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Type: Prelims Only

  • Freshwater Aquifers found beneath the Atlantic Ocean

    Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the News?

    The recent discovery of a massive freshwater aquifer beneath the Atlantic shelf opens new possibilities for addressing future global water shortages.

    About the Aquifer:

    • Location: Offshore northeastern U.S., stretching possibly from New Jersey to Maine.
    • Expedition 501: Drilled up to 400 m beneath the seabed, retrieving nearly 50,000 liters of water and thousands of sediment cores.
    • Findings: Fresh and nearly fresh water discovered at both shallower and deeper depths than expected, confirming a vast, pressurized aquifer.
    • Global Context: Similar offshore aquifers are suspected or identified near South Africa, Hawai‘i, Jakarta, and Canada’s Prince Edward Island.

    Possible Origins of the Freshwater:

    • Glacial Meltwater Hypothesis: Ancient ice sheets during lower sea levels allowed meltwater to seep into porous sediments.
    • Connected Aquifer Hypothesis: Modern terrestrial groundwater may still slowly flow offshore through geologic formations.
    • Significance: Determining whether the aquifer is finite fossil water or a renewable source is critical for deciding its usability.

    Significance of the Discovery:

    • Water Security: Could supply a metropolis the size of New York City for centuries, if managed sustainably.
    • Climate Change Resilience: Offers backup options as coastal aquifers face saltwater intrusion and urban demand rises (e.g., Cape Town’s “Day Zero” crisis in 2018).
    • Scientific Impact: First direct, systematic drilling of offshore freshwater for mapping and salinity profiling.
    [UPSC 2021] With reference to the water on the planet Earth, consider the following statements:

    1.The amount of water in the rivers and lakes is more than the amount of groundwater.

    2.The amount of water in polar ice caps and glaciers is more than the amount of groundwater.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-Sri Lanka

    Katchatheevu Island Dispute

    India MappingPrelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood – Relations

    Why in the News?

    Sri Lankan President Dissanayake’s visit to Katchatheevu Island, the first ever visit by a head of state, revived debates on the island’s history and ownership.

    Katchatheevu Island Dispute

    About Katchatheevu Island:

    • Overview: Small uninhabited island of about 285 acres in the Palk Strait, ~33 nautical miles from Jaffna (Sri Lanka) and close to Ramanathapuram (Tamil Nadu).
    • History: Once under the Raja of Ramnad (TN), later became disputed during British rule.
    • Agreements: Under 1974 and 1976 pacts, India (under Indira Gandhi govt.) recognised Sri Lanka’s sovereignty and gave up traditional fishing rights.
    • Religious Site: Home to St. Anthony’s Catholic Shrine, visited annually by Indian and Sri Lankan fishermen during a joint festival with visa waiver.
    • Ecology: Though barren and unsettled, serves as a resting point for fishermen and supports marine biodiversity.

    Disputes around Katchatheevu:

    • Fishing Conflicts: Tamil Nadu fishermen often cross into Sri Lankan waters due to declining catch in Indian waters, leading to frequent arrests by the Sri Lankan Navy.
    • Bottom-Trawling Issue: Indian trawlers use bottom-trawling, banned in Sri Lanka, which damages marine ecosystems and escalates tensions.
    • Political Demands: All TN political parties have demanded retrieval of the island.
    • National Politics: Issue often resurfaces during elections, with claims that earlier governments “easily gave away” Katchatheevu.
    • Official Position: India clarified in 2013–14 that no sovereign territory was ceded since the island was disputed, not fully under India’s control.
    • Core Problem: Lies not in sovereignty but in unsustainable bottom-trawling practices and the livelihood crisis faced by Tamil Nadu fishermen.
    [UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:

    1. The value of Indo-Sri Lanka trade has consistently increased in the last decade.

    2. “Textile and textile articles” constitute an important item of trade between India and Bangladesh.

    3. In the last five years, Nepal has been the largest trading partner of India in South Asia.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (2020)

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only* (c) 2 only (d) 3 only

     

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  • Universe, Solar System Discoveries

    ‘Blood Moon’ and Lunar Eclipse

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Viewers across Asia, Australia, and parts of Africa witnessed a Blood Moon on 8th September, a spectacular form of total lunar eclipse visible.

    About Lunar Eclipse:

    • Overview: Happens when Earth comes between Sun and Moon, blocking sunlight from reaching the Moon.
    • Earth’s Shadow:
      • Umbra: Dark central shadow, causes total or partial eclipses.
      • Penumbra: Outer shadow, causes faint dimming.
    • Types:
      1. Total Eclipse: Moon passes fully through umbra.
      2. Partial Eclipse: Only part of Moon enters umbra.
      3. Penumbral Eclipse: Moon passes through penumbra with subtle darkening.
    • Frequency: Occurs 2–4 times per year, visible from different regions.

    Why lunar eclipse don’t occur every month?

    : Lunar eclipses don’t happen every month because the Moon’s orbit around the Earth is tilted by about 5 degrees relative to the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. This tilt, known as orbital inclination, means that during a full Moon, the Moon often passes above or below Earth’s shadow, preventing a perfect alignment required for an eclipse. Eclipses only occur when the alignment is precise, allowing the Sun, Earth, and Moon to line up in a straight line.

    What is Blood Moon?

    • Meaning: Refers to the reddish glow of the Moon during a total lunar eclipse.
    • Cause: Rayleigh scattering in Earth’s atmosphere.
      • Short wavelengths (blue, violet) scatter away.
      • Longer wavelengths (red, orange) bend around Earth and light the Moon.
    • Colour Intensity:
      • Presence of dust, aerosols, volcanic ash deepens the red shade.
      • Cleaner atmosphere produces a lighter red or orange.
    • Historical Insight: Medieval records of Blood Moons helped identify volcanic eruptions between 1100–1300 CE, confirmed by a 2023 University of Geneva study.

    Significance:

    • Scientific: Acts as a natural indicator of atmospheric composition, dust, and pollution; helps model planetary atmospheres.
    • Historical/Environmental: Provides evidence of past volcanic events and climate conditions.
    • Cultural: Linked to myths and superstitions, though harmless scientifically.
    • Public Engagement: Widely followed celestial event that aids astronomy outreach and awareness.
    [UPSC 2019] On 21st June, the Sun

    Options: (a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle*

    (b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle

    (c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator

    (d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn

     

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  • Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

    100 years of the Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

    Why in the News?

    This year marks the centenary of the Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu, a transformative socio-political reform movement.

    About Self-Respect Movement:

    • Overview: Started in 1925 by E.V. Ramasamy Periyar in Tamil Nadu after his exit from the Indian National Congress.
    • Aim: To challenge Brahminical dominance, caste hierarchy, patriarchy, and blind religious practices; to create a rational, egalitarian society.
    • Methods:
      • Promotion of Self-Respect Marriages (without priests or caste rituals).
      • Advocacy of women’s rights – widow remarriage, divorce, property rights, inter-caste marriage.
      • Use of Kudi Arasu journal for spreading radical ideas and reform propaganda.
    • Significance:
      • Laid the foundation of the Dravidian movement in Tamil Nadu.
      • Prioritized social reform over political independence.
      • Gave marginalized communities and women a platform for dignity and equality.

    100 years of the Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu

    Who was E.V. Ramasamy Periyar?

    • Overview: Erode Venkatappa Ramasamy (1879–1973), popularly known as Periyar or Thanthai Periyar (“Father Periyar”).
    • Identity: Social reformer, rationalist, and political thinker; called the “Father of the Dravidian Movement.”
    • Key Roles:
      • Led the Vaikom Satyagraha (1924-25) in Kerala against caste restrictions in temples, earning the title “Vaikom Hero.”
      • Founded the Self-Respect Movement (1925) and later Dravidar Kazhagam.
    • Ideology:
      • Advocated rationalism, atheism, equality, and eradication of caste.
      • Strongly opposed gender inequality and social exploitation.
    • Legacy: Inspired later Dravidian parties (DMK, AIADMK) and influenced Tamil Nadu’s policies on social justice, women’s rights, and education.
    [UPSC 2025] Who among the following was the founder of the ‘Self-Respect Movement’?

    Options:

    (a) ‘Periyar’ E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker* (b) Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (c) Bhaskarrao Jadhav (d) Dinkarrao Javalkar

     

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    New Horizons and Stellar Parallax Navigation

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    A recent study has showcased that spacecrafts can locate themselves using a simple stellar parallax method with just two nearby stars, without relying on Earth.

    New Horizons and Stellar Parallax Navigation

    What is Stellar Parallax?

    • Overview: Stellar parallax is the apparent shift in a star’s position against background stars when observed from two different vantage points.
    • Example: On Earth, this is measured every 6 months as the planet moves to opposite sides of its orbit.
    • Parallax Angle: The degree of this shift gives the star’s distance. Larger parallax means the star is closer.
    • Application in Space: By observing stars from both Earth and a spacecraft (billions of km apart), the relative positions can be compared to calculate the spacecraft’s distance.

    About the New Horizons Demonstration:

    • Spacecraft: Launched in 2006, New Horizons explored Pluto (2015) and is now beyond 60 AU (astronomical units).
    • Observation: On April 23, 2020, astronomers measured parallaxes of Proxima Centauri (4.2 light years) and Wolf 359 (7.9 light years) using Earth-based telescopes and New Horizons’ onboard instruments.
    • Results:
      • Proxima’s parallax: 32.4 arcseconds
      • Wolf 359’s parallax: 15.7 arcseconds
      • Derived spacecraft position: 46.89 AU, matching DSN’s 47.11 AU reading.
    • Requirements: Only a camera, onboard computer, and stellar catalogue — no special equipment needed.

    Significance:

    • Self-sufficient Navigation: Enables spacecraft to calculate their position without depending solely on Earth-based radio signals.
    • For Future Missions: Particularly useful for interstellar missions, where Earth’s beacons won’t be practical.
    • Simplicity: Unlike more complex astrometric navigation or pulsar navigation, this method is accessible with minimal hardware.
    • Educational Value: Though not precise enough yet for real-time navigation, it is a proof of concept for deep-space autonomy.
    [UPSC 2012] A person stood alone in a desert on a dark night and wanted to reach his village which was situated 5 km east of the point where he was standing. He had no instruments to find the direction, but he located the polestar. The most convenient way now to reach his village is to walk in the:

    Options: (a) direction facing the polestar

    (b) direction opposite to the polestar

    (c) direction keeping the polestar to his left *

    (d) direction keeping the polestar to his right

     

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  • Tribes in News

    In news: Apatani Tribe

    Prelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Salient features of Indian Society

    Why in the News?

    The facial tattoos and wooden nose plugs of Apatani women in Arunachal Pradesh, banned in the 1970s, now survive only among older generations, giving them anthropological importance.

    About Apatani Tribe:

    • Overview: A Scheduled Tribe (ST) concentrated in Ziro Valley, Lower Subansiri district, Arunachal Pradesh.
    • Language: Part of the Tani linguistic group, speaking a dialect of the Tibeto-Burman family.
    • Belief System: Paganistic faith worshipping the Sun (Ayo Danyii) and Moon (Atoh Piilo).
    • Festivals: Dree (prayers for harvest and prosperity), Myoko (friendship bonds), along with Yapung and Murung.
    • Global Recognition: Ziro Valley noted for traditional ecological knowledge, proposed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

    Unique Features:

    • Distinct Identity: Women traditionally had facial tattoos and wooden nose plugs; banned since the 1970s, seen only among older women today.
    • Sustainable Farming: Practise integrated rice-fish farming on terraced fields, growing rice varieties like Mipya, Emoh, Emeo along with fish (Ngihi).
    • Weaving Tradition: Women weave on a loin loom (Chichin), producing fabrics with geometric and zig-zag designs, dyed with natural extracts.
    • Bamboo Culture: Bamboo central to daily life, crafts, and rituals, symbolising ecological harmony.
    • Community Systems: Maintain sustainable social forestry and village institutions for conservation and cultural continuity.
    [UPSC 2014] Consider the following pairs:

    Tribe : State

    1. Limboo (Limbu) : Sikkim

    2. Karbi : Himachal Pradesh

    3. Dongaria Kondh : Odisha

    4. Bonda : Tamil Nadu

    Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 and 3 only* (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    RNA–Amino Acid Link clues to Origin of Life

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    A recent study published in the Nature suggests that simple molecules called aminoacyl-thiols may have helped amino acids stick to RNA (ribonucleic acid) without enzymes, giving clues to how protein-making began on early Earth.

    About the RNA–Amino Acid Link:

    • Discovery: Study showed that aminoacyl-thiols (simple prebiotic molecules) can attach amino acids to RNA directly (aminoacylation) without enzymes.
    • Modern Parallel: In cells today, this is done by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases before ribosomes build proteins. This created the “chicken-and-egg problem”: proteins are needed to make proteins.
    • Chemical Mechanism:
      • Thioesters: Enable amino acids to attach to RNA (“charging RNA”).
      • Thioacids: Enable amino acids to link into peptides.
    • Robustness: Works at neutral pH, across many amino acids, with unexpected selectivity for RNA despite other molecules being more reactive.

    Significance for Origin of Life:

    • RNA World Hypothesis: Supports the idea that RNA and amino acids interacted directly before enzymes evolved.
    • Chemical Advantage: Shows RNA had a natural edge in early Earth conditions, explaining its central role in life’s origin.
    • Prebiotic Plausibility: Aminoacyl-thiols could form from simple nitriles and thiols, and reactions occurred even in cold/frozen pools resembling early Earth.
    • Evolutionary Pathway: Suggests life began with short peptides, with RNA later evolving control, leading to coded protein synthesis and ribosomes.
    [UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements : DNA Barcoding can be a tool to:

    1. assess the age of a plant or animal.

    2. distinguish among species that look alike.

    3. identify undesirable animal or plant materials in processed foods.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3*

     

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  • Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

    Technology Perspective and Capability Roadmap (TPCR-2025)

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Defence has released the Technology Perspective and Capability Roadmap 2025 (TPCR-2025), a 15-year blueprint for military preparedness and modernization.

    About Technology Perspective and Capability Roadmap (TPCR-2025):

    • Overview: A strategic modernization blueprint released by the Ministry of Defence to guide India’s Armed Forces for the next 10–15 years.
    • Scope: Covers tri-services for multi-domain operations across land, sea, air, cyber, and space.
    • Industry Role: Provides clear requirements to defence industry, MSMEs, and start-ups to focus R&D, manufacturing, and innovation.
    • Policy Alignment: Linked to Atmanirbhar Bharat, reducing import dependence and strengthening indigenous production.
    • Objective: Ensure forces remain technologically competitive, prepared for emerging threats, and resilient in a dynamic security environment.

    Key Features of TPCR-2025:

    • Nuclear & CBRN Preparedness: Strengthening nuclear command systems, survivability infrastructure, radiation detection, decontamination units, unmanned CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear) vehicles.
    • Drones & Unmanned Systems: Development of stealth drones (range 1,500 km, altitude 60,000 ft), AI-enabled loitering munitions, anti-drone EW bubbles.
    • Electronic & Cyber Warfare: Deployment of advanced jammers, EW payloads, info-dominance systems, and readiness for cyber and space warfare.
    • Service Modernization:
      • Army: New tanks, light tanks, UAV-launched PGMs, electromagnetic weapons.
      • Navy: New destroyers, corvettes, mine vessels, nuclear-powered warships, third aircraft carrier.
      • Air Force: Stratospheric airships, long-range cruise missiles, hardened PGMs.
    • Implementation: Regular industry–services consultations, engagement with MSMEs and start-ups, periodic updates.

    Significance:

    • Serves as a capability roadmap for long-term defence planning.
    • Strengthens domestic defence ecosystem.
    • Ensures future combat readiness in multi-domain operations.
    [UPSC 2020] In India, why are some nuclear reactors kept under “IAEA safeguards” while others are not?

    Options: (a) Some use uranium and others use thorium

    (b) Some use imported uranium and others use domestic supplies

    (c) Some are operated by foreign enterprises and others are operated by domestic enterprises

    (d) Some are State-owned and others are privately owned *

     

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  • Nuclear Energy

    Thunderbird Reactor and Cold Fusion Research (2025)

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Cold fusion reaction, once dismissed after failed 1989 claims, is back in discussion as US-based researchers report neutron production from their small “Thunderbird Reactor.”

    Thunderbird Reactor and Cold Fusion Research (2025)

    What is Cold Fusion Reaction?

    • Overview: A proposed way to achieve nuclear fusion at room temperature, unlike conventional fusion which needs extremely high heat (100 million °C or more).
    • How it started: In 1989, two chemists, Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons, said their palladium-heavy water experiment created more heat than normal chemistry allows.
    • Problem: Other scientists could not reproduce the result. No clear evidence of fusion products (like neutrons or helium) was found. The claim was dismissed, but the idea stayed alive.
    • Why interest remains: If proven, cold fusion could provide limitless, clean, and cheap energy. Research in this area is now called Low-Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR).

    About the Thunderbird Reactor (2025)

    • Inception: Scientists led by Curtis Berlinguette, University of British Columbia, published in Nature (Aug 2025).
    • Why built: Not to make electricity, but to test if chemistry can affect nuclear reactions.
    • How it works:
      • A plasma thruster shoots deuterium ions (a form of hydrogen) at a palladium metal target.
      • At the same time, an electrochemical cell pushes more deuterium into the palladium.
      • This builds up a very high density of deuterium inside the metal, making fusion more likely.
      • A neutron detector checks if fusion really happens.

    Key Findings:

    • Neutrons detected: When deuterium ions hit palladium, about 130–140 neutrons per second were observed (much higher than background levels).
    • Electrolysis boost: Adding extra deuterium through electrolysis increased the neutron count further.
    • Energy output: The reaction only produced a tiny amount of power (one-billionth of a watt) while consuming 15 watts of electricity. No net energy gain yet.
    [UPSC 2016] India is an important member of the ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor’. If this experiment succeeds, what is the immediate advantage for India?

    Options: (a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power generation

    (b) It attain a global role in satellite-navigation

    (c) It can drastically improve the efficiency of its fission reactors in power generation

    (d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation*

     

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  • Food Processing Industry: Issues and Developments

    BHARATI Initiative

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Food Processing & Related Industries In India

    Why in the News?

    The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) has launched the BHARATI initiative — Bharat’s Hub for Agritech, Resilience, Advancement and Incubation for Export Enablement.

    About BHARATI Initiative:

    • Launched by: APEDA (Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority) in September 2025.
    • Purpose: To incubate and empower 100 agri-food and agri-tech startups, making them export-ready.
    • Target: Support APEDA’s vision of reaching US$ 50 billion (₹4.4 lakh crore) in agri-food exports by 2030.
    • Focus Areas: Export enablement, innovation, incubation, and addressing challenges like perishability, logistics, quality compliance, and sustainability.
    • Policy Alignment: Linked to Atmanirbhar Bharat, Start-Up India, Vocal for Local, and Digital India.

    Key Features:

    • Targeted Products: GI-tagged items, organic foods, superfoods, AYUSH products, processed foods, livestock-based products.
    • Technology Integration: AI-based quality control, blockchain-enabled traceability, IoT-based cold chains, and agri-fintech solutions.
    • Acceleration Model: 3-month programme to build export readiness, ensuring compliance with international food safety and quality standards.
    • Partnership Ecosystem: Collaboration with state boards, IITs/NITs, universities, industry bodies, and accelerators.
    • Scalability: Designed for annual expansion, gradually increasing the number of supported startups.
    [UPSC 2011] With what purpose is the Government of India promoting the concept of “Mega Food Parks”?

    1. To provide good infrastructure facilities for the food processing industry.

    2. To increase the processing of perishable items and reduce wastage.

    3. To provide emerging and

    eco-friendly food processing technologies to entrepreneurs.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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