Why in the News?
A new study by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) reveals that wind farms in the Thar Desert, Rajasthan, have the highest recorded bird mortality rates globally.
Bird Mortality at Wind Farms: Key Findings
- Study Details: Conducted across 3,000 sq. km in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, covering 90 wind turbines and 272 bird species, including the critically endangered Great Indian Bustard.
- Carcass Count: 124 bird carcasses found within 150m radius of turbines.
- Annual Mortality Estimate: 4,464 birds per 1,000 sq. km, after corrections for detection gaps and scavenger interference.
- Control Sites: 28 sites (500–2,000m from turbines) found zero carcasses — indicating turbines as the direct cause.
- Reasons:
- Policy Gap: Onshore wind projects in India do not require Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), which weakens ecological safeguards.
India’s Wind Energy Growth:
- Current Status: India added 3.5 GW of wind power in the first half of 2025 — an 82% YoY increase.
- Total Installed Capacity: Now stands at 51.3 GW.
- Untapped Potential: Estimated at 1163.9 GW at 150 meters above ground level (National Institute of Wind Energy).
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Comparison with Past Studies:
- 2019 Studies: Recorded just 0.47 bird deaths per turbine/year in Kutch and Davangere.
- Thar Desert Rate: 1.24 bird deaths per turbine/month — significantly higher.
- Contributing Factors:
- High bird density in Thar.
- Location along Central Asian Flyway.
- Collisions with turbine-linked power lines included in this study.
Proposed Mitigation Measures:
- Technological:
- Paint one turbine blade for visibility.
- Shut down turbines during peak migration or high-risk periods.
- Planning-Based:
- Careful Site Selection seen as most critical step.
- Use of tools like AVISTEP (Avian Sensitivity Tool for Energy Planning), which maps avian sensitivity across India.
- AVISTEP ranks zones as low to very high sensitivity — intended as a guide for site avoidance.
| [UPSC 2012] Vultures which used to be very common in Indian countryside some years ago are rarely seen nowadays. This is attributed to:
Options: (a) the destruction of their nesting sites by new invasive species disease among them
(b) a drug used by cattle owners for treating their diseased cattle persistent and fatal *
(c) scarcity of food available to them
(d) a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among them |
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Why in the News?
Harvard Scientists have recently used AI to design synthetic proteins that activate T Cells, offering a new path for cancer treatment and vaccine development.
What are T Cells?
- They are a type of white blood cell that play a central role in the immune system.
- Types of T Cells:
-
- Helper T cells (CD4+): Activate and direct other immune cells.
- Killer T cells (CD8+): Destroy infected or cancerous cells.
- Memory T cells: “Remember” past invaders for faster response in the future.
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About the Study:
- Used artificial intelligence (AI) to design soluble proteins that activate ‘Notch Signalling’, a key immune pathway.
- These are synthetic molecular activators designed using advanced AI-driven protein design technologies.
- Unlike older lab-only methods, these proteins work inside the body (in vivo) and in lab settings.
- Result: Significant boost in T cell production from human progenitor cells.
What is Notch Signalling?
- A cell-to-cell signalling system that guides cell development.
- Crucial for forming T cells, which fight infections and cancers.
- No reliable therapeutic activator existed earlier.
Key Benefits Offered:
- Mass T Cell Generation: Meets clinical needs for CAR T Cell Therapy.
- Vaccine Support: Boosted Memory T cells in mice, improving long-term immunity.
- Cancer Therapy: Helps fight immune-suppressive tumour environments.
- Scalable & Soluble: Works in humans, not just in lab dishes.
- AI in Medicine: Shows AI’s growing role in designing immune therapies.
| [UPSC 2022] Which one of the following statements best describes the role of B cells and T cells in the human body?
Options: (a) They protect the body from environmental allergens.
(b) They alleviate the body’s pain and inflammation.
(c) They act as immunosuppressants in the body.
(d) They protect the body from the diseases caused by pathogens |
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Why in the News?
At an event in New Delhi, Denotified, Semi-Nomadic and Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) strongly demanded a permanent National Commission to address their long-standing marginalisation.
Who are Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs)?
- Denotified Tribes (DNTs):
-
- Colonial Tag: Branded “criminal by birth” under the Criminal Tribes Act, 1871.
- Legal Reversal: Act repealed in 1949; tribes de-notified in 1952.
- Persistent Stigma: Continue to face police profiling and social exclusion.
-
- Lifestyle: No fixed habitation; move cyclically for livelihood.
- Occupations: Animal herding, salt trading, performing arts, traditional healing.
- Semi-Nomadic Tribes (SNTs):
-
- Hybrid Living: Alternate between mobile and semi-settled life.
- Movement: Shift seasonally but often retain a base settlement.
Current Status in India:
- Population Share: Around 10% of India’s population.
- Communities: ~150+ Denotified, 500+ Nomadic tribes.
- Major States: Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh.
- Examples of Communities (not exhaustive):
- Denotified: Bedia, Pardhi, Sansi, Kanjar, Lodha, Nat, Chhara, Bhantu
- Nomadic: Banjara, Gadia Lohar, Rabari, Madari, Kalbelia, Nat
- Semi-Nomadic: Abor, Adi, Aka, Apatani, Dafla, Galo, Nishi, Tagin
Major Committees & Commissions:
|
Year |
Contribution |
| Criminal Tribes Inquiry Committee |
1947 |
Criticized criminal branding |
| Ayyangar Committee |
1949 |
Led to repeal of Criminal Tribes Act |
| Kaka Kalelkar Commission |
1953 |
Recognized DNTs, no full classification |
| B.P. Mandal Commission |
1980 |
Suggested NTs for OBC list |
| Constitution Review Commission |
2002 |
Urged protective measures for DNTs |
| Renke Commission |
2008 |
Listed 500+ communities, lacked implementation resources |
| Idate Commission |
2017–2018 |
Listed 1,200+, proposed permanent commission |
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India:
1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory. 2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.
3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far. 4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4* (d) 1, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
India has taken a significant step towards interplanetary human missions with the launch of the Human Outer Planet Exploration (HOPE) analogue station at Tso Kar, Ladakh.
About HOPE (Human Outer Planet Exploration):
- Purpose: Simulates Moon and Mars conditions to prepare for future human missions.
- Developer: Built by Protoplanet (Bengaluru); partially funded by ISRO.
- Location: Tso Kar, Ladakh (14,500 ft) — chosen for its lunar/Martian-like terrain.
- Features: Enables isolation research, tech trials, and crew training; 1 of 33 such stations globally.
- First Mission (2025): Two scientists (Rahul Mogalapalli, Yaman Akot) conducted a 10-day simulation focusing on resilience and mental health.
- Significance:
- Boosts India’s human spaceflight readiness.
- Supports goals like Bharatiya Antariksh Station (2035) and Moon mission (2040).
India’s Astronomical Assets in Ladakh:
- Location: Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO), at Mt. Saraswati (4,500 m), Hanle; run by Indian Institute of Astrophysics.
- Key Instruments:
- Himalayan Chandra Telescope (optical/infrared)
- HAGAR (gamma rays, with Tata Institute of Fundamental Research)
- MACE (Cherenkov telescope, with Bhabha Atomic Research Centre)
- Stargazing hubs: Hanle, Nubra Valley, Pangong, Tso Moriri.
- Advantages & Recognition:
-
- 270+ clear nights; low humidity; dark skies.
- Declared India’s 1st Dark-Sky Reserve (2022) to curb light pollution.
| [UPSC 2012] The world’s highest ground based telescopic observatory is located in
Options: (a) Colombia (b) India* (c) Nepal (d) Switzerland |
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Why in the News?
While most medicines are small molecule drugs with simple structures, a newer class—biologics and biosimilars—is reshaping modern medicine with their complex, targeted action.
What are Small Molecule Drugs?
- Definition: Chemically synthesised, low molecular weight compounds.
- Features: Fixed structure, chemically stable, easy to replicate, patent-protected.
- Cost Dynamics: Expensive while under patent; affordable generics post-expiry (e.g., Sovaldi dropped from $84,000 to $1,000).
|
About Biologics & Biosimilars:
-
- Overview: Large, complex drugs made from living cells or organisms.
- Examples: Insulin (~5,800 daltons), Remicade (~150,000 daltons).
- Nature: Slight structural variations possible; used for cancer, autoimmune diseases, hormone therapy.
-
- Overview: Near-identical versions of biologics, made after patent expiry.
- Not Generics: Due to complex cell-based production, they’re similar but not identical.
- Use: Offer lower-cost alternatives to high-end biologics.
Regulation and Reform:
- Current Barriers: Biosimilars need costly trials (animal + clinical), unlike generics.
- Global Moves: UK and USA are easing animal trial norms (organ-on-chip, human models).
- India: Still follows older norms; waivers under review, but clinical trials still mandatory.
Significance for India:
- Access: Generic small molecules transformed Indian healthcare.
- Opportunity: Affordable biosimilars can do the same for chronic and rare diseases.
- Urgency: Regulatory reform is key to reduce costs, speed up access, and widen healthcare coverage.
| [UPSC 2020] What is the importance of using Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccines in India?
(1) These vaccines are effective against pneumonia as well as meningitis and sepsis. (2) Dependence on antibiotics that are not effective against drug-resistant bacteria can be reduced. (3) These vaccines have no side effects and cause no allergic reactions.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting has announced the 71st National Film Awards.
About National Film Awards:
- Establishment: Instituted in 1954, administered by the Directorate of Film Festivals (DoFF) under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
- Purpose:
- To encourage the production of films of aesthetic and technical excellence.
- Promote films that reflect the cultural and social fabric of India.
- Recognize and reward cinematic achievements across languages and formats.
- Award Components:
- Swarna Kamal (Golden Lotus): Includes medallion, certificate, and cash prize. Given in top categories.
- Rajat Kamal (Silver Lotus): Awarded in various other categories.
- Main Categories:
- Feature Films: For artistic and technical excellence across Indian languages.
- Non-Feature Films: For documentaries, shorts, and socially relevant content.
- Best Writing on Cinema: For books and critics advancing understanding of cinema.
- Eligibility Criteria:
- Films must be produced in India.
- Makers must be Indian nationals.
- Must be certified by CBFC between Jan 1 and Dec 31.
- Foreign co-productions have specific eligibility conditions.
- Jury and Selection:
- Independent juries for each category.
- No governmental or commercial influence in the selection process.
- Part of NFA.
- India’s highest cinematic honour.
- Instituted in 1969 to commemorate Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, India’s first filmmaker.
- Consists of:
- Swarna Kamal
- ₹10 lakh cash prize
- Certificate, silk roll, and shawl
- First recipient: Devika Rani Roerich
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court of India has reserved its judgment (i.e. final decision is pending) in a set of petitions challenging the age-related eligibility criteria under the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021.
These cases involve couples who had initiated the surrogacy process prior to the enactment of the law on January 25, 2022, but are now disqualified due to the new age limits.
About the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021
- Objective: To regulate surrogacy in India, prohibit commercial surrogacy, and promote ethical, altruistic surrogacy based on medical necessity.
- Scope:
Key Provisions:
- Type Permitted: Only altruistic surrogacy (unpaid surrogate mother) is allowed; commercial surrogacy is banned.
- Eligibility Criteria for Intending Couples:
- Legally married for at least 5 years.
- Woman must be 23–50 years of age; man must be 26–55 years.
- Must not have any living biological, adopted, or surrogate child.
- Eligibility for Single Women:
- Only widows or divorcees between 35–45 years are eligible.
- Unmarried women are not eligible (currently under challenge).
- Surrogate Mother Criteria:
- Must be a close relative, married, and have at least one biological child.
- Age: 25–35 years.
- Certification Requirement: A Certificate of Essentiality is required, including:
- Proof of infertility
- Court order for parentage and custody
- Insurance for the surrogate mother
- Penalties: Commercial surrogacy invites imprisonment (up to 10 years) and fines (up to ₹10 lakh).
- Regulatory Structure:
- National Surrogacy Board at the central level.
- State Surrogacy Boards at the state level.
Issues Highlighted by the Supreme Court:
- No Transitional Provision: The Act lacks a grandfather clause to protect couples who began the surrogacy process (e.g., embryo freezing) before the law came into effect in January 2022.
- Rigid Age Limits: The court questioned the fairness of disqualifying couples solely on age grounds, especially when natural pregnancies at older ages are not prohibited.
- Violation of Fundamental Rights: Petitioners argued the age restrictions violate Article 14 (equality before law) and Article 21 (right to reproductive autonomy and personal liberty).
- Exclusion of Unmarried Women: The law permits only widows or divorcees (35–45 years) to pursue surrogacy, which the court noted may be arbitrary and discriminatory.
- Law’s Intent vs. Impact: The court stressed that while the law aims to prevent commercial surrogacy, it should not unreasonably prevent genuine intending parents from having children.
| [UPSC 2020] In the context of recent advances in human reproductive technology, “Pronuclear Transfer” is used for:
Options: (a) fertilization of egg in vitro by the donor sperm (b) genetic modification of sperm producing cells (c) development of stem cells into functional embryos (d) prevention of mitochondrial diseases in offspring* |
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Why in the News?
Researchers in Britain & Ireland are aiming to sequence all animals, fungi and plants under the Darwin Tree of Life (DToL) Project.
About Darwin Tree of Life (DToL) Project:
- Objective: To sequence the genomes of all ~70,000 known eukaryotic species (whose cells contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles) found in Britain and Ireland.
- Initiated: In 2019 as a UK–Ireland contribution to the Earth BioGenome Project.
- Geographic Focus: Great Britain and Ireland, chosen for their well-documented and accessible biodiversity.
Key Features:
- Phases:
- Pilot Phase (2019–2022): Focused on collecting 8,000 species; targeted 2,000 genome assemblies.
- As of 2025: ~8,000 species collected; over 2,000 genomes sequenced.
- Approach:
- Systematic specimen collection and species verification.
- High-quality genome sequencing using advanced tools and curated pipelines.
- Public Access: All genome data is released openly via the DToL portal and public archives.
- Scientific Significance:
- Enhances understanding of evolution, adaptation, and species relationships.
- Supports conservation efforts amid growing biodiversity threats.
- Applications: Informs conservation biology, medicine, agriculture, and climate adaptation.
| [UPSC 2011] At present, scientists can determine the arrangement or relative positions of genes or DNA sequences on a chromosome. How does this knowledge benefit us?
1. It is possible to know the pedigree of livestock.
2. It is possible to understand the causes of all human diseases.
3. It is possible to develop disease-resistant animal breeds.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The 155-year-old Patalpani–Kalakund heritage train services has resumed after a temporary halt.
About the Patalpani–Kalakund Heritage Line:
- Route: 9.5 km metre-gauge section between Patalpani and Kalakund in Madhya Pradesh.
- Section: Part of the Dr. Ambedkar Nagar (Mhow)–Khandwa route.
- Restoration Year: Revived in 2018 as a heritage line after being excluded from gauge conversion due to difficult terrain.
- Operational Details:
- Average speed: 5–10 km/h.
- Features scenic gorges, tunnels, embankments, Patalpani waterfall, and natural springs.
- Historical Origins:
- Proposed by Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar II in 1870.
- First constructed as part of Holkar State Railways, completed in 1878.
- Became part of Rajputana–Malwa Railway in 1881–82.
- Cultural Significance:
- Patalpani station named after Tantia Bhil, a tribal revolutionary.
- Kalakund station named after a local sweet delicacy.
Other Heritage Railways of India:
| Name & Route |
Details |
| Darjeeling Himalayan Railway |
- Location: West Bengal
- UNESCO Status: World Heritage Site (1999)
- Built: 1879–81
- Highlights: Batasia Loop, zigzags, colonial-era steam engines
- Route: New Jalpaiguri to Darjeeling (88 km, narrow gauge)
|
| Nilgiri Mountain Railway |
- Location: Tamil Nadu
- UNESCO Status: World Heritage Site (2005)
- Highlights: Only rack-and-pinion railway in India, steep climbs, vintage locomotives
- Route: Mettupalayam to Ooty (46 km, metre gauge)
|
| Kalka–Shimla Railway |
- Location: Himachal Pradesh
- UNESCO Status: World Heritage Site (2008)
- Built: 1898–1903
- Highlights: 102 tunnels, 800+ bridges; access to British summer capital
- Route: Kalka to Shimla (96 km, narrow gauge)
|
| Matheran Hill Railway |
- Location: Maharashtra
- UNESCO Status: Tentative World Heritage Site
- Built: 1907
- Highlights: Zigzags, tight curves, eco-sensitive, vehicle-free destination
- Route: Neral to Matheran (21 km, narrow gauge)
|
| Kangra Valley Railway |
- Location: Himachal Pradesh
- UNESCO Status: Tentative World Heritage Site
- Highlights: 971 bridges, 2 tunnels; scenic Dhauladhar views, access to ancient temples
- Route: Pathankot to Joginder Nagar (163 km, narrow gauge)
|
| [UPSC 2009] Recently, which one of the following was included in the UNESCO’s World Heritage list?
Options: (a) Dilwara Temple (b) Kalka-Shimla Railway* (c) Bhiterkanika Mangrove Area (d) Vishakhapatnam to Araku Valley railway line |
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Why in the News?
The Union Culture Ministry has successfully retrieved the sacred ‘Piprahwa’ Buddhist relics, which were set to be auctioned in Hong Kong.
About the Piprahwa Relics:
-
Discovery: Unearthed in 1898 by William Claxton Peppe, a British engineer, at Piprahwa (Siddharthnagar, Uttar Pradesh), near the Nepal border.
-
Historical Significance: Identified as ancient Kapilavastu, capital of the Shakya republic, where Prince Siddhartha (Buddha) lived before renunciation.
-
Findings at the Site: A buried stupa yielded a large stone coffer containing:
- Bone fragments believed to be Buddha’s relics
- Caskets made of soapstone and crystal
- A sandstone coffer
- Over 1,800 ornaments: pearls, rubies, sapphires, gold sheets
-
Legal Custody:
- The British Crown claimed the relics under the Indian Treasure Trove Act, 1878.
- Most artifacts were transferred to the Indian Museum, Kolkata.
Stupas with Buddha’s Relics:
- After the Buddha’s death (Mahaparinirvana), his cremated relics were divided among 8 kingdoms and a Brahmin named Drona, who coordinated their distribution.
- Each recipient built a Stupa to enshrine their share of the relics, creating important pilgrimage sites and early centers of Buddhist worship.
- The 9 stupas were located in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar, and Pippalivana.
- Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) redistributed the relics from these stupas into thousands of new stupas across his empire.
- The stupa at Ramagrama is unique because it is believed to remain untouched and still holds the original relics.
- A typical early Buddhist stupa included a hemispherical mound (anda), a square railing (harmika), a central pillar (yashti) with umbrellas (chatra), and a path for circumambulation (pradakshinapatha).
| [UPSC 2023] With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements:
1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin.
2. Stupa was generally a repository of relics.
3. Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition. How many of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None |
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Why in the News?
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has released the July 2025 update to its World Economic Outlook (WEO).
About World Economic Outlook (WEO):
- Published By: International Monetary Fund (IMF)
- Frequency: Biannual (April, October) + updates in January and July
- Purpose: Provides global forecasts on GDP, inflation, trade, and policy trends
- Data Sources: IMF consultations with member nations and internal models
- Audience: Governments, institutions, investors, researchers
- July 2025 Update Title: “Global Economy: Tenuous Resilience amid Persistent Uncertainty”
Key Highlights – July 2025 Update:
- Global Growth Projections:
-
- 2025: 3.0% (↑ from 2.8% in April)
- 2026: 3.1% (↑ from 3.0%)
- Despite multiple shocks—COVID-19, the Ukraine war, tariff increases—global growth continues.
However, resilience remains fragile due to:
- US–China tariff tensions and rising protectionism
- Conflicts in Ukraine and the Middle East
- High public debt in advanced economies is raising interest rates
- Country Forecasts for 2025: United States: 1.9%, China: 4.8% (↑ from 4.0%), Euro Area: 1.0%, Germany: 0.1%, United Kingdom: 1.2%, Japan: 0.7%, Russia: 0.9%, Pakistan: 2.7%.
India – The Bright Spot:
- Growth Rate: 2023: 9.2%; 2024: 6.5%; 2025: 6.4% (strongest among major economies).
- Drivers of Growth:
- Robust domestic demand
- Strong services and manufacturing output
- Effective inflation and monetary policy management
- Strategic Position:
- Set to overtake several advanced economies in GDP size
- Viewed globally as a “bright spot” amid persistent uncertainties
| [UPSC 2014] Which of the following organisations brings out the publication known as ‘World Economic Outlook?
Options: (a) The International Monetary Fund * (b)The United Nations Development Programme (c) The World Economic Forum (d) The World Bank |
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Why in the News?
Skill Impact Bonds (SIB) were recently highlighted by the Skill Development Ministry.
About the Skill Impact Bond:
- Launched: November 2021
- Nature: India’s first Development Impact Bond (DIB) focused on employment-linked skill development
- Lead Agency: National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC), under the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship
- Collaborators: British Asian Trust, HSBC India, Michael & Susan Dell Foundation
- Target: Train and place 50,000 youth over 4 years, with 62% women participation
-
- Risk Investors: Provide upfront capital to training providers
- Training Providers: Deliver skill training and ensure job placements
- Outcome Funders: Repay investors only if job outcomes are achieved
- Evaluators: Independently assess outcomes via CATI surveys and document verification
Key Features:
- Outcome-Focused Approach: Measures success by certification, placement, and 3-month retention, not just enrolment
- Eligibility Criteria:
- Age: 18–40 years; Education: Undergraduate or below
- Status: Unemployed or earning below ₹15,000/month, or household income below ₹25,000/month
- Sectoral Coverage: Retail, Healthcare, Apparel, Logistics, Information Technology & IT-enabled Services, Banking, Financial Services & Insurance.
- Women-Focused Design: Ensures 62% female participation to bridge the gender employment gap
| [UPSC 2018] With reference to Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana, consider the following statements:
1. It is the flagship scheme of the Ministry of Labour and Employment.
2. It, among other things, will also impart training in soft skills, entrepreneurship, financial and digital literacy.
3. It aims to align the competencies of the unregulated workforce of the country to the National Skill Qualification Framework.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
According to the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), digital payments registered a 12.6% year-on-year rise as of March 31, 2024, as measured by the RBI’s Digital Payments Index (DPI).
About RBI’s Digital Payments Index (DPI):
- Launched by: Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in January 2021
- Purpose: Measures the extent of digital payment adoption across India
- Base Period: March 2018 (Index value = 100)
- Release Frequency: Semi-annually (with a 4-month lag)
- Objective: Track usage, infrastructure, and growth in digital payments
- Key Parameters (with Weightage): These evaluate infrastructure readiness, transaction volume, user adoption, and innovation.
-
- Payment Enablers – 25%
- Payment Infrastructure – Demand Side – 10%
- Payment Infrastructure – Supply Side – 15%
- Payment Performance – 45%
- Consumer Centricity – 5%
Growth Highlight:
- Growth Trends in RBI-DPI: DPI grew nearly 5 times from 100 in March 2018 to 493.22 in March 2025, reflecting India’s rapid digital payment adoption.
- Nearly 5× increase from the base value in 7 years
- Driven by rapid expansion of Unified Payments Interface (UPI), mobile wallets, and QR code infrastructure
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following countries:
I. United Arab Emirates II. France III. Germany IV. Singapore V. Bangladesh
How many countries amongst the above are there other than India where international merchant payments are accepted under UPI?”
Options: (a) Only two (b) Only three* (c) Only four (d) All the five
Answer: (b) Only three (UAE, France, Singapore) |
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Why in the News?
The National Cooperation Policy (NCP) 2025 recently unveiled by Union Home and Cooperation Minister Amit Shah has drawn criticisms from SKM (Samyukt Kisan Morcha).
Also in news:
- The Union Cabinet has also approved a ₹2,000 crore Central Sector Scheme to aid National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) from 2025–26 to 2028–29.
- NCDC was established in 1963 as a statutory Corporation under Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare (now functions under the Ministry of Cooperation since 2021).
|
About Cooperatives in India:
- What is it: A cooperative is a voluntary, autonomous association of individuals who unite to meet common economic, social, or cultural needs through a jointly-owned and democratically-controlled enterprise.
- Key Principles:
- One member, one vote: Equal say in governance, regardless of financial contribution.
- Based on collective benefit, democratic control, and mutual aid.
- Historical Evolution:
- 1904 & 1912: Cooperative Acts laid the foundation for the cooperative movement in India.
- Post-independence: Emphasis on rural credit, dairy, and agriculture cooperatives (e.g., Amul).
- Key Institutions: NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development), NCDC (National Cooperative Development Corporation).
- Constitutional & Legal Backing:
- 97th Constitutional Amendment (2011):
- Article 19(1)(c): Right to form cooperative societies.
- Article 43B: Directive Principle promoting cooperative societies.
- Part IXB (Articles 243ZH to 243ZT): Provides governance framework.
- MSCS Act, 2002: Governs multi-state cooperatives (under Central Registrar).
- State List (Entry 32): State legislatures regulate intra-state cooperatives.
- Scale:
- India has over 8.42 lakh cooperatives with 29 crore members (~27% of global total).
- Leading states: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Telangana, MP, Karnataka.
- Notable cooperatives: IFFCO, Amul — ranked among top 300 cooperatives globally.
|
National Cooperation Policy (NCP) 2025:
- Launch: Introduced by Union Minister Amit Shah on July 24, 2025.
- Vision: “Sahakar se Samriddhi” — promoting prosperity through cooperatives.
- Objective:
- Establish a comprehensive national framework for cooperative growth (2025–2045).
- Replace the 2002 policy and drive inclusive development through grassroots cooperatives.
- Key Features:
- 2 lakh new Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS) in 5 years
- Scheme convergence: e.g., PM Matsya Sampada Yojana, NPDD
- Inclusive focus: Women, Dalits, Adivasis, youth
- Sector expansion: Into 25+ areas—dairy, fisheries, exports, technology
- Education: First cooperative university—Tribhuvan Sahkari University
- Export support: Through National Cooperative Exports Limited (NCEL)
- Digital thrust: Emphasis on digitisation and platform integration
Issues with NCP, 2025:
- Federalism Undermined
- Entry 32: Cooperatives are a State Subject
- SC Verdict (2021): Centre cannot regulate intra-state cooperatives
- Criticism: Policy lacks ratification by half the states (Article 368(2))
- Corporate Entry Fears
- Emphasis on digital platforms may enable indirect corporatisation
- Potential marginalisation of small farmers and FPOs
- Weak Social Inclusion
- Lacks focus on Minimum Support Price (MSP), surplus sharing
- No robust support for producer cooperatives or fair wages
- Inclusion of tribals, Dalits, women remains rhetorical
| [UPSC 2021] With reference to ‘Urban Cooperative banks’ in India, consider the following statements:
1. They are supervised and regulated by local boards set up by the State Governments.
2. They can issue equity shares and preference shares.
3. They were brought under the purview of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949 through an Amendment in 1966.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?”
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3 |
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Why in the News?
An 8.8 magnitude earthquake hit off Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula, triggering 16-foot tsunamis that reached Hawaii and northern California in the US.
About Earthquakes:
- Overview: Sudden ground shaking caused by release of stored energy in Earth’s crust due to tectonic stress.
- Cause: Occurs when tectonic plates slip at fault lines where stress had built up due to friction.
- Seismic Waves: Energy travels as:
- Primary Waves (P-waves): Fastest, compressional.
- Secondary Waves (S-waves): Slower, shear motion.
- Key Terms:
- Focus (Hypocenter): Underground origin point.
- Epicenter: Surface point directly above the focus.
- Measurement:
- Magnitude: Energy released (Richter Scale, logarithmic).
- Intensity: Observed ground shaking (varies by location).
- Seismograph: Records seismic wave activity.
How Earthquakes Trigger Tsunamis?
- Underwater Epicenter: Must occur beneath oceans to displace water.
- Shallow Depth: Quakes at <70 km transfer energy more efficiently to water surface.
- Reverse Faulting: One tectonic plate pushes over another, vertically shifting the seafloor.
- Rapid Displacement: Sudden seafloor uplift/downthrust generates massive water waves.
- High Magnitude: Quakes >7.0 (especially >8.0) likely to trigger tsunamis.
About the Kamchatka Region:
- Overview: Russian Far East; borders the North Pacific Ocean.
- Tectonic Zone: Sits on the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench—Pacific Plate subducting under Okhotsk Plate at ~86 mm/year.
- Seismic Hotspot: Historical major quakes in 1841, 1923, 1952, 2006, and 2020.
- Ring of Fire: Part of the 40,000 km Pacific Ring of Fire , known for quakes and volcanoes.
- 2025 Earthquake:
- Depth:3 km (shallow)
- Impact: Triggered tsunami waves up to 16 ft—one of the strongest earthquakes since 1900.
| [UPSC 2004] Consider the following geological phenomena:
1. Development of a fault 2. Movement along a fault 3. Impact produced by a volcanic eruption 4. Folding of rocks
Which of the above cause earthquakes?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4* |
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Why in the News?
The Union Environment Ministry has notified the Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025 under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
About the Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025:
- Nodal Agency: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
- Legal Basis: Framed under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
- Purpose: India’s first dedicated legal framework to identify, clean up, and monitor contaminated sites.
- Goal: Prevent environmental degradation, enforce clean-up, and ensure polluter accountability.
- Funding Pattern:
- Himalayan & Northeast states: 90% Centre – 10% State
- Other states: 60% Centre – 40% State
- Union Territories: 100% Centre
Key Features:
- Site Classification: Sites categorized as suspected, potentially contaminated, or confirmed, based on scientific evidence.
- Exclusions: Sites involving radioactive waste, mining, marine oil spills, or municipal solid waste (regulated separately).
- Transparency & Tracking: Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) to maintain a real-time online portal with public access.
- Public Participation:
- 60-day window for stakeholder feedback post-listing.
- Final site lists must be published in regional newspapers.
- Polluter Pays Principle:
- Identified polluters must bear full remediation cost and repay within 3 months.
- Land use changes or ownership transfers restricted during/post clean-up.
- Orphan Sites (No Known Polluter): Clean-up funded through:
- Environment Relief Fund
- Environmental violation penalties
- Government budgetary support
- Voluntary Remediation: Private entities with technical capacity may remediate sites with landowner consent.
- Monitoring Committees: State and Central-level bodies to oversee implementation and submit annual compliance reports.
Back2Basics: Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
- Enactment: In response to the Bhopal Gas Tragedy; derives authority from Article 253 of the Constitution.
- Objective: To protect and improve the environment and prevent hazards to life and property.
- Significance: Acts as India’s umbrella environmental legislation, coordinating with the Water Act (1974) and Air Act (1981).
- Key Provisions:
- Pollution standards via Environment (Protection) Rules.
- Hazardous Waste Rules, 1989 – manage toxic waste.
- Chemical Safety Rules – control handling of hazardous chemicals.
- Cells Rules, 1989 – govern gene tech and genetically modified organisms.
- Power: Empowers the Central Government to act directly for environmental protection.
|
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:
The Environment Protection Act, 1986 empowers the Government of India to:
1. State the requirement of public participation in the process of environmental protection, and the procedure and manner in which it is sought.
2. Lay down the standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sources.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The Prime Minister recently highlighted a first-of-its-kind grassland bird census in Kaziranga National Park, Assam.
About the Bird Census:
- Significance: India’s first-ever dedicated census of grassland birds
- Led by: Chiranjib Bora (PhD scholar), supported by INSPIRE Fellowship from the Department of Science & Technology
- Organised by: Park authorities, scientists, and conservationists
- Objective:
- Document rare, endemic, and threatened grassland bird species
- Focused on 10 priority species endemic to the Brahmaputra floodplains
Methodology Used:
- Passive Acoustic Monitoring (PAM):
- Recording devices placed in tall trees during breeding season
- Recordings captured across 29 locations over 3 days
- Ideal for detecting small, shy, camouflaged birds not easily visible
- Sound Identification Tools:
- BirdNet: Machine learning tool used to identify bird calls
- Spectrograms: Visual analysis of sound patterns; Final identifications verified by ornithologists
Key Findings:
- Total Species Recorded: 43 grassland bird species
- Priority Species Identified: Bengal Florican, Swamp Francolin, Finn’s Weaver, Jerdon’s Babbler, Black-breasted Parrotbill, among others
- Major Discovery: A breeding colony of over 85 Finn’s Weaver nests—first-ever documentation
| [UPSC 2014] If you walk through countryside, you are likely to see some birds stalking alongside the cattle to seize the insects disturbed by their movement through grasses. Which of the following is/are such bird/birds?
1. Painted Stork 2. Common Myna 3. Black-necked Crane
Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only |
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Why in the News?
The Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) has mandated annual third-party cybersecurity audits for both private and public-sector organisations operating digital infrastructure.
Cybersecurity Directive: Key Highlights:
- Annual third-party cyber audits are mandatory for all digital infrastructure.
- Sectoral regulators may require more frequent checks based on risk.
- Audits must be risk-based, domain-specific, and aligned with business context.
About the Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In):
- Parent Ministry: Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology
- Established: January 2004
- Constituency: All entities operating in Indian cyberspace
- Core Responsibilities:
- Collect, analyse, and disseminate cybersecurity incident data
- Forecast and alert about emerging cyber threats
- Provide emergency response support to affected entities
- Issue security guidelines, advisories, and best practices
- International Role: Signs MoUs with other countries to:
- Share real-time cyber threat intelligence
- Collaborate on incident response and recovery
- Exchange knowledge on global cybersecurity practices
India’s Cybersecurity Ecosystem:
- Institutional Framework:
- National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC): Protects key sectors like telecom, banking, and power
- National Cyber Coordination Centre (NCCC): Monitors real-time cyber threats across public and private domains
- National Cyber Security Coordinator (NCSC): Ensures coordination across ministries and departments
- Sector-Specific Response Teams (CSIRTs): For domains like finance (CSIRT-Fin), power (CSIRT-Power)
- Legal and Policy Measures:
- Information Technology Act, 2000: Core law for cybercrime and electronic governance
- National Cyber Security Policy, 2013: Strategic vision for securing cyberspace
- Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023: Ensures privacy, mandates breach reporting
- Cyber Crisis Management Plan: Framework for cyber incident response in government agencies
- Capacity Building Programs:
- Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA): Promotes digital literacy in rural areas
- Cyber Surakshit Bharat Initiative: Trains Chief Information Security Officers of public sector organisations
- Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C): Multi-agency platform to handle cybercrimes
| [UPSC 2017] In India, it is legally mandatory for which of the following to report on cyber security incidents? 1. Service providers 2. Data Centres 3. Body corporate Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has launched oil exploration over 124 million hectares of the Cuvette Centrale peatlands raising global ecological risk.
About the Cuvette Centrale Peatland Complex:
- Location: Central Congo Basin, spanning the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of Congo.
- Size: Covers approximately 145,000–167,600 sq. km—larger than England and about 10% of the Congo Basin.
- Peat Coverage: Around 40% of the region is underlain by peat—formed over 10,000 years due to flat terrain, rainforest climate, and slow-moving water.
- Landscape: Features a mosaic of seasonal lakes, floating prairies, swamp forests, rivers, and grasslands.
- Global Status: The world’s largest near-contiguous tropical peatland complex.
Ecological Significance:
- Carbon Storage: Holds about 30–30.6 gigatonnes of carbon—
- Equal to 3 years of global fossil fuel emissions.
- Nearly 15 years of U.S. emissions.
- About 28% of global tropical peat carbon stock.
- Climate Impact: Acts as a major carbon sink, critical for regulating global temperatures and mitigating climate change.
- Biodiversity: Habitat for forest elephants, lowland gorillas, and rare plant species.
- Local Importance: Sustains indigenous livelihoods and maintains regional water cycles.
- Conservation Status: Recognized as a transnational Ramsar wetland site, highlighting its international ecological value.
| [UPSC 2024] One of the following regions has the world’s largest tropical peatland, which holds about three years’ worth of global carbon emissions from fossil fuels, and the possible destruction of which can exert a detrimental effect on the global climate. Which one of the following denotes that region?
Options: (a) Amazon Basin (b) Congo Basin* (c) Kikori basin (d) Rio De La Plata Basin |
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Why in the News?
Vijai Sharma, a 1974-batch IAS officer and architect of India’s climate diplomacy, who helped shape the Kyoto Protocol for safeguarding the interests of developing countries like India, has passed away.
About Kyoto Protocol:
- Adopted: 11 December 1997 (UNFCCC COP-3, Kyoto, Japan); Came into Force: 16 February 2005
- Legal Status: Legally binding on developed (Annex I) countries
- Parent Treaty: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)
- Objective: Reduce greenhouse gas emissions and address climate change
- Principle: Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC)
- Parties: 192 ratified; key non-parties include United States and Canada
Key Features:
- Emission Targets:
- Annex B nations to cut emissions by 5% below 1990 levels (2008–2012)
- Doha Amendment (2012): 18% cut for 2013–2020
- Greenhouse Gases Covered:
- Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nitrous oxide, Hydrofluorocarbons, Perfluorocarbons, Sulfur hexafluoride
- Market Mechanisms:
- Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Carbon credits via projects in developing nations
- Joint Implementation (JI): Emission reduction between Annex I countries
- International Emissions Trading: Trade surplus emission units
- Monitoring and Enforcement:
- Mandatory reporting and independent verification
- Compliance Committee oversight
- Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) included; aviation/shipping excluded
- Equity Element:
- No binding targets for developing nations like India and China
- Developed nations held accountable for historical emissions
Vijai Sharma’s Contributions:
- Climate Negotiations Leader: India’s chief negotiator (1995–2001), led G77+China, defended equity and exemptions for developing nations
- Policy Architect: Helped shape CDM governance, promoted India’s clean-tech access
- Environmental Reformer: As Environment Secretary (2008–2010), improved clearance processes
- Legacy: Called “Sir Humphrey Sharma” for his sharp wit and bureaucratic skill; key figure in India’s Kyoto-era climate diplomacy
| [UPSC 2016] Consider the following pairs:
Terms sometimes seen in the news : Their origin
1. Annex-I Countries : Cartagena Protocol
2. Certified Emissions Reductions : Nagoya Protocol
3. Clean Development Mechanisms : Kyoto Protocol
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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