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Judicial Reforms

[4th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Concealing a judge’s dissent, eroding judiciary’s authority

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Constitutionally guaranteed judicial independence is a prerequisite of democracy. Comment.

Linkage: The 2023 PYQ on judicial independence as a prerequisite of democracy directly relates to the Collegium debate. Concealing Justice Nagarathna’s dissent shows how opacity undermines independence by eroding legitimacy and public trust. True independence requires not just freedom from external control but also internal transparency and accountability.

Mentor’s Comment

Transparency in judicial appointments is once again under scrutiny. The recent revelation of Justice B.V. Nagarathna’s dissent on a Collegium recommendation, concealed from the public, has sparked fresh debate on the opacity of India’s judicial system. This piece examines why concealing dissent undermines the judiciary’s legitimacy, what is at stake for democracy, and how reforms could restore accountability in the higher judiciary.

Introduction

Constitutional democracies, as South African jurist Etienne Mureinik observed, thrive on a “culture of justification”, the principle that every exercise of public power must be explained and defended. Indian judges have often invoked this idea to hold governments accountable. Yet, when it comes to the judiciary’s own functioning, particularly the Collegium system of judicial appointments, this principle falters. The recent concealment of Justice B.V. Nagarathna’s dissent on the elevation of Justice Vipul M. Pancholi illustrates the problem starkly: the public is denied access to crucial reasoning behind decisions that shape the judiciary itself.

Why is this news significant?

The dissent of a sitting Supreme Court judge on a Collegium recommendation has surfaced through media leaks, not official disclosure. This is striking because the official resolution uploaded on the Court’s website suggested unanimity. The lack of transparency is troubling not just for one appointment but for the credibility of the entire judicial system. For a country where judges decide on critical questions of liberty and constitutional balance, secrecy corrodes legitimacy and deepens the democratic deficit.

Opacity as the defining feature of the Collegium system

  1. Judge-made law: The Collegium emerged from the Second Judges Case (1993) and was reinforced in the Third Judges Case (1998).
  2. Private deliberations: Decisions are made by the five senior-most judges of the Supreme Court behind closed doors.
  3. Minimal disclosure: Until 2017, no explanations were given. Later, skeletal resolutions were published, with only brief reasons disclosed in 2018 before the practice was abandoned.
  4. Resistance to transparency: Concerns of reputational harm and political interference are cited as justifications for secrecy.

The critical importance of Justice Nagarathna’s dissent

  1. Grave objections concealed: Reports suggest her reservations were serious, but neither her note nor the majority’s reasoning is accessible to the public.
  2. Unclear role of the executive: It is uncertain whether her dissent was even communicated to the Union government, which cleared the appointment within 48 hours.
  3. Democratic deficit: When even dissent within the highest court is hidden, the culture of justification collapses.

Balancing transparency with fairness in judicial appointments

International examples:

  1. Britain: Judicial Appointments Commission publishes criteria and detailed assessment reports.
  2. South Africa: Judicial Service Commission conducts public interviews of candidates.
  3. Indian reality: Transparency is avoided, and even dissent becomes visible only through leaks.
  4. Balancing act: Protecting reputations requires sensitive disclosure, not complete secrecy.

Democratic stakes of a secretive Collegium process

  1. Shaping constitutional outcomes: Judges appointed today decide on civil liberties, executive powers, and Union–State relations.
  2. Institutional legitimacy: Without openness, citizens lose trust in the judiciary.
  3. Contradiction of standards: Courts demand accountability from governments but exempt themselves.

The urgent need for reform in the Collegium system

  1. Self-accountability: A judiciary that explains its decisions strengthens, not weakens, its independence.
  2. Preserving legitimacy: Concealment erodes public trust, while openness anchors authority in people’s confidence.
  3. Past failures: Transparency initiatives have been sporadic and quickly rolled back.
  4. Future imperative: Without reform, the judiciary risks losing moral authority, the very foundation of its role in democracy.

Conclusion

The concealment of Justice Nagarathna’s dissent is not an isolated event but a symptom of the deeper opacity in judicial appointments. If the judiciary insists on accountability from other state organs, it must hold itself to the same standards. A transparent Collegium process will not diminish judicial independence; it will enhance legitimacy, anchor democracy in trust, and ensure that the culture of justification applies to all.

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Port Infrastructure and Shipping Industry – Sagarmala Project, SDC, CEZ, etc.

India’s recent maritime reforms need course correction

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Introduction

India’s maritime laws, some over a century old, were recently overhauled through the Ports Bill, Merchant Shipping Act, Coastal Shipping Act, and Carriage of Goods by Sea Bill (2025). The reforms aim to modernise governance, boost ease of doing business, and enhance India’s maritime role. Yet, concerns remain over centralisation, weakened ownership safeguards, excessive discretion, and burdens on smaller players, raising questions about federal balance.

Why Is This News Significant

The Ports Bill, 2025 centralises decision-making under a Maritime State Development Council, curbing State autonomy in port development. The Merchant Shipping Act allows partial foreign ownership of Indian-flagged vessels, ending the earlier full Indian ownership rule. Critics argue these changes favour big corporations and the Centre, while sidelining coastal States and small operators, with implications for India’s maritime sovereignty.

Progress and Pitfalls of Maritime Modernisation

  1. Comprehensive reform: New laws collectively update fragmented, outdated frameworks, covering shipping finance, offshore operations, safety, liability, and training.
  2. Ease of business: The Ports Act aims to create coherence in regulation, promoting sustainable development and investment.
  3. Legislative haste: Bills passed without serious debate or standing committee review, raising concerns about lack of consensus and scrutiny.

The Ports Act and the Federal Balance

  1. Centralisation of authority: Maritime State Development Council empowers the Centre to dictate State maritime policies.
  2. Erosion of fiscal autonomy: Coastal States cannot adjust frameworks independently; central plans like Sagarmala and Gati Shakti override local priorities.
  3. Federal subordination: Critics argue this undermines cooperative federalism, reducing States to implementers of central schemes.

Eroding Safeguards in Shipping Ownership

  1. Loophole in Indian-flag ownership: Merchant Shipping Act allows partial foreign/OCI ownership; exact thresholds left to government discretion.
  2. Risk of flag-of-convenience: Executive may dilute ownership norms, letting foreign operators control Indian ships indefinitely.
  3. BBCD mechanism: Bareboat Charter-Cum-Demise leasing recognised, but risks foreign lessors retaining de facto control.

Small Operators and Dispute Resolution Challenges

  1. Vague compliance norms: Discretionary powers could overwhelm smaller port operators with compliance burdens.
  2. Clause 17 controversy: Bars civil courts from port-related disputes; relies on internal committees lacking impartiality.
  3. Investment deterrence: Absence of independent judicial oversight could erode investor confidence.

Coastal Shipping: Protecting or Undermining Local Players?

  1. Cabotage protection: Only Indian-flagged vessels can engage in coastal trade — in principle, safeguarding domestic players.
  2. DG Shipping’s sweeping powers: Licences to foreign vessels on broad grounds like “national security” or “strategic alignment.”
  3. Impact on fishing industry: Smaller players face heavy reporting burdens without clarity on data use or safeguards.
  4. Central dominance: National Coastal and Inland Shipping Strategic Plan reduces State-level say in coastal regulation.

Conclusion

India’s maritime reforms are necessary but flawed. The package risks over-centralisation, weakened sovereignty, and burdens on smaller operators, even as it promises modernisation. True reform requires transparent ownership rules, impartial dispute resolution, and genuine cooperative federalism. Otherwise, the reforms may deliver short-term ease of business but compromise India’s federal balance and maritime security.

Value Addition

Key Provisions of the Indian Ports Bill, 2025 (replacing Indian Ports Act, 1908)

  1. State Maritime Boards:
    • Statutory recognition: Boards set up by coastal States now have a legal mandate.
    • Functions: Planning & developing port infrastructure, granting licenses, fixing tariffs, ensuring compliance with safety, security, and environmental norms.
  2. Maritime State Development Council (MSDC):
    • Composition: Chaired by Union Minister of Ports, Shipping and Waterways; includes State Ministers, Navy & Coast Guard representatives, and Union Ministry officials.
    • Role: Issues guidelines on port data, ensures tariff transparency, advises Centre on national maritime plans, legislative adequacy, and connectivity.
  3. Dispute Resolution Committee (DRC):
    • Jurisdiction: Resolves disputes between non-major ports, concessionaires, users, and service providers.
    • Appeals: Lie with High Courts; civil courts barred.
    • Flexibility: Agreements may allow arbitration or alternative dispute resolution.
  4. Tariffs:
    • Major Ports: Fixed by Board of Major Port Authority/Company Board.
    • Non-Major Ports: Fixed by State Maritime Boards or their concessionaires.
  5. Port Officers:
    • Conservator: Chief port officer with powers over anchoring, berthing, movement, obstruction clearance, and fee recovery.
    • New functions: Preventing disease spread, assessing damage, adjudicating penalties.
  6. Safety and Environmental Protection:
    • MARPOL & Ballast Water Management Convention compliance mandatory.
    • New obligations: Waste reception facilities, emergency preparedness, pollution containment, and regular central audits.
  7. Offences and Penalties:
    • Continuity: Retains offences under 1908 Act (non-compliance, impeding navigation, damage to port property).
    • Decriminalisation: Certain offences now carry monetary fines; first-time violations can be compounded.
  8. New offences:
    • Imprisonment up to 6 months for endangering vessel safety, disturbing seabed.
    • Monetary penalties for unnotified port operations, failure to report/manage pollution, or ignoring DRC orders.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2022] What are the maritime security challenges in India? Discuss the organisational, technical and procedural initiatives taken to improve maritime security.

Linkage: India’s maritime reforms (2025) strengthen security through MARPOL compliance, waste management, and statutory State Maritime Boards, but also create vulnerabilities. Dilution of vessel ownership, centralisation via MSDC, and weak dispute resolution raise concerns of sovereignty and resilience. Thus, reforms reflect both organisational advances and new security risks, linking directly to India’s maritime security challenges.

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Minority Issues – SC, ST, Dalits, OBC, Reservations, etc.

Should reservations exceed the 50% cap?

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Laws, Institutions & Bodies Constituted For The Vulnerable Sections

Introduction

Reservations have always stood at the crossroads of social justice and equality of opportunity in India. While Articles 15 and 16 of the Constitution of India empower the state to address historical discrimination, the judicially imposed 50% cap has often clashed with demands for greater inclusivity. Recent developments, from Maharashtra’s acceptance of Maratha demands to calls for caste census and creamy layer reform, have amplified questions on whether the reservation system remains equitable, representative, and sustainable.

The Current Moment of Reckoning

The debate has reached a critical juncture because:

  1. Political promises like Bihar opposition leader Tejashwi Yadav’s proposal for 85% reservations directly challenge the 50% ceiling.
  2. Judicial scrutiny continues, with the Supreme Court questioning whether creamy layer exclusion should extend to SCs and STs.
  3. Empirical concerns such as 40–50% of reserved seats remaining unfilled, and the Rohini Commission’s revelation that 97% of OBC benefits are cornered by 25% castes, highlight structural inequities.

This combination of political assertion, judicial intervention, and social critique makes the issue highly consequential.

Articles 15 and 16: The constitutional basis of equality and reservation

  1. Equality mandate: Article 15 guarantees equality in state actions, including education; Article 16 guarantees equality in public employment.
  2. Special provisions: Both allow the state to make reservations for OBCs, SCs, and STs.
  3. Present levels: At the central level, reservations stand at 59.5% (OBC – 27%, SC – 15%, ST – 7.5%, EWS – 10%).

Judicial rulings on reservation and equality

  1. Balaji vs State of Mysore (1962): Reservations must be “within reasonable limits” and capped at 50%; seen as upholding formal equality.
  2. N.M. Thomas (1975): Saw reservations as a continuation of equality of opportunity (substantive equality), but gave no ruling on the cap.
  3. Indra Sawhney (1992): Upheld 27% OBC quota, reaffirmed 50% ceiling, and introduced creamy layer exclusion for OBCs.
  4. Janhit Abhiyan (2022): Validated 10% EWS quota; held that 50% limit applies only to backward classes.
  5. Davinder Singh (2024): Suggested considering creamy layer exclusion for SCs and STs.

Challenges to the 50% ceiling on reservations

  1. Population logic: Backward classes form a larger share than reflected in current quotas; caste census demanded to get exact numbers.
  2. Unfilled vacancies: 40–50% of reserved seats for OBC/SC/ST remain unfilled at the central level.
  3. Sub-caste concentration: Rohini Commission showed extreme skew in OBC benefits—about 1,000 communities have zero representation.

The problem of concentration of reservation benefits

  1. OBCs: 97% benefits go to ~25% sub-castes.
  2. SCs/STs: Similar skew; absence of creamy layer exclusion means relatively better-off sub-castes capture opportunities.
  3. Policy vacuum: Despite judicial nudges, the Centre reaffirmed in August 2024 that creamy layer does not apply to SC/ST.

The way forward for India’s reservation system

  1. Balancing equality: Increasing quota to 85% may violate equality of opportunity, but substantive equality demands better targeting.
  2. Caste census 2027: Could offer empirical basis for restructured reservation.
  3. Sub-categorisation: Rohini Commission’s recommendations need urgent implementation.
  4. Two-tier system: Priority for the most marginalised within SC/STs could prevent elite capture.
  5. Beyond reservation: Skill development and private sector opportunities are crucial, given shrinking public jobs.

Conclusion

India’s reservation policy is at an inflection point. Expanding quotas without reforming their structure risks perpetuating inequity within communities. A nuanced approach, backed by caste census data, sub-categorisation, and skill-building, can ensure that reservations remain a tool for empowerment rather than a political slogan. The challenge lies in balancing constitutional guarantees of equality with the imperative of social justice in a diverse democracy.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2019] Performance of welfare schemes that are implemented for vulnerable sections is not so effective due to absence of their awareness and active involvement at all stages of policy process, Discuss.

Linkage: The 2019 question highlights how welfare schemes for vulnerable sections often fail due to lack of awareness and skewed access. The same issue is reflected in India’s reservation policy: despite constitutional backing, 40–50% of reserved seats remain unfilled, and the Rohini Commission revealed that 97% of OBC benefits are cornered by just 25% sub-castes, leaving nearly 1,000 communities with no representation at all. This shows that affirmative action, much like welfare schemes, risks becoming ineffective unless equitable distribution, sub-categorisation, awareness generation, and active participation of the most marginalised are ensured.

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Goods and Services Tax (GST)

GST Council approves two-rate tax slab effective September 22

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Government Budgeting

Why in the News?

In its 56th meeting, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council approved a two-rate structure with special category rates, effective 22 September 2025.

What is GST?

  • Overview: A comprehensive, multi-stage, destination-based indirect tax on goods and services.
  • Launch: Introduced 1 July 2017 via 101st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2016.
  • Objective: “One Nation, One Tax” to reduce cascading taxes, simplify compliance, and expand base.
  • Earlier Structure: Five slabs initially (0, 5, 12, 18, 28%) plus cess on luxury/sin goods.
  • Exemptions: Essential items like food grains, medicines, education; petroleum, alcohol, electricity remain outside GST.

About GST Council:

  • Constitutional Basis: Created under Article 279A (inserted by the Constitution (One Hundred and First Amendment) Act, 2016).
  • Composition: Chaired by Union Finance Minister, with MoS Finance and all state finance/taxation ministers.
  • Voting: Centre – one-third weight, States – two-thirds; requires 75% weighted votes for decisions.
  • Meetings: Held quarterly; over 55 meetings so far.
  • Role: Decides on rates, exemptions, compliance, and dispute resolution, making it a key fiscal federal institution.

GST Council approves two-rate tax slab effective September 22

New GST Rate Structure:

  • Simplification: At the 56th GST Council meeting (Sept 2025), slabs reduced to two rates plus a special rate.
  • Main Slabs: 5% and 18% apply on most goods and services.
  • Special 40% Rate: Levied on sin goods (tobacco, pan masala, aerated drinks) and super-luxury items (large cars, yachts, private aircraft).
  • Rate Reductions:
    • Daily-use items (soap, shampoo, toothpaste, bicycles, kitchenware) now at 5%.
    • Cement down from 28% to 18%.
    • Small cars, motorcycles <350cc, ACs, TVs, dishwashers shifted to 18%.
    • Food staples (milk, paneer, rotis, chapatis, parathas) at 0%.
    • Life-saving drugs, spectacles corrected to 0–5%.
  • Inverted Duty Fix: Man-made fibre, yarn, fertilizers, acids, ammonia cut to 5%.
  • Revenue Impact: Estimated loss of ₹48,000 crore, expected to be offset by higher compliance and buoyancy.
[UPSC 2017] What is/are the most likely advantages of implementing ‘Goods and Services Tax (GST)’?

1. It will replace multiple taxes collected by multiple authorities and will thus create a single market in India.

2. It will drastically reduce the ‘Current Account Deficit’ of India and will enable it to increase its foreign exchange reserves.

3. It will enormously increase the growth and size of the economy of India and will enable it to overtake China in the near future.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Parliament – Sessions, Procedures, Motions, Committees etc

[pib] Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS)

Schemes | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) recently organized a national workshop on the e-SAKSHI web portal and mobile app for the Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS).

About MPLADS:

  • Overview: A Central Sector Scheme, launched in 1993, to empower MPs to recommend developmental works in their constituencies, focusing on durable community assets addressing local needs.
  • Administration: Initially under the Ministry of Rural Development; Since 1994, managed by MoSPI.
  • Implementation:
    • State-level nodal department supervises implementation.
    • District authorities sanction projects, release funds, and ensure execution.
  • Funding:
    • Each MP gets ₹5 crore per year (since 2011–12).
    • Disbursed by MoSPI in two instalments of ₹2.5 crore each to district authorities.
    • Funds are non-lapsable i.e. carried forward if unutilized.
  • Targeted Allocation: Minimum 15% for SCs and 7.5% for STs.
  • Special Provisions:
    • Up to ₹25 lakh annually can be spent outside constituency/state for national unity projects.
    • Up to ₹1 crore can be allocated nationwide during severe natural calamities.
  • Eligible Projects:
    • Durable community assets (e.g., libraries, community halls, ambulances, sports infrastructure, sanitation).
    • MPLADS funds can be converged with MGNREGS or integrated with Khelo India for asset creation.
    • Support allowed on lands of registered societies/trusts (3+ years old) engaged in welfare work.
    • Prohibited for societies/trusts where the MP/family are office-bearers.
  • Transparency Measures:
    • Plaque with MP’s name and project details must be installed at project sites.
    • Project details listed in district offices, MPLADS website, and accessible via RTI.
  • Monitoring & Audit:
    • District authorities inspect at least 10% of projects annually.
    • Funds audited by statutory auditors.
    • Regular review meetings at state and central levels.
  • e-SAKSHI platform: Enables MPs to digitally recommend, monitor, and track MPLADS projects, improving transparency, accountability, and efficiency in fund utilization.
[UPSC 2020] With reference to the funds under Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS), which of the following statements are correct?

1. MPLADS funds must be used to create durable assets like physical infrastructure for health, education, etc.

2. A specified portion of each MP’s ‘fund must benefit SC/ST populations.

3. MPLADS funds are sanctioned on yearly basis and the unused funds cannot be carried forward to the next year.

4. The district authority must inspect at least 10% of all works under implementation every year.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 4 only*

 

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

[pib] Coconut Development Board (CDB)

Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Major Crops & Cropping Patterns

Why in the News?

The World Coconut Day (2nd September) was recently celebrated by the Coconut Development Board (CDB).

About Coconut Development Board (CDB):

  • Establishment: Created on 12 January 1981; statutory body under the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare.
  • Headquarters & Offices: HQ at Kochi, Kerala; regional offices in Bengaluru, Chennai, Guwahati, and Patna.
  • Mandate: Integrated development of coconut production and utilization with focus on productivity, processing, and product diversification.
  • Functions: Provides technical advice and financial aid to farmers/processors; promotes modern technology adoption, value addition, pricing & marketing measures, and export promotion.
  • Welfare Schemes: Implements farmer-focused programs like Coconut Palm Insurance Mission and Kera Suraksha.

Back2Basics: Coconut Cultivation in India

  • Global Standing: India is the third-largest coconut producer, contributing about 31.45% of world output.
  • Production: In 2023–24, India produced 153.29 lakh MT from an area of 23.33 lakh ha.
  • Productivity: Average productivity at 9,871 nuts/ha, among the highest globally.
  • Leading States: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh account for ~90% of production. Kerala and TN lead, Karnataka has risen sharply, AP contributes ~8%.
  • Economic Value: Sector contributed ₹27,199.5 crore GVO and ₹30,795.6 crore GDP share in 2022–23.
  • Exports: In 2022–23, India exported coconut products worth ₹3,554.23 crore (US $452 million) including copra, oil, coir, activated carbon, and value-added foods.
  • Employment Impact: Supports 12+ million livelihoods; 15,000+ coir industries employ nearly 6 lakh workers.

 

[UPSC 2022] With reference to the “Tea Board” in India, consider the following statements:

1. The Tea Board is a statutory body.

2. It is a regulatory body attached to the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.

3. The Tea Board’s Head Office is situated in Bengaluru.

4. The Board has overseas offices at Dubai and Moscow.

Which of the statements given above are correct ?

Options: (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4*

 

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Citizenship and Related Issues

Foreigners Tribunal (FT) can issue Arrest Warrants

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Why in the News?

The Union Home Ministry empowered Foreigners Tribunals (FTs), especially in Assam, to detain suspected illegal immigrants in designated camps, a power earlier exercised only through executive orders.

About Foreigners Tribunal (FT):

  • Nature: Quasi-judicial bodies constituted under the Foreigners (Tribunal) Order, 1964, framed under the Foreigners Act, 1946.
  • Purpose: Decide whether a person is a foreigner/illegal immigrant, especially in the context of Assam’s border migration issues.
  • Cases handled:
    • References from border police against suspected foreigners.
    • Cases of “D” (doubtful) voters flagged by the Election Commission.
  • Composition: Members drawn from retired judges, advocates, and civil servants with judicial experience; capped at 3 members per tribunal.
  • Functioning:
    • FTs exercise powers of a civil court (summons, evidence, witness examination).
    • Required to dispose of cases within 60 days of reference.
    • Burden of proof lies on the individual to establish citizenship (Section 9, Foreigners Act).
  • Present Status: About 100 FTs operational in Assam (expanded after NRC-2019). No FTs in other states, where suspected foreigners are tried in local courts.

New Provisions under the Immigration and Foreigners Act, 2025:

  • Replacement: Replaces the Foreigners (Tribunal) Order, 1964, now part of the comprehensive Immigration and Foreigners Act, 2025.
  • Detention Powers: For the first time, FTs are empowered to detain suspected illegal immigrants in designated transit camps, a power earlier exercised through executive orders.
  • Judicial Authority:
    • Powers of a civil court under CPC, 1908.
    • Powers of a judicial magistrate (first class) under Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 — including issuing arrest warrants, ordering detention, and directing personal appearance.
  • Ex-parte Orders: Can be set aside if the appellant files a review within 30 days.
  • Scope: Though applicable nationwide, functional relevance remains in Assam.
  • Restrictions on Employment: Bars foreigners from working in strategic sectors (defence, nuclear energy, petroleum, power, water supply, space, human rights) without Central government approval.
  • Border Security Measures: Border forces/Coast Guard to record biometrics and demographic data of illegal entrants before pushing them back.
  • Grounds for Refusal of Stay: Foreigners convicted of terrorism, espionage, narcotics trafficking, organized crime, human trafficking, cybercrime, child abuse, crimes against humanity, etc., can be refused entry or deported.
  • Exemptions: Citizens of Nepal, Bhutan, Tibetans, and Sri Lankan Tamils exempted under a special 2025 order.
[UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:

1. Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) was set up during the Prime Ministership of Lal Bahadur Shastri.

2. The Members for CAT are drawn from both judicial and administrative streams.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdictions (BBNJ) Agreement

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Earth Sciences has formed a 12-member committee led by SC lawyer Sanjay Upadhyay to draft a new national law safeguarding India’s maritime and economic interests under the 2023 High Seas Treaty (BBNJ Agreement).

About the BBNJ (High Seas Treaty) Agreement:

  • Overview: International treaty under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), focusing on biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction (high seas).
  • Objective: Conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in international waters (covering ~64% of the world’s oceans).
  • Scope of Provisions:
    • Establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in high seas.
    • Regulation of seabed mining and extractive activities.
    • Fair and equitable sharing of benefits from marine genetic resources.
    • Mandatory environmental impact assessments (EIAs) before major projects.
    • Use of both scientific and traditional knowledge, guided by the precautionary principle.
  • Relation to UNCLOS: Would be the third implementing agreement, alongside:
    • 1994 Part XI Implementation Agreement (seabed mineral resources).
    • 1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement (conservation of migratory fish stocks).
  • Adoption & Status:
    • Agreed in March 2023, open for signature for 2 years from September 2023.
    • Enters into force 120 days after the 60th ratification (currently ratified by 55 countries).
[UPSC 2022] With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements:

1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention.

2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea.

3. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

 

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Judicial Reforms

[3rd September 2025] India needs more women judges in the Supreme Court

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Disucss the desirability of greater representation to women in higher judiciary to ensure equity and inclusiveness.

Linkage: The acute gender imbalance in the Supreme Court, with only 11 women judges since 1950, directly reflects the inequity in higher judiciary appointments. Greater representation of women is not only about fairness but also about inclusiveness, diversity of perspectives, and legitimacy of justice delivery. This makes the 2021 UPSC question highly relevant as it highlights why institutionalising gender as a criterion in judicial appointments is essential.

Mentor’s Comment

The issue of women’s representation in the higher judiciary has resurfaced sharply after the recent appointments to the Supreme Court overlooked senior women judges and lawyers. Despite being the guardian of constitutional morality and equality, the apex court itself reflects a glaring gender imbalance. This article explores the extent of underrepresentation, the opacity in the appointment process, and why diversity on the Bench is not merely symbolic but essential for justice delivery.

Introduction

The retirement of Justice Sudhanshu Dhulia in August 2025 created an opportunity to address the deep gender imbalance in India’s Supreme Court. However, with the appointments of Justices Vipul Pancholi and Alok Aradhe, the Court continues to have only one woman judge—Justice B.V. Nagarathna. This exposes both a structural problem in the judicial appointment system and the reluctance to institutionalise gender as a criterion for higher judiciary appointments.

The significance of gender imbalance in the Supreme Court

  1. Striking underrepresentation: Only 11 women judges out of 287 since 1950 (3.8%).
  2. Missed opportunity: Despite two vacancies in August 2025, no woman judge was appointed.
  3. Historical first ignored: The 2021 Collegium decision appointing three women judges at once raised hope of change, but the momentum has not continued.
  4. Symbolic contradiction: The Court upholds gender equality but does not reflect it internally.

The historical trajectory of women judges in the Supreme Court

  1. First woman judge: Justice Fathima Beevi (1989).
  2. Trail of appointments: Only 11 till date, with short tenures limiting their influence.
  3. Tenure disparity: Women often appointed at a late stage in career, reducing chances of reaching the Collegium or CJI position.
  4. Upcoming first woman CJI: Justice B.V. Nagarathna, but for only 36 days (Sept–Oct 2027).
  5. Lack of caste and minority representation: Only Justice Fathima Beevi represented a minority faith; no SC/ST woman judge was ever appointed.

Gender disparity in direct elevation from the Bar

  1. Male dominance: Nine men have been directly elevated from the Bar.
  2. Single woman appointee: Justice Indu Malhotra (2018) was the only woman elevated directly.
  3. Systemic discrimination: Despite women Senior Advocates being present, elevation remains blocked.
  4. Global comparison: Worldwide, the Bar is a major route to the higher judiciary, India lags in enabling women lawyers.

The opacity of the judicial appointment process

  1. Collegium secrecy: No clarity on criteria or names under consideration.
  2. Inconsistent transparency: Collegium resolutions briefly made public in 2017 under CJI Dipak Misra, but not institutionalised.
  3. Regional and caste factors considered: Yet gender is ignored as a formal category.
  4. Violation of merit claims: Recent appointments skipped senior women High Court judges despite “seniority” being cited in the past as a hurdle.

The importance of women’s representation on the Bench

  1. Unique perspectives: Women judges bring experiential diversity that shapes judicial outcomes.
  2. Public trust: Greater representation builds confidence in judicial impartiality.
  3. Truly representative court: The SC must reflect India’s social and gender diversity to strengthen legitimacy.
  4. Judicial precedents: The Court itself has mandated 30% reservation for women in Bar Association elections, but has no such rule for its own appointments.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s gender imbalance undermines its constitutional commitment to equality and inclusivity. Unless women are institutionalised as a criterion for judicial appointments, alongside caste, religion, and region, the credibility of India’s top court will remain in question. Representation is not tokenism; it is a constitutional necessity to ensure justice is dispensed through the lens of diversity, fairness, and lived realities.

Value Addition

Committees & Reports

  1. Law Commission 230th Report (2009): Recommended adequate representation of women and minorities in higher judiciary.
  2. Justice Verma Committee (2013): Strongly stressed the need for gender diversity in judiciary to handle women-related cases with sensitivity.

International Comparisons & Norms

  1. Beijing Platform for Action (1995): Calls for women in decision-making positions, including judiciary.
  2. Canada & UK: Women form 40–50% of higher judiciary in recent years.
  3. South Africa: Institutionalised diversity (race + gender) as a mandatory criterion in judicial appointments.

 

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Policy Wise: India’s Power Sector

Decoding the SC order on regulatory assets

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Introduction

India’s electricity sector faces a chronic mismatch between the cost of supply and the revenue collected, leaving distribution companies (DISCOMs) financially stressed. To bridge this gap, regulatory assets, unrecovered costs deferred for future recovery, have become common. The Supreme Court has now ordered DISCOMs and regulators to clear these within strict timelines and capped their creation, marking a crucial step towards financial discipline and consumer protection in the power sector.

Significance of the Supreme Court’s Directive

The Supreme Court directed State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) and DISCOMs to clear existing regulatory assets within four years and any new ones within three years, while capping their creation at 3% of Annual Revenue Requirement (ARR). The Court also mandated transparent recovery roadmaps and intensive audits for non-compliant DISCOMs.The judgment is significant because it marks the first time the Supreme Court has set explicit timelines and caps for the liquidation of regulatory assets. With Delhi DISCOMs alone carrying regulatory assets worth over ₹58,000 crore, and Tamil Nadu reporting ₹89,375 crore in FY 2021-22, the scale of the problem is massive. The ruling highlights how the misuse of regulatory assets has become systemic, leading to debt accumulation, delayed payments to generators, and poor grid modernisation.

Understanding Regulatory Assets

  1. Definition: Regulatory assets are deferred costs created when the Average Cost of Supply (ACS) is higher than the ARR, allowing DISCOMs to recover the gap later instead of burdening consumers immediately.
  2. Example: If ACS = ₹7.20/unit and ARR = ₹7.00/unit, the shortfall of ₹0.20 per unit across 10 billion units leads to a revenue gap of ₹2,000 crore, which becomes a regulatory asset.
  3. Consumer relief: Prevents immediate tariff shocks but leads to deferred steep tariff hikes later, often with interest.

Causes of the Average Cost of Supply (ACS)- Annual Revenue Requirement (ARR) Gap

  1. Non-cost reflective tariffs: Tariffs often kept artificially low for political reasons.
  2. Delayed subsidies: State governments fail to release subsidies for agriculture or low-income households on time, worsening DISCOM finances.
  3. Fuel price shocks: Sudden increases in coal/gas prices inflate procurement costs.
  4. Historical evidence: Punjab’s 2004–05 case of ₹487 crore revenue gap set the precedent for regulatory assets in India.

Impact of regulatory assets on consumers and DISCOMs

  1. Consumers:
    • Immediate stability in tariffs but eventual steeper hikes.
    • Example: Delhi DISCOMs must recover ₹16,580 crore annually in four years, implying an additional ₹5.5/unit on average.
  2. DISCOMs:
    • Persistent cash flow crises as revenue doesn’t cover costs.
    • Forced to borrow → higher debt burden.
    • Limited capacity to modernise grids, integrate renewables, or improve services.
    • Creates a vicious cycle of financial and operational distress.

Regulatory Assets and Grid Modernisation

  1. Yes: Large unrecovered costs reduce capital available for investment in infrastructure.
  2. Renewable integration challenge: Financially weak DISCOMs are unable to invest in flexible grids or storage solutions.
  3. Consumer service compromise: Lower quality of supply, billing inefficiencies, and lack of digital modernisation.

Way forward

  1. Cost-reflective tariffs: Rationalise tariffs while shielding vulnerable consumers with targeted subsidies.
  2. Timely subsidy release: State governments must ensure fiscal discipline.
  3. Automatic fuel cost adjustments: Tariffs should respond dynamically to input cost fluctuations.
  4. Annual true-up exercises: Prevent backlog accumulation by reconciling projections with actual costs.
  5. Regulatory discipline: Enforce caps, transparency, and timelines to ensure regulatory assets remain exceptional, not structural.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s directive signals a turning point for India’s power sector. It underlines the urgent need for financial discipline, timely subsidies, and transparent tariff setting. If implemented well, this move could break the cycle of deferred costs and inefficiencies, ensuring that electricity supply remains both affordable for consumers and financially viable for utilities. For policymakers, it serves as a reminder that delaying reforms through regulatory tools only compounds systemic risks.

Value Addition

Importance of DISCOMs in India’s Power Sector

  1. DISCOMs are the last-mile link in the electricity chain, responsible for delivering power to households, industries, and agriculture.
  2. Their financial health directly impacts energy access, affordability, and quality of supply.

Current Financial Stress

  1. AT&C Losses: Aggregate Technical & Commercial losses remain high at ~16–20% (against a target of 12–15%).
  2. Revenue Gap: ACS > ARR leads to losses per unit supplied.
  3. Debt Burden: Many DISCOMs rely on borrowing to bridge gaps, adding to systemic financial stress.

Key Causes of DISCOM Distress

  1. Non-cost reflective tariffs: Political pressure keeps tariffs lower than actual supply cost.
  2. Delayed subsidies: State governments often delay releasing agricultural/poor household subsidies.
  3. Cross-subsidisation: Industrial and commercial consumers are charged higher rates to subsidise other sectors, affecting competitiveness.
  4. Fuel price volatility: Sudden spikes in coal/gas prices worsen procurement costs.

Government Initiatives for DISCOMs

  1. UDAY (2015): Transferred debt to State governments, targeted efficiency improvements.
  2. Revamped Distribution Sector Scheme (RDSS) (2021): RDSS, focuses on smart meters, loss reduction, and IT-based monitoring.
  3. Electricity Amendment Bill (2022) (proposed): Aims to promote competition, allow multiple distributors in the same area, and reduce monopolies.

DISCOMs and Energy Transition

  1. Financially weak DISCOMs struggle to integrate renewable energy and invest in smart grids, storage, and modernisation.
  2. This hampers India’s 2030 renewable energy targets (500 GW capacity, 50% non-fossil share).

Global Comparisons

  1. Many countries (e.g., UK, Germany) have cost-reflective tariff mechanisms and automatic adjustment clauses to prevent accumulation of arrears.
  2. India’s reliance on regulatory assets is unusual, reflecting deeper political economy challenges.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] “Access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy is the sine qua non to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).’’ Comment on the progress made in India in this regard.

Linkage: The Supreme Court’s directive on regulatory assets directly ties to SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) by addressing the financial distress of DISCOMs, which undermines both affordability for consumers and sustainability for utilities. India has expanded electricity access impressively, but the persistence of unrecovered costs, delayed subsidies, and non-cost-reflective tariffs highlight the fragility of the system. The judgment pushes for financial discipline, timely subsidy release, and transparent tariff recovery, ensuring that progress towards universal, reliable, and modern energy access is not compromised by systemic inefficiencies.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-SCO

Unmistakable shift (India signalled a change in foreign policy stance at SCO Summit)

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Introduction

India’s foreign policy has historically oscillated between balancing great power politics and safeguarding its strategic autonomy. The 2025 SCO Summit in China witnessed a landmark moment: Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s first bilateral engagement with Chinese President Xi Jinping since the 2020 military standoff. The visit not only revived dormant dialogues but also underscored India’s shifting posture in a multipolar world marked by U.S. sanctions, instability in West Asia, and contestations within Eurasia.

Significance of Indian Prime Minister’s Visit to China

  1. Seven-year gap: PM Modi had not travelled to China since 2017, making this a major diplomatic breakthrough.
  2. First bilateral since standoff: Meeting with Xi Jinping was the first since the 2020 military confrontation along the LAC.
  3. Three-year SCO absence: Modi’s return to SCO after three years shows India’s willingness to re-engage with a grouping seen as anti-Western.
  4. Optics of bonhomie: Images with Xi and Putin evoked memories of the inactive Russia-India-China trilateral, signalling recalibration.

Revival of India-China Bilateral Engagement

  1. Troop disengagement: Both leaders endorsed the normalisation process initiated in October 2024.
  2. Boundary resolution: Agreed to fast-track talks between Special Representatives.
  3. Connectivity revival: Resumption of direct flights and visa facilitation announced.
  4. Economic ties: Leaders stressed on building trade relations to stabilise world commerce.
  5. Mutual trust rhetoric: Modi stressed ties based on “mutual trust, respect and sensitivity”, while Xi used the metaphor of “Dragon and Elephant” coming together.

External Drivers of India’s Foreign Policy Recalibration

  1. U.S. tariffs and sanctions: American restrictions and mistrust of the Trump administration nudged India to diversify partnerships.
  2. Strategic compulsion: India managed to side-step concerns like China’s support to Pakistan during Operation Sindoor, UNSC/NSG opposition, and shielding of terrorists.
  3. Multipolar optics: India’s engagement at SCO signals balancing between West and Eurasia.

Key Outcomes of the 2025 SCO Summit

  1. Tianjin declaration: Strong language against cross-border terrorism, including condemnation of the Pahalgam attack (India) and Balochistan attacks (Pakistan).
  2. West Asian crisis: SCO united on humanitarian crisis in Gaza and condemned U.S.-Israeli strikes on Iran.
  3. China’s push: Xi proposed an SCO Development Bank.
  4. India’s push: Modi proposed a Civilisational Dialogue among SCO members.
  5. India’s reservation: Continued opposition to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) paragraph.

Missed Diplomatic Opportunities at the Summit

  1. Skipped SCO Plus: Indian Prime Minister did not attend the extended “SCO Plus” Summit, limiting engagement with neighbourhood and Global South leaders.
  2. Regional bonding gap: While optics were strong, substantive regional outreach was diluted.

Conclusion

The SCO Summit underscored India’s willingness to recalibrate its foreign policy in a changing world order. Modi’s visit after years of distance marked a thaw with China, greater Eurasian engagement, and assertion of India’s independent foreign policy despite U.S. pressures. However, missed opportunities in broader outreach and unresolved trust deficits with China remain cautionary notes.

Value Addition

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)

Historical Background

  1. Successor to: SCO is the successor to the Shanghai Five, formed in 1996 between China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, and Tajikistan.
  2. Formation: Established in 2001 in Shanghai by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
  3. Expansion: India and Pakistan joined as full members in 2017; Iran became a member in 2023.
  4. Observers & Dialogue Partners: Afghanistan, Belarus, Mongolia, and others engage as observers; several countries (e.g., Turkey, Sri Lanka) are dialogue partners.

Strategic Importance of SCO for India

  1. Geopolitical Balancing: Provides a platform to engage with China and Russia while maintaining ties with the West (Quad, U.S.).
  2. Regional Security: Key forum for counter-terrorism cooperation, especially in light of cross-border terrorism and instability in Afghanistan.
  3. Eurasian Connectivity: Enhances India’s presence in Central Asia, a region rich in energy resources.
  4. Multipolar World Order: Strengthens India’s narrative of strategic autonomy and non-alignment in new form.

Key SCO Mechanisms

  1. Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS): Headquartered in Tashkent, focuses on counter-terrorism intelligence sharing.
  2. Economic Cooperation: Proposals for SCO Development Bank, regional trade, and connectivity projects (though India resists BRI-linked initiatives).
  3. Cultural and Civilisational Dialogues: Shared platforms for people-to-people exchanges, education, and cultural diplomacy.

India’s Challenges within SCO

  1. China Factor: Difficult to expand cooperation given border disputes and China’s Pakistan tilt.
  2. Pakistan Factor: Its membership often leads to diplomatic blockages on issues like terrorism.
  3. BRI Opposition: India consistently refuses to endorse the Belt and Road Initiative, creating friction.
  4. Russia-China Axis: Russia’s growing dependence on China may dilute India’s influence in the bloc.

Contemporary Relevance

  1. Energy and Trade: Central Asia is crucial for energy diversification; SCO provides a gateway.
  2. Geopolitical Flux: With U.S.-China rivalry and West Asia instability, SCO’s role in Eurasian stability gains importance.
  3. Soft Power Opportunity: India uses SCO to promote civilisational dialogue, yoga, Ayurveda, and cultural diplomacy.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Critically examine the aims and objectives of SCO. What importance does it hold for India?

Linkage: The article directly illustrates the objectives of SCO—counter-terrorism (Tianjin declaration), multipolarity, and Eurasian stability. It highlights India’s balancing act—reviving ties with China, opposing BRI, and pushing for civilisational dialogue. Thus, the SCO Summit outcomes reflect both the scope and constraints of SCO’s importance for India in strategic, economic, and security domains.

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

[pib] PRATUSH Mission

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Raman Research Institute (RRI) has devised the Probing ReionizATion of the Universe using Signal from Hydrogen (PRATUSH) Telescope to study the “Cosmic Dawn” by detecting radio signals from neutral hydrogen gas.

About the PRATUSH Mission:

  • Developer: Designed by the Raman Research Institute (RRI), Bengaluru, an autonomous institute under the Department of Science and Technology (DST).
  • Main Goal: To study the Cosmic Dawn – the period when the first stars and galaxies formed – by detecting the faint 21-cm radio signal from neutral hydrogen.
  • Why from the Moon? On Earth, these signals get lost due to radio noise (like FM signals) and atmospheric distortions. The lunar far side is the quietest place in the inner Solar System for radio astronomy, making it the best site.
  • Scientific Importance: Will help scientists understand how the first stars heated and ionized hydrogen gas, how the early Universe changed, and may even give clues about dark matter and fundamental physics.

Key Features:

  • Compact Design: Small, lightweight, low-power, and cost-effective – in line with the global trend of miniaturized space instruments.
  • Digital Receiver System:
    • Uses a single-board computer (like Raspberry Pi prototype).
    • Equipped with FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) for high-speed radio data processing.
  • How it Works:
    • Antenna collects faint hydrogen signals.
    • Analog receiver amplifies them.
    • Digital receiver + FPGA convert them into detailed spectral fingerprints of sky brightness.
  • Test Results: Lab trials (352 hours) showed extremely low noise (few millikelvins), proving it can detect faint cosmic signals.
  • SWaP Advantage: Optimized for Size, Weight, and Power (SWaP), making it highly suitable for space deployment.
[UPSC 2010]  In the context of space technology, what is Bhuvan, recently in the news?

Options:

(a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India

(b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II

(c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India *

(d) A space telescope developed by ISRO

 

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Governor vs. State

Appointment of Vice Chancellors by Governor

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Why in the News?

A recent controversy arose in Kerala, where the Governor (ex-officio Chancellor of State Universities) urged the Supreme Court to exclude the Chief Minister from the process of selecting Vice-Chancellors (VCs).

Who is the Vice-Chancellor?

  • Position: Serves as Principal Academic and Executive Officer of the university.
  • Functions: Bridges executive and academic wings; ensures compliance with Acts, Statutes, and Regulations.
  • Authority: Chairs key bodies such as the Executive Council, Academic Council, Finance Committee, and Selection Committees.
  • Qualities Emphasized: Historical commissions (Radhakrishnan 1948, Kothari 1964–66, Gnanam 1990, Ramlal Parikh 1993) stressed academic excellence, administrative skill, integrity, and vision.
  • Significance: Maintains quality, relevance, and reform in higher education.

About the Role of Governor and President in Universities:

  1. State Universities:
    1. Chancellor’s Position: The Governor is ex-officio Chancellor, functioning independently of the State Cabinet in university matters.
    2. VC Appointment: As per UGC Regulations, 2018, the Chancellor appoints Vice-Chancellors from a panel recommended by a Search-cum-Selection Committee.
    3. Legal Supremacy: In conflicts between UGC regulations and State laws, UGC norms prevail under Article 254 of the Constitution.
  2. Central Universities:
    1. Visitor Role: The President of India is the Visitor under the Central Universities Act, 2009.
    2. Chancellor: A ceremonial head, appointed by the President.
    3. VC Appointment: The President selects from a panel suggested by a Search Committee and can demand a fresh panel if unsatisfied.
    4. Oversight Powers: The President can authorize inspections and inquiries into universities.
[UPSC 2014] Which of the following are the discretionary powers given to the Governor of a State?

1. Sending a report to the President of India for imposing the President’s rule

2. Appointing the Ministers

3. Reserving certain bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President of India

4. Making the rules to conduct the business of the State Government

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) a) 1 and 2 only (b) b) 1 and 3 only (c) c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

 

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Electronic System Design and Manufacturing Sector – M-SIPS, National Policy on Electronics, etc.

Vikram 32-Bit Processor

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Indigenization Of Technology

Why in the News?

Union Minister for Electronics & IT has presented PM with a memento containing the first ‘Made in India’ Vikram 32-bit Launch Vehicle Grade Processor (VIKRAM3201).

About Vikram 32-bit Processor (VIKRAM3201):

  • Overview: India’s first fully indigenous 32-bit space-grade microprocessor, developed by VSSC–ISRO with Semiconductor Laboratory (SCL), Chandigarh.
  • Lineage: Successor of 16-bit VIKRAM1601 (used since 2009 in ISRO launch vehicles), designed for avionics, navigation, guidance, and mission control.
  • Launch & Validation: Unveiled at Semicon India 2025 as a symbol of India’s semiconductor self-reliance. Validated in space during PSLV-C60 (2025) via POEM-4 experiments.
  • Applications: Primarily for space missions, but also suited for defence, automotive, and energy systems due to its rugged reliability.
  • Policy Support: Developed under India Semiconductor Mission and Design Linked Incentive (DLI) scheme, reflecting policy thrust on indigenous chip design and manufacturing.

Key Technical Features:

  • Architecture: 32-bit design with support for 16/32-bit fixed-point and 64-bit floating-point (IEEE754) operations, essential for trajectory precision.
  • Registers & Memory: 32 registers (32-bit wide), capable of addressing up to 4096M words of memory.
  • Instruction Set: 152 instructions with microprogrammed control for flexibility in aerospace computations.
  • Performance: Operates at 100 MHz, single 3.3V supply, consumes <500 mW power, with <10 mA quiescent current.
  • Environmental Tolerance: Functions between –55°C to +125°C, fit for space and military conditions.
  • Interfaces: Equipped with four 32-bit timers, 256 software interrupts, and dual on-chip 1553B bus interfaces for avionics communication.
  • Software Compatibility: Optimised for Ada language (aerospace standard); C compiler support under development by ISRO.
  • Packaging & Fabrication: Built in a 181-pin ceramic PGA package, fabricated on 180 nm CMOS process at SCL, Mohali.
[UPSC 2008] Which one of the following laser types is used in a laser printer?

Options: (a) Dye laser  (b) Gas laser (c) Semiconductor laser  (d) Excimer laser

 

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Judicial Reforms

Recusal of Judges

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Seperation Of Power

Why in the News?

A Madhya Pradesh High Court judge has recused himself from hearing a petition in an alleged illegal mining case, saying that a MLA had “attempted to call him” to have a discussion regarding the matter.

About Recusal:

  • Overview: Recusal is the act of a judge or official abstaining from a case due to conflict of interest or a possible perception of bias.
  • Legal Basis:
    • There are no codified laws, but multiple Supreme Court rulings provide guiding principles.
    • In Ranjit Thakur v. Union of India (1987), SC held that the test of bias is the reasonableness of the apprehension in the mind of the affected party.
  • Grounds for Recusal:
    • Prior personal/professional association with a party.
    • Having appeared for a party in the case earlier.
    • Ex parte communications with parties involved.
    • Cases where a judge may be reviewing his own earlier judgment (e.g., SC appeals against HC orders delivered by the same judge earlier).
    • Financial or personal interests (e.g., shareholding in a company party to the case).
  • Underlying Principle: Rooted in the maxim “nemo judex in causa sua” — no one should be a judge in their own cause.

Process of Recusal:

  • Judge’s Discretion:
    • Decision usually rests with the judge’s conscience and discretion.
    • Judges may orally inform the parties, record it in the order, or sometimes recuse silently without explanation.
  • On Request:
    • Lawyers or parties may request recusal; final decision still rests with the judge.
    • Some judges have recused even without conflict, merely to avoid doubt. Others refuse if no genuine bias exists.
  • Procedure: Once recusal is declared, the case is placed before the Chief Justice for reassignment to another Bench.

Concerns Related to Recusal:

  • Judicial Independence at Risk: Can be misused by litigants to bench hunt (cherry-pick a judge), undermining judicial impartiality.
  • Lack of Uniform Standards: Absence of formal rules might lead to inconsistent approaches by different judges.
  • Potential for Abuse:
    • Requests for recusal may be used to delay proceedings, intimidate judges, or obstruct justice.
    • This undermines both the integrity of courts and timely justice delivery.
[UPSC 2019] With reference to the Constitution of India, prohibitions or limitations or provisions contained in ordinary laws cannot act as prohibitions or limitations on the constitutional powers under Article 142. It could mean which one of the following?

Options:

(a) The decisions taken by the. Election Commission of India while discharging its duties cannot be challenged in any court of law.

(b) The Supreme Court of India is not constrained in the exercise of its powers by the laws made by Parliament.

(c) In the event of grave financial crisis in the country, the President of India can declare Financial Emergency without the counsel from the Cabinet.

(d) State Legislatures cannot make laws on certain matters without the concurrence of Union Legislature.

 

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Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

In news: Sudan’s Darfur Region

world map | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Why in the News?

A landslide in Sudan’s western Darfur region reportedly wiped out a village, killing an estimated 1,000 people.

In news: Sudan’s Darfur Region

About Darfur Region:

  • Location & Size: Western Sudan; borders Chad, Libya, CAR; spans about 493,000 sq. km (nearly France-sized).
  • Geography: Predominantly arid/semi-arid; desert north, fertile south. Highly vulnerable to drought, desertification, and climate change.
  • Administrative Units: Divided into five states — North, South, West, Central, East Darfur.
  • Demographics: Mixed ethnic groups — Arab pastoralists and non-Arab farming communities.
  • Capital: El Fasher, main hub for administration, economy, and humanitarian operations.

Ongoing Conflict & Crisis:

  • Origins of Uprising: Armed rebellion began in 2003 (SLM, JEM) against political and economic marginalization.
  • Janjaweed & RSF: Janjaweed militias, accused of genocide and ethnic cleansing, later evolved into Rapid Support Forces (RSF), now central to instability.
  • Humanitarian Crisis: Since 2003, region has seen mass killings, displacement, refugee flows, ranked among the worst global humanitarian crises.
  • Current Instability: Renewed 2023 violence between RSF and rival groups worsened agriculture, aid, and governance.
  • Regional Impact: Conflict spills into Chad and CAR, destabilizing the Sahel region.
  • Natural Disasters: Alongside conflict, disasters like the 2025 Darfur landslide (~1,000 deaths) add to human suffering.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

Statement-I: There is instability and worsening security situation in the Sahel region.

Statement-II: There have been military takeovers/coups d’état in several countries of the Sahel region in the recent past.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statement?

a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I

b) Bothe Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I

c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect

d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct

 

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

[2nd September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The rise and risks of health insurance in India

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Investment Models

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent this has been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth?

Linkage: The expansion of Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY) and State Health Insurance Programmes (SHIPs) shows rising public expenditure on health but largely towards insurance reimbursements rather than strengthening primary health infrastructure. This trend benefits private hospitals and tertiary care but fails to reduce out-of-pocket costs or enhance inclusivity, as utilisation remains low. Thus, the expenditure pattern reflects growth without true inclusiveness, misaligned with the objectives of inclusive growth.

Mentor’s Comment

The debate on health insurance in India has intensified in recent years, especially with the expansion of State-sponsored schemes like Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY). While these initiatives provide some relief, the core question remains: can insurance-driven models substitute for robust public health infrastructure? This article unpacks the illusion of universal health coverage (UHC) through insurance, its systemic risks, and the urgent need for course correction.

Introduction

The Bhore Committee Report (1946) defined UHC as guaranteed access to quality health care for every citizen irrespective of their ability to pay. Eight decades later, India still falls far short of this goal. Instead of strengthening public health infrastructure, India has leaned heavily on health insurance schemes like the PMJAY and State Health Insurance Programmes (SHIPs). Though they provide relief to some, these schemes have created new distortions, risks, and inequities in the health system.

The Surge of Health Insurance Schemes

  1. PMJAY Launch (2018): Landmark scheme under Ayushman Bharat with ₹5 lakh annual cover per household for in-patient care.
  2. Massive Coverage: In 2023–24, PMJAY covered 58.8 crore individuals with an annual budget of ₹12,000 crore.
  3. Parallel SHIPs: State-level schemes cover a similar number with a budget of at least ₹16,000 crore.
  4. Rising Budgets: SHIP allocations grew at 8–25% annually (2018–19 to 2023–24) in States like Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra.

Commercialisation of Healthcare under Insurance

  1. Two-thirds of the PMJAY budget flows to private hospitals, often profit-oriented.
  2. Study findings: Minimal change in hospitalisation rates, but rise in private hospital use.
  3. Weak regulation: India’s poorly regulated profit-seeking providers dominate the system.

Hospitalisation Bias in Insurance Models

  1. Bias towards hospitalisation: Insurance covers only in-patient care, neglecting primary and outpatient care.
  2. Ageing challenge: Expanding coverage to elderly (70+) risks disproportionate spending on tertiary care.

Challenges in Effective Utilisation of Coverage

  1. High theoretical coverage: 80% of the population enrolled under PMJAY + SHIPs.
  2. Low effective use: Only 35% of insured patients could utilise benefits (2022–23 HCES).
  3. Barriers: Lack of awareness, procedural hurdles, and discrimination by providers.

Discrimination in Healthcare Delivery

  1. Private hospitals: Prefer uninsured patients for higher commercial charges.
  2. Public hospitals: Prefer insured patients for reimbursement incentives.
  3. Result: Discriminatory treatment and pressure on patients to enrol immediately.

Financial Strains Leading to Hospital Withdrawals

  1. Pending dues: PMJAY arrears reached ₹12,161 crore, more than its annual budget.
  2. Provider dissatisfaction: Low reimbursement, long delays.
  3. Hospital exits: 609 hospitals opted out of PMJAY since inception.

Corruption and Irregularities in PMJAY and SHIPs

  1. Fraudulent practices: NHA flagged 3,200 hospitals for irregularities.
  2. Common issues: Overcharging, denial of treatment, unnecessary procedures.
  3. Weak safeguards: No evidence of effective audits or transparency in scheme portals.

The Systemic Risk of Insurance-Led Health Care

  1. Profit over patients: Insurance reinforces commercial medicine rather than correcting it.
  2. Underfunded public health: India spends only 1.3% of GDP on health (World Bank, 2022), vs world average of 6.1%.
  3. Comparative failure: Unlike Canada and Thailand, India’s schemes lack universal coverage and non-profit focus.
  4. Result: Insurance becomes a “painkiller”, not a cure for India’s broken public health system.

Conclusion

Health insurance in India has expanded rapidly, but it remains a fragile foundation for UHC. It fosters profit-driven medicine, neglects primary care, suffers from poor utilisation, and is riddled with corruption. Without massive investment in public health infrastructure, primary care, and regulation, India cannot hope to achieve universal health coverage. Insurance schemes, at best, provide temporary relief, not sustainable health security.

Value Addition
  1. National Health Policy, 2017: Targets increasing government health expenditure to 2.5% of GDP by 2025, but current levels remain at ~1.3%.
  2. High Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE): As per NSSO 2017–18, OOPE in India still accounts for over 50% of total health expenditure, one of the highest in the world.
  3. Lancet Commission on Global Surgery (2015): Highlighted that nearly 5 billion people worldwide lack access to safe, affordable surgery, underscoring the gaps in India’s insurance-driven, hospitalisation-focused approach.
  4. WHO Recommendation: For effective Universal Health Coverage (UHC), countries need to strengthen primary health systems — India still lags here, with sub-centres and PHCs facing severe staff shortages.
  5. National Health Accounts (NHAI) 2019–20: Show that private sector spending dominates health financing in India, with households bearing the brunt, unlike in OECD nations where governments fund the majority.
  6. Insurance Penetration vs. Health Security: India’s insurance penetration (life + non-life) is about 4.2% of GDP, but penetration does not automatically translate to healthcare access or financial protection.
  7. Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres (AB-HWCs): Intended to provide comprehensive primary healthcare (preventive + promotive), yet remain underfunded compared to PMJAY, skewing priorities.
  8. Equity Gap – Rural vs. Urban: Rural populations face doctor-population ratio deficits, with most PMJAY empanelled hospitals concentrated in urban centres, worsening regional disparities.
  9. Digital Health Mission (NDHM 2020): Aims to create digital health IDs and improve transparency, but challenges include digital divide and privacy concerns.
  10. Economic Survey 2020–21: Stressed that public health investment has high multiplier effects on productivity and human capital formation — much higher than insurance subsidies.

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Geography uncover why some rivers stay single while others split

Explained | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Introduction

For decades, scientists wondered why some rivers flow as single channels while others split into braided systems. Researchers at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), after studying 84 rivers over 36 years using satellite data, have uncovered the mechanism. Their findings resolve a geomorphological puzzle and offer fresh insights for managing rivers amid climate change, rising floods, and human interventions.

Why is this discovery significant?

The UCSB study shows that erosion, not equilibrium, drives multi-threading. Single-thread rivers balance erosion and deposition, while braided rivers erode banks faster than they deposit, making them unstable. This overturns earlier models assuming fixed depth and width. In an era of extreme weather, such insights are vital for flood prediction, ecosystem restoration, and sustainable infrastructure.

Understanding the dynamics of single-thread and multi-thread rivers

  1. Single-thread rivers: They maintain equilibrium between bank erosion and bar accretion, ensuring stable width.
  2. Multi-thread rivers: They are characterised by imbalance, where erosion exceeds deposition, causing channels to widen and split repeatedly.
  3. Example: Brahmaputra’s braided channels erode laterally at a rapid pace, making them inherently unstable.

Scientific breakthrough in decoding river channel behavior

  1. Data analysed: 84 rivers across climates and terrains, spanning 36 years (1985–2021).
  2. Technology used: Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) on satellite images, generating 4 lakh+ measurements of erosion and accretion.
  3. Outcome: Identification of patterns showing why some rivers remain stable and others split into multiple channels.

The ecological role of vegetation in shaping river morphology

  1. Earlier belief: Vegetated banks were considered essential for meandering rivers.
  2. Stanford study finding: Vegetation alters river bend migration:
  3. Vegetated bends → Move outward, creating levees, limiting sinuosity.
  4. Unvegetated bends → Drift downstream, forming different sedimentary deposits.
  5. Implication: River evolution is not only hydrological but also ecological.

Implications for India’s river systems: Ganga and Brahmaputra in focus

  • Case studies: Ganga near Patna, Farakka, Paksey; Brahmaputra near Pandu, Pasighat, Bahadurabad.
  • Findings: Multi-thread rivers like Brahmaputra are inherently unstable due to rapid lateral erosion.
  • Problem: Artificial confinement by embankments has worsened risks in India.
  • Implication: Flood forecasting models (rating curves) need frequent updates as channel shapes shift.

Nature-based solutions and strategies for sustainable river management

  1. Remove artificial embankments
  2. Restore natural floodplains
  3. Create vegetated buffer zones along banks
  4. Reactivate abandoned channels
  5. Build wetlands in braided sections
  6. Advantages: Lower cost of restoration, better flood absorption, reduced disaster risk.

Conclusion

The new understanding of why rivers split reshapes our approach to flood management, river restoration, and ecological conservation. For India, where rivers like the Ganga and Brahmaputra are lifelines but also sources of recurrent floods, this research is a wake-up call. Emphasising natural solutions over artificial confinement could pave the way for sustainable water governance in the climate change era.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2016] Major cities of India are becoming more vulnerable to flood conditions. Discuss.

Linkage: The recent UCSB study highlights that multi-thread rivers like the Ganga and Brahmaputra are inherently unstable because erosion outpaces deposition, causing channels to split and shift rapidly. In India, this instability is often worsened by human interventions such as embankments, damming, and encroachment, which artificially confine rivers. As these channels change, urban centres located along floodplains (Patna, Guwahati, Kolkata, etc.) become highly flood-prone. The research also suggests that relying on outdated models assuming rivers are stable leads to poor flood prediction in cities. Thus, insights from this study strengthen the argument that urban flooding in India is not only due to unplanned urbanisation but also due to the geomorphological instability of river systems and flawed management practices.

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Noise pollution is rising but policy is falling silent

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

Noise pollution in India has emerged as a silent but significant public health crisis. With urban decibel levels routinely breaching permissible limits near schools, hospitals, and residential zones, the constitutional promise of dignity and peace is being eroded. Despite a robust legal framework in place since 2000, fragmented enforcement, civic fatigue, and policy inertia have left the issue largely unaddressed. Unlike Europe, where noise-induced illnesses shape policymaking, India remains institutionally and politically silent.

Why is noise pollution in the news?

Noise pollution has resurfaced as a pressing issue because of increasing violations in silence zones, lack of updated enforcement mechanisms, and alarming ecological findings. The Central Pollution Control Board’s National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network (NANMN), launched in 2011 as a flagship real-time monitoring system, has become a passive repository with little accountability. In 2024, the Supreme Court reaffirmed that excessive noise is a violation of Article 21. A 2025 ecological study added urgency, revealing that even one night of urban noise disrupts bird song and communication.

Weaknesses in India’s noise monitoring system

  1. Flawed sensor placement: Many noise monitors are mounted 25–30 feet high, violating CPCB’s 2015 guidelines and recording misleading data.
  2. Data without enforcement: NANMN has been reduced to a dashboard of figures with no link to penalties or compliance.
  3. Fragmented institutions: State Pollution Control Boards, traffic police, and municipalities act in silos, preventing unified action.
  4. Opacity in data: RTI queries remain unanswered, and States like Uttar Pradesh have not released first-quarter 2025 data.

Noise pollution as a constitutional and legal challenge

  1. Right to life with dignity (Article 21): Supreme Court reaffirmed in 2024 that unchecked urban noise directly undermines mental well-being.
  2. Directive Principle (Article 48A): The State has a duty to protect and improve the environment, but silence on noise policy reflects neglect.
  3. Failure of Silence Zones: Hospitals and schools often record 65–70 dB(A) against the permissible 50 dB(A) daytime and 40 dB(A) nighttime limits set by WHO.

Human and ecological costs of unchecked urban noise

  1. Mental health erosion: Chronic noise exposure causes disturbed sleep cycles, hypertension, and reduced cognitive function.
  2. Children and elderly at risk: Sensitive groups face aggravated anxiety and cardiovascular problems.
  3. Biodiversity disruption: 2025 Auckland study shows even one night of noise alters bird song complexity, affecting species survival and ecological communication.
  4. Cultural normalisation: Honking, drilling, and loudspeakers have become ambient irritants, tolerated rather than resisted.

Fragmented governance and symbolic compliance

  1. Weak legal update: Noise Pollution Rules, 2000 have not been revised to reflect rapid urbanisation and logistics-heavy economies.
  2. Institutional silos: No coordination between police, local bodies, and SPCBs, leaving sporadic enforcement drives without systemic change.
  3. Judicial reminders: Despite Noise Pollution (V), In Re (2005, reaffirmed in 2024), state capacity to enforce remains symbolic.

Towards a national acoustic policy and cultural change

  1. Decentralise monitoring: Grant local governments access to real-time NANMN data.
  2. Link data with penalties: Without enforcement, monitoring becomes performative.
  3. National acoustic policy: Define permissible decibel limits across zones with periodic audits.
  4. Urban planning reforms: Embed acoustic resilience into city designs, zoning, and transport planning.
  5. Sonic empathy campaigns: Similar to seatbelt norms, honking reduction must be internalised through community education.

Conclusion

Noise pollution is not an invisible irritant, it is a public health emergency, an ecological disruptor, and a constitutional concern. Without a rights-based framework that treats silence as essential to dignity, India’s urban future risks becoming unliveable. The challenge is not only regulatory but also cultural: fostering a shared ethic of sonic empathy. Silence must not be imposed, but enabled through design, governance, and civic will.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] What is oil pollution? What are its impacts on the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil pollution particularly harmful for a country like India?

Linkage: Both oil and noise pollution are invisible pollutants with severe but often neglected impacts — oil disrupts marine ecosystems while noise erodes mental health and biodiversity.

Like India’s vulnerability to oil spills due to its long coastline, rapid urbanisation makes it highly exposed to noise hazards. In both cases, regulatory frameworks exist but enforcement is fragmented, highlighting a gap between law and practice.

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

The NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission has recently traced the origin of Solar Energetic Electrons (SEE), advancing knowledge of solar activity and space weather.

NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission

About NASA–ESA Solar Orbiter Mission:

  • Launch & Cost: Launched in Feb 2020 on an Atlas V from Cape Canaveral; joint ESA–NASA mission worth $1.5 billion.
  • Duration: Primary mission till 2026, extendable to 2030.
  • Orbit: Highly eccentric, approaching 0.28 AU (inside Mercury’s orbit); gradually tilts to image Sun’s poles.
  • Payload: 10 instruments — both in-situ (solar wind, magnetic fields, particles) and remote sensing (imaging, spectroscopy).
  • Firsts & Objectives: First to image solar poles; aims to study solar wind origin, solar cycle dynamics, causes of flares/CMEs, and their impact on heliosphere & space weather.

What are Solar Energetic Electrons (SEE)?

  • What are they: Streams of high-energy electrons released into space, travelling across the heliosphere.
  • Sources: Emerge from solar flares (sudden surface bursts) and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) (plasma + magnetic eruptions).
  • Patterns: Release not always immediate; often delayed by hours due to turbulence/scattering in interplanetary medium.
  • Solar Orbiter Observations: Detected 300+ bursts (2020–22), clearly linking SEE to solar flares/CMEs for the first time.

Significance of the recent findings:

  • Science: Clarifies Sun’s particle acceleration mechanisms.
  • Space Weather: CMEs are the main drivers of severe events — affecting satellites, GPS, communication, power grids, and astronaut safety.
  • Practical Utility: Improves solar storm forecasting and early-warning systems for infrastructure & human spaceflight.
  • Long Term Implications: Expected to revolutionise solar physics and our predictive capacity of Sun–Earth interactions.
[UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?

1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.

2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.

3. Power grids could be damaged.

4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.

5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.

6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.

7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only (b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only (c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7* only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

 

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