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Month: August 2025

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Indian Navy Updates

Induction of INS Udaygiri and INS Himgiri Stealth Nilgiri Class Frigates

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

Why in the News?

The Indian Navy has commissioned INS Udaygiri and INS Himgiri, Nilgiri-class frigates built under Project 17A, at Visakhapatnam.

Induction of INS Udaygiri and INS Himgiri Stealth Nilgiri Class Frigates

About INS Udaygiri & INS Himgiri:

Feature INS Udaygiri INS Himgiri
Builder Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Ltd. (MDL), Mumbai Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE), Kolkata
Series / Class 2nd ship of Project 17A;

100th vessel designed by Navy’s Warship Design Bureau

 1st Project 17A frigate from GRSE
Naming After Udaygiri mountain range (AP); earlier ship (1976–2007) Legacy of original INS Himgiri (1974–2005)
Displacement / Size ~6,700 tonnes ~6,670 tonnes; Length: 149 m
Propulsion CODOG (Combined Diesel or Gas) CODOG; speeds 28+ knots
Stealth Features Reduced radar, infrared, and acoustic signatures Enhanced radar & IR signature reduction
Armament BrahMos, Barak-8 SAMs, 76 mm gun, CIWS, advanced ASW weapons BrahMos, Barak-8, CIWS, ASW rocket launchers, torpedo tubes, EW systems
Aviation Facilities – Flight deck + hangar for MH-60 Romeo, ALH Dhruv Mk-III, Sea King helicopters
Indigenous Content ~75% (local sensors, systems, IPMS) ~75%

 

[UPSC 2016] Which one of the following is the best description of ‘INS Astradharini’, that was in the news recently?

Options: (a) Amphibious warfare ship (b) Nuclear-powered submarine (c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel* (d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier

 

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Parliament – Sessions, Procedures, Motions, Committees etc

[25th August 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The new Constitution Bill, the need for a balancing act

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Mentor’s Comment

The Constitution (One Hundred and Thirtieth Amendment) Bill, 2025 has sparked intense debate in Parliament and across the country. While it appears to be a strong step toward cleaner politics, it also raises deep constitutional and democratic concerns. For UPSC aspirants, this issue is important not only for its immediate political relevance but also for its intersection with constitutional morality, criminalisation of politics, separation of powers, and due process. This article breaks down the Bill, its context, judicial linkages, and its broader implications for democracy.

Introduction

India has long grappled with the paradox of demanding clean politics while being governed by leaders facing serious criminal charges. The Constitution (130th Amendment) Bill, 2025, introduced in the Lok Sabha on August 20, seeks automatic resignation or removal of Ministers, Chief Ministers and even the Prime Minister if they remain in custody for over 30 days in offences punishable with five years or more. While aimed at restoring public trust, the Bill risks undermining due process and democratic safeguards.

Why is this Bill in the news?

The Bill marks the first time Parliament has proposed automatic removal of top executive leaders on mere detention without conviction. This is in sharp contrast with the current legal position under the Representation of the People Act, where disqualification begins only upon conviction. The stakes are high: India already faces a staggering rise in criminalisation of politics, with 46% of MPs in 2024 declaring criminal cases, up from 30% in 2009. Against this backdrop, the Bill seeks to restore public trust but also risks political misuse, raising concerns of democratic erosion.

Judicial foundations and constitutional morality

  1. Articles 75, 164, 239AA: Provide for ministerial tenure “at the pleasure” of President/Governor, limited by constitutional morality.
  2. S.R. Bommai case: Stressed that integrity and accountability are core to constitutional morality.
  3. Manoj Narula case: Warned against entrusting power to those with serious criminal charges.
  4. Lily Thomas case: Held that disqualification of legislators must occur upon conviction, striking down earlier appeal window.
  5. Tension: While courts upheld high ethical standards, they stopped short of mandating automatic removal before conviction, the Bill goes further, creating friction with Article 21 (right to life and liberty).

Risk of Bill being misused as a political weapon

  1. Executive discretion: PM/CM advice governs removal; if withheld, automatic removal applies after 30 days. This dual mechanism may be exploited politically.
  2. Selective shield or target: PM may protect allies temporarily, while hostile leaders may allow rivals to fall under automatic removal.
  3. Politicisation of accountability: Instead of insulating governance, it may embed accountability in partisan strategies.

Inconsistency in the treatment of legislators and Ministers

  1. RPA framework: Legislators disqualified only on conviction.
  2. Ministerial paradox: A Minister under arrest is removed after 30 days, but a legislator convicted of corruption may still technically hold ministerial office until disqualification proceedings.
  3. Asymmetry: Creates harsher standards for Ministers than legislators, risking deterrence for capable leaders.

Political instability and the “revolving door”

  1. Reappointment clause: Once released, Ministers can be reinstated.
  2. Cycle of instability: Arrest → resignation → release → reinstatement may lead to political uncertainty without improving accountability.
  3. Tactical misuse: Legal proceedings could be manipulated to weaken opponents through timed arrests.

Why do critics demand a more nuanced model?

  1. Criminalisation of politics: Rising trend demands reform, 251 MPs (46%) with criminal cases in 2024.
  2. Judicial milestone approach: Removal linked to framing of charges by a competent court rather than arrest alone ensures judicial scrutiny.
  3. Independent review: Tribunal/judicial panel could prevent executive misuse.
  4. Interim suspension: Instead of removal, suspension of ministerial functions during trial could balance governance and accountability.
  5. Scope refinement: Apply only to corruption and moral turpitude offences, not all crimes with five years’ punishment (which may include minor offences).

Conclusion

The 130th Amendment Bill embodies India’s long-standing demand for clean politics. However, its blunt approach risks weakening constitutional safeguards like presumption of innocence, creating political instability, and enabling misuse of arrest as a weapon. The Joint Parliamentary Committee must recalibrate the Bill with judicially tested safeguards, narrowing its scope to serious offences and ensuring impartial mechanisms for enforcement. Only then can India achieve the delicate balance where power is exercised with integrity without sacrificing fairness.

UPSC Relevance:

[UPSC]: “There is a need for simplification of procedure for disqualification of persons found guilty of corrupt practices under the Representation of Peoples Act.” Comment.

Linkage: “The 130th Amendment Bill echoes the long-standing concern flagged in the 2020 PYQ on RPA disqualification: India needs clearer and fairer procedures to ensure accountability in politics. While the PYQ emphasised simplification post-conviction, the Bill risks moving the trigger point too early (mere custody), thereby complicating rather than simplifying the disqualification process.”

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Mother and Child Health – Immunization Program, BPBB, PMJSY, PMMSY, etc.

Nourish to flourish, the nutrition and cognititon link

Prelims Only | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Introduction

The first 1,000 days of life, from conception to a child’s second birthday, form a once-in-a-lifetime window for shaping lifelong health, learning, and productivity. Science shows that by age two, the brain reaches 80% of its adult size, and missing this phase leads to irreversible losses in nutrition and cognition. Despite progress, India still faces high levels of stunting and poor early learning, making early childhood investment a nation-building priority.

Why is this in the news?

India has reduced malnutrition since the 1990s, but progress is too slow, at the current pace, stunting will fall to 10% only by 2075. To meet the 2047 target, the pace must double. New initiatives like Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi and Navchetana reflect a fresh focus on integrating nutrition with cognitive development, but gaps remain in coverage, quality, and urban reach, making this issue urgent.

Scientific insights on first 1,000 days

  1. Brain Growth: By age two, the brain reaches 80% of adult size; synapse formation and frontal lobe spurts shape planning, memory, and regulation.
  2. Nutritional Deficits: Deficiencies before age three are often irreversible, with lifelong consequences.
  3. Cohort Study Evidence: A Tamil Nadu study linked early childhood iron deficiency to poor verbal performance, slower processing, and weaker expressive language.
  4. Neuroplasticity: Learning acquired in this phase is fast and permanent, e.g., acquisition of regional language or nursery rhymes.

Limits of nutrition-only interventions 

  1. Integrated Development: Stand-alone nutrition programmes show only low-to-moderate outcomes.
  2. Combined Impact: Nutrition + stimulation interventions lead to stronger cognitive and health outcomes.
  3. Example: Birth-cohort studies show poor language skills when nutrition is not coupled with stimulation, underlining the “cut from the same cloth” nature of brain and body growth.

India’s policy response to early childhood development 

  1. ICDS: World’s largest childcare scheme, focusing on nutrition and early learning.
  2. Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi: Seeks to integrate nutrition with learning stimulation.
  3. Navchetana Framework: Offers 140 age-based activities (0–3 years) through a 36-month stimulation calendar; relies on home visits by Anganwadi and caregivers.
  4. Home-based Play Learning: Encourages children to learn through activities, not formal teaching, improving social and cognitive skills.

Persistent challenges in ensuring holistic child care

  1. Stunting Persistence: At current rate, 10% stunting target may take till 2075.
  2. Service Saturation Gaps: ICDS yet to achieve full coverage and quality across states.
  3. Urban Challenges: Services weak in cities despite high demand.
  4. Workforce Empowerment: 14 lakh Anganwadi workers remain overburdened and undertrained.
  5. Women in Workforce: Limited crèche facilities constrain female labour participation; need public-private-community partnerships.

Urgency of investment in the age of automation 

  1. Automation Risk: Future job markets will offer fewer opportunities to low-skilled workers.
  2. Human Capital: Early investment ensures a workforce equipped with cognitive resilience and adaptability.
  3. Intergenerational Impact: Better child development empowers women, reduces poverty, and enhances societal well-being.

Conclusion

The first 1,000 days are the golden window of human development, missing it means irreversible losses. India has the policies, infrastructure, and scientific backing to act, but weak implementation, inadequate urban reach, and insufficient integration of nutrition with learning continue to limit outcomes. With 2047 as a national milestone, accelerating investment in children’s earliest years is not just a welfare necessity but an economic and ethical imperative.

UPSC PYQ Linkage

[2021, GS 2] “Examine the main provisions of the National Child Policy and evaluate its implementation.”

Linkage: Both focus on gaps in child-centric programmes and need for holistic approaches.

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Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

How have deception techniques evolved

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Introduction

Modern warfare is no longer about firepower alone; it is equally about deception. As precision-guided missiles, drones, and AI-enabled targeting systems grow deadlier, militaries are turning to decoy technologies to confuse radars, mislead missiles, and protect valuable assets. India’s reported use of the AI-enabled X-Guard decoy during Operation Sindoor shows how deception has become a central element of national security strategy.

The Growing Relevance of Deception in Modern Warfare:

  1. Evolving threat environment: Precision-guided munitions, drones, and AI-enabled targeting systems make military platforms highly vulnerable.
  2. Strategic asset: Decoys create confusion, waste enemy munitions, and buy crucial time for retaliation.
  3. Game-changing event: Operation Sindoor showcased India’s successful use of an AI-enabled decoy, termed by experts as “the best instance of spoofing and deception ever seen.”

Inside the X-Guard Fibre-Optic Towed Decoy 

  1. Lightweight & reusable: At just 30 kg, retractable and deployable in flight.
  2. Radar mimicry: Replicates the Rafale’s Radar Cross Section (RCS), doppler velocity, and spectral signature across multiple bands.
  3. 360-degree jamming: Works seamlessly with the Rafale’s SPECTRA suite to form a layered defensive shield.
  4. Operational success: Reports suggest Pakistan’s J-10C fighters misidentified decoys as actual aircraft, wasting advanced PL-15E missiles.

Global landscape of comparable decoy systems: 

  1. BriteCloud (Leonardo UL): Used on Eurofighter Typhoons, Gripen-Es, and some F-16s.
  2. AN/ALE-50/55 series (Raytheon/BAE Systems): Deployed on U.S. Navy F/A-18E/F Super Hornets.
  3. Adaptability to UAVs: Modified for platforms like Israeli Herons and U.S. MQ-9 Reapers.

Battlefield deception on Land Forces: 

  1. Inflatable & heat-emitting decoys: Simulate tanks, artillery, and missile batteries to divert strikes.
  2. Ukraine’s wooden & 3D-printed fakes: Exhaust Russian drone and missile stocks.
  3. Russia’s Inflatech decoys: Create entire armoured formations in minutes.
  4. Indian Army initiative (2025): Issued a request for decoys mimicking T-90 tanks, including thermal and acoustic signatures.

Naval countermeasures and Decoy strategies

  1. Layered naval countermeasures: Chaff, acoustic decoys, and offboard active deception protect against missiles and submarines.
  2. Nulka decoy (Australia–U.S.): Self-propelled system mimicking large ship radar signatures to mislead missile guidance.

Conclusion

Deception, once limited to camouflage and dummy equipment, has evolved into a sophisticated digital-age shield. Airborne fibre-optic decoys, inflatable ground tanks, and naval missile deflectors now define modern survivability. India’s reported use of the X-Guard highlights its adaptation to the evolving battlefield. For a relatively low investment, such systems deliver high-impact protection, proving that in the wars of tomorrow, deception may be as decisive as destruction.

PYQ Relevance

“How is S-400 air defence system technically superior to any other system presently available in the world?”

Linkage: This question shows UPSC’s focus on defence technology and comparative capability analysis. The same lens applies to India’s deployment of AI-enabled decoys like the X-Guard FOTD, which enhance survivability against advanced missile systems. Both highlight the importance of evaluating cutting-edge military technology for national security.

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

In news: Women Revolutionaries of Bengal 

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Why in the News?

This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in the Indian Express.

Women in Revolutionary Movements:

Pritilata Waddedar:

  • Early Life: Born on 5 May 1911 in Chittagong. One of the first Bengali women to lead an armed revolutionary group.
  • Education: Graduated in philosophy from Bethune College, Kolkata; became a school teacher.
  • Inspiration: Influenced by revolutionary literature and women’s activism; joined Deepali Sangha.
  • Role: Collected bomb cases, distributed pamphlets, gathered jail intelligence by posing as relatives.
  • Legacy: Left a suicide note explaining her cause; remembered as a fearless martyr.

Kalpana Datta:

  • Early Life: Born in 1913 in Sripur, Chittagong; studied at Bethune College, joined Chhatri Sangha.
  • Activities: Conducted reconnaissance before the European Club attack; arrested a week earlier.
  • Later Role: Joined bombing attempt to free Surya Sen; sentenced to life, released in 1939.
  • Post-freedom: Became a Communist Party leader, focused on social activism.

Bina Das:

  • Early Life: At 21, attempted assassination of Governor Stanley Jackson (1932) with a revolver supplied by Kamala Das Gupta.
  • Networks: Part of secret revolutionary student circles.
  • Court Statement: Famous for her passionate resistance plea before Calcutta High Court.

Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain:

  • Early Life: Born on 9 December 1880; pioneer of women’s rights and education.
  • Writings: Authored “Sultana’s Dream” (1908), envisioning a feminist utopia.
  • Institutions: Founded the first school for Muslim girls in Kolkata; formed Muslim Women’s Association (1916).
  • Activism: Led women’s conferences, challenged purdah, advocated education.

Kamala Das Gupta:

  • Early Life: Born in Dhaka; completed MA in history at Kolkata. Initially Gandhian, later joined Jugantar.
  • Role: Provided shelter, weapons, and materials; arrested multiple times.
  • Connection: Supplied Bina Das with revolver for her assassination attempt.
  • Legacy: Wrote “Rakter Akshare” and “Swadhinata Sangrame Nari”; led refugee relief and vocational training.

Nanibala Devi:

  • Early Life: Disguised as a revolutionary’s wife; spied in prisons for intelligence.
  • Sacrifice: Endured brutal police torture (including red chili powder) without revealing secrets.
  • End: Died in poverty but symbolised courage and resilience.

Labanya Prabha Ghosh:

  • Early Life: Born on 14 August 1897, Purulia.
  • Contribution: Helped establish Shilpashram, hub of revolutionaries like Subhas Bose, C.R. Das.
  • Political Role: First woman MLA from Purulia; wrote and edited nationalist journals.
  • Later Activism: Led movements for land rights, justice for the poor.

Matangini Hazra (“Gandhi Buri”):

  • Early Life: Born in 1870, Hogla village, Midnapore; widowed young, lived in poverty.
  • Freedom Struggle: Joined Salt Satyagraha, arrested for making salt; resisted chowkidari tax.
  • Repression: Imprisoned and beaten; served the sick during epidemics.
  • Martyrdom: Killed by police firing while leading Quit India procession (1942), holding the tricolour until death.
[UPSC 2009] During the freedom struggle, Aruna Asaf Ali was a major woman organizer of underground activity in

Options:

(a) Civil Disobedience Movement

(b) Non-Cooperation Movement

(c) Quit India Movement*

(d) Swadeshi Movement

 

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Urban Transformation – Smart Cities, AMRUT, etc.

Census 2027 and Urban Area Definition

Prelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Urbanization, Their Problems & Remedies

Why in the News?

The Registrar General of India (RGI) has announced that the same definition of “urban area” used in Census 2011 will be retained in Census 2027 to ensure comparability of data and analysis of urbanisation trends.

Background and Urbanisation Trends:

  • Census 2011 Data: India’s population was 121 crore – 68.8% rural (83.3 crore) and 31.2% urban (37.7 crore).
  • Trend: Urban share grew from 17.3% in 1951 to 31% in 2011, showing rapid urbanisation.
  • Units: 6,40,867 villages and 15,870 urban units recorded in 2011.

Definition of Urban Area:

  • Statutory Towns: Include municipal corporations, nagar palikas, town panchayats, cantonment boards, and notified town area committees.
  • Census Town Criteria:
    • Minimum population of 5000;
    • Population Density ≥ 400 persons per sq. km;
    • Workforce: ≥ 75% of male workers in non-agricultural activities.
  • District HQs: Headquarters not legally notified as towns will be Census Towns only if they meet criteria.
  • Exclusions: Plantations and orchards outside statutory towns will not be treated as “forests” under this definition.

Special Features of Census 2027:

  • Caste Data: For the first time, caste enumeration included (approved April 2024).
  • Worker Classification: Male agricultural workers (cultivators, labourers, livestock, forestry, fishing, hunting, plantations) excluded when calculating non-agricultural engagement.
  • Error Correction: Grouping multiple villages into one Census Town discontinued; identification now at village level.

Preparatory Work and Timelines:

  • Jurisdiction Updates: All changes in villages/towns/wards updated till 31 December 2025.
  • Boundary Freeze: Administrative boundaries fixed on 1 January 2026.
  • Village Review: Villages with 4,000+ population in 2011 re-examined to meet 5,000 threshold by 2027.
  • Phases:
    • Houselisting & Housing Census (HLO) – April 2026.
    • Population Enumeration (PE) – February 2027.
[UPSC 2002] Consider the following statements about the megacities of India:

I. Population of each megacity is more than 5 million.

II. All the megacities are important sea ports.

III. Megacities are either national or State capitals.

Which of these statements are correct?

(a) I, II and III

(b) I and II

(c) II and III

(d) I and III *

 

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Asgard Archaea and the Evolution of Complex Cells

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Recent research by IISc on Asgard archaea — the closest living relatives of eukaryotes — has shed new light on how simple prokaryotic cells evolved into complex eukaryotic cells with nuclei, cytoskeletons, and organelles.

About Asgard Archaea:

  • Nature: Tiny microbes living in deep-sea mud and extreme environments.
  • Evolutionary Link: Closest relatives of eukaryotic cells (plants, animals, humans).
  • Importance: Help explain how simple prokaryotic cells (bacteria/archaea) evolved into complex eukaryotic cells.
  • Significance: Considered the “missing link” in the origin of complex life.

Findings from Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Study:

  • Focus: Scientists studied a subgroup called Odinarchaeota.
  • Discovery: Found two FtsZ genes (most microbes have one) and a tubulin-like gene.
    • FtsZ1: Works like bacterial proteins → forms straight filaments and attaches to cell membranes.
    • FtsZ2: Builds spiral structures but needs helper proteins to stick to membranes.
  • Division of Labour: Cooperation of FtsZ1 and FtsZ2 shows early signs of cellular specialisation.
  • Clue for Evolution: Suggests Asgard microbes were already experimenting with primitive “cytoskeleton” systems, paving way for complex cells.
[UPSC 2012] Which one of the following sets of elements was primarily responsible for the origin of life on the Earth?

Options:

(a) Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sodium

(b) Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen*

(c) Oxygen, Calcium, Phosphorus

(d) Carbon, Hydrogen, Potassium

 

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Indian Missile Program Updates

Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS) 

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Indigenization Of Technology

Why in the News?

The DRDO has successfully conducted the maiden flight-tests of the Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS) off the coast of Odisha.

Integrated Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS) 

About the Indigenous Air Defence Weapon System (IADWS):

  • Overview: A multi-layered indigenous system developed to neutralise a wide spectrum of aerial threats.
  • Integration: Combines 3 components viz. Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missiles (QRSAM), Very Short Range Air Defence System (VSHORADS), and Directed Energy Weapon (DEW).
  • Control: All systems are networked through a Command-and-Control Centre developed by the Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL), Hyderabad.

Key Components of IADWS:

  1. QRSAM:
    • Short-range missile system for protecting moving Army armoured formations.
    • Range: 3–30 km.
    • Equipped with 360° surveillance and tracking radars.
    • Fully automated, mobile, and capable of “search on move” and “track on move.”
  2. VSHORADS:
    • Fourth-generation man-portable air defence system (MANPAD).
    • Range: 300 m – 6 km.
    • Targets include drones, UAVs, and low-altitude aerial threats.
    • Deployable across Army, Navy, and Air Force.
  3. Directed Energy Weapon (DEW):
    • Vehicle-mounted laser system.
    • Range: <3 km.
    • Proven in field trials against UAVs and drone swarms.

Strategic Significance:

  • Multi-Layer Defence: Provides aerial protection up to 30 km against threats from drones to fighter jets.
  • Self-Reliance: Enhances indigenous capability, reducing dependence on imported defence systems.
  • National Security: Strengthens preparedness for Mission Sudarshan Chakra — India’s planned national air defence shield.
  • Technological Integration: Demonstrates India’s leap in combining missile and laser-based defence on a single platform.
  • Geostrategic Importance: Seen as a milestone in India’s path to advanced, self-reliant defence systems.
[UPSC 2018] What is “Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)”, sometimes seen in the news?

Options:

(a) An Israeli radar system

(b) India’s indigenous anti-missile programme

(c) An American anti-missile system*

(d) A defence collaboration between Japan and South Korea

 

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Nepal officially joins IBCA

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

Nepal has officially joined the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA), an India-led global initiative to protect seven species of big cats.

About the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA)

  • Overview: A global multi-country, multi-agency alliance of 95 countries (range and non-range) focused on conserving big cats and their habitats.
  • Launch: Proposed by PM Modi in 2019; officially launched in April 2023 on Project Tiger’s 50th anniversary.
  • Conservation Scope: Works to protect 7 species of big cats — tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, cheetah, jaguar, and puma.
  • Functions: Operates through advocacy, knowledge-sharing, eco-tourism promotion, and resource mobilisation.
  • Conflict Mitigation: Aims to reduce human–wildlife conflict and restore degraded habitats.
  • Institutional Structure:
    • Governance: Managed by a General Assembly, elected Council, and Secretariat headed by a Secretary-General.
    • Headquarters: Permanent base established in India following ratification of the HQ agreement.

Global Participation

  • Membership: Includes 95 countries across Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Europe/Central Asia. Examples:
    • Asia: India, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Iran.
    • Africa: Kenya, Congo, Ghana.
    • Americas: Brazil, Ecuador, United States.
    • Europe/Central Asia: Russia, Kazakhstan.
  • Ratification: Bhutan, Eswatini, Cambodia, Guinea, India, Liberia, Nicaragua, Somalia, and Suriname have deposited ratification instruments.

India’s Role:

  • Biodiversity Hub: India hosts 5 of the 7 big cats — tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, and cheetah — and holds 70% of global tiger population.
  • Funding: Government committed ₹150 crore for 2023–2028; mobilising international contributions.
  • Leadership: India sets global benchmarks in wildlife conservation and ecological stewardship, positioning itself as a leader in big cat protection.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.

2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.

3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 2

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

NCERT textbooks introduce Indian Art Forms

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

For the first time, the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has introduced Indian classical music, dance, theatre, and visual arts into primary and middle school textbooks (Classes 3 to 8).

About Classical Arts in School Textbooks

  • For the first time, NCERT has integrated Indian classical arts (music, dance, theatre, and visual arts) into textbooks for Classes 3 to 8.
  • The reform aligns with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, which mandates rooting education in India’s ethos and cultural heritage.
  • Music content includes swar, laya, shabd, Sanskrit shloka recitations, folk songs, ragas from Hindustani & Carnatic music.
  • Dance content covers 8 classical dance forms — Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Manipuri, Mohiniyattam, Odissi, and Sattriya.
  • Draws from ancient texts like Natyashastra, Brihaddeshi, Sangita Damodara, Abhinaya Darpanam.
  • Pedagogy: Emphasis on exposure, appreciation, and creativity rather than mastery. Includes storytelling, abhinaya (expressions), theatre, group performances.

Classical Dance Forms Mentioned:

Dance Form Details
Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu) Oldest dance form; temple origins; fixed torso, bent legs, intricate footwork; emphasis on abhinaya and mudras; devotional themes (Bhakti rasa).
Kathak (North India) Storytelling tradition (katha = story); features fast spins (chakkars) and rhythmic footwork; evolved in temples & Mughal courts; uses ghungroo.
Kathakali (Kerala) Dance-drama with elaborate costumes, makeup, masks; based on Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas; strong gestures, expressions (navarasas).
Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) Blend of dance & drama with dialogue; famous Tarangam item (dance on brass plate); Vaishnav themes (Krishna stories); brisk, graceful movements.
Manipuri (Manipur) Graceful, devotional form linked to Ras Lila of Krishna; lyrical movements, cylindrical skirt for women; avoids forceful footwork; spiritual style.
Mohiniyattam (Kerala) “Dance of the enchantress”; soft, feminine style; gentle swaying movements; solo, mostly by women; white-golden costume; mood of lasya (grace).
Odissi (Odisha) Temple dance linked to Jagannath worship; tribhangi posture and chauka stance; sculptural quality like temple carvings; strong Vaishnava themes.
Sattriya (Assam) Introduced by Srimanta Sankardev in monasteries (sattras); devotional Vaishnava themes; combines dance, drama, music; recognised as classical in 2000.

 

[UPSC 2012] How do you distinguish between Kuchipudi and Bharatanatyam dances?

1. Dancers occasionally speaking dialogues is found in Kuchipudi dance but not in Bharatanatyam.

2. Dancing on the brass plate by keeping the feet on its edges is a feature of Bharatanatyam but Kuchipudi dance does not have such a form of movements.

Options:

(a) 1 only*

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Judicial Pendency

[23rd August 2025] Set the guardrails for AI use in courtrooms

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary,Statutory, Regulatory & Various Quasi-Judicial Bodies

Mentors Comment

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is steadily entering the Indian judiciary, promising efficiency in a system burdened with nearly five crore pending cases. However, without proper guardrails, it risks undermining the very foundation of justice. The recent Kerala High Court guidelines mark India’s first attempt at framing policy around AI use in judicial processes. This is a critical juncture where technology and justice intersect demanding careful balance between innovation and accountability.

Introduction

The integration of Artificial Intelligence into courts represents a paradigm shift in India’s judicial landscape. While AI tools such as transcription, translation, and defect detection offer solutions to systemic inefficiencies, their unregulated use could lead to serious ethical and legal risks. From mistranslations of legal terminology to hallucinations in Large Language Models (LLMs), the challenges are real. The need of the hour is a structured framework that ensures AI strengthens, rather than weakens, the judiciary’s integrity and human-centric decision-making.

The Growing Relevance of AI in Courts

  • First policy initiative: In July 2025, the Kerala High Court released the “Policy Regarding Use of Artificial Intelligence Tools in District Judiciary,” the first of its kind in India.
  • Case Management & Reducing Pendency: AI can assist in case listing, tracking, and prioritization to improve efficiency. Eg: The Supreme Court Portal for Assistance in Court’s Efficiency (SUPACE) developed by the Supreme Court helps judges analyze case facts quickly.
  • Enhancing Transparency & Access to Justice: AI chatbots and online portals assist litigants in understanding procedures, filing cases, and accessing justice without middlemen. Eg: The Supreme Court’s AI-driven translation project ‘SUVAS’ (Supreme Court Vidhik Anuvaad Software) translates judgments into regional languages to empower citizens.

Why are AI-enabled court processes risky?

  • Mistranslation risks: In India, the Supreme Court’s AI-based translation initiative SUVAS once mistranslated “leave granted” as “chhutti manzoor” (holiday approved) in Hind
  • Hallucinations in AI: LLMs such as Whisper generate fictitious phrases when encountering pauses, leading to unreliable records.
  • Bias in legal research: AI search results may amplify user patterns, invisibilising relevant precedents, impacting fair adjudication.
  • Reductionist adjudication: AI risks turning nuanced judicial reasoning into mere rule-based inference, undermining human judgment.

How is AI being used in courts today?

  • Pilot tools: Market tools are in test use for transcription of oral arguments and witness depositions, though without timelines or safeguards.
  • Manual checks: Current safeguards include retired judges and translators manually vetting AI-generated judgments.
  • Risk of dependency: Courts adopting AI pilots without frameworks risk becoming dependent on vendors without sustainable adoption plans.

What are the guardrails necessary for responsible AI use? 

  • Critical AI literacy: Judges, lawyers and staff need capacity-building to understand both potential and limitations of AI.
  • Transparency rights: Litigants should be informed if AI is used in research or judgment-writing; they should also have the right to opt out.
  • Procurement standards: Courts need standardised procurement guidelines to assess reliability, explainability, data handling, and vendor compliance.
  • Dedicated tech offices: The Vision Document for Phase III of the eCourts Project suggests creating technology offices to guide courts in evaluating and adopting AI tools.

The way forward for AI in judiciary

  • Balanced adoption: AI must serve the ends of justice, not replace human reasoning.
  • Infrastructure readiness: Reliable internet and hardware are prerequisites before full-scale deployment.
  • Oversight and accountability: Independent monitoring systems and ethical review frameworks must be built into adoption.

Conclusion

AI can be a transformative force in India’s judiciary, addressing inefficiencies in a system struggling under massive case pendency. But technology without guardrails risks introducing new layers of error, bias, and opacity. The ultimate purpose of judicial reform must remain the same, to deliver fair, timely, and human-centred justice. Clear guidelines, transparency, and ethical oversight will determine whether AI strengthens or weakens the rule of law in India.

Value Addition
AI is already being deployed in judicial systems worldwide to improve efficiency, accessibility, and decision-making.

  1. Legal Interpretation Aid: Judges in the U.S. used AI to clarify the meaning of complex legal terms during sentencing appeals.
  2. Victim Impact Statement: Arizona courts allowed AI to recreate a victim’s voice for delivering impact statements.
  3. Affordable Legal Services: Garfield AI in the UK provides cheap legal documents, reducing case backlog.
  4. Responsible AI Use Rules: California courts framed formal guidelines for safe AI adoption in judicial work.
  5. Transcription & Translation (India): Supreme Court uses AI for live transcription and translation of hearings.
  6. Case Summarization (India): Nyay-Darpan delivers summaries and similar case retrieval in consumer law disputes.
  7. Case Classification (Brazil): AI model routes Supreme Court cases, cutting delays in document handling.
  8. AI Judge for Small Claims (China): Smart Courts handle repetitive small cases via AI systems.
  9. Judicial Summaries (Brazil): AI tools assist in generating summaries, easing court management.
  10. Access to Justice (Canada): Botler AI chatbot helps citizens understand rights in harassment cases.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] E-Governance is not only about utilization of technology but also about the ‘use value’ of information. Explain.

Linkage: The 2018 UPSC question on E-Governance and ‘use value’ of information directly links to AI in judiciary: while AI can speed up translations, research, and transcription, its real worth lies in enhancing accessibility, transparency, and fairness in justice delivery—not just technological adoption.

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Make in India: Challenges & Prospects

Reforming the steel framework

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T,E-Technology In The Aid Of Farmers,Indigenization Of Technology

Introduction

Independence Day speeches are often symbolic, but in 2025 the Prime Minister shifted focus to frontier technologies, semiconductors, clean energy, AI, quantum computing, and defence indigenisation. Unlike earlier years, this vision was paired with the acknowledgment that bureaucratic inertia and regulatory red tape remain India’s toughest hurdles. The central challenge is whether India’s governance structures can keep pace with its technological ambitions.

Significance of the 2025 Speech by the Prime Minister 

  • Future focus: Strong emphasis on frontier areas like semiconductors, EVs, and jet engines.
  • Symbolic push: The PM asked if fighter jet engines should not be Indian-made.
  • Bold promise: India will shed dependency in two decades.
  • Data milestone: India is the largest per capita data consumer (32 GB), ahead of China and the US.

India’s current position in technology and self-reliance

  • Strength in mid-tech: Success in fintech, data access, and digitisation
  • Emerging hubs: Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Pune, Gurugram drive high-tech growth.
  • Import dependency: India depends heavily on imports in semiconductors, defence hardware, AI hardware, and clean energy technologies.
  • Global presence: Firms like Nvidia and IBM rely on India’s talent pool, but domestic ecosystems remain thin.

Bureaucratic Challenges that obstruct deep-tech ambition

  • Colonial bureaucratic legacy: The Westminster model prioritised control over innovation and accountability.
  • Rigid steel frame: The “steel frame” of the civil services designed to ensure subservience to colonial administrators remains rigid even a century after the Public Service Commission’s creation in 1926.
  • Unrealised reforms: The Veerappa Moily Committee (2005) suggested domain experts and ethics codes-still pending.
  • Lateral entry limits: Attempts at inducting experts face systemic resistance.

Why are regulatory and judicial reforms critical?

  • Persistent red tape: The Deregulation Commission (2025) was set up to identify redundant compliance norms, but structural bottlenecks persist.
  • Judicial backlog: Slow dispute resolution and investment climate, affectshigh-tech sectors.
  • Comparative lessons:
    • US & China: Despite different models, both empower political leadership over bureaucracy to push national interests.
    • UK: Even Britain debates its bureaucratic model, Dominic Cummings under Boris Johnson pushed for external competition and greater ministerial control.

How does this link to Viksit Bharat@2047?

  • Ambition vs. architecture: India’s goal of becoming a deep-tech powerhouse is contingent not just on financial investment but on restructuring governance.
  • Symbolic timing: The UPSC centenary in 2026 is a historic chance for overhaul.
  • Future-readiness: Without structural reform, Atmanirbhar Bharat may remain aspirational.

Conclusion

India’s ambition to lead in deep-tech must be matched with institutional reform. The PM’s 2025 speech acknowledged that Atmanirbharta is as much about fixing bureaucratic bottlenecks as building jet engines or quantum labs. The centenary of UPSC offers an opportune moment to align India’s governance with its 2047 goals.

Value Addition
Committees on Civil Service Reforms

1. Santhanam Committee (1964)

  • Focus: Preventive corruption measures.
  • Key suggestion: Creation of the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC).

2. Kothari Committee (1976)

  • Focus: Recruitment and exam structure of Civil Services.
  • Key suggestion: Recommended 3-stage exam (Prelims, Mains, Interview), which is still followed today.

3. Satish Chandra Committee (1989)

  • Focus: Review of recruitment and selection.
  • Key suggestion: Increased emphasis on aptitude and ethics in recruitment.

4. Hota Committee (2004)

  • Focus: Ethics, transparency, and performance.
  • Key suggestion: Right to Information, performance-linked incentives, citizen charters.

5. Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) – Veerappa Moily (2005–2009)

Most comprehensive civil service reform report (15 volumes). Key suggestions:

  • Lateral entry of domain experts.
  • Code of Ethics & Code of Conduct.
  • Citizen-centric administration
  • Performance-based appraisal system.
  • Training in e-governance and modern management practices

6. Punchhi Commission (2010) – on Centre-State relations

  • Relevant link: Stressed need for civil service neutrality in federal governance.

7. Baswan Committee (2016)

  1. Focus: UPSC exam age and attempts.
  2. Key suggestion: Reduce maximum age for UPSC CSE (though not implemented).

8. Current initiatives 

  • Lateral entry into Joint Secretary and Director-level posts.
  • Mission Karmayogi (2020): National Programme for Civil Services Capacity Building (NPCSCB) to train officers with competency-based framework.
  • Deregulation Commission (2025): Identifying and scrapping redundant compliances.

Mapping Microthemes

  • GS Paper-II: Civil Service Reform, Regulation, Judiciary
  • GS Paper -III: Tech missions, Defence Indigenisation, Atmanirbhar Bharat
  • GS Paper -IV: Accountability, Ethics in governance

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2016] Civil Services “Traditional bureaucratic structure and culture have hampered the process of socio-economic development in India.” Comment.

Linkage: PM Modi’s Independence Day 2025 address highlighted that despite India’s technological advances, the colonial-era bureaucratic “steel frame” continues to obstruct innovation, investment, and governance reforms. The traditional bureaucratic structure—designed for control rather than development—remains a bottleneck in achieving Atmanirbhar Bharat. Thus, the speech directly echoes the UPSC 2016 theme that outdated bureaucratic culture hampers socio-economic transformation.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Canada

Canada will match U.S. exemptions to punishing tariffs, says Canadian official

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Introduction

Canada has decided to drop retaliatory tariffs and mirror the U.S. exemptions on goods covered under the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA). This represents a success in preserving tariff-free trade for over 85% of Canada-U.S. commerce. But sector-specific tariffs like the 50% duties on steel and aluminium continue to hurt Canadian industries. The development is crucial, given Canada’s heavy reliance on the U.S. market, with more than 75% of its exports heading south.

Significance of the News

  1. Tariff Alignment: Canada has chosen to align its tariff exemptions with those of the U.S., signaling a conciliatory move in contrast with earlier retaliatory tariffs.
  2. First-time Reset: For the first time since retaliatory duties were announced, Canada is rolling them back to match U.S. exemptions under USMCA, a notable policy reversal.
  3. Trade Dependence: With over 75% of Canadian exports going to the U.S., the stakes are extremely high, making tariff negotiations critical for economic stability.
  4. Striking Data: 85% of Canada-U.S. trade is still tariff-free, reflecting both success in negotiations and risks if the pact weakens.

What is USMCA?

  1. USMCA Pact: Signed in 2020, it replaced NAFTA and provides preferential treatment for Canadian and Mexican goods entering the U.S.
  2. Carve-out Mechanism: Goods shielded under the agreement are protected from punitive tariffs, preserving market access.
  3. Upcoming Review : The pact is up for review in 2026, adding urgency to Canada’s attempt to preserve smooth trade relations.

How does Canada benefit from this carve-out?

  1. Preferential Access: Canadian goods remain shielded from most punitive duties.
  2. Export Stability: With 75% of exports going to the U.S., the pact secures critical market access.
  3. Low Tariff Burden: U.S. average tariffs on Canadian goods remain among the lowest globally.

What are the challenges despite tariff exemptions?

  1. 232 Tariffs: The U.S. has imposed sector-specific duties, including 50% tariffs on steel and aluminium, straining Canadian industries.
  2. Renegotiation Risk: U.S. Commerce Secretary Howard Lutnick has hinted at reopening USMCA talks, creating uncertainty.
  3. Dependence Dilemma: Canada retains some retaliatory tariffs, but its heavy reliance on U.S. markets weakens bargaining power.

Why is this crucial for North American trade stability

  1. Export Dependence: More than 75% of Canada’s exports and 80% of Mexico’s exports head to the U.S., underlining their vulnerability.
  2. Regional Integration: The USMCA has reestablished tariff-free trade for the majority of goods, preventing economic disruption in North America.
  3. Geopolitical Context: At a time of growing global protectionism, North America’s internal trade pact provides a stabilising force, but also exposes Canada and Mexico to unilateral U.S. decisions.

Conclusion

Canada’s decision to align its tariffs with U.S. exemptions under USMCA reflects both pragmatism and vulnerability. While the pact secures tariff-free trade for the majority of goods, sector-specific tariffs and the looming threat of renegotiation highlight the fragile foundation of North American trade integration. For Canada, the challenge lies in balancing sovereignty with economic dependence, a dilemma increasingly relevant in today’s protectionist world.

Value Addition

United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA)

Key Features (vs. NAFTA)

  1. Rules of Origin – Higher thresholds for auto production (75% North American content vs. 62.5% under NAFTA).
  2. Labour Provisions – Stronger labour standards; Mexico required to reform labour laws.
  3. Digital Trade – New rules on data flows, e-commerce, and IP rights absent in NAFTA.
  4. Sunset Clause – Agreement reviewed every 6 years; expires after 16 years unless renewed.
  5. Agriculture – U.S. gained greater access to Canadian dairy market.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?

Linkage: The USMCA episode shows how U.S. protectionism through sectoral tariffs (like 50% on steel/aluminium) can destabilize even close trade partners like Canada. Such measures reflect the larger global trend of tariff wars and currency leverage, which disrupt supply chains and investment flows. For India, this highlights risks to macroeconomic stability via trade deficits, inflationary pressures, and exchange rate volatility.

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

Lunar Module Launch Vehicle (LMLV)

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Why in the News?

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is developing its heaviest-ever rocket, the Lunar Module Launch Vehicle (LMLV).

About Lunar Module Launch Vehicle (LMLV):

  • Overview: India’s heaviest rocket under development by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
  • Purpose: Designed mainly for lunar exploration, including India’s first human mission to the Moon by 2040.
  • Strategic Role: Replaces the Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV) plan and will support India’s space station programme.
  • Scale: As tall as a 40-storey building, far larger than the current LVM-3.

Key Features:

  • Payload Capacity: Can carry 80 tonnes to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and 27 tonnes to the Moon, suitable for human-rated spacecraft.
  • Three-stage: Partially reusable super heavy-lift vehicle with:
    • First two stages using liquid propellants.
    • Third stage using cryogenic propellant.
    • Strap-on boosters taller than the entire LVM-3 rocket.
    • 27 engines in the first stage (core + boosters).
  • Timeline: Expected completion by 2035.
  • Indigenous Development: Conceived by ISRO within months; aligned with India’s long-term space exploration goals.

Future Missions based on LMLV:

  • Human Lunar Mission (2040 target): Capable of carrying 18–20 tonne crew modules for India’s first astronaut landing on the Moon.
  • Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS): Will deploy heavy modules for India’s planned five-module space station by 2035.
  • Lunar Cargo Missions: Can transport ~27 tonnes to the Moon, supporting logistics and lunar infrastructure.
  • Deep Space Exploration: Its heavy-lift capacity could enable interplanetary missions in the 2040s, extending beyond lunar exploration.
[UPSC 2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:

1.PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.

2.Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.

3.GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors, and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

 

Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 3 only

 

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The Crisis In The Middle East

Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) and Famine Declaration

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

The United Nations has officially declared a famine in Gaza based on an Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) panel assessment.

About Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC):

  • What It Is: A global standard tool to assess and classify the severity of food insecurity.
  • Established: In 2004 during the Somalia food crisis by FEWS NET (Famine Early Warning Systems Network) and partners.
  • Coordination: Led by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
  • Purpose: Supports early warning, evidence-based decision-making, and coordinated response by governments, UN agencies, NGOs, and donors.
  • Partnership Model: Combines efforts of UN bodies, NGOs, academic institutions, and national governments.

Key Features of the IPC:

  • Five-Phase Classification System:
    • Phase 1: Minimal
    • Phase 2: Stressed
    • Phase 3: Crisis
    • Phase 4: Emergency
    • Phase 5: Catastrophe/Famine
  • Methodology:
    • Uses convergence of evidence from food access, livelihoods, nutrition, and mortality.
    • Requires technical consensus among analysts for transparency and accuracy.
    • Allows real-time assessments and 6-month forecasts to support timely action.

What is Famine and How is it Declared?

  • Definition: IPC Phase 5 – the most extreme level of food insecurity.
  • Criteria (All Must Be Met):
    • At least 20% of households face extreme food gaps.
    • At least 30% of children under five suffer acute malnutrition (wasting).
    • Death rate: 2 adults or 4 children per 10,000 people per day.
  • Declaration: Made by UN agencies, national governments, or authorized global bodies.
  • Purpose of Declaration:
    • Mobilize international aid and emergency operations.
    • Trigger food, health, and logistics support.
    • Raise global awareness and funding for urgent interventions.
  • Past Declarations:  Somalia (2011), South Sudan (2017, 2020), Darfur, Sudan (2024)
[UPSC 2023] Which of the following countries has been suffering from decades of civil strife and food shortages and was in news in the recent past for its very severe famine?

Options: (a) Angola (b) Costa Rica (c) Ecuador (d) Somalia*

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Nepal

In news: Lipulekh Pass

Places in newsPrelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Why in the News?

India has rejected Nepal’s objection to resumption of India–China border trade through the Lipulekh Pass in Uttarakhand.

About Lipulekh Pass:

  • Location: High-altitude Himalayan pass (~17,000 ft) near the trijunction of India, Nepal, and China (Tibet).
  • Connectivity: Links Uttarakhand’s Kumaon region with Taklakot in Tibet.
  • Cultural Role: Serves as the shortest route for the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra.
  • Trade Importance: Historic India–China trade route since 1954; disrupted during COVID-19 but later resumed.
  • Strategic Significance: Crucial for India due to its proximity to the India–China–Nepal border.

What is Limpiyadhura–Lipulekh–Kalapani Dispute?

  • Origin: Rooted in the 1815 Treaty of Sugauli (Nepal–British East India Company), fixing Nepal’s western boundary at the Kali (Mahakali) River.
  • India’s Position: Claims Kali River originates near Lipulekh, placing Lipulekh and Kalapani within India.
  • Nepal’s Position: Claims Kali River originates at Limpiyadhura, extending Nepal’s boundary east to include Lipulekh and Kalapani.
  • Disputed Area: About 370 sq. km., under Indian administration since the 19th century.
  • Recent Development: In 2020, Nepal issued a new map showing Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh, and Kalapani as its territory; India rejected the claim citing lack of historical basis.

Back2Basics: India–Nepal Border Disputes

  • Border Length: India and Nepal share a 1,770 km long open border across five Indian states – Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Sikkim.
  • Key Disputes:
    • Kalapani–Lipulekh–Limpiyadhura (Uttarakhand): Discussed above.
    • Susta (Uttar Pradesh–Nepal border): Caused by Gandak River’s shifting course, leading to encroachments and overlapping claims.
  • Tensions: Despite close ties, disputes often cause diplomatic strains.
  • Positions: India relies on historical treaties and long-standing administration, while Nepal asserts sovereignty and constitutional recognition of disputed territories.

 

[UPSC 2007] Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around in the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?

Options : (a) Chang La (b) Jara La (c) Nathu La* (d) Shipki La

 

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

Gopal Patha and Direct Action Day

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Why in the News?

A recent movie depicted the 1946 “Great Calcutta Killing” — four days of communal riots on Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946), spotlighting Gopal Patha’s role in mobilising Hindu youth.

About Direct Action Day:

  • Declaration: Called by the All-India Muslim League to press for Partition and creation of Pakistan.
  • Bengal Role: Muslim League’s H. S. Suhrawardy (then Bengal Premier) declared 16 August a public holiday.
  • Mass Rally: Nearly 1,00,000 gathered at the Maidan, Calcutta; addressed by Suhrawardy and Khwaja Nazimuddin.
  • Violence: Immediate communal clashes broke out, remembered as the Great Calcutta Killing.
  • Casualties: 5,000–10,000 killed; ~15,000 injured.
  • Spread: Violence lasted four days (16–19 August), army intervention required; later spread to Bombay, Noakhali, Bihar, Punjab.

Who was Gopal Patha (Gopal Mukherjee)?

  • Background: Born 1916 in Bowbazar, Calcutta; nicknamed Patha (goat) since family ran a College Street mutton shop.
  • Gang Leader: Headed a street group of ~800 men; mobilized masses for defense during riots.
  • Approach: Declared aim was to retaliate against rioters but forbade harm to women, children, or ordinary people.
  • Links: Associated with revolutionary groups like Atma Unnati Samiti; influenced by Subhas Chandra Bose.
[UPSC 2002] The last opportunity to avoid the partition of India was lost with the rejection of:

Options: (a) Cripps Mission (b) Rajagopalachari Formula (c) Cabinet Mission* (d) Wavell Plan

 

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Electoral Reforms In India

[22nd August 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Poll integrity and self-sabotage, parties and the ECI

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] On what grounds a people’s representative can be disqualified under the Representation of People Act, 1951? Also mention the remedies available to such person against his disqualification.

Linkage: The Representation of People Act, 1951 provides the legal foundation for ensuring free and fair elections, including grounds for disqualification such as corrupt practices, electoral offences, and irregularities. The issue of flawed electoral rolls and voter fraud, as highlighted in this article, connects directly with the broader framework of the RPA. While the Act prescribes remedies against wrongful disqualification, its effectiveness depends heavily on accurate voter lists, active oversight by parties, and neutrality of the ECI. Thus, the credibility of electoral rolls is not only an administrative concern but also a legal and constitutional safeguard under the RPA, 1951.

Mentor’s comments

India’s democracy depends not just on strong institutions but also on the integrity of political actors. The ongoing debate around flawed electoral rolls, the role of the Election Commission of India (ECI), and political parties’ complicity exposes serious challenges. This article unpacks how poll integrity is being compromised and how both parties and the ECI are shaping voter trust.

Introduction

Electoral rolls are the backbone of free and fair elections, yet duplicate entries, ghost names, and ineligible voters continue to mar them. These flaws enable impersonation and multiple voting, weakening public faith in the system. While the ECI faces criticism, political parties too are responsible for neglecting local structures and prioritising short-term electoral wins.

The contrast is sharp: In the 1990s under T.N. Seshan, the ECI was hailed as a global model of electoral probity. Today, suspicion surrounds the institution, raising doubts about whether both the ECI and political parties are failing in their constitutional roles.

The Fall of the Election Commission’s Credibility

  1. From Trust to Suspicion: Once among India’s most trusted institutions, the ECI’s opacity and lack of accountability now fuel mistrust.
  2. Contrast with the Past: T.N. Seshan’s tenure saw strict enforcement of the Model Code of Conduct, monitoring of expenses, and the EPIC system to curb bogus voting.
  3. Present Decline: Instead of fixing flawed rolls, the ECI made inspections harder, deepening suspicion over its neutrality.

How Political Parties Weakened Themselves

  1. Shift from Ground to Tech: Local campaigns with house visits and meetings are being replaced by social media, phone calls, AI tools, creating an illusion of connection.
  2. Reliance on Consultants: Campaign strategy and candidate selection now rest with professional consultants, centralising power and weakening grassroots.
  3. Neglect of Local Cadres: Once the backbone of political parties, local workers are sidelined, leaving little vigilance against electoral fraud.

The Booth Level Agent System and Its Vulnerabilities

  1. Role of BLAs: Booth Level Agents (BLAs) are meant to be the vital link between voters, parties, and the ECI by verifying draft rolls.
  2. Safeguards in Place: Rules cap BLAs at 10 applications a day; exceeding 30 requires personal verification by officers.
  3. Failures in Practice: Cases like Mahadevapura (Karnataka) reveal inactive BLAs, manipulations, and possible bias, showing safeguards are poorly enforced.

Opportunities for Political Redemption

  1. Reviving Local Units: The crisis is a chance for parties to strengthen grassroots structures, not just depend on consultants.
  2. Kerala’s Example: Parties there are now diligently flagging duplicate voters and multiple IDs during local elections.
  3. Historical Warning: Weak grassroots units once undermined land reforms post-Independence; neglect today risks hollowing out democracy again.

The Deeper Democratic Implications

  1. Beyond Elections: Roll revisions, though routine, are crucial to maintaining democratic fairness.
  2. Erosion of Trust: Prioritising short-term electoral gains over constitutional values leaves institutions hollow.
  3. Democracy at Risk: Weak local organisations and complicit institutions together may end up surrendering democracy itself.

Conclusion

The integrity of India’s democracy depends not just on robust institutions but also on vigilant political participation at the grassroots. The ECI must reclaim its credibility by ensuring transparency, while political parties must revive their local cadres to safeguard electoral rolls. Without these corrective steps, the erosion of trust may reach a tipping point where democracy is hollowed out from within.

Value Addition

T.N. Seshan’s Reforms in the 1990s

  1. Strict Enforcement of MCC – First CEC to rigorously implement the Model Code of Conduct (MCC), curbing misuse of official machinery.
  2. Curbing Electoral Malpractices – Took action against bribery, muscle power, and use of religion/caste in campaigns.
  3. Electoral Photo Identity Card (EPIC) – Introduced voter ID cards to check bogus voting.
  4. Monitoring Poll Expenditure – Set strict limits on candidate expenses and ensured scrutiny of accounts.
  5. Independent Authority of ECI – Asserted autonomy of the Election Commission, making it a powerful guardian of free and fair elections.
  6. Public Trust Restored – Citizen surveys during the 1990s ranked ECI among the most credible institutions.

Why it matters: T.N. Seshan’s tenure is often cited as the “gold standard” of electoral probity, offering a benchmark against which today’s decline in trust and credibility is judged.

Mapping Microthemes

  1. GS Paper II (Polity & Governance): Electoral integrity, role of ECI, political accountability.
  2. GS Paper I (History & Society): Weakening of grassroots political movements.
  3. GS Paper III (Technology): Impact of AI-driven campaigns and professional consultants.
  4. GS Paper IV (Ethics): Institutional neutrality, self-restraint, erosion of trust.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-China

Amid the disruptions unleashed by the US President Trump, should India rethink its engagement with China, and to what extent?

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Introduction

The India-China equation has once again come into focus with Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi’s recent visit to India. Coming at a time when Donald Trump’s unpredictable moves are reshaping US–China relations and India faces pressure over its Russian oil purchases, the visit is being viewed as a tactical outreach by Beijing. For the first time since the Galwan clash, both sides agreed on a 10-point understanding, from reopening border trade points to restarting stalled dialogues. Yet, beneath the gestures of cooperation, deep mistrust lingers: unresolved tensions in Ladakh, Beijing’s quiet backing of Pakistan, and economic vulnerabilities that India cannot ignore. The central question remains, is this the start of a cautious reset, or will rivalry continue to define the relationship?

Current State of India-China Relationship

  • A Cautious Thaw: Signs of easing after years of strain post-2020 Galwan clashes. The visit of Chinese Foreign Minister and the expected Modi–Xi meeting at the SCO summit reflect cautious engagement.
  • Unfinished Border Business: 
    1. Unfinished disengagement: Restrictions continue on Indian troop patrolling and herdsmen grazing in Ladakh buffer zones.
    2. De-escalation talks: Both sides have now agreed to discuss principles and modalities of de-escalation, but with little progress so far.
    3. Historical baggage: From the 1962 war to Doklam and Galwan, border issues repeatedly resurface as the defining irritant.
  • Persistent Trust Deficit: India remains wary of China’s military links with Pakistan, dam projects on the Brahmaputra, and use of economic dependencies such as rare-earths and critical technologies as leverage.

China–Pakistan Axis and India’s Security Concerns

  1. Operation Sindoor 2025: China provided Pakistan with real-time ISR, command-and-control integration, and advanced weaponry.
  2. Extended theatre: While not directly engaging militarily, China’s operational support widened the conflict spectrum.
  3. Strategic consequences: India now faces a two-front dynamic made more acute by China’s active involvement.

Trade Dependence Shaping Geopolitical Weakness

  1. Weaponisation of dependencies: China has denied India supplies of rare-earth magnets, fertilisers, tunnel-boring machines.
  2. Industrial impact: Foxconn withdrew hundreds of Chinese technicians under pressure from Beijing.
  3. Hydropower concerns: A massive dam, thrice the size of Three Gorges, threatens India’s lower riparian interests.

Can tactical outreach substitute for structural resolution?

  1. Wang Yi’s visit: Led to a 10-point understanding including resumption of flights, border trade, and talks on border issues.
  2. Tactical gestures: China seeks to ease tensions but has not offered substantive concessions on India’s concerns.
  3. India’s position: PM Modi emphasised the need for “stable, predictable and constructive” relations, but only grounded in realism.

Why outright conflict remains unlikely

  1. Geographical constraints: The Himalayas pose immense logistical challenges for a sustained full-scale war.
  2. China’s strategic calculus: Since 1979, Beijing has avoided wars to focus on economic growth.
  3. Cost of conflict: War with India risks derailing China’s “great power” ambitions vis-à-vis the US.

The limits of aligning with China against the US

  1. US factor: Trump’s inconsistent China policy has unsettled India’s geopolitical calculations.
  2. Chinese spin: Beijing portrayed India as siding with it against “unilateral bullying” (implicitly the US).
  3. MEA clarification: India reaffirmed no change in its One-China policy stance, signalling caution.

Way Forward

  1. Strengthen Border Posture: Accelerate infrastructure and surveillance along LAC to counter tactical surprises.
  2. Diversify Dependencies: Invest in domestic capacity for critical minerals, semiconductors, and rare earths.
  3. Engage but Verify: Continue talks on de-escalation and economic ties, but measure outcomes, not promises.
  4. Diplomatic Balancing: Maintain strategic autonomy while leveraging QUAD, SCO, BRICS without being trapped in binaries.
  5. Water Security Mechanisms: Push for institutionalised basin-sharing frameworks on Brahmaputra with multilateral backing.

Conclusion

The India-China relationship sits at a crossroads. While tactical outreach such as Wang Yi’s visit creates openings for engagement, the structural drivers of mistrust remain too deep for a true reset. India cannot overlook the challenges of border tensions, economic weaponisation, and China-Pakistan collusion. At the same time, the high costs of conflict and shared economic interests provide space for pragmatic management. The way forward lies in carefully calibrated diplomacy, neither falling into the trap of confrontation nor harbouring illusions of a reset.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2017] ‘China is using its economic relations and positive trade surplus as a tool to develop potential military power status in Asia’, In the light of this statement, discuss its impact on India as her neighbour.

Linkage: China’s growing economic leverage over Pakistan, seen in CPEC and debt dependence, is increasingly shaping a strategic-military partnership. This aligns with the UPSC 2017 theme of economic tools being converted into hard power. For India, this intensifies security challenges on both borders and limits regional strategic space.

Mapping microthemes

  1. GS Paper II (IR): India-China relations, India-US-China triangle, border disputes, strategic autonomy.
  2. GS Paper III (Security): Two-front challenge, defence preparedness, technology denial regimes.
  3. GS Paper IV (Ethics): Diplomacy, realpolitik vs idealism in foreign policy.

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Governor vs. State

Should SC sit powerless as Governors block Bills: CJI 

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Introduction 

The Supreme Court recently questioned whether it should remain passive when Governors indefinitely withhold assent to Bills, stalling elected legislatures. This issue, highlighted by Tamil Nadu’s Bills pending for four years, raises fundamental questions about judicial review, federalism, and democratic accountability.

Why in the News

Tamil Nadu’s unprecedented case of Bills pending for years has brought the Governor’s discretionary powers under sharp scrutiny. The Supreme Court’s April 8 judgment imposing time limits on Governors is now contested by the Union as judicial overreach, sparking a crucial debate on separation of powers.

Why does the role of Governors come under scrutiny

  1. Governor’s Inaction: Governors, appointed by the Union, are integral to State legislatures, yet their indefinite withholding of Bills undermines State autonomy.
  2. Tamil Nadu Example: Crucial Bills remained pending for nearly four years without reasons being communicated, sparking judicial concern.
  3. Democratic Will Thwarted: Prolonged silence from Governors makes elected legislatures ineffective.

How has the Supreme Court responded

  1. CJI’s Question: Should the Court suspend its role as custodian of the Constitution while Governors block Bills indefinitely?
  2. Judicial Review Precedent: The Court has struck down even constitutional amendments (e.g., 42nd Amendment) that sought to limit judicial review.
  3. Concern of Vacuum: Justice P.S. Narasimha highlighted the risk of Bills hanging in limbo without timelines.

What is the Union Government’s stand

  1. Encroachment Argument: Solicitor-General Tushar Mehta argued the Court’s April 8 order intruded into law-making, undermining Governors and the President.
  2. Political Resolution: Inaction, according to the Union, should be resolved politically, not judicially.
  3. Governor’s Unique Role: Unlike statutory authorities, Governors hold sui generis constitutional status, not bound by timelines.

Why is the tussle between judiciary and executive significant

  1. Separation of Powers: Union argues judiciary must not micro-manage executive discretion.
  2. Checks and Balances: CJI asserted that unchecked gubernatorial delay undermines democracy, and the Court cannot abdicate review.
  3. Democratic Accountability: Legislators face people every five years; Governors do not. Hence judicial review is necessary.

What are the implications for federalism

  1. Centre–State Tensions: Delays fuel mistrust between States and the Union.
  2. Judicial Intervention: Without court oversight, States may face legislative logjams.
  3. Limited Litigation: Union argues only “two or three States” have complained, but the principle has pan-India significance.

Way Forward: A structured framework for assent is necessary to prevent legislative paralysis. The Supreme Court’s suggested timelines strike a balance between constitutional discretion and democratic accountability. Moving ahead, three steps are essential:

  1. Codifying Timelines: Parliament may consider amending the law or issuing guidelines to institutionalise clear deadlines.
  2. Ensuring Accountability: Governors must act on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers, barring exceptional constitutional reasons.
  3. Judicial Oversight as Safeguard: Courts should step in only when gubernatorial inaction undermines constitutional morality, keeping political disputes largely within the legislative sphere.

Conclusion

Unchecked gubernatorial inaction risks turning elected assemblies powerless. While the Union calls for political remedies, the Court stresses its duty as constitutional guardian. The outcome will redefine the balance between State autonomy, judicial review, and the Governor’s role in India’s federal framework.

Value Addition

Timeline for Governor’s action on bills

While the Constitution of India doesn’t explicitly state a timeline, the Supreme Court has addressed the issue of delays in Governor’s assent, particularly in the context of recent conflicts between Governors and state governments.

Based on a recent Supreme Court ruling (April 2025) and subsequent discussions, here’s a breakdown of the suggested timelines for the Governor’s actions on a Bill under Article 200 of the Constitution:

  1. Granting Assent, Withholding Assent (with advice of Council of Ministers), or Reserving for President’s Consideration: The Governor must act on the bill within a maximum of one month.
  2. Withholding Assent (against advice of Council of Ministers): The Governor should return the bill to the legislature with reasons for reconsideration within three months.
  3. Reserving for President’s Consideration (against advice of Council of Ministers): The Governor must reserve the bill within three months.
  4. Reconsideration by the Legislature: If the Governor returns a non-Money Bill for reconsideration, the legislature must reconsider it, and if it’s passed again (with or without amendments), the Governor is then bound to give assent within one month.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Discuss the essential conditions for exercise of the legislative powers by the Governor. Discuss the legality of re-promulgation of ordinances by the Governor without placing them before the Legislature.

 

Linkage: This issue links directly with the 2022 UPSC question as both highlight the constitutional checks on the Governor’s legislative powers. The re-promulgation of ordinances without legislative approval undermines democratic accountability. Hence, examining Governor’s ordinance powers is central to debates on federalism and executive overreach.

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