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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

[30th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: SSTC is more than a diplomatic phrase

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] If the last few decades were of Asia’s growth story, the next few are expected to be of Africa’s.” In the light of this statement, examine India’s influence in Africa in recent years.

Linkage: South-South Cooperation is the foundation of India–Africa engagement. India’s role in Africa through capacity building (ITEC), concessional credit, food security projects, and the India-UN Development Partnership Fund reflects SSTC principles of mutual respect, replicability, and shared growth, positioning India as a partner in Africa’s expected rise.

Mentor’s Comment

With only a fraction of time left to achieve the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, the global community is exploring new models of partnership. South-South and Triangular Cooperation (SSTC) has emerged as a vital mechanism, providing frugal, replicable, and contextually relevant solutions. India, rooted in the philosophy of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, has positioned itself as a leader in this space, particularly in food security, digital transformation, and inclusive growth. This article unpacks the significance of SSTC, India’s role, and why this cooperative model is central to a more equitable world order.

Introduction

The United Nations Day for South-South and Triangular Cooperation (September 12) commemorates the 1978 Buenos Aires Plan of Action (BAPA), which laid the foundation for solidarity-based cooperation among developing nations. Far from being a mere diplomatic phrase, SSTC today is a lifeline for billions, offering cost-effective, innovative, and scalable models of development at a time when traditional aid flows are shrinking. India, with its rich developmental experience and global outreach, is shaping the SSTC discourse through initiatives like the India-UN Development Partnership Fund, Voice of the Global South Summits, and collaboration with the World Food Programme (WFP).

Why in the News?

SSTC has gained renewed significance as the world approaches the 2030 deadline for SDGs with urgency, amid declining international aid and mounting challenges like climate change, conflict, and inequality. For the first time, SSTC is being recognised not merely as supplemental but as a core pathway to equitable and sustainable global development. India’s leadership — from digital public infrastructure exports to food system innovations like Grain ATMs and rice fortification, has transformed it into a hub of replicable global solutions. The 2025 UN Day theme, “New Opportunities and Innovation through SSTC”, underscores this transition, making the issue both timely and transformative.

India’s Role and Philosophy of Cooperation

  1. Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam: India’s developmental philosophy sees the world as one family, placing emphasis on sovereignty, equality, and mutual respect.
  2. Transition to food surplus: Once a food-deficit nation, India now runs one of the world’s largest food safety nets, offering models for the Global South.
  3. Global leadership: From hosting the Voice of the Global South Summits to securing AU’s membership in the G20, India promotes inclusivity in global governance.

What is the Relevance of SSTC Today?

  1. Cost-effectiveness: SSTC provides better returns on investment at a time when funding for humanitarian and development sectors is shrinking.
  2. Replicability and relevance: Local innovations like India’s food distribution optimisation or UPI have global application.
  3. Solidarity-based model: Unlike traditional aid, SSTC is grounded in mutual respect and shared learning, crucial for trust-building in the Global South.

How Has India Contributed to SSTC?

  1. Institutional frameworks: India set up the Development Partnership Administration in its Foreign Ministry to coordinate development partnerships.
  2. Capacity-building: Through the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme, India has trained professionals in 160+ countries.
  3. India-UN Development Partnership Fund: Established in 2017, it has financed 75 transformative projects across 56 developing countries, especially LDCs and SIDS.
  4. Digital diplomacy: Export of Aadhaar, UPI, and digital infrastructure models as low-cost, inclusive tools.

What Role Has the India-WFP Partnership Played?

  1. Testing ground for innovations: Over 60 years, India served as a laboratory for WFP to pilot globally relevant solutions.
  2. Grain ATMs (Annapurti): Automated grain dispensing machines ensuring efficient access to food.
  3. Supply chain optimisation: Strengthened the PDS through digitalisation.
  4. Women-led Take-Home Ration programme: Empowering communities while tackling malnutrition.
  5. Rice fortification: India’s national initiative to enhance nutrition replicated in countries like Nepal and Laos.

How Does Triangular Cooperation Add Value?

  1. Linking South-South with North-South: Brings in traditional donors, amplifying resources and best practices.
  2. Inclusive partnerships: Extends beyond governments to involve civil society, private sector, and grassroots communities.
  3. UN Fund contributions: Over the last three decades, 47 governments have funded projects in 70+ countries, benefiting people in 155 nations.

Conclusion

SSTC embodies a renewed spirit of partnership, rooted in equality, mutual respect, and innovation. For countries of the Global South, it is not merely a diplomatic mechanism but a pathway to resilience and empowerment. India’s leadership in digital public goods, food security, and inclusive governance has given SSTC tangible models of success. As the 2030 deadline looms, scaling such innovations and ensuring triangular cooperation will be crucial for achieving a sustainable and equitable world order.

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Terrorism and Challenges Related To It

An anti-terror role that defies logic

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Introduction

The global fight against terrorism is rooted in credibility, trust, and collective responsibility. Yet, the United Nations’ recent decision to entrust Pakistan with leadership positions in the Taliban Sanctions Committee and as Vice-Chair of the UNSC Counter-Terrorism Committee has sparked disbelief. For a country long accused of sheltering terrorists, from Osama bin Laden to Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad, this appointment is not just ironic but deeply unsettling. Coupled with financial support such as the IMF’s billion-dollar loan to Pakistan despite concerns of terror financing, these developments expose critical vulnerabilities in the UN system. For India, which continues to suffer from cross-border terrorism, this represents a significant diplomatic and security challenge.

Why is this in the news?

Pakistan, accused for decades of harbouring terrorists and backing attacks on Indian soil, has been elevated to leadership in global counter-terrorism mechanisms. The timing is striking: the move came just weeks after the April 2025 Pahalgam attack where terrorists killed Indian tourists, followed by India’s Operation Sindoor against terror launchpads. To add to the irony, Pakistan also assumed the UNSC Presidency in July 2025. This is not the first time the UN has made such questionable appointments (Libya on Human Rights, Saudi Arabia on Women’s Rights), but Pakistan’s case is especially alarming given its record of state-sponsored terror. The decision casts doubt on the UN’s integrity, raises questions about its vetting process, and undermines India’s global campaign to expose Pakistan as a terror sponsor.

How has Pakistan’s role in terrorism been established?

  1. Osama bin Laden Shelter: Found in Abbottabad, near Pakistan’s military academy.
  2. Cross-border attacks: From the 2008 Mumbai attacks to the 2019 Pulwama bombing and the 2025 Pahalgam attack, evidence points to Pakistan-backed groups.
  3. Terror groups supported: Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM), and networks across Afghanistan and Balochistan.
  4. Public protection of terrorists: Hafiz Saeed, despite being a UN-designated terrorist, continues to appear at PoK launchpads and public events under the watch of Pakistan’s security forces.

Why is Pakistan’s UN role a paradox?

  1. Contradiction with objectives: Pakistan’s terror links directly undermine the goals of the Counter-Terrorism Committee.
  2. FATF leniency: Removal from the FATF grey list in 2022 despite unresolved financing concerns highlights weak vetting.
  3. Geopolitical trade-offs: Powerful nations enable Pakistan’s elevation to secure their own strategic and economic interests.
  4. Dangerous precedent: It signals that state-sponsored terror can be diplomatically whitewashed.

What loopholes in the UN system does this expose?

  1. Selection flaws: No stringent vetting for compliance with counter-terrorism standards.
  2. Inconsistent moral compass: Earlier cases include Libya chairing the UNHRC and Saudi Arabia heading UN Women’s Rights Commission.
  3. Financial contradictions: IMF’s $1 billion loan in May 2025, just after the Pahalgam attack, raises ethical red flags.
  4. Rewarding duplicity: Pakistan even announced ₹14 crore compensation to families of terrorists, including kin of JeM chief Masood Azhar.

How does this affect India’s security and diplomacy?

  1. Narrative war: Pakistan may use its position to shift blame for regional instability onto India.
  2. UNSC power play: As vice-chair, Pakistan can obstruct India’s efforts to sanction Pakistan-based terrorists.
  3. Taliban equation: Pakistan could derail India’s outreach to the Taliban regime.
  4. Increased threats: Likely escalation of infiltration, asymmetric warfare, and cyber-attacks on India.

What counter-measures can India adopt?

  1. Diplomatic alliances: Leverage partnerships with UNSC members to balance Pakistan’s influence.
  2. Narrative building: Intensify global campaigns via media, academia, and diaspora to expose Pakistan’s duplicity.
  3. Engage Taliban directly: Humanitarian missions in Kabul to weaken Pakistan’s monopoly.
  4. Security strengthening: Bolster intelligence and counter-infiltration mechanisms.
  5. Push for accountability: Advocate for periodic reviews and performance audits of UN counter-terrorism bodies.

Conclusion

The UN’s decision to entrust Pakistan with counter-terrorism roles is more than a diplomatic anomaly, it is a strategic failure with global repercussions. For India, it signifies a heightened threat environment, a greater diplomatic challenge, and a call for proactive global engagement. What begins as “a seat at the table” could soon translate into control over the agenda. The real danger is not Pakistan’s presence in UN committees but the global community pretending it does not matter.

UPSC Relevance

[UPSC 2015] Terrorist activities and mutual distrust have clouded India-Pakistan relations. To what extent the use of soft power like sports and cultural exchanges could help generate goodwill between the two countries? Discuss with suitable examples.

Linkage: Pakistan’s elevation to UN counter-terrorism roles despite its proven terror links deepens mutual distrust with India, underscoring why soft power avenues like sports and cultural exchanges remain fragile yet essential tools to rebuild limited goodwill.

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

More Women employed in agriculture, but half of them are unpaid

Explained | Agriculture | Mains Paper 1: Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sector Industries In Various Parts Of The World

Introduction

Women-led development is increasingly recognised as a structural game-changer for India’s economic ambitions. Nowhere is this more urgent than in agriculture, which not only sustains livelihoods but also employs the largest share of India’s female workforce. However, while women’s participation in farming has risen sharply due to men shifting to non-farm jobs, their contributions remain largely invisible, unpaid, and undervalued. This contradiction calls for a deeper exploration of systemic inequities and emerging opportunities to turn agriculture into a vehicle for women’s empowerment and national growth.

The Feminisation of Agriculture: Numbers Behind the Shift

  1. Surge in women workers: Women’s employment in agriculture rose by 135% in a decade, now accounting for 42% of the agricultural workforce.
  2. Unpaid work: The number of women as unpaid family workers increased 2.5 times, from 23.6 million in 2017–18 to 59.1 million in 2023–24 (PLFS).
  3. Regional inequities: In States like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, over 80% of women workers are in agriculture, and more than half receive no wages.
  4. National picture: Today, one in three working women in India is unpaid.

Why Women’s Work in Agriculture Remains Invisible

  1. Lack of recognition: Women are not officially recognised as farmers despite constituting a large share of labour.
  2. Skewed land ownership: Only 13–14% of land holdings are in women’s names, limiting access to credit, insurance, and government support.
  3. Wage gap: Women earn 20–30% less than men for equivalent agricultural tasks.
  4. Concentration in low-value work: Women are locked into subsistence farming and low-margin tasks without decision-making power.
  5. Macro impact: Despite higher participation, agriculture’s share in GVA fell from 15.3% (2017–18) to 14.4% (2024–25), reinforcing inequities instead of enabling empowerment.

Global Trade Trends as an Opportunity

  1. India–U.K. FTA: Expected to boost agricultural exports by 20% within three years, covering 95% of agricultural and processed food products duty-free.
  2. Export-oriented crops: Women already have strong representation in spices, tea, millets, rice, dairy- sectors poised for expansion.
  3. From labourers to entrepreneurs: With training, credit access, and market linkages, women could transition to income-generating entrepreneurs in value-added exports.

Technology as a Game-Changer

  1. Digital agriculture: Platforms like e-NAM, mobile advisory services, precision tools connect women to markets and pricing systems.
  2. Language and literacy gap: Women face low digital literacy, language barriers, and lack of devices, restricting adoption.
  3. Promising models:
    1. BHASHINI platform and Microsoft–AI4Bharat’s Jugalbandi provide multilingual, voice-first government access.
    2. L&T Finance’s Digital Sakhi programme has built digital and financial literacy among rural women in seven States.
    3. Odisha’s Swayam Sampurna FPOs and Jhalawari Mahila Kisan Producer Company (Rajasthan) leverage digital tools for branding and exports.

Structural Reforms Needed

  1. Land reforms: Promote joint or individual land ownership to strengthen women’s eligibility for formal support.
  2. Labour reforms: Recognise women as independent farmers to ensure fair wages, rights, and credit.
  3. Value chain inclusion: Shift women into higher-margin activities like processing, branding, packaging, and exporting.
  4. Institutional support: Scale multi-stakeholder programs (government, NGOs, FPOs) to dismantle structural inequities.

Conclusion

The feminisation of agriculture in India highlights a double-edged reality: while women have become indispensable to the sector, their economic contributions remain unrecognised and unpaid. With global trade shifts, digital innovations, and land-labour reforms, India now stands at a crossroads. Whether women remain invisible labourers or emerge as empowered entrepreneurs will depend on how decisively policymakers, private actors, and civil society act to bridge systemic inequities. Women’s empowerment in agriculture is not just a gender issue, it is central to India’s economic transformation.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation?

Linkage: The question probes the conceptual clarity between equality, equity, and empowerment while testing their application in real policy frameworks. It aligns with the article as the feminisation of agriculture highlights how ignoring gender concerns in land, labour, and trade programmes perpetuates invisibility of women’s work, whereas equity-driven reforms can transform participation into genuine empowerment.

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Gravitational Wave Observations

Laser Interferometer Lunar Antenna (LILA) Project

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Scientists are planning the Laser Interferometer Lunar Antenna (LILA) Project on the Moon to bypass seismic noise, atmosphere, and frequency limits faced by Earth-based detectors like Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO).

What are Gravitational Waves?

  • Overview: Gravitational waves are ripples in the spacetime continuum created when massive objects such as black holes or neutron stars collide.
  • Speed & Effect: They travel at the speed of light, subtly stretching and compressing spacetime. On small scales, effects are extremely weak (e.g., Earth–Moon distance altered by less than an atom’s diameter).
  • Prediction: Proposed by Albert Einstein (1916) in his General Theory of Relativity.
  • First Detection: In 2015, LIGO recorded the first gravitational waves from two colliding black holes 1.3 billion light-years away, confirming their existence.

Detection on Earth and Challenges:

  • Ground Observatories: LIGO (USA), Virgo (Italy), KAGRA (Japan), GEO600 (Germany) use laser interferometers to detect minuscule delays in light caused by waves.
  • Working of LIGO: Two L-shaped detectors (Louisiana, Washington), each with 4 km arms; differences in reflections signal gravitational waves.
  • Detection Range: Sensitive to events up to 7 billion light years away; frequency range ~100–1,000 Hz.
  • Challenges: Seismic noise, atmosphere, and human activity mask weaker signals.
  • Future Space Missions:
    • LISA (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna, 2030s): Three satellites in triangular formation, sensitive to 0.1 millihertz–0.1 hertz.
    • SKA (Square Kilometre Array, Australia & South Africa): Monitors pulsars for nanohertz waves.
    • Decihertz Gap: Frequencies 0.1–10 Hz remain unexplored, which LILA aims to study.

About Laser Interferometer Lunar Antenna (LILA) Project

  • Overview: Proposed by Vanderbilt Lunar Labs, USA, to build a gravitational-wave detector on the Moon.
  • Ideal Conditions: The Moon’s polar shadow zones provide ultra-low seismic activity, natural vacuum, and no atmospheric or radio interference.
  • Focus: Sub-hertz gravitational waves, vital for studying intermediate-mass black holes and the early universe.
  • Phases:
    • LILA Pioneer: Can be deployed within this decade using American lunar landers (Blue Origin, Intuitive Machines) and possibly India’s Chandrayaan programme.
    • LILA Horizon: Advanced phase requiring astronauts for setup.
  • Cosmic Symphony Analogy:
    • SKA: Captures low-frequency “bass notes.”
    • LIGO (and future LIGO-India): Detects high-pitched bursts from stellar collisions.
    • LILA: Covers missing middle frequencies, completing the “cosmic raag.”
  • Historical Note: Since Apollo, retro-reflectors on the Moon track Earth–Moon distance. Some scientists suggest the Earth–Moon system itself acts as a natural detector.

Significance:

  • Scientific Advancement: Opens the decihertz frontier, inaccessible so far.
  • Global Collaboration: Complements LIGO-India (IndIGO project), operational by 2030.
  • Research Potential: Helps study intermediate-mass black holes, cosmic mergers, and universe origins.
  • Lunar Astronomy: Marks the start of using the Moon as a laboratory for space science.
  • Holistic Coverage: With LISA, SKA, and Earth detectors, LILA would map the entire gravitational-wave spectrum, giving a complete picture of the universe.
[UPSC 2020] The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.”  The experiment in question refers to

Options: (a) Voyager-2 (b) New Horizons (c) LISA Pathfinder (d) Evolved LISA*

 

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Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

[pib] Siphon-Based Thermal Desalination System

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: S&T - Applications In Everyday Life

Why in the News?

Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) have developed a siphon-based thermal desalination system that overcomes siltation issues, offering a low-cost and scalable solution.

About Siphon-Based Thermal Desalination System:

  • Overview: Developed by Indian Institute of Science (IISc) researchers to overcome the inefficiencies of conventional solar stills.
  • Purpose: Designed as a low-cost, scalable, and sustainable freshwater solution for off-grid and water-stressed regions.

  • Working: 

    • Principle: Works on siphonage, where a fabric wick draws salty water and gravity maintains continuous flow.
    • Innovation: A grooved metallic surface flushes away salt deposits before crystallization, preventing clogging.
    • Process: Salty water evaporates as a thin film on a heated surface and condenses just 2 mm away on a cooler surface, ensuring high efficiency.

Key Features:

  • High Efficiency: Generates >6 liters of freshwater per sq. m per hour under sunlight — several times more than conventional solar stills.
  • Multistage Design: Uses stacked evaporator–condenser pairs to recycle heat and boost output.
  • Salt Resistance: Handles up to 20% salinity without clogging, making it effective even for brine treatment.
  • Affordable Materials: Built from aluminum and fabric, keeping costs low.
  • Energy Flexibility: Operates on solar power or waste heat, adaptable to different settings.
  • Scalable Applications: Useful for villages, disaster zones, and island communities.
  • Sustainability: Offers a clean, low-maintenance desalination method without reliance on complex machinery.
[UPSC 2008] Where was the first desalination plant in India to produce one lakh liters of freshwater per day based on low-temperature thermal desalination principle commissioned?

Options: (a) Kavaratti * (b) Port Blair (c) Mangalore (d) Valsad

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-SAARC Nations

Kokrajhar-Gelephu and Banarhat-Samtse Railway Lines to Bhutan

Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Why in the News?

India and Bhutan have launched their first-ever rail links, connecting Kokrajhar–Gelephu (69 km, Assam–Bhutan) and Banarhat–Samtse (20 km, West Bengal–Bhutan).

Kokrajhar-Gelephu and Banarhat-Samtse Railway Lines to Bhutan

About India–Bhutan Railway Connectivity:

  • Overview: Agreements were signed during PM Modi’s visit to Bhutan (March 2024) and formalised in 2025.
  • Projects:
    1. Kokrajhar–Gelephu line: 6 stations, multiple bridges, viaducts, designed for Vande Bharat trains; expected completion in 4 years.
    2. Banarhat–Samtse line: 2 stations, major & minor bridges, flyovers, underpasses; expected completion in 3 years.
  • Both lines will be fully electrified, giving Bhutan direct access to India’s 1,50,000 km railway network, boosting passenger and goods transport.

Significance of the Project for India:

  • Bilateral Relations: Strengthens ties with Bhutan, India’s closest neighbour and largest recipient of Indian development assistance.
  • Strategic Security: Enhances regional security and serves as a counterbalance to China’s influence in South Asia.
  • Economic Integration: Supports Bhutan’s trade (80% with India), boosts hydropower exports, and aids industrial development.
  • Tourism & Culture: Improves people-to-people exchanges, especially linking Gelephu’s Mindfulness City and Samtse’s industrial hub.
  • Act East Policy: Advances India’s policy through cross-border infrastructure in the eastern and northeastern region.
  • Rail Diplomacy: Positions Indian Railways as a strategic enabler of diplomacy and connectivity in the neighbourhood.
[UPSC 2023] With reference to India’s projects on connectivity, consider the following statements:

1. East-West Corridor under Golden Quadrilateral Project connects Dibrugarh and Surat.

2. Trilateral Highway connects Moreh in Manipur and Chiang Mai in Thailand via Myanmar.

3. Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Economic Corridor connects Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh with Kunming in China.

How many of the above statements are correct?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None*

 

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Wetland Conservation

Bihar adds 2 more Wetlands to Ramsar List

Places in newsPrelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

India has added two new wetlands in Bihar — Gokul Jalashay (Buxar district) and Udaipur Jheel (West Champaran district) to the global Ramsar list of Wetlands of International Importance.

Important Facts:

  • With this, India’s Ramsar sites rise to 93, consolidating its top rank in Asia and third in the world, after the UK (176) and Mexico (144).
    • Bolivia has the largest Ramsar wetland area (Llanos de Moxos wetlands – 6.9 million ha).
  • India’s Ramsar sites have expanded from 26 in 2012 to 93 in 2025, covering 13.6 lakh hectares, with 51 sites added since 2020.
  • Globally, there are 2,544 Ramsar sites.

Facts about the two Wetlands:

  1. Gokul Jalashay (Buxar District):

    • Oxbow lake spread over 448 hectares on the southern edge of the Ganga River.
    • Acts as a flood buffer during high water events.
    • Supports 50+ bird species and provides livelihoods through fishing, farming, and irrigation.

  2. Udaipur Jheel (West Champaran District):

    • Oxbow lake covering 319 hectares, part of the Udaipur Wildlife Sanctuary ecosystem, formed by the Gandaki River.
    • Enhances ecological connectivity and supports the Central Asian Flyway for migratory birds.

About the Ramsar Convention:

  • Establishment: Signed on 2 February 1971 in Ramsar, Iran.
  • Objective: Provide a framework for conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
  • Functions:
    • Identify and designate wetlands of international importance.
    • Promote effective management of wetlands.
    • Foster international cooperation for conservation.
  • Members: 173 countries (as of 2025).
  • India and Ramsar:
    • India joined in 1982.
    • First Ramsar site: Chilika Lake, Odisha (1981).
    • Current total: 93 sites (Sept 2025), covering 13,60,718 hectares.
    • Growth: From 26 sites in 2012 to 93 in 2025 (51 added since 2020).
    • State-wise: Tamil Nadu has the highest (20), followed by Uttar Pradesh (10).
    • About 10% of India’s total wetland area is under Ramsar listing.
  • Montreux Record: List of Ramsar sites under threat of ecological change.
    • 48 sites globally (2025).
    • 2 Indian sites included: Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur).
  • World Wetlands Day: Celebrated on February 2nd every year.
    • 2025 Theme: “Protecting Wetlands for Our Common Future”.

Criteria for Declaration (9 Criteria):

A wetland can be declared a Ramsar site if it meets at least one of these:

  1. Has unique, rare, or representative wetland types.
  2. Supports vulnerable, endangered, or endemic species.
  3. Provides critical habitat for waterfowl, especially during migration.
  4. Contains significant ecological, botanical, zoological, limnological, or hydrological features.
  5. Supports biodiversity conservation and scientific research.
  6. Provides ecosystem services like flood control, groundwater recharge, and water purification.
  7. Has cultural, spiritual, or recreational importance.
  8. Ensures sustainable livelihoods for local communities.
  9. Faces threats requiring international cooperation for conservation.
[UPSC 2022] Consider the following pairs:

Wetland/Lake Location

1. Hokera Wetland — Punjab 2. Renuka Wetland — Himachal Pradesh

3. Rudrasagar Lake — Tripura 4. Sasthamkotta Lake — Tamil Nadu

How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

Options: (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs* (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs

 

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The Crisis In The Middle East

What is Wassenaar Arrangement?

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

Protests erupted over Microsoft after allegations that its cloud services (Azure) are aiding Israeli military operations, harming Palestinian civilians, raising concerns under the Wassenaar Arrangement.

What is Wassenaar Arrangement?

  • Establishment: Created in 1996 as a successor to the Cold War-era COCOM (Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls).
  • Name Origin: Named after Wassenaar, a suburb of The Hague, where the agreement was reached in 1995.
  • Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
  • Membership: 42 countries; India joined in 2017. Includes most NATO/EU states and all UNSC P5 except China.
  • Objective: Promote transparency, responsibility, and control in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use technologies.
  • Mechanism: Works through voluntary information-sharing, export license denials, and notifications on controlled transfers.
  • Control Lists:
    • Munitions List: Covers conventional arms including tanks, combat aircraft, UAVs, helicopters, missiles, small arms.
    • Dual-Use List: Covers sensitive technologies and equipment with both civilian and military applications.

Wassenaar Arrangement and Software:

  • Initial Scope: Designed for hardware exports (equipment, chips, devices).
  • 2013 Expansion: Included “intrusion software” that can bypass or defeat cyber protections.
  • Challenges:
    • Cloud/SaaS blurs what counts as an “export.”
    • Inconsistent interpretations among members for software transfer and access.
    • Grey areas: defensive research exemptions, cross-border data flows, and digital surveillance.
  • Gap: Rapid rise of AI, cloud computing, and biometrics has outpaced WA’s traditional framework.

  • Reform Needs:

    • Broaden lists to explicitly cover cloud, AI, surveillance, and biometric systems.
    • Recognize remote access as exports.
    • Establish technical committees for frequent updates and agile controls.

Wassenaar Arrangement and India:

  • Membership (2017): Enhanced India’s profile in non-proliferation and arms control, bolstering its case for entry into the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
  • Export Controls: Aligns India’s SCOMET list (Special Chemicals, Organisms, Materials, Equipment, and Technologies) with global norms.
  • Technology Access: Opens pathways to sensitive dual-use technologies vital for space, defence, and digital industries.
  • Diplomacy: Supports India’s counter-terrorism efforts, including the No Money for Terrorism (NMFT) initiative.
[UPSC 2011] Recently, the USA decided to support India’s membership in multilateral export control regimes called the “Australia Group” and the “Wassenaar Arrangement”. What is the difference between them?

1. The Australia Group is an informal arrangement which aims to allow exporting countries to minimize the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapons proliferation, whereas the Wassenaar- Arrangement is a formal group under the OECD holding identical objectives.

2. The Australia Group comprises predominantly of Asian, African, and North American countries, whereas the member countries of Wassenaar Arrangement are predominantly from the European Union and American continents.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 *

 

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World’s highest bridge opens to traffic in China 

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

The Huajiang Grand Canyon Bridge in Guizhou province, China, is now the world’s tallest bridge, standing 625 m above the Beipan River.

World's highest bridge opens to traffic in China 

About Huajiang Grand Canyon Bridge:

  • Height: Rises 625 m above the Beipan River, surpassing the previous record-holder, the Beipanjiang Bridge (565 m).
  • Connectivity: Links the Liuzhi Special District and Anlong Special District, reducing travel time from 2 hours to just 2 minutes.
  • Transport Network: Part of the Guizhou S57 Expressway and the 190 km Shantian–Puxi Expressway, boosting transport, economy, and tourism.
  • Engineering Hub: Guizhou, called the “bridge museum of the world”, now has nearly half of the world’s 100 tallest bridges, showcasing China’s leadership in high-altitude civil engineering.

Key Features of the Bridge:

  • Height Record: Deck-to-water clearance of 625 m, taller than most skyscrapers.
  • Span & Length: Total length 2,890 m, with a 1,420 m suspension span, the longest in any mountainous region globally.
  • Construction: Began January 2022, completed in just over three years; final truss installed January 2025; load-tested with 96 trucks.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

[29th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: An Engel’s pause in an AI-shaped world

op-ed snap | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does AI help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in the healthcare?

Linkage: This question reflects the exact dilemma discussed in the Engels’ pause analogy—AI promises higher productivity (e.g., clinical diagnosis, efficiency) but without governance, the welfare gains (privacy, equitable access, trust) may lag, creating social costs.

Mentor’s Comment

The rise of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is hailed as the new Industrial Revolution, but as Geoffrey Hinton warns, it could also deepen inequality by making a few rich while leaving the majority poorer. This paradox, reminiscent of Friedrich Engels’ 19th-century observation, raises a pressing question for policymakers: Are we entering a modern “Engels’ pause” where productivity soars but living standards stagnate? For UPSC aspirants, this debate is central to GS 1 (industrial revolution parallels), GS 2 (governance), GS 3 (technology, economy), and GS 4 (ethics of equity in innovation).

Introduction

The concept of an Engels’ pause, coined by economist Robert Allen, describes a historical paradox in 19th-century Britain: industrial output grew rapidly, yet wages stagnated, food prices soared, and inequality widened. The benefits of industrialization reached the majority only after decades, with reforms and institutional adjustments.

Today, AI as a general-purpose technology (GPT)—akin to steam power, electricity, or the internet—brings unprecedented productivity potential but also risks replicating this paradox. With Nobel Laureate Geoffrey Hinton warning of AI enriching a few at the expense of many, and evidence of uneven benefits emerging globally, the Engels’ pause metaphor becomes a crucial analytical lens.

Why in the News?

Artificial Intelligence is reshaping global economies, but early signs suggest a disconnect between productivity gains and broad-based prosperity. A recent Stanford study showed younger workers are more vulnerable to AI displacement, while an Indian IT giant laid off 12,000 employees in its AI pivot. Meanwhile, a MIT study revealed that 95% of AI pilots are failing to deliver visible gains due to weak complementary capabilities. In the Philippines, call centres recorded 30–50% productivity jumps with AI copilots, yet wages stagnated and workloads intensified. PwC forecasts AI could add $15.7 trillion to global GDP by 2030, but gains are concentrated in a few countries and firms. These developments highlight the possibility of an AI-induced Engels’ pause, making it a critical debate for global governance.

Are We Facing a Modern Engels’ Pause?

  1. Historical Parallels: Like 19th-century Britain, current AI-driven growth risks benefiting capital over labour, delaying welfare gains for the majority.
  2. Vulnerable Workers: Stanford research shows younger workers are most exposed to AI disruptions.
  3. Sectoral Displacement: IT, healthcare, education, and even government (e.g., Albania’s AI Minister) are witnessing job/task reconfigurations.

What Are the Markers of an AI Engels’ Pause?

  1. Stagnant Wages despite Productivity Gains: Philippines call centres show higher efficiency but little improvement in wages.
  2. Rising Costs of Complements: Cloud computing, retraining, coding bootcamps, and cybersecurity raise the “price of staying relevant”.
  3. Unequal Distribution of Gains: PwC’s $15.7 trillion AI GDP addition is concentrated in the U.S., China, and a few tech firms. IMF (2024) warns 40% of global jobs are AI-exposed, with advanced economies at greater risk of skilled substitution.
  4. Intensified Inequality: Research on India shows stronger IPR regimes widened wage inequality during tech races.

How Can Governance Break the Pause?

  1. Skilling and Transition Models: Singapore’s SkillsFuture programme and MBZUAI (world’s first AI university) highlight proactive reskilling.
  2. Redistribution Tools: Robot taxes and Universal Basic Income (UBI) pilots in the UK and EU aim to channel AI rents toward social welfare.
  3. AI Infrastructure as Public Good: Compute and data should be democratized; initiatives like K2Think.ai (UAE) and Apertus (Switzerland) are steps in building open, public AI models.

Why This Time Might Be Different

  1. Stronger Welfare Systems: Unlike 19th-century Britain, today’s democracies have safety nets and global institutions.
  2. Rapid Diffusion of Technology: Smartphones reached billions within a decade; AI could follow a similar trajectory.
  3. Potential Social Benefits: AI could lower costs in healthcare, education, and energy if deployed equitably.

Conclusion

The Engels’ pause analogy underscores a profound warning: productivity gains do not automatically translate into welfare improvements. AI governance, skilling programmes, redistribution mechanisms, and public-good infrastructure will determine whether AI becomes a human welfare revolution rather than just a productivity revolution. Political will, not just technological breakthroughs, will decide if this pause is short-lived or prolonged.

Value Addition

Scholarly References and Thinkers

  1. Robert C. Allen (2009): Coined Engels’ Pause in economic history; wages stagnated despite industrial productivity growth in 19th-century Britain.
  2. Nicholas Crafts (2021): Noted that GPTs like AI need institutional reforms and complementary innovations before welfare spreads.
  3. Bojan Jovanovic & Rousseau (2005): Documented “technology shocks” in U.S. economy → initial dislocation before long-term growth.
  4. Geoffrey Hinton (2024, FT Interview): Warned AI may “make a few rich and the rest poorer.”
  5. Agrawal, Gans & Goldfarb (2018): Defined AI as lowering the cost of prediction.

Key Reports and Data Points

  1. PwC Report (2018): AI could add $15.7 trillion to global GDP by 2030; 70% of gains concentrated in U.S. and China.
  2. IMF Report (2024): 40% of global jobs are AI-exposed; higher risk of high-skilled substitution in advanced economies.
  3. MIT Study (2023): Found that 95% of AI pilot projects failed to show visible gains due to lack of complementary capabilities.
  4. Stanford Study (2023): “Canaries in the Coal Mine” → younger workers are most vulnerable to AI disruption.
  5. OECD AI Principles (2019): Global governance framework emphasising fairness, transparency, accountability.

International Best Practices / Programs

  1. Singapore – SkillsFuture (2015): Provides continuous education credits for workers to reskill; considered a global model.
  2. UAE – Mohamed bin Zayed University of AI (MBZUAI, 2019): World’s first dedicated AI university.
  3. European Union – AI Act (2021 Draft): Risk-based framework regulating AI applications.
  4. United Kingdom – UBI Experiments: Pilots to test redistribution of tech-driven wealth.
  5. Albania – First AI Minister (2024): Institutional adoption of AI governance in public administration.

Indian Context and Initiatives

  1. NITI Aayog’s National Strategy on AI (2018): “AI for All” approach—priority areas: healthcare, education, agriculture, mobility.
  2. Digital India Programme: Expanding digital infrastructure to enable AI adoption.
  3. National Programme on AI (2019): Envisioned as a Center of Excellence ecosystem for skilling, research, and governance.
  4. NASSCOM FutureSkills Prime: Public–private initiative to reskill 2 million professionals in emerging tech, including AI.
  5. IndiaAI Portal (2023): Central knowledge hub for AI use cases and policy discussions.

Key Concepts for Thematic Depth

  1. General-Purpose Technology (GPT): Technologies with cross-sectoral transformative impact (steam, electricity, internet, AI).
  2. Complementary Innovations: Need for institutional reforms, new tasks, and human capital for GPT diffusion.
  3. Job Polarisation: Middle-skill jobs displaced → low-skill and high-skill jobs expand; seen in OECD labour markets.
  4. Robot Tax (Bill Gates’ Proposal): Idea of taxing automation to fund welfare.
  5. Universal Basic Income (UBI): Redistribution mechanism to tackle inequality in tech-driven economies.

Comparative Historical Perspective

  1. Industrial Revolution (19th c. Britain): Productivity rose but welfare stagnated → Engels’ Pause.
  2. Gilded Age (U.S.): Huge inequality, labour unrest; later corrected via welfare state reforms.
  3. Digital Revolution (1990s): Internet adoption uneven; productivity surge lagged behind wages initially.

Ethical and Governance Dimensions

  1. Equity and Justice (GS4): AI could worsen inequality unless governed inclusively.
  2. Privacy: Particularly sensitive in healthcare (HIPAA in U.S.; India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023).
  3. Transparency: AI “black box” models challenge accountability.
  4. Democratic Deficit: AI development is corporate-heavy; needs citizen-centric governance.

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Food Processing Industry: Issues and Developments

What an empty plate of food should symbolise

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Food Processing & Related Industries In India

Introduction

Globally, nearly one-third of all food produced is lost or wasted, undermining both food security and climate action. For India, the cost of post-harvest losses is about ₹1.5 trillion every year, almost 3.7% of its agricultural GDP. Beyond economics, this wastage squanders nutrition, water, energy, and labour, aggravating the climate crisis. The problem is not consumer-driven, as in developed nations, but arises early in the value chain, in handling, processing, and distribution. International Day of Awareness of Food Loss and Waste (IDAFLW) highlights this as both a challenge and an opportunity: to build resilient, efficient, and climate-smart food systems.

Why is Food Loss in the News?

The recent FAO–NIFTEM–GCF study has provided the first sector-, state– and operation-wise estimates of greenhouse gas emissions from post-harvest losses and retail waste in India, covering 30 crops and livestock products. The findings are striking: even modest losses in cereals like paddy account for over 10 million tonnes of CO₂-equivalent emissions annually due to rice’s methane intensity. Overall, food loss generates more than 33 million tonnes of emissions every year. For a country aiming to balance food security with climate commitments, this is both alarming and unprecedented in scale.

The Economic Burden of Food Loss

  1. ₹1.5 trillion annual cost: Post-harvest losses in India amount to nearly 3.7% of agricultural GDP.
  2. Sectoral vulnerability: Fruits and vegetables suffer 10–15% losses; even staples such as paddy (4.8%) and wheat (4.2%) are significantly affected.
  3. Farmer incomes at risk: Such losses reduce food availability and directly affect the livelihood security of millions of farmers.

The Climate Connection

  1. Greenhouse gas emissions: Food loss from 30 key commodities produces 33 million tonnes of CO₂-equivalent emissions annually.
  2. Cereal losses critical: Paddy alone contributes over 10 million tonnes of emissions due to methane intensity.
  3. Livestock products’ footprint: Wastage in dairy and meat is equally damaging, given their heavy resource requirements.
  4. Link with SDGs: India has integrated SDG 12.3.1 (Global Food Loss and Waste) into its National Indicator Framework for systematic monitoring.

Where Do the Losses Occur?

  1. Early supply chain stages: Losses in India occur during handling, processing, and distribution, unlike high-income countries where waste is consumer-driven.
  2. Infrastructure gaps: Lack of modern cold chains, refrigerated transport, and efficient storage are major bottlenecks.
  3. Fragmented supply chains: Weak value-chain integration adds to inefficiency and wastage.

Practical Solutions in Sight

  1. Cold chain modernisation: Programmes like PM Kisan SAMPADA Yojana (PMKSY) focus on modernising storage, processing, and logistics.
  2. Affordable technologies: Solar cold storage, low-cost cooling chambers, and moisture-proof silos can reduce spoilage for smallholders.
  3. Digital interventions: IoT sensors, AI-driven forecasting, and tracking tools like the FAO Food Loss App (FLAPP) (launched in 2023, used in 30+ countries) improve efficiency.
  4. Circular economy practices: Redirecting surplus to food banks/community kitchens and converting unavoidable waste into compost, feed, or bioenergy.
  5. Policy support: Subsidies, credit guarantees, and low-interest loans are needed to scale up solutions.

Shared Responsibility Across Stakeholders

  1. Government: Integrate food loss reduction in climate strategies and invest in infrastructure.
  2. Private sector: Adopt circular business models and scalable innovations.
  3. Civil society & academia: Drive awareness and research.
  4. Consumers: Practice mindful consumption and support redistribution mechanisms.

Conclusion

An empty plate should symbolise nourishment received, not the silent wastage of resources and opportunities. Reducing food loss in India is not just about saving food — it is about strengthening farmer incomes, ensuring food security, cutting emissions, and meeting global sustainability goals.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] Examine the scope of the food processing industries in India. Elaborate the measures taken by the government in the food processing industries for generating employment opportunities.

Linkage: Food loss and waste directly highlight the gaps in India’s food processing sector, where inadequate cold chains, fragmented supply chains, and weak storage infrastructure undermine both farmer incomes and climate goals, making this question highly relevant.

Value Addition

International Day of Awareness of Food Loss and Waste (IDAFLW): Observed on September 29; raises global attention to the issue of food loss and waste undermining food and climate security.

Value Chain and Food Processing Sector in India

Economic Significance

  1. Contribution to GDP : Food processing sector contributes about 10% of manufacturing GDP and nearly 13% of India’s exports.
  2. Employment Potential : Provides large-scale rural and semi-urban employment, with strong potential for women and smallholder farmers.

Infrastructure and Policy Interventions

  1. Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana (PMKSY) : Umbrella scheme for cold chains, mega food parks, and agro-processing clusters.
  2. Mega Food Parks : Around 42 Mega Food Parks sanctioned across the country to integrate farm-to-market supply chains.
  3. Operation Greens (TOP to TOTAL) : Price stabilisation and value chain strengthening for perishable crops like tomato, onion, potato.
  4. PLI Scheme for Food Processing (2021) : ₹10,900 crore outlay to boost exports, ready-to-eat, organic, and marine food products.

Post-Harvest Losses and Value Chain Gaps

  1. High Economic Losses : NABCONS (2022) estimated ₹1.5 trillion annual post-harvest losses, equivalent to 3.7% of agricultural GDP.
  2. Crop-wise Losses : Fruits and vegetables face 10–15% losses; paddy 4.8%; wheat 4.2%.
  3. Comparative Gap : Only 10% of India’s produce is processed, compared to 65–70% in developed nations.

Technology and Innovation in Value Chains

  1. IoT and AI : Used for forecasting, tracking, and real-time storage monitoring.
  2. Affordable Storage Solutions : Solar cold storage, low-cost cooling chambers, and moisture-proof silos reduce wastage.
  3. Digital Platforms : FAO’s Food Loss App (FLAPP) (2023) monitors value-chain losses; adopted in 30+ countries.

Sustainability and Circular Economy

  1. Resource Efficiency : Cutting losses conserves embedded water, energy, and labour.
  2. Surplus Redistribution : Food banks and community kitchens absorb edible surplus.
  3. Waste Conversion : Composting, animal feed, and bioenergy generation from unavoidable waste.
  4. Global Commitments : Strengthens India’s alignment with SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), and SDG 13 (Climate Action).

Case Study Box: Food Processing and Value Chain in India

Case Study 1: Tumkur Mega Food Park, Karnataka

  • Launched : Under PMKSY.
  • Facilities : Cold storage, warehousing, quality control labs, logistics hubs
  • Impact :
    • Reduced post-harvest losses of perishable crops.
    • Generated ~5,000 direct and indirect jobs.
    • Enhanced farmer linkages with retail chains and exporters.

Case Study 2: Operation Greens – Onion Price Stabilisation (Maharashtra, 2018–19)

  • Problem : Frequent onion price crashes and volatility in Maharashtra.
  • Intervention : Subsidised transport and storage under Operation Greens (TOP to TOTAL).
  • Impact :
    • Prevented distress sales by farmers.
    • Stabilised retail onion prices for consumers.
    • Demonstrated the role of value chain management in food security.

Case Study 3: Amul Dairy Cooperative (Gujarat)

  • Model : Farmer-owned cooperative integrating production, processing, and distribution.
  • Impact :
    • Dairy farmers receive better price realisation.
    • Efficient cold chain logistics reduce milk spoilage.
    • Became a global model of agri-value chain success.

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Economic Indicators and Various Reports On It- GDP, FD, EODB, WIR etc

Analysing Indian State’s macro-fiscal health

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Introduction

India’s federal system depends heavily on States for delivering core welfare, infrastructure, and development. For much of the 2000s, reforms and tax buoyancy allowed States to report surpluses, better spending, and healthier balance sheets. However, the COVID-19 pandemic marked a turning point: revenues plummeted while emergency spending skyrocketed, forcing States into unprecedented borrowing. The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)’s decade-long analysis highlights this transition, exposing systemic stress points in India’s fiscal federalism.

Why is this issue in the news?

India’s States, once showing signs of fiscal prudence with even surpluses, now find themselves trapped in a debt spiral. The pandemic alone pushed almost every State into record borrowing, reversing earlier trends. For example, Uttar Pradesh, once lauded for surplus budgets, reported a revenue surplus of only ₹2,000 crore, down sharply from ₹37,000 crore in FY20. Kerala, which borrowed ₹80,575 crore in 2020-22, saw its debt mount to unsustainable levels. The contrast is stark: States that earlier prospered through buoyancy and reforms are today weighed down by heavy fiscal deficits and repayment burdens.

How has the States’ borrowing changed over time?

  1. Sharp rise post-pandemic: Borrowings spiked everywhere during the pandemic, with Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu reporting unprecedented debt levels.
  2. Uttar Pradesh’s decline: From a revenue surplus of ₹37,000 crore in 2019-20, UP fell to only ₹2,000 crore.
  3. Kerala’s crisis: Borrowed ₹80,575 crore between 2020-22 and exceeded ₹1.04 lakh crore later, making it one of the most indebted States.
  4. National trends: From 2017 to 2022-23, States’ gross borrowings rose from ₹5.6 lakh crore to ₹8.2 lakh crore, reflecting widespread fiscal strain.

Why are States borrowing so heavily?

  1. Emergency spending: The pandemic forced huge expenditures on health, welfare, and relief, while revenues collapsed.
  2. Welfare paradox: Despite borrowing, States continue with high welfare commitments such as free electricity, pensions, and subsidies.
  3. GST regime pressures: Dependence on GST compensation and delayed transfers added strain to State finances.
  4. Capital expenditure trade-offs: More money went into welfare subsidies than infrastructure, raising concerns of long-term growth stagnation.

What are the fiscal risks emerging?

  1. Debt sustainability: States like Punjab, Kerala, and Rajasthan carry some of the heaviest debt burdens relative to GSDP.
  2. Revenue shortfall: Weak own-tax revenues coupled with GST dependency reduce fiscal space.
  3. Deficit pressures: Gross fiscal deficit (GFD) levels remain elevated, restricting maneuverability.
  4. Crowding out growth: Excessive borrowing for subsidies diverts funds from capital creation, weakening long-term competitiveness.

How are States coping with fiscal pressures?

  1. Raising borrowings: Kerala, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu remain among the largest borrowers.
  2. Cutting investments: Many States reduced capital expenditure to fund populist schemes.
  3. Seeking Centre’s support: GST compensation and Union transfers remain critical lifelines.
  4. Relying on lotteries and land: Kerala and other States turn to non-tax sources like lottery revenues or land monetisation.

What is the way forward for States’ fiscal health?

  1. Prudent fiscal management: Focus on long-term debt sustainability instead of short-term populism.
  2. Rationalised welfare: Targeted subsidies over blanket schemes to avoid unsustainable fiscal stress.
  3. Strengthened GST framework: Ensure timely compensation and greater autonomy in tax mobilisation.
  4. Balanced expenditure: Redirect focus toward capital creation and infrastructure while safeguarding essential welfare.

Conclusion

The macro-fiscal health of Indian States has reached a critical juncture. The transition from buoyancy and surpluses in the 2000s to widespread borrowing and debt stress post-pandemic illustrates both structural vulnerabilities and political compulsions. While welfare commitments reflect democratic imperatives, unchecked populism coupled with weak revenue growth risks undermining fiscal stability. The future of India’s growth story rests not only on the Centre but equally on how States recalibrate their spending priorities and borrowing practices.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent this has been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth?

Linkage: The article’s discussion on States’ rising welfare spending, shrinking capital outlays, and mounting debt post-pandemic directly links to this PYQ by questioning whether such expenditure patterns genuinely advance inclusive growth.

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Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

Cold Desert named India’s 13th UNESCO Biosphere Reserve

Places in newsPrelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

UNESCO added India’s Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve (CDBR) to the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) under the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) programme.

With this, India now has 13 UNESCO-recognized biosphere reserves out of 18 designated nationally.

What are UNESCO Biosphere Reserves?

  • Overview: Sites integrating biodiversity conservation + cultural heritage + sustainable development.
  • Programme: MAB (1971).
  • Designation Criteria:
    • Must include a protected core zone.
    • Must represent a unique biogeographical unit.
    • Involve local communities in conservation.
    • Potential to preserve traditional lifestyles.
  • Functions: Conservation, Development, Logistic Support.
  • Global Network (WNBR): 785 sites, 142 countries (2025); 7.4 million sq. km (~5% Earth’s surface); home to 275 million people.

About Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve (CDBR):

  • Location: Lahaul–Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), part of Trans-Himalayan biogeographic province.
  • Constituents: Includes Pin Valley National Park, Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, Chandratal Wetland, Sarchu Plains.
  • Biodiversity:
    • Flora:  732 vascular plants, incl. 30 endemic, 47 medicinal plants (Amchi / Sowa Rigpa).
    • Fauna: Snow leopard (flagship), Tibetan wolf, Himalayan ibex, blue sheep (800+ in Spiti), Himalayan snowcock, golden eagle, bearded vulture.
  • Communities: ~12,000 people; practice yak & goat herding, barley/pea farming, Tibetan herbal medicine, Buddhist monastic councils.
  • Significance: Boosts eco-tourism, climate research, community-led conservation, sustainable livelihoods. Supports climate-resilient development in fragile ecosystems.

cold desert biosphere reserve

Biosphere Reserves in India:

  • Total: 18 designated, of which 13 in UNESCO-WNBR (as of 2025).
  • First: Nilgiri BR (1986); Largest: Gulf of Kachchh (Gujarat); Smallest: Dibru-Saikhowa (Assam).
  • Scheme: Launched 1986; implemented by MoEFCC under MAB Programme.
  • Three zones: Each biosphere reserve is organised into-
    1. Core zone (strictly protected),
    2. Buffer zone (limited human activity such as research, grazing, and tourism permitted), and
    3. Transition zone (sustainable human settlements and economic activities allowed).
  • Funding: 90:10 (NE & Himalayan states); 60:40 (others).
[UPSC 2019] Which of the following are in Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve?

Options: (a) Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve*

(b) Mudumalai, Sathyamangalam and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Silent Valley National Park

(c) Kaundinya, Gundla Brahmeswaram and Papikonda Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Mukurthi National Park

(d) Kawal and Sri Venkateswara Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve

 

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Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

National Security Act of 1980

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Why in the News?

Climate activist Sonam Wangchuk, leading the demand for statehood and Sixth Schedule protections for Ladakh, was detained under the National Security Act (NSA) in Leh.

About the National Security Act, 1980:

  • Enactment: Passed on 23 September 1980; applicable across India (earlier not in Jammu & Kashmir).
  • Constitutional Basis: Rooted in Article 22(3)(b) (preventive detention permitted) and Article 22(4) (limit of 3 months unless Board approves).
  • Objective: Provides for preventive detention to safeguard defence, national security, public order, foreign relations, and essential supplies/services.
  • Grounds for Detention: Acts prejudicial to India’s defence or security, harming foreign relations, disturbing public order, endangering essential supplies, or regulating foreigners’ presence/expulsion.
  • Authorities Empowered: Centre, States, District Magistrates, and Police Commissioners (if authorised).
  • Duration: Detention up to 12 months; must communicate grounds within 5 days (extendable to 15). A person can be held 10 days without disclosure of charges.
  • Advisory Board: Composed of three persons qualified to be High Court judges. Orders reviewed within 3 weeks; if no sufficient cause exists, release is mandatory.
  • Background: Builds on colonial-era Bengal Regulation III (1818), Rowlatt Acts (1919), post-independence Preventive Detention Act (1950), and MISA (1971, repealed 1977). Reintroduced by Indira Gandhi in 1980.

Legal Options after Arrest under NSA:

  • Representation to Government: Detainee can file a written representation challenging detention.
  • Advisory Board Review: Must be reviewed within 3 weeks; release ordered if detention unjustified.
  • Judicial Remedies: Writ petition in High Court (Art. 226) or Supreme Court (Art. 32).
  • Revocation: Centre or State may revoke detention anytime.
  • Limitations: No right to lawyer before Advisory Board; grounds may be withheld in “public interest.”
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

1. According to the Constitution of India, the Central Government has a duty to protect States from internal disturbances.

2. The Constitution of India exempts the States from providing legal counsel to a person being held for preventive detention.

3. According to the Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002, the confession of the accused before the police cannot be used as evidence.

How many of the above statements are correct?

(a) Only one* (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

 

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

India’s first space observatory AstroSat completes 10 years

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Why in the News?

AstroSat, India’s first multi-wavelength space observatory has completed 10 years on September 28, 2025, boosting India’s role in multi-messenger astronomy.

What is Multi-Messenger Astronomy?

  • Overview:  A modern approach that uses different cosmic messengers to study the universe, not just light.
  • Messengers:
    • Light (photons): Radio, visible, UV, X-ray, gamma rays.
    • Gravitational waves: From black hole/neutron star mergers.
    • Neutrinos: From nuclear reactions in stars.
    • Cosmic rays: Charged particles from space.
  • Insights: Light shows stellar surfaces; Gravitational waves show collisions; Neutrinos probe stellar interiors.
  • Example: 2017 neutron star collision observed with both light and gravitational waves, proving origin of heavy elements like gold.
  • AstroSat’s Role: Enabled simultaneous UV, optical, and X-ray observations, tracking flares, black holes, and neutron stars.

What is AstroSat?

  • Overview: India’s first dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory, launched on September 28, 2015 by PSLV-C30 from Sriharikota.
  • Objective: To study celestial sources simultaneously in X-ray, ultraviolet (UV), and optical bands, unlike most single-band missions.
  • Management: Controlled by the Mission Operations Complex (MOX), ISTRAC, Bengaluru.
  • Mission Life: Designed for 5 years but operational even after 10 years.
  • Payloads:
    • UVIT (Ultra Violet Imaging Telescope).
    • LAXPC (Large Area X-ray Proportional Counter).
    • CZTI (Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride Imager).
    • SXT (Soft X-ray Telescope).
    • SSM (Scanning Sky Monitor).

Its Accomplishments:

  • Extended Life: Surpassed design life; still generating data.
  • Black Hole Studies: Captured 500+ black hole births, advancing high-energy astrophysics.
  • Galaxy Detection: Tracked extreme UV light from a galaxy 9.3 billion light-years away, aiding early universe studies.
  • Gamma-Ray Bursts: 500+ bursts studied by CZTI.
  • Discoveries: Identified rare UV-bright Milky Way stars, thousands of times brighter than the Sun.
[UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘Astrosat’,’ the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space.

2. Astrosat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

 

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

[pib] Who was Rani Rashmoni (1793-1861)?

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Why in the News?

The Prime Minister has paid tribute to Rani Rashmoni on her birth anniversary on 28th September.

Rani Rashmoni (1793-1861)

Who was Rani Rashmoni (1793–1861)?

  • Overview: A prominent zamindar, businesswoman, philanthropist, and social reformer from 19th-century Bengal.
  • Birth: Born on 28 September 1793 in Halisahar, Bengal.
  • Marriage: Married at the age of 11 to Raja Raj Chandra Das, wealthy zamindar of Janbazar, Kolkata.
  • Leadership: Took charge of the estate and business after her husband’s death in 1836, unusual for women of her time.
  • Reputation: Revered as “Lokmata” (Mother of the People) for her courage, administration, and social commitment.

Her Contributions:

  • Patronage: Built the Dakshineswar Kali Temple (1847–1855); appointed Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa as chief priest despite caste opposition.
  • Social Reforms: Opposed polygamy and child marriage; supported widow remarriage; submitted a draft bill against polygamy to the British.
  • Public Welfare & Infrastructure: Constructed major ghats on the Ganga including Babughat, Ahiritola Ghat, Nimtala Ghat. Funded roads, reservoirs, and pilgrim facilities, such as the road from Subarnarekha River to Puri.
  • Resistance to British Rule: Fought against fishing taxes on Hooghly fishermen by blocking river traffic, compelling British to abolish the tax. Defied British restrictions on Durga Puja processions, preserving traditions.
  • Support for Education & Culture: Donated to the Imperial Library (now National Library of India) and Hindu College (now Presidency University). Established schools for women and marginalized groups.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements about Raja Ram Mohan Roy:

I. He possessed great love and respect for the traditional philosophical systems of the East.

II. He desired his countrymen to accept the rational and scientific approach and the principle of human dignity and social equality of all men and women.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) I only (b) II only (c) Both I and II* (d) Neither I nor II

 

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Port Infrastructure and Shipping Industry – Sagarmala Project, SDC, CEZ, etc.

[pib] The Indian Ports Act, 2025

PIB | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

The Indian Ports Act, 2025 enacted in August, repealing the age-old Indian Ports Act of 1908 seeks to establish a more modern legal and institutional framework for India’s port sector.

About Indian Ports Act, 2025:

  • Overview: Enacted in August 2025, replacing the Indian Ports Act of 1908 to modernize India’s port governance.
  • Aim: To integrate port law, tariff regulation, safety, environmental standards, and Centre–State cooperation into one comprehensive legal framework.
  • Vision: Aligns with broader maritime reforms alongside the Merchant Shipping Act, 2025 and Carriage of Goods by Sea Act, 2025.
  • Seeks to position India’s port sector for global competitiveness through transparency, sustainability, and efficient regulation.

Key Features:

  • Maritime State Development Council (MSDC): Becomes a statutory consultative body to coordinate between Centre and States, advise on national port strategy, tariff transparency, data standards, and connectivity planning.
  • State Maritime Boards: Each coastal state must establish or recognize a board within 6 months to regulate non-major ports, manage licensing, tariffs, development, safety, and environmental compliance.
  • Tariff Setting:
    • Major Ports: Tariffs fixed by Port Authority Boards or Boards of Directors.
    • Non-Major Ports: Tariffs fixed by State Maritime Boards or concessionaires.
    • All tariffs must be electronically published for transparency.
  • Dispute Resolution: States must create Dispute Resolution Committees; appeals go directly to High Courts. Arbitration and ADR allowed.
  • Environmental Norms: Mandates waste management, pollution control, disaster preparedness, ballast water restrictions, and penalties for violations.
  • Applicability: Covers all existing and future ports, navigable channels, and vessels within port limits, except those serving armed forces, Coast Guard, or customs.
[UPSC 2023] With reference to India, consider the following pairs:

Port : Well Known as

1. Kamarajar Port : First major port in India registered as a company

2. Mundra Port : Largest privately owned port in India

3. Visakhapatnam Port : Largest container port in India

How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?

(a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs* (c) All three pairs (d) None of the pairs

 

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Ganga River is drying faster than in 1,300 years: Report

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Why in the News?

A recent study by researchers from IIT Gandhinagar and the University of Arizona warns that the Ganga River is drying at a rate unseen in more than a millennium.

About Drying of the Ganga River: New Study Findings

  • Overview: Reconstructed streamflow since 700 AD using tree-ring records (Monsoon Asia Drought Atlas) and hydrological models. Validated against historic droughts and famines such as the Bengal famine.

  • Findings:

    • Between 1991 and 2020, multiple droughts lasted 4–7 years, the rarest in the past 1,300 years.
    • The 2004–2010 drought was the most severe in 1,300 years.
    • Post-1990s drying was 76% more intense than the worst 16th-century drought.

  • Causes:

    • Weaker monsoons from Indian Ocean warming and aerosol pollution.
    • Groundwater over-extraction reducing river baseflow.
    • Land-use change disrupting natural recharge.
  • Climate Models: Most fail to reproduce the drying trend, raising doubts about optimistic rainfall projections.
  • Implications: Severe threats to agriculture, 600 million livelihoods, Bay of Bengal ecosystems, and the 40% GDP share of the basin. Calls for adaptive water management.

ganga

About the Ganga River:

  • Length: ~2,525 km, the longest river in India.
  • Origin: Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand at 3,892 m elevation as Bhagirathi.
  • Formation: Named Ganga at Devprayag after meeting Bhagirathi and Alaknanda.
  • Course: Flows through Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal before entering Bangladesh as Padma and emptying into the Bay of Bengal through the Sundarbans Delta.
  • Basin: Covers about 8.61 lakh sq. km, which is 26.4% of India’s area.

  • Tributaries:

    • Left bank: Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, Burhi Gandak, Koshi, Mahananda.
    • Right bank: Yamuna, Tons, Karamnasa, Sone, Punpun, Falgu, Kiul, Chandan, Ajoy, Damodar, Rupnarayan.
  • Population: Supports over 600 million people, making it the world’s most densely populated river basin.
  • Cultural Importance: Sacred in Indian culture; declared National River in 2008.
  • Economic Role: Central to agriculture, fisheries, and trade, contributing about 40% of India’s GDP.
  • Ecological Significance: Home to snow leopard, elephants, and Ganga dolphin; includes Corbett, Dudhwa, and Sundarbans reserves.
  • Conservation Efforts: Ganga Action Plan (1985) and Namami Gange Programme (2014); persistent issues of pollution, over-extraction, and climate change.
[UPSC 2024] With reference to the Himalayan rivers joining the Ganga downstream of Prayagraj from West to East, which one of the following sequences is correct?

Options: (a) Ghaghara – Gomati – Gandak – Kosi

(b) Gomati – Ghaghara – Gandak – Kosi*

(c) Ghaghara – Gomati – Kosi – Gandak

(d) Gomati – Ghaghara – Kosi – Gandak

 

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Port Infrastructure and Shipping Industry – Sagarmala Project, SDC, CEZ, etc.

[27th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Incentives for shipbuilding must include longterm offtake possibilities

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2013] Adoption of PPP model for infrastructure development of the country has not been free from criticism. Critically discuss the pros and cons of the PPP model.

Linkage: India’s shipbuilding revival package too hinges on state support plus private shipowner participation, much like PPP projects, where delays, cost overruns, and weak ancillary ecosystems mirror the criticisms of PPP in other infrastructure sectors. Thus, the editorial’s concerns on viability and long-term offtake directly resonate with PPP model challenges.

[UPSC 2022] What are the maritime security challenges in India? Discuss the organisational, technical and procedural initiatives taken to improve the maritime security.

Linkage: Strengthening indigenous shipbuilding directly supports maritime security, as a larger and modern merchant fleet reduces reliance on foreign vessels, ensures secure energy transport, and complements India’s naval and coastal defence preparedness.

Mentor’s Comment

The Government’s announcement of a ₹69,725 crore package to revive India’s shipbuilding ecosystem marks a crucial moment for maritime infrastructure. With India building only a handful of merchant ships in the last decade despite global growth, the new push signals both opportunity and urgency. The challenge lies in transforming policy incentives into real competitiveness, something India failed to do under the 2015 package.

Introduction

India aspires to emerge as a global maritime power, but its shipbuilding sector has lagged far behind peers like China, Japan, and South Korea. While lucrative defence contracts have kept select shipyards active, India’s merchant ship production remains negligible. The new package seeks to expand capacity to 4.5 million gross tonnage, modernise yards, and create ancillary clusters. However, unless structural inefficiencies are addressed, ranging from delays in turnaround to absence of long-term offtake, the initiative risks becoming another missed opportunity.

Why in the News

The government has announced a massive ₹69,725 crore revival package to replace the expiring 2015 shipbuilding scheme. This is significant because, despite subsidies earlier, India produced only about half-a-dozen merchant ships in 10 years, a glaring failure when global yards deliver ships in just a year. The new plan aims to overcome these bottlenecks by upgrading infrastructure, ancillaries, and financing structures. The contrast between global efficiency (3–4 months keel to launch) and India’s 2–3 years turnaround highlights the magnitude of the problem.

The Scale of the Problem

  1. Negligible merchant shipbuilding: Only half-a-dozen small ships built in the last decade.
  2. Long delays: Turnaround time of 2–3 years in India vs 1 year globally.
  3. Lack of competitiveness: Shipowners avoid Indian yards due to sunk capital and overruns.

Global Best Practices in Shipbuilding

  1. Korea, Japan, China lead: Prefabricated component blocks welded in large assembly-line yards.
  2. High-capacity cranes: 1,000-tonne cranes enable block movement in foreign shipyards.
  3. Speed & efficiency: Keel-to-waterborne in 3–4 months; full build in about 1 year.

India’s Bottlenecks

  1. Inadequate infrastructure: Indian yards too small, lack crane capacity and prefab space.
  2. Weak ancillary ecosystem: Absence of robust component manufacturing clusters.
  3. Finance limitations: Benefits of lower interest rates & extended repayment apply only to large vessels.

Missed Opportunities in Policy Integration

  1. Green fuel projects: Kakinada & Kochi developing production for exports but no linkage with green shipbuilding.
  2. Lack of long-term offtake: Shipowners lack demand visibility; without assured contracts, newbuild investments stall.

The Way Forward

  1. Cluster-based development: Establish ancillary industries around shipyards for supply chains.
  2. Capacity building: Training institutions on lines of China to create skilled manpower.
  3. Policy synergy: Link green shipping contracts with renewable fuel policies.
  4. Long-term contracts: Use State-owned utilities and oil companies’ chartering needs to guarantee orders.

Conclusion

India stands at a decisive moment. A robust maritime ecosystem can secure energy lifelines, generate employment, and project India’s presence as a global power. The ₹69,725 crore package is promising, but unless structural inefficiencies, ancillary gaps, and demand visibility issues are resolved, it risks going the way of the failed 2015 policy. Success lies not merely in incentives but in creating a seamless ecosystem of infrastructure, skills, finance, and guaranteed demand.

Value Addition

Data Points and Targets

  1. ₹69,725 crore package: A substantial commitment that signals government seriousness.
  2. Capacity goal: 4.5 million gross tonnage: Puts India on a higher trajectory, though still far below shipbuilding giants like China and South Korea.
  3. Current state: Only half-a-dozen merchant ships built in 10 years, showcasing India’s negligible share in global shipbuilding.

Policy Continuity and Course Correction

  1. 2015 Shipbuilding Financial Assistance Policy: Provided subsidies and financing incentives but failed to attract private shipowners due to delays and lack of ancillary ecosystem.
  2. 2025 Package: Designed as a replacement, expiring in March 2026 → reflects a policy learning curve and government recognition that capital subsidy alone cannot solve systemic inefficiencies.

Comparative Insights

Global benchmarks:

  1. Korea/Japan/China → Keel-to-waterborne in 3–4 months; full build in 1 year.
  2. India → 2–3 years, meaning two additional years of sunk capital for shipowners.
  3. Infrastructure gap: Foreign yards use 1,000-tonne cranes and prefab assembly lines, while Indian yards lack such capacities.

Linkage with Atmanirbhar Bharat & Make in India

  1. Strategic autonomy: India relies heavily on foreign-built merchant fleets; indigenous shipbuilding aligns with Atmanirbhar Bharat.
  2. Employment multiplier: Shipbuilding is a labour-intensive sector with downstream benefits in steel, electronics, design, and logistics.
  3. Ancillary clusters: Policy push for ecosystem development resonates with the cluster-based growth approach seen in auto and pharma sectors.

Strategic and Security Relevance

  1. Energy lifelines: India’s crude oil and coal imports (~80% and ~45% dependence respectively) require long-term fleet security.
  2. Green transition: Linkage of shipbuilding with India’s green hydrogen/ammonia exports (Kakinada, Kochi projects) can make India a global hub for green shipping.
  3. Maritime security: A stronger indigenous merchant fleet reduces vulnerability to global freight disruptions and strengthens India’s position in the Indo-Pacific.

Broader Economic Linkages

  1. Financing ecosystem: Recognising shipbuilding as “infrastructure” lowers cost of credit → aligns with long-term financing reforms.
  2. Trade competitiveness: Owning merchant ships reduces foreign exchange outflow in charter hire and freight payments.
  3. Technology upgradation: Push towards prefab block construction → spinoffs for other infrastructure and defence industries.

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WTO and India

India at the Crossroads: Navigating WTO Pressures After China’s SDT Exit

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

Introduction

The World Trade Organisation (WTO) has long been a battleground where developing nations, including India and China, defended their need for lenient subsidy caps, longer compliance timelines, and tariff protections. China’s self-exit from Special and Differential Treatment (SDT) concessions, despite retaining its developing country tag, signals a dramatic shift in the global trade order. For India, which has depended on SDT since its 1995 WTO accession, this development comes amid escalating US trade pressures, Trump-era tariff wars, and growing criticism of India’s subsidy regimes. The question is not only about trade but about food security, farmer livelihoods, and future economic strategy.

Why is this development significant?

  1. First-time shift: China, the world’s second-largest economy, has for the first time announced it will not seek SDT despite being classified as a developing country.
  2. Sharp contrast: Since 1995, SDT flexibilities have been central to India’s WTO negotiations; China’s withdrawal isolates India’s position.
  3. Big stakes: India subsidises around $50 billion annually to low-income farmers and channels over $40 billion into Minimum Support Price (MSP) schemes, directly impacting 1.4 billion people.
  4. Striking implications: If phased AMS (Aggregate Measurement of Support) cuts are enforced, subsidies may fall by 20–30% per decade, with a 10–15% rural income drop and worsening food insecurity.

How has India historically benefited from SDT?

  1. Tariff flexibility: Allowed India to impose 100%+ tariffs on sensitive goods such as branded medicines, automobiles, and luxury goods.
  2. Agriculture support: Article 6.2 exemptions for low-income farmers and public distribution schemes like MSP ensured food and livelihood security.
  3. Special treatment: Shielded India from disputes, despite often breaching the 10% subsidy cap under AMS rules.
  4. Trade defence: Enabled India to resist developed country pressures, citing its developing nation status.

What challenges does India face now?

  1. Coercive reduction: Phased AMS cuts threaten to undermine National Food Security Act (NFSA) provisions.
  2. Malnutrition risk: With 35% of children under five malnourished, subsidy rollback could worsen hunger and inequality
  3. Export vulnerability: Without SDT, India’s MSMEs and farmers face tougher competition in global markets.
  4. US/EU pushback: Developed nations already accuse India of trade distortion, citing examples like MSP and high farm subsidies.

What options does India have?

  1. Recalibrate subsidies: Shift from price support to income support (direct cash transfers), reducing WTO disputes.
  2. Promote Green Box subsidies: Focus on R&D, extension services, and sustainability programs which are WTO-compliant.
  3. Negotiate transitional safeguards: Demand longer compliance windows to cushion the shift.
  4. Defend digital/data sovereignty: Push for data localisation rights and tiered tariff structures in new trade deals.

What should India’s strategic plan look like?

  1. Phased tariff liberalisation: Gradually reduce non-essential SDT protections while safeguarding food security.
  2. Boost MSME competitiveness: Use the ONDC (Open Network for Digital Commerce) to integrate small businesses into global e-commerce.
  3. Intellectual property balance: Protect generic drug exports while resisting pressure for stronger IP regimes.
  4. Coalition building: Revive alliances like the G33 to collectively defend agricultural and food security concerns.
  5. Domestic reforms: Enhance farm productivity and diversify exports to reduce dependence on SDT shield.

Conclusion

China’s withdrawal from SDT marks a turning point in global trade politics. India now faces mounting pressure to reform its subsidy structure, align with WTO disciplines, and balance food security with competitiveness. The way forward lies not in clinging to outdated protections but in crafting innovative, WTO-compliant support systems that secure farmer welfare while projecting India as a responsible global player. Strategic coalition-building, calibrated reforms, and smart diplomacy will decide whether India emerges weakened or empowered in the new trade order.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] What are the key areas of reform if the WTO has to survive in the present context of ‘Trade War’, especially keeping in mind the interest of India?

Linkage: China stepping back from SDT intensifies calls for WTO reforms in subsidy rules, dispute settlement, and fair treatment of developing nations, directly testing India’s ability to safeguard food security and farmer support while pushing for a more equitable trade order.

Value Addition

WTO Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) – Article 6.2 Exemptions

  • Provision: Allows developing countries to provide investment subsidies and input subsidies to low-income or resource-poor farmers without it being counted under the AMS cap.
  • India’s Use: India justifies its fertilizer, electricity, and irrigation subsidies under this clause to protect small farmers who form nearly 85% of the farming community.
  • Relevance: Central to defending India’s MSP and food security programs in global negotiations.

Aggregate Measurement of Support (AMS)

  • Definition: WTO’s metric for calculating trade-distorting farm subsidies (amber box), capped at 10% of the value of production for developing countries.
  • India’s Issue: With large MSP and food procurement under NFSA, India is often accused of breaching this cap. Example – Rice subsidies have repeatedly attracted scrutiny in WTO disputes.
  • Relevance: Reform of AMS rules is India’s key demand in WTO negotiations, arguing current methodology undervalues developing nations’ needs.

Green Box vs Amber Box Subsidies

  • Amber Box: Trade-distorting subsidies (e.g., MSP, procurement at administered prices).
  • Green Box: Non-trade distorting subsidies like agricultural R&D, extension services, crop insurance, and environmental protection.
  • India’s Position: Heavy reliance on amber box through MSP and PDS; however, India is now trying to expand its green box spending on crop diversification, climate-resilient agriculture, and digital extension services.
  • Relevance: Diversifying support to green box can shield India from WTO disputes while modernising agriculture.

G33 Coalition

  • About: A group of 47 developing countries led by India, China, and Indonesia, advocating flexibility in agriculture negotiations.
  • India’s Role: Spearheads demands for a ‘Special Safeguard Mechanism’ (SSM) and permanent solution for public stockholding (PSH) of food grains.
  • Relevance: Strengthens India’s negotiating leverage by projecting its subsidy and food stockholding as a collective developing-world concern, not just a national exception.

National Food Security Act (2013) (NFSA)

  • Provision: Legally entitles 75% of rural and 50% of urban population to subsidised food grains through PDS.
  • Conflict with WTO: Heavy procurement at MSP and distribution under NFSA is seen as trade-distorting. Critics argue this exceeds the 10% AMS cap.
  • Relevance: WTO restrictions on subsidies could directly affect India’s food security safety net covering over 800 million people.

ONDC (Open Network for Digital Commerce)

  • Concept: A government-backed initiative to democratise e-commerce by creating an open-source, interoperable digital network for buyers and sellers.
  • Trade Defence: Seen as India’s strategic response to global e-commerce giants (Amazon, Walmart-Flipkart), ensuring fair competition for MSMEs.
  • Relevance: In WTO’s ongoing e-commerce negotiations, ONDC is a shield for India to resist pressure for blanket liberalisation of digital trade and data flows, while protecting domestic digital sovereignty.

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