting domestic industries, and potential risks to national energy and security.

What is Ammonium Nitrate?

  • Ammonium Nitrate (NHNO) is a nitrogen-rich, white, crystalline chemical compound.
  • It is soluble in water and commonly used in various industries.
  • Uses:
    • It is widely used as a fertilizer in agriculture.
    • It serves as a component for anaesthetic gases and cold packs.
    • It is also a key ingredient in commercial explosives used for mining and construction.
  • Ammonium nitrate is classified as an oxidizing substance under Grade 5.1 by the United Nations.
  • India’s Regulations:
    • AN is regulated under The Ammonium Nitrate Rules, 2012, and its manufacture or use requires a license.
    • The Explosives Act, 1884 defines ammonium nitrate as any compound with more than 45% AN by weight.
    • Storage Restrictions: Storing large quantities of AN in populated areas is illegal in India.
    • For manufacturing, companies need an industrial license under the Industrial Development and Regulation Act, 1951.

Why is it a Cause of Concern?

  • Ammonium Nitrate is a primary component in explosive mixtures like ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil).
  • Though not explosive on its own, it becomes highly dangerous when mixed with detonators like RDX or TNT.
  • It has been used in Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) by terrorist groups.
  • Accidents involving AN, like the Beirut port explosion in 2020, have raised serious concerns about its storage and handling.
  • Its widespread use in fertilizers leads to concerns about environmental impact, especially when mishandled.
  • Improper storage in populated areas can result in devastating accidents, which is why stringent regulations are in place to control its use, storage, and transport.

PYQ:

[2015] What can be the impact of excessive/inappropriate use of nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture?

1. Proliferation of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms in soil can occur.

2. Increase in the acidity of soil can take place.

3. Leaching of nitrate to the ground-water can occur.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 and 3 only

(b) 2 only

(c) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

COP29 in Baku, Azerbaijan

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: COP29

Why in the News?

COP29 is set to be hosted by Azerbaijan from November 11 to 22. It has a central focus on finalising a agreement on Climate Finance Action Fund (CFAF) particularly for the post-2025 period.

Proposals by Azerbaijan:

Azerbaijan has included key proposals in the COP29 Action Agenda, such as:

  • Increasing global energy storage capacity by six times by 2030.
  • Promoting a global market for green hydrogen.
  • Ensuring the carbon footprint from digitisation and data centres is kept to a minimum.

About the Climate Finance Action Fund (CFAF):

  • The CFAF will be capitalised with contributions from fossil fuel producing countries
  • It will be headquartered with its secretariat in Baku, Azerbaijan.
  • It will rely on voluntary contributions from fossil-fuel producing countries and companies.
  • Azerbaijan, a major petroleum economy, will make the first contribution to kickstart the fund.
  • Fossil-fuel producing countries and companies will have the option to make annual contributions, either as a fixed sum or based on production volumes.
  • The funds will be divided equally:
    • 50% will go toward climate projects in developing countries.
    • 50% will support developing nations in implementing national climate action plans.
  • The fund will become operational once it reaches a minimum corpus of $1 billion.
  • At least 10 countries must commit to being shareholders for the fund to start.
  • 20% of the revenues generated from investments will be deposited in a Rapid Response Funding Facility (2R2F) providing highly concessional and grant-based support.

What did Paris Agreement of 2015 said on Climate Finance?

  • Under the Paris Agreement (2015), developed countries are obligated to raise at least $100 billion annually to aid developing nations in their fight against climate change.
    • This amount is expected to increase after 2025.
  • Negotiations have been slow, and countries are still debating the quantum of finance that industrialised nations should provide.

 

PYQ:

[2016] With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?

  1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN, and it will go into effect in 2017.
  2. It aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2ºC or even 1.5ºC above pre-industrial levels.
  3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Section 2 of the Indian Flag Code (2002)

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Indian Flag Code

Why in the News?

The Bihar Police arrested some miscreants for waving India’s national flag with distorted Ashok Chakra/Dhammachakra.

Significance of Ashok Chakra:

  • Symbolism: Represents righteousness, justice, and the path of virtue, urging citizens to uphold moral values.
  • Legacy of Dhamma: Reflects Emperor Ashoka’s principles of peace, non-violence, and welfare, after his embrace of Buddhism.
  • Compassion for all: Derived from the Dhammachakra, it represents the Buddhist philosophy of ethical living and compassion.
  • Unity and Progress: The circular design symbolizes unity and continuous development, emphasizing national harmony and forward movement.

About Flag Code of India, 2002:

Details
Objective To regulate the display, usage, and respect for the Indian National Flag by citizens, organizations, and the government.
Basisi Article 51 ‘A’ contained in Part IV A i.e. Fundamental Duties asks: To abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem in clause (a).
Structure The Flag Code is divided into three parts:

  1. Part I: General provisions related to the display of the national flag by all.
  2. Part II: Display of the flag by government bodies.
  3. Part III: Display of the flag by public, private organizations, and educational institutions.
Material of Flag
  • The national flag should be made of hand-spun and hand-woven wool, cotton, silk, or khadi bunting.
  • However, polyester and machine-made flags were allowed under amendments in 2021.
Prohibitions (Section 2.2)
  • Not be used as a drapery, costume, or uniform.
  • Not be used for commercial purposes or as a receptacle.
Display Guidelines (Section 2.1)
  • Must be hoisted respectfully, always ensuring that the saffron band is on top when displayed vertically.
  • Should never touch the ground or be used as decoration.
Amendments In 2022, rules were amended to allow the national flag to be flown both during the day and night, as long as it is hoisted in a dignified manner.
Penalties Disrespect or misuse of the national flag is punishable under the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971.

 

PYQ:

[2008] What is the number of spokes in the Dharmachakra in the National Flag of India?

(a) 16

(b) 18

(c) 22

(d) 24

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

How good are Modern Telescopes?

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Telescopes

Why in the News?

Modern telescopes, both on Earth and in space, expand our understanding of the universe by gathering and focusing light from distant celestial bodies, revealing cosmic secrets.

Modern Telescopes: Everything you need to know

Primary Functions and Features

Purpose  • Telescopes serve as windows into space, revealing distant celestial bodies and helping explore the universe.
• Their primary function is to gather more light than the human eye can, making faint objects visible.
Types 1. Reflecting Telescopes:
• Use mirrors to focus light and create images.
• Most common in large observatories due to the use of parabolic mirrors, which prevent light scattering and offer clear images.
2. Refracting Telescopes:
• Use lenses to bend and focus light (Concave and Convex lenses used)
• Limited by lens size, with a maximum of about 1 meter (e.g., Yerkes Observatory). Large lenses may sag, distorting the image.
Primary purpose  • Telescopes are designed to collect more light than the human eye.
• The light-gathering ability is proportional to the size of the aperture (opening).
• Example: A small 70mm telescope collects 118 times more light than the human eye.

Features of Telescopes

Brightness and Magnitude • Celestial objects’ brightness is measured in apparent magnitude (lower numbers = brighter).
• Examples: Sun (-26.78), Venus (-4.92), Sirius (-1.46), Andromeda Galaxy (+3.44).
• Small telescopes can detect objects with magnitudes up to +11.2, which are 100 times fainter than what the human eye can see.
Resolution and Detail • The resolution of a telescope determines how much detail it can show.
• A small telescope can resolve details 1.47 arcseconds apart (40 times more detail than the human eye, which resolves details 60 arcseconds apart).

Why are Telescopes set up on Mountains?

Mountaintop benefits • High-altitude observatories are set up to reduce atmospheric distortion, which affects image quality (e.g., stars twinkling).
• Space telescopes, like Hubble, are entirely above the atmosphere and provide clear, undistorted images.
Adaptive Optics • Ground-based telescopes use adaptive optics to correct atmospheric distortions.
• Lasers create artificial stars, and the telescope adjusts its mirrors to reduce twinkling.

About the New Segmented Mirrors

Overcoming Mirror Limitations • Large mirrors (over 8.5 meters) can sag under their own weight.
Segmented mirrors solve this by using smaller sections to create larger, effective mirrors (e.g., Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) with a 39.3-meter aperture).
Notable Telescopes  Large Binocular Telescope (LBT): Two 8.4-meter mirrors, combined aperture of 11.9 meters.
Extremely Large Telescope (ELT): Under construction in Chile, it will have a 39.3-meter aperture.
Subaru Telescope (Hawaii): Captured objects with a magnitude of +27.7, 100 million times fainter than what the human eye can see.

 

PYQ:

[2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:

1. It is the world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic kilometre of ice.

2. It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter

3. It is buried deep in the ice.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3 only

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