Why in the News?
As of 2024–25, India’s “invisibles” trade—comprising services exports and private money transfers—has not only surpassed its merchandise exports but also emerged as a key stabiliser of the current account deficit.
What are Invisible Exports (in India’s context)?
- What is it: Invisible exports refer to international trade in services and income flows that do not involve physical goods crossing borders. These transactions are digital or financial, rather than visible at ports or airports.
- Types of Services Included: They comprise a wide range of service-based exports such as IT services, financial consulting, legal and accounting services, R&D, and BPO operations.
- Inclusion of Remittances: Private remittances—money sent home by Indians working abroad—are counted as part of invisibles in India’s Balance of Payments (BoP).
- BoP Classification: These transactions are recorded under the “Current Account” of the BoP, specifically in the sub-categories of services, primary income, and secondary income.
- Characteristics: Unlike physical exports, invisible exports do not require shipping, face fewer trade barriers, and rely heavily on skilled human capital.
- Leading Examples: India’s key invisible exports include software and IT-enabled services (by firms like Infosys, TCS, Wipro), Global Capability Centers, financial and legal services, and education, tourism, and medical services.
- Role of Migrant Remittances: Remittances from NRIs and migrant workers play a crucial role and are one of the largest components of India’s invisible receipts.
Their Contribution in Trade
- Higher Value than Goods Exports: In 2024–25, India’s gross invisible receipts reached $576.5 billion, surpassing merchandise exports of $441.8 billion. Services alone brought in $387.5 billion, a major leap from $26.9 billion in 2003–04, while remittances added $135.4 billion.
- Buffer Against Trade Deficits: While the merchandise trade deficit stood at $287.2 billion, a net invisible surplus of $263.8 billion helped reduce the overall current account deficit to just $23.4 billion, providing crucial stability.
- Resilience Across Global Crises: Invisible exports remained strong during major disruptions like the 2008 financial crisis, COVID-19 pandemic, and ongoing geopolitical tensions, showcasing greater resilience than merchandise trade.
- Human Capital-Driven Growth: Services exports are powered by India’s skilled workforce, not physical infrastructure. India thrives as the “office of the world”, moving beyond the traditional “back office” label.
- Less Policy Dependence: Growth in invisible exports occurred largely without heavy government incentives or trade agreements. India still lacks strong service-sector provisions in its major trade deals.
| [UPSC 2006] Assertion (A): Balance of Payments represents a better picture of a country’s economic transactions with the rest of the world than the Balance of Trade.
Reason (R): Balance of Payments takes into account the exchange of both visible and invisible items whereas Balance of Trade does not.
Options: (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A ** (b) Both A and R are individually true and R is not the correct explanation of A (c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true |
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Why in the News?
Japan has recorded over 1,000 tremors in two weeks near the Tokara Islands, signalling a surge in seismic activity.
Why is Japan so prone to earthquakes?
- Tectonic Plate Convergence: Japan lies at the junction of four major tectonic plates—the Pacific, Philippine Sea, Eurasian, and North American—which constantly collide and shift.
- Subduction Zones: Oceanic plates (Pacific and Philippine Sea) are being pushed under continental plates, creating intense geological stress that is released as earthquakes.
- Pacific Ring of Fire: Japan is part of this highly active seismic zone that surrounds the Pacific Ocean and accounts for about 90% of the world’s earthquakes.
- Volcanic and Fault Line Density: The country has about 10% of the world’s active volcanoes and numerous fault lines, increasing its seismic vulnerability.
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About Tokara Islands:
- Overview: They are a small volcanic island chain in the Ryukyu archipelago, forming part of Kagoshima Prefecture in southern Japan:
- Geographical Location: Between Kyushu and the Amami Islands, in the East China Sea.
- Composition: Includes 12 islands, of which 7 are inhabited, such as Nakanoshima, Takarajima, and Kodakarajima.
- Volcanic Origin: Part of the Ryukyu Arc, a highly seismically active zone. Mount Otake, an active volcano, is located on Nakanoshima.
- Geopolitical Relevance: The islands are gaining strategic significance due to rising tensions in the East China Sea, particularly involving China and Taiwan. Recent defense policies have called for fortification of the Tokara and Nansei Islands to enhance surveillance.
| [UPSC 2008] In the year 2007, an earthquake led to massive radioactive water leakage in the largest nuclear plant in the world. In which country did it occur?
Options: (a) Germany (b) Canada (c) Japan* (d) USA |
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Why in the News?
As language debates rise in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, the historic Nagari Pracharini Sabha, key to promoting Hindi and Devanagari, quietly resumed its work after decades.
Hindi Under the British: A Language in Waiting
- Until the late 19th century, Persian remained the court language in much of India. Even by 1861, courts in North-Western Provinces and Oudh still used English, Persian, and Urdu.
- Hindi struggled to assert itself due to a lack of standardised vocabulary and administrative acceptance.
- British official Antony MacDonnell began promoting Devanagari over Persian script in the 1890s.
- On July 14, 1888, Maharaja Lakshmeshwar Singh of Darbhanga adopted Hindi as the official language in his region, influenced by the slogan “Hindi, Hindu, Hindustan.”
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About Nagari Pracharini Sabha:
- Establishment: The Nagari Pracharini Sabha was founded on 16 July 1893 at Queen’s College, Varanasi by Shyamsundar Das, Pandit Ramnarayan Mishra, and Shivkumar Singh.
- Early Patronage: The Sabha received initial support from Babu Radhakrishna Das, a cousin of Bharatendu Harishchandra, a leading figure in modern Hindi literature.
- Organizational Presence: Its headquarters are located in Varanasi, with additional branches in New Delhi and Haridwar.
- Primary Mission: The Sabha aimed to promote the Hindi language and Devanagari script in education, administration, and literature during a period dominated by Persian, Urdu, and English.
- Library Establishment: In 1896, it established the Arya Bhasha Pustakalaya, which became the largest Hindi library in India.
- Research Journal Launch: Also in 1896, it began publishing the Nagari Pracharini Patrika, now recognized as India’s oldest and most authoritative Hindi research journal.
- Cultural Contributions: It managed the Bharat Kala Bhavan museum, until it was eventually transferred to Banaras Hindu University.
- Modern Revival: After years of inactivity and disputes, it was revived in 2023 under Vyomesh Shukla’s leadership, following a court order from the Allahabad High Court.
Its Role in Hindi Promotion:
- Linguistic Standardization: It conducted surveys in rural and urban areas to collect regional vocabulary, laying the groundwork for a standardized Hindi language.
- Lexicographic Landmark: This effort led to the publication of Shabd Sagar in 1929, a monumental 11-volume Hindi dictionary and a major lexicographical achievement.
- Literary Influence: It published Saraswati magazine from 1900, edited by Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, which played a transformative role in shaping modern Hindi literature.
- Preservation of Classics: It produced critical editions of works by poets like Surdas, Tulsidas, Kabirdas, Bihari, and Bhushan, ensuring the preservation of Hindi literary heritage.
- Official Language Recognition: The Sabha’s advocacy led to the recognition of Hindi in Devanagari script for official use in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh by the early 20th century.
- Civil Service Policy Impact: It was instrumental in making Hindi and Urdu proficiency a requirement for government jobs in the United Provinces.
- National Literary Conferences: In 1910, it helped organise the first Akhil Bharatiya Hindi Sahitya Sammelan, giving Hindi a pan-Indian literary platform.
- Support from National Leaders: The Sabha’s mission was endorsed by Mahatma Gandhi, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Motilal Nehru, indicating its central role in the Hindi movement.
| [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:
1. 21st February is declared to be the International Mother Language Day by UNICEF.
2. The demand that Bangla be one of the national languages was raised in the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
India has expressed serious concerns over proposed changes to the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)—popularly known as the Plant Treaty.
About the Plant Treaty, 2001:
- Adoption: It was adopted by the FAO on 3rd November 2001 and came into force in 2004.
- Purpose: It governs the Multilateral System (MLS) for the access and benefit-sharing of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA).
- Key Features:
- Coverage of Crops: The MLS currently includes 64 essential food crops and forages listed in Annex I, which together meet around 80% of the world’s plant-based food needs.
- Access Mechanism: Access to these genetic materials is provided for research, breeding, and training purposes through a Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA).
- Benefit-Sharing Approach: The Treaty incorporates monetary and non-monetary benefit-sharing mechanisms, with a focus on supporting biodiversity in developing countries.
- IP Restrictions: It prohibits any intellectual property claims over the raw genetic materials accessed under the system.
- Recognition of Farmers’ Rights: It affirms farmers’ rights, such as the protection of traditional knowledge, equitable benefit-sharing, and participation in national decisions about PGRFA use and conservation.
- India’s Participation: India is a signatory and active participant and implements the Treaty alongside domestic legislation like the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Act, 2001.
Proposed Amendments:
- Objective: The upcoming proposal aims to expand the scope of the MLS to include all PGRFA, not just those in Annex I.
- New Inclusions: The expansion would bring in indigenous varieties, non-commercial crops, and community-protected heirloom seeds under the MLS framework.
- Impact on India’s Obligations: If passed, the amendment would mandate countries like India to share all plant germplasm through the existing SMTA process.
- No Change in Benefit Terms: The amendment retains current benefit-sharing mechanisms, which critics argue are often non-monetary or merely symbolic.
- Concerns over IP Rights: The broadened scope may lead to intellectual property loopholes if traditional seeds are repackaged or genetically altered.
- Allegations of Biopiracy: Critics argue the proposal enables “backdoor biopiracy”, especially of the Global South’s rich seed diversity.
India’s Concerns:
- Loss of Seed Sovereignty: India fears it will lose discretion over which seeds to share, weakening its ability to protect unique plant biodiversity.
- Undermining of Farmers’ Rights: The proposal might override the rights granted to farmers under the Plant Treaty and India’s PPV&FR Act, which view them as custodians of seed heritage.
- Erosion of National Authority: The expansion could violate Articles 10 and 11 of the Treaty, which grant countries sovereign control over their genetic resources.
- Violation of Federal Principles: The lack of consultation with States is seen as a breach of India’s federal structure, as agriculture is a State subject under Schedule VII of the Constitution.
- Marginalization of Biodiversity Boards: The role of State Biodiversity Boards may be diminished, despite their importance in regulating local germplasm and community rights.
- Lack of Equitable Returns: India argues that the global system offers little real benefit, raising doubts about fairness and justice in benefit-sharing.
| [UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:
1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.
2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.
3. The World Heritage Convention. Which of the above has/have a bearing on the biodiversity?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
A new Nature Physics study suggests that warm volcanic rock surfaces may have concentrated organic molecules in watery cracks, triggering life-like chemistry—offering a clue to how protocells formed without membranes before life began.
What are Protocells?
- Overview: Protocells are primitive, cell-like bubbles believed to be early precursors of real biological cells. They were not fully alive but provided a space for early chemical interactions.
- Lack of Complexity: These structures lacked complex parts like organelles or DNA systems but could hold important molecules like RNA and amino acids together.
- Membrane Role: Protocells often formed simple membranes or boundaries, which allowed molecules to stay enclosed and interact more easily—helping early reactions like protein synthesis happen.
- Importance: Although not living, they offered a model of how basic chemistry could evolve into biology, bridging the gap between non-living and living systems.
History of Formation of Protocells:
- Early Earth Conditions: Over 3.5 billion years ago, Earth’s surface had warm water pools and volcanic cracks filled with organic molecules made by natural processes like lightning.
- Compartmentalization: The first step toward life was concentrating useful molecules in one place, so they could start reacting—this led to the idea of bubble-like protocells.
- Old Theories: In the 1920s, Oparin and Haldane proposed that life began in a “primordial soup” with spontaneous chemical reactions in early Earth’s oceans.
- Modern Insights: Newer research suggests cracks in volcanic rock or hydrothermal vents created temperature gradients and water flows that helped form protocells—no complex membranes were needed.
Key Findings in the 2025 Study:
- Lab Setup: Scientists created a 170-micrometre chamber with a warm top (40°C) and cool bottom (27°C), simulating early Earth rock cracks.
- DNA Test: They added DNA and a protein-making kit (PURExpress). Only in the warm-cool chamber did the DNA make green fluorescent protein (GFP), showing real protein synthesis.
- Molecule Gathering: Essential items like DNA, magnesium, and phosphate ions gathered more at the bottom—up to 70 times more concentrated than at the top.
- Cell-Like Behavior: Even without a membrane, the system kept useful molecules inside while letting waste escape, mimicking real cell selectivity.
- Big Implication: This experiment supports the idea that life could start in simple natural environments using just heat, flow, and basic chemicals—long before full cells appeared.
| [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:
1. The Earth’s magnetic field has reversed every few hundred thousand years.
2. When the Earth was created more than 4000 million years ago, there was 54% oxygen and no carbon dioxide.
3. When living organisms originated, they modified the early atmosphere of the Earth. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
French authorities have opened up the Seine River to public swimming for the very first time since 1923.
About the Seine River:
- Overview: it is a major waterway in northern France, flowing through some of the country’s most important cultural and economic regions.
- Length and Rank: It is approximately 777 km(483 miles) long, making it the second-longest river in France after the Loire.
- Source and Elevation: It originates from the Langres Plateau in the Burgundy region, near the town of Source-Seine, at an elevation of about 444–471 meters above sea level.
- Course Through France: It flows northwest, passing through regions such as Burgundy, Champagne, and Île-de-France, and cities like Troyes, Melun, Corbeil, and Paris.
- Path Through Paris: In Paris, the Seine winds through the city center for about 13 kilometers, forming the famous islands Île de la Cité and Île Saint-Louis.
- Tributaries: It is joined by several important tributaries, including the Marne, Yonne, Aube, and Oise rivers.
- Drainage Basin and Rainfall: Its drainage basin spans 76,000–79,000 square kilometers, receiving moderate rainfall of 650–750 mm annually, and covering much of northern France.
- Mouth and Termination: The river empties into the English Channel between Le Havre and Honfleur, on the Normandy coast.
- Economic Role: The Seine supports commercial navigation and shipping, especially through the ports of Rouen and Le Havre, and provides about 50% of Paris’s drinking water.
| [UPSC 2020] Consider the following pairs: River Flows into
1. Mekong Andaman Sea 2. Thames Irish Sea 3. Volga Caspian Sea 4. Zambezi Indian Ocean Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only* (d) 1, 2 and 4 only |
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Why in the News?
Invoking the Agreement on Safeguards (AoS), India has notified the WTO of its plan to impose $724 million in retaliatory tariffs on the U.S. for breaching trade commitments through unilateral auto import duties.
What is the Agreement on Safeguards (AoS)?
- Overview: It is a World Trade Organization (WTO) treaty that allows countries to apply temporary trade barriers—called safeguard measures—when a domestic industry is harmed by a surge in imports.
- Purpose in Practice: The agreement maintains global trade discipline, offering legal protection tools but with checks to avoid abuse.
- Conditions for Use: Safeguards can only be used when there is clear evidence of serious injury or threat to domestic producers due to increased imports.
- Rules-Based System: The agreement ensures safeguard actions are transparent, time-bound, and non-discriminatory, preventing misuse for permanent protectionism.
- Key Rules:
- Article 12.3: Before acting, a country must notify and consult with other WTO members who may be affected by the safeguard.
- Article 8: If consultation fails, the affected country can retaliate by suspending trade benefits equal to the loss it suffered.
- Ban on Informal Restrictions: AoS strictly prohibits voluntary export restraints or informal quotas that evade WTO rules, ensuring fairness.
India’s Use of the AoS – The 2025 U.S. Tariff Case:
- Trigger: The U.S. had imposed 25% tariffs on Indian-origin vehicles and parts in March 2025, which India claims are safeguard measures disguised as unilateral tariffs.
- Violation of Rules: India alleges that the U.S. did not follow Article 12.3 (mandatory consultations) and thus violated both AoS and GATT 1994 rules.
- Impact on Indian Exports: India estimates that $2.89 billion worth of exports have been affected and that the U.S. collected nearly $723.75 million in duties, matching India’s proposed retaliation.
- India’s Justification: India asserts that this move is legal under WTO rules, not protectionist, and aims to defend its export interests while continuing trade talks with the U.S.
India’s Changing Role in WTO Safeguard Policy:
- Early Strategy (1995–2010): India was initially cautious at the WTO, accepting tough terms under TRIPS, GATS, and AoA, and rarely used legal tools like retaliation, focusing more on diplomatic solutions.
- Recent Assertiveness (Post-2010): India now actively invokes WTO rules like AoS to protect its interests and has won key disputes—such as:
- The solar panel case against the U.S.
- Legal challenges to EU’s export restrictions on food.
- Global Leadership Role: India has taken the lead among developing countries to protect food security rights and push for fairer global trade terms, especially at Bali (2013) and Nairobi (2015) WTO summits.
Back2Basics:
TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights)
- WTO agreement (1995) setting minimum standards for IPR protection (patents, copyrights, etc.).
- Enforced 20-year patent protection; India amended its Patent Act in 2005 to comply.
- Allows compulsory licensing in emergencies (e.g., for medicines).
GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services)
- WTO treaty covering international trade in services like IT, banking, and tourism.
- Operates through 4 Modes of Supply:
- Mode 1 – Cross-border supply (e.g., online consulting)
- Mode 2 – Consumption abroad (e.g., medical tourism)
- Mode 3 – Commercial presence (e.g., foreign bank branch in India)
- Mode 4 – Movement of natural persons (e.g., Indian professionals working overseas)
- India strongly supports Mode 4 for its skilled labour force.
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| [UPSC 2015] The terms ‘Agreement on Agriculture’, ‘Agreement on the application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures’ and ‘Peace Clause’ appear in the news frequently in the context of the affairs of the:
Options: (a) Food and Agricultural Organization (b) United Nations Framework Conference on Climate Change (c) World Trade Organization* (d) United Nations Environment Programme |
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Why in the News?
Recently, CJI B.R. Gavai affirmed that the collegium system will ensure merit, transparency, and inclusive representation, and will not be swayed by external pressures.
What is the Collegium System?
- About: The Collegium System is the process by which judges are appointed and transferred in the Supreme Court and High Courts of India.
- Origin: It was developed by the Supreme Court itself and is not mentioned in the Constitution.
- Purpose: It aims to ensure judicial independence by minimizing the role of the executive in judicial appointments.
- Basis for Appointments:
- Supreme Court Judges: Under Article 124, the President appoints judges after consulting relevant judges from the Supreme Court and High Courts.
- High Court Judges: Under Article 217, appointments are made by the President after consulting the Chief Justice of India, Governor of the State, and Chief Justice of the High Court concerned.
- Structure of the Collegium:
- Supreme Court Collegium: It consists of 5 judges — the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and the four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court.
- High Court Collegium: It comprises the Chief Justice of the High Court and the two senior-most judges of that High Court.
Qualifications for SC Judges:
- Citizenship: Must be an Indian citizen.
- Judicial Experience: At least 5 years as a High Court judge or 10 years as an advocate in one or more High Courts.
- Alternative Route: Can also be a distinguished jurist, in the President’s opinion.
Qualifications for HC Judges:
- Experience: Must have held a judicial office for 10 years or practiced as an advocate for 10 years in a High Court.
- Bar Enrollment: Must be enrolled with the Bar Council of India.
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Evolution of the Collegium System:
- First Judges Case (1981): The Supreme Court ruled that the executive had primacy in appointments, and the CJI’s opinion was not binding.
- Second Judges Case (1993): The Court reinterpreted “consultation” to mean “concurrence”, giving primacy to the judiciary and formally creating the Collegium System.
- Third Judges Case (1998): On Presidential Reference, the Collegium was expanded to five members — the CJI + 4 senior-most judges.
How does it Work?
- Appointment of Chief Justice of India (CJI): The outgoing CJI recommends the next CJI, based on seniority. The Law Minister forwards it to the PM, who advises the President.
- Appointment of Other SC Judges: The CJI initiates the proposal after consulting Collegium members and the senior-most judge from the concerned High Court.
- Appointment of High Court Judges: Initiated by the High Court Chief Justice, approved by the High Court Collegium, and forwarded via the state government to the Union Law Ministry.
| [UPSC 2012] What is the provision to safeguard the autonomy of the Supreme Court of India?
1. While appointing the Supreme Court Judges, the President of India has to consult the Chief Justice of India.
2. The Supreme Court Judges can be removed by the Chief Justice of India only.
3. The salaries of the Judges are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India to which the legislature does not have to vote.
4. All appointments of officers and staff of the Supreme Court of India are made by the Government only after consulting the Chief Justice of India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only * (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
The Union Minister for Petroleum has revealed that India is on the brink of a Guyana-like oil discovery in the Andaman Sea
Do you know?
Guyana, now a major oil-producing nation, has seen 47% average real GDP growth since 2022, driven by offshore oil.
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About the Oil Exploration in Andaman Basin:
- Location & Scale: It lies in the southeastern Bay of Bengal and covers about 2.25 lakh sq. km, making it one of India’s largest underexplored offshore sedimentary basins.
- Geological Importance: It shares tectonic and structural similarities with nearby hydrocarbon-rich basins in North Sumatra (Indonesia) and Irrawaddy-Margui (Myanmar).
- Historical Restrictions: The area was long considered a ‘No-Go’ zone due to environmental and strategic reasons, preventing oil exploration until recently.
- Scientific Breakthrough: In 2020, Oil India Ltd launched the Deep Andaman Offshore Survey, which discovered mud volcanoes and Baratang formations — signs of hydrocarbon activity.
- Data Entry into National Records: The survey findings were added to the National Data Repository (NDR) in 2023, making crucial geological data available to investors.
- Rising Strategic Interest: The basin is now seen as vital for India’s energy security due to its deepwater potential and ability to cut down oil imports.
- Recent Collaborations: Companies like ONGC partnered with TotalEnergies (France) in 2023 to explore deepwater blocks in the basin.
Policy Shift that Enabled Exploration:
- Introduction of HELP: The Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP) was introduced in 2016, replacing the older NELP system with a more industry-friendly framework.
- Licensing Reform: HELP provides a single license for all hydrocarbons — oil, gas, shale, and coal bed methane — removing the need for separate permits.
- Revenue Sharing System: Instead of auditing costs, the government now receives a fixed share of revenue, simplifying financial compliance and reducing disputes.
- OALP and Investor Flexibility: The Open Acreage Licensing Policy (OALP) allows companies to bid for exploration blocks of their own choosing throughout the year, encouraging customized investment.
- Use of Geological Data: The National Data Repository (NDR) helps companies make informed decisions using extensive geological and seismic information.
- Market Freedom: Under HELP, companies have the freedom to price and market their oil and gas, which boosts competitiveness and attracts private players.
- Royalty Incentives: A graded royalty system reduces rates for deepwater and ultra-deepwater blocks, offsetting high-risk exploration like in the Andaman.
| [UPSC 2006] Which one of the following companies is associated with the exploration and commercial production of oil in Barmer Sanchore basin of Rajasthan?
Options: (a) Cairn Energy * (b) Unocal Corporation (c) Reliance Energy Ventures (d) ONGC |
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of Communications has launched SAKSHAM-3000, a 25.6 Tbps indigenous switch-cum-router, to boost India’s data, cloud, and telecom infrastructure, marking a major leap in advanced networking technology.
What is SAKSHAM-3000?
- Overview: It is a high-speed switch-cum-router developed by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) to strengthen India’s digital infrastructure.
- Indigenous Operating System: The device runs on CROS (C-DOT Router Operating System), enabling modular, scalable, and secure network operations.
- Next-Gen Capability: It is designed for ultra-fast data transmission, offering up to 25.6 Terabits per second (Tbps) throughput.
- Use Cases: It is suitable for data centres, 5G/6G networks, AI systems, and hyperscale computing clusters.
- Cloud and Telecom Ready: It supports cloud-native deployments, legacy protocols, and future network architectures simultaneously.
Technical Highlights and Capabilities:
- Massive Throughput: It supports 32 ports of 400G Ethernet and multiple speeds from 1G to 400G, delivering full 25.6 Tbps capacity.
- Wire-Speed Performance: Data packets are processed at line rate, ensuring real-time transmission with no bottlenecks.
- Time-Sensitive Applications: It includes support for Precision Time Protocol (PTP) and Synchronous Ethernet (Sync-E) to ensure accurate timing in industrial and telecom networks.
- Full Protocol Support: It is compatible with Layer-2 switching, IP routing, and Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) for broad network configurations.
- Traffic Management: Features like Weighted Round Robin (WRR) and Weighted Random Early Detection (WRED) improve traffic handling and reduce congestion.
- Energy Efficiency: It uses a power-optimized architecture, balancing high performance with low power consumption for sustainable data centre use.
- Flexible Licensing: Enterprises and telecom providers can customize licensing models for cost-effective scalability based on specific deployment needs.
| [UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘LiFi’, recently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. It uses light as the medium for high-speed data transmission. 2. It is a wireless technology and is several times faster than ‘WiFi’.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
PM Narendra Modi, while speaking in Trinidad and Tobago, paid tribute to the Girmitiyas—19th-century indentured Indian labourers who helped shape Indo-Caribbean culture.
About Girmitiyas:
- Overview: The word “Girmitiya” comes from “agreement,” which was pronounced as “girmit” by Indian labourers who signed contracts to work abroad.
- Origin of the Labourers: Most Girmitiyas were recruited from eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, especially from areas suffering poverty or famine.
- Language and Community: These workers primarily spoke Bhojpuri, Awadhi, or Hindi and came from agricultural castes and communities.
- Role of Recruitment Agents: Agents known as arkatis enticed labourers with promises of good wages while hiding the reality of harsh plantation conditions.
- Scale and Scope of Migration: Between 1834 and 1920, over 1.2 million Indians were sent to British colonies like Mauritius, Fiji, Trinidad & Tobago, Guyana, South Africa, and Suriname.
- Cultural Continuity Abroad: Despite minimal belongings, Girmitiyas preserved Indian languages, religious practices, and cultural expressions like Ramleela in the Caribbean.
Indentured Labour System: A New Form of Slavery:
- Post-Abolition Labour Need: After slavery ended in 1834, the British created the Indian Indentured Labour System to meet the demand for plantation workers.
- Contract Terms and Reality: Although the agreement lasted five years, labourers were often deceived, worked in poor conditions, and could not change employers.
- Criminalisation of Movement: If a labourer was found outside the plantation without documentation, they could be arrested for vagrancy.
- Punitive Wage Deductions: Tactics like the “double-cut” system—cutting two days’ pay for one day’s absence—made the system exploitative.
- Wage Withholding: Employers often withheld wages to delay repatriation and trap labourers in economic dependence.
- Gender Exploitation: Women were underrepresented, often brought for demographic balance, and suffered wage discrimination and sexual abuse, as documented by scholars like Kamala Kempadoo.
- Critique by Historians: While colonial rulers called it a “Great Experiment,” historian Hugh Tinker famously termed it “a new system of slavery” in his 1974 book.
Gandhiji’s Campaign Against Indenture:
- Early Opposition: Mahatma Gandhi opposed the system after witnessing its abuse during his legal work in South Africa.
- Malaviya’s Blocked Attempt: In 1917, Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya tried to introduce a bill for abolition but was denied by the British colonial government.
- Protest Strategy: Gandhi launched an all-India movement, using the press, public meetings, and moral advocacy to gather support.
- Engagement with British: Gandhi met with Viceroy Lord Chelmsford and united national leaders in opposition to the practice.
- Finally, Abolition: The mounting public pressure led to the official abolition of indentured labour on July 31, 1917.
- Moral Significance: Gandhi later wrote in My Experiments with Truth that the victory represented India’s moral and spiritual awakening under nonviolent protest.
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| [UPSC 2019] With reference to the British colonial rule in India, consider the following statements:
1. Mahatma Gandhi was instrumental in the abolition of the system of ‘indentured labour’.
2. In Lord Chelmsford’s ‘War Conference’, Mahatma Gandhi did not support the resolution on recruiting Indians for World War.
3. Consequent to the breaking of the Salt Law by the Indian people, the INC was declared illegal by the colonial rulers.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Union Cabinet recently approved the National Sports Policy, 2025.
About the National Sports Policy, 2025:
- It is a comprehensive policy approved by the Union Cabinet to transform India into a leading sporting nation.
- It replaces the earlier 2001 policy and aligns with the vision of Viksit Bharat @2047 and the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.
- The policy envisions India as a global sporting powerhouse and strengthens its bid to host international events, including the 2036 Olympic Games.
- It was developed through extensive consultations involving central ministries, NITI Aayog, state governments, national sports federations, athletes, and experts.
- The Khelo Bharat Niti 2025 serves as the operational framework for NSP 2025.
Key Features of the National Sports Policy, 2025
- Excellence on the Global Stage
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- Talent identification and athlete development from grassroots to elite level.
- Expansion of leagues, rural-urban infrastructure, and high-performance training.
- Adoption of sports science, medicine, and technology.
- Reforms in governance and functioning of National Sports Federations.
- Sports for Economic Development
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- Promotion of sports tourism and hosting of global events.
- Support for indigenous manufacturing, startups, and PPP investments.
- Encouragement of CSR in sports development.
- Sports for Social Development
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- Inclusive participation of women, tribals, PwDs, and marginalised groups.
- Revitalisation of traditional and indigenous games.
- Dual-career pathways and diaspora engagement.
- Sports as a People’s Movement
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- Nationwide campaigns for fitness and community participation.
- Launch of fitness indices and public access to sports infrastructure.
- Integration with Education (NEP 2020)
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- Sports embedded in school curricula.
- Training for educators and promotion of sports education.
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Why in the News?
Jharkhand on observed ‘Hul’ Diwas to commemorate the rebellion’s 170th anniversary of Santhal Revolt which was held on June 30, 1855.
About the Santhal Revolt:
- Overview: The Santhal Hul (Revolt) began on June 30, 1855, in present-day Jharkhand, and is observed annually as Hul Diwas.
- The ‘Hul’: It means revolution, symbolising one of India’s earliest organized uprisings against British colonialism, even before the 1857 Revolt.
- Leaders Associated: It was led by Sidho, Kanho, Chand, Bhairav Murmu, and sisters Phulo and Jhano, and gathered support from 32 different tribal and non-tribal communities.
- Nature of the Revolt: The Santhal Hul was marked by tribal unity, guerrilla warfare, and was primarily an agrarian uprising, not driven by religion or elite politics.
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- Exploitation by Landlords: It opposed the British East India Company, the Zamindari system, and moneylenders who exploited tribal communities.
- Damin-i-Koh Policy: In 1832, the British created Damin-i-Koh in the Rajmahal Hills to resettle Santhals from Bengal and Jharkhand to clear forests and take up agriculture.
- Alienation: Santhals were subjected to land alienation, forced labor (like kamioti and harwahi), usurious debt traps, and Zamindari-court-police nexus oppression.
- Suppression measures: The British imposed Martial Law on November 10, 1855, and crushed the uprising by January 3, 1856, using modern firearms and war elephants; Sidho and Kanho were killed in action.
- Continued resistance: Even after its suppression, tribal uprisings continued during the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny in areas like Hazaribagh and Manbhum (now Dhanbad and Purulia).
Key Outcomes of the Revolt:
- Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act (1876): This law banned land transfers to non-Adivasis, allowed inheritance under tribal customs, and protected Santhal self-governance.
- Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act (1908): Inspired by later tribal movements, it restricted sale of tribal and Dalit land, and required Collector’s approval for land transfer within caste and locality.
- Impact on Tribal Identity: The revolt helped shape tribal consciousness, legal land safeguards, and anti-colonial resistance legacies.
- Modern Legacy: The Santhals are now India’s third-largest tribal group, living in Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, and West Bengal, and they use the ‘Ol Chiki’ script to preserve the Santhali language.
[UPSC 2018] After the Santhal Uprising subsided, what was/were the measure/measures taken by the colonial government?
- The territories called `Santhal Parganas’ were created.
- It became illegal for a Santhal to transfer land to a non-Santhal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
In a major step toward digital adoption reform, Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA) has confirmed that digitally certified adoption orders sent by e-mail are now legally valid under current rules.
Child Adoption in India: Legal Framework and Process
- Adoption in India is governed by multiple laws, depending on the religion and category of the child:
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- Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act (HAMA), 1956: Applies to Hindus, Jains, Sikhs, and Buddhists.
- Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015: Applies to all religions and governs adoption of orphans, abandoned, and surrendered children.
- Guardians and Wards Act, 1890: Applies to Muslims, Christians, Jews, Parsis (allows guardianship, not full adoption).
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- Children declared legally free by a Child Welfare Committee (CWC).
- Children of relatives (uncle, aunt, or grandparent).
- Stepchildren surrendered by biological parents.
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- Indian citizens, NRIs, OCIs, and certain foreign nationals (under strict guidelines).
- Must be mentally, physically, and financially stable with no life-threatening conditions.
- Married couples: Stable relationship of at least two years; combined age ≤ 110 years.
- Single women can adopt any child; single men cannot adopt girls.
- Minimum age gap of 25 years between the adoptive parent and the child.
- Couples with three or more children are generally not eligible unless adopting children with special needs.
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- Online registration on CARA’s CARINGS portal; Submission of documents and Home Study Report.
- Counseling sessions by licensed agencies.
- Matching of child and parents; Acceptance and foster care phase.
- Legal adoption order issued by the District Magistrate (post-2021 amendment).
- Two-year follow-up by the adoption agency.
Role of Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA):
- CARA is India’s statutory body under the Ministry of Women and Child Development, and functions as the central regulatory authority for all adoptions:
- Established in 1990, CARA became a statutory body in 2015 under Section 68 of the JJ Act.
- It is the only legally empowered authority for in-country and inter-country adoption of Indian children.
- India’s Hague Convention central authority, responsible for overseeing foreign adoptions (India ratified the convention in 2003).
Key Functions of CARA:
CARA plays a pivotal role in the adoption ecosystem through the following functions:
- Regulation and Oversight
- Monitors all adoptions—domestic and inter-country—through licensed agencies.
- Ensures adoptions are in compliance with laws and child rights standards.
- Platform and Technology: It operates the CARINGS portal (Child Adoption Resource Information and Guidance System) for:
- Registration of prospective adoptive parents.
- Tracking adoption progress.
- Referrals and matching children with parents.
- Inter-Agency Coordination: It coordinates with:
- State Adoption Resource Agencies (SARAs)
- District Child Protection Units (DCPUs)
- Specialised Adoption Agencies (SAAs)
- Authorized Foreign Adoption Agencies (AFAAs)
- Legal and Policy Role
- Issues No Objection Certificates (NOC) and Conformity Certificates for inter-country adoptions.
- Drafts and revises Adoption Regulations (latest version: 2022).
- Issues clarifications and advisories, e.g., recognition of digitally certified adoption orders.
- Promotion of In-country Adoptions
- Encourages domestic adoption over inter-country adoption, especially for orphans and abandoned children.
- Launches awareness campaigns to reduce illegal adoptions and child trafficking.
- Post-Adoption Monitoring
- Ensures the well-being of adopted children through follow-up reports for two years.
- Promotes integration of children into adoptive families through counseling and support.
- Policy Innovation and Reforms
- Oversees foster-to-adoption transitions (notably in Jammu & Kashmir).
- Expanding agency networks—245 new agencies added (2024–25).
- New modules for step-parent and relative adoptions.
| [UPSC 2016] Examine the main provisions of the National Child Policy and throw light on the status of its implementation. |
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Why in the News?
Researchers in Assam have discovered a new tree species, Garcinia kusumae, locally called thoikora, adding to the Garcinia genus in a notable botanical find.
About Garcinia kusumae:
- Species Identity: Garcinia kusumae is a newly discovered evergreen tree species that is endemic to Assam, India.
- Genus and Local Name: It belongs to the Garcinia genus, locally called thoikora in Assamese.
- Discovery: It was discovered in 2024 by Jatindra Sarma, during a field survey in Bamunbari, Baksa district.
- Botanical Traits: It is dioecious, grows up to 18 metres, flowers between February and April, and fruits between May and June.
- Distinct Features: It differs from similar species by having up to 15 staminate flowers per fascicle, fewer stamens, and blackish resinous berries.
- Ethnobotanical Uses: Its fruit is used in sherbet, fish curries, and for diabetes and dysentery remedies; the seed aril is eaten raw with condiments.
What is the Garcinia Genus?
- Taxonomy: Garcinia is the largest genus in the Clusiaceae family, comprising trees and shrubs.
- Geographical Spread: It is found in tropical regions of Africa, Southeast Asia, and Australasia, especially in rainforests.
- Notable Characteristics: The genus is known for floral diversity, medicinal value, and culinary applications.
- Presence in India: India hosts 33 species and 7 varieties of Garcinia, with Assam having 12 species and 3 varieties.
- Famous Species: Commonly known species include Garcinia indica (kokum), Garcinia cowa, and Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen).
- Utility and Significance: It is important for ethnobotanical uses, rural livelihoods, and climate-resilient forestry.
- Traditional Practices: Several species are used in traditional food, medicine, and rituals.
| [UPSC 2016] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured fruit pulp.
In which part of India has it been discovered?
Options: (a) Andaman Islands* (b) Anaimalai Forests (c) Maikala Hills (d) Tropical rain forests of northeast |
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Why in the News?
IISc Bengaluru has launched BHARAT (Biomarkers of Healthy Aging, Resilience, Adversity, and Transitions), a pioneering study exploring the biology, lifestyle, and environment behind Aging.
About the BHARAT Project:
- Scientific Launch: It is a nationwide research initiative by the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru.
- Primary Goal: It aims to build India’s first scientific baseline on how Indians age—biologically, environmentally, and socially.
- Project Leadership: The project is led by Professor DK Saini from IISc’s Department of Development Biology and Genetics.
- Addressing Global Gaps: It fills a major research void by offering Indian-specific data, unlike most global ageing studies based on Western populations.
- Redefining Normal: It will challenge international health standards (e.g., for cholesterol, vitamin D) that may misclassify Indian health parameters.
- Biological Age Focus: Instead of using chronological age, the project will study biomarkers of biological ageing for early disease risk detection.
Key Features of the Project:
- India-Centric Baseline: The database will offer reference biomarker cut-offs tailored to Indian genetics, diet, and lifestyle.
- Wide Biomarker Range: It will include genomic, metabolic, and environmental indicators to detect organ ageing and resilience early.
- AI-Driven Analysis: Machine learning tools will be used to find ageing patterns, simulate health interventions, and forecast risks.
- Holistic Ageing Model: The study will include nutrition, pollution, infections, and social factors that influence how Indians age.
- Equity for Global South: It corrects global biases that misdiagnose Indians as deficient by using locally validated health data.
- Healthspan Focus: The emphasis is on quality of life—living healthier for longer—rather than just extending life years.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following countries: 1. Italy 2. Japan 3. Nigeria 4. South Korea 5. South Africa
Which of the above countries are frequently mentioned in the media for their low birth rates, or ageing population or declining population?
Options: (a) 1,2 and 4 * (b) 1,3 and 5 (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 3 and 5 only |
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Why in the News?
Microplastics and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are infiltrating the human body, affecting everything from reproduction to cancer risk, metabolism, and child development.
About Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals:
- What They Are: Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals interfere with the body’s hormone system, affecting growth, reproduction, mood, and metabolism.
- How They Work: They mimic or block natural hormones like estrogen, testosterone, thyroid hormones, and cortisol, leading to disrupted hormonal signals.
- Why They’re Dangerous: Even low-level exposure during pregnancy or puberty can cause lasting harm.
- How We’re Exposed: Through eating contaminated food, inhaling polluted air, or skin contact with certain plastics or cosmetics.
- Where They’re Found: In plastic bottles (Bisphenol A), toys and cosmetics (phthalates like Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate), food wrappers (Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances), and pesticides (dioxins, Polychlorinated Biphenyls).
- Hidden Harm: They act silently, with long-term effects such as fertility loss, hormonal disruption, or cancer.
Impact on Human Health:
- Reproductive Harm: Reduced sperm quality disrupted menstrual cycles, and increased miscarriage risk. Found in semen, placenta, and breast milk.
- Hormonal Disruption: Chemicals like Bisphenol A trigger early puberty, thyroid issues, and hormonal imbalances.
- Cancer Risk: Linked to cancers of the breast, uterus, testicles, and prostate. Several are labeled probable carcinogens by global health agencies.
- Metabolic Effects: Interfere with insulin, promote obesity and type 2 diabetes. PFAS chemicals are linked to liver and heart disease.
- Brain and Behavior: Associated with ADHD, learning issues, and lower IQ in children, especially when exposure happens early in life.
- Across Generations: May cause gene expression changes that affect health in future generations—even without direct exposure.
| [UPSC 2020] Why is there a great concern about the ‘microbeads’ that are released into environment?
Options: (a) They are considered harmful to marine ecosystems * (b) They are considered to cause skin cancer in children (c) They are small enough to be absorbed by crop plants in irrigated fields. (d) They are often found to be used as food adulterants. |
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Why in the News?
Turning 90 on July 6, 2025, the 14th Dalai Lama gave his clearest message yet that the Dalai Lama lineage will continue, challenging China’s stance.
Who is the Dalai Lama?
- Spiritual Head: The Dalai Lama leads the Gelug (Yellow Hat) school, the most influential tradition in Tibetan Buddhism.
- Meaning: The title “Dalai Lama” means “Ocean of Wisdom”, first conferred in the 16th century by Mongol ruler Altan Khan.Role: He is considered the reincarnation of Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion, in human form.
Tenzin Gyatso: the 14th Dalai Lama:
- Early Life: The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, was born in 1935 in Taktser, Tibet, and enthroned in 1940 after recognition in 1939.
- Exile to India: Following China’s occupation of Tibet, he took asylum in India in 1959 and established the Tibetan Government-in-Exile in Dharamsala.
- Political Transition: In 2011, he relinquished political authority, handing it over to an elected leader of the Tibetan Parliament-in-Exile (TPiE) but retained his spiritual role.
- Global Peace Advocate: He received the 1989 Nobel Peace Prize for non-violent advocacy and is a prominent promoter of interfaith harmony and secular ethics.
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Key Notes on Tibetan Buddhism:
- Theology: Tibetan Buddhism blends Mahayana philosophy, Tantric (Vajrayana) rituals, and Bon traditions.
- Major Schools: It includes four schools—Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, and Gelug—with the Gelug school founded by Je Tsongkhapa in the 14th century.
- Reincarnation System: Leaders like the Panchen Lama and Karmapa are part of the Tulku system, believed to be reincarnated teachers.
- Textual Foundation: Core texts include the Kangyur (Buddha’s teachings) and Tengyur (commentaries by scholars).
- Meditation Traditions: Practices like Dzogchen and Mahamudra focus on realizing the true nature of mind.
- Institutional Legacy: Monasteries such as Drepung, Ganden, and Tashi Lhunpo are vital centers for learning and ritual.
- Global Influence: Tibetan Buddhism thrives across the Himalayas and is expanding globally, especially in Western countries.
| [UPSC 2018] With reference to Indian history, who among the following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the world?
Options: (a) Avalokiteshvara (b) Lokesvara (c) Maitreya* (d) Padmapani |
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Why in the News?
With focus shifting to COP30, climate finance is in the spotlight as the Fourth International Financing for Development Conference (FfD4) works to finalise the New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) — a more ambitious target to replace the unmet $100 billion annual pledge.
About New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG):
- Overview: It is a new global climate finance target under negotiation to replace the unmet $100 billion pledge made by developed countries in 2009.
- Basis: It is being framed through the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA).
- Minimum Starting Point: The goal will begin at a minimum of $100 billion per year, with future revisions based on real needs of developing nations.
- Areas to be Covered: NCQG supports mitigation, adaptation, and resilience, with an explicit focus on the needs of developing countries.
How it differs from earlier Pledge?
- From Political to Need-Based: The earlier $100 billion was a political promise, while NCQG is a data-driven, needs-based goal.
- Backed by National Priorities: Funding estimates will use developing countries’ own assessments and climate plans.
- Greater Transparency and Trust: NCQG seeks to rebuild trust by addressing the trust deficit from past failures and improving accountability.
True Scale of Climate Finance Needs:
- Requirement: As per UNFCCC (2021), developing countries may need $6 trillion/year by 2030 to meet their climate goals.
- Global Energy Transition Costs: A low-carbon global transition could need $4–6 trillion annually until 2050.
- Renewable Energy Goals: Tripling renewables by 2030, agreed at COP28, may cost $30 trillion (IRENA).
- India’s Stand: India has proposed an NCQG of $1 trillion/year, with a focus on grants and concessional finance, avoiding debt-heavy solutions.
| [UPSC 2024] Which one of the following launched the ‘Nature Solutions Finance Hub for Asia and the Pacific’?
Options: (a) The Asian Development Bank (ADB) (b) The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) (c) The New Development Bank (NDB) (d) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) |
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Why in the News?
The Tamil Nadu government, with World Bank support, has launched a ₹50 crore restoration project for the sinking Kariyachalli Island.
About Kariyachalli Island:
- Overview: Kariyachalli Island is one of the 21 uninhabited islands in the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park.
- Geographic Location: It lies 4 km south of Sippikulam and 20 km northeast of Thoothukudi, between Rameswaram and Thoothukudi.
- Made of Reef Sediments: The island is a low-lying landform made of reef debris, sand dunes, spits, and sandy plains.
- Biodiversity Hotspot: Located in India’s coral reef zone, it supports 4,300+ marine species, including 132 coral types and the endangered dugong.
- Ecological Importance: It has seagrass beds and coral reefs that provide food and shelter for marine life.
- Natural Coastal Shield: Kariyachalli acts as a barrier against cyclones and tsunamis, helping protect the Tamil Nadu coast.
- Historical Significance: It played a role in mitigating the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami impact.
Why is it sinking?
- Rapid Land Loss: The island has shrunk by over 70%, from 20.85 ha in 1969 to under 6 ha in 2024.
- High Tide Erosion: At high tide, only 3.14 ha remains, per an IIT Madras (2025) study.
- Wave and Sediment Pressure: Wave action, sediment loss, and lack of natural shoreline defense are accelerating erosion.
- Climate Change Impact: Rising sea levels and coral bleaching have weakened the island’s natural protection.
- Seagrass Depletion: Loss of seagrass beds has reduced the island’s ability to hold sediments and resist erosion.
- Extreme Weather Events: Frequent cyclones and storms are making the island more vulnerable.
- Future Risk: If the current trend continues, Kariyachalli may vanish by 2036.
| [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following is the best example of repeated falls in sea level, giving rise to present-day extensive marshland?
Options: (a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves (b) Marakkanam Salt Pans (c) Naupada Swamp (d) Rann of Kutch* |
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