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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

A climate-health vision with lessons from India

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

At the Global Conference on Climate and Health (July 2025, Brazil), 90 countries shaped the Belém Health Action Plan, which will guide the climate-health agenda at COP30 (Nov 2025). Ironically, India, despite having some of the most instructive welfare experiences linking climate and health, was not officially represented, a missed opportunity to emerge as a global exemplar.

India’s non-health interventions like the Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM POSHAN), Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA), and Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) offer rich lessons for operationalising an integrated climate-health framework. They reveal that intentional, intersectoral action can yield multiple dividends: improved nutrition, reduced pollution, restored ecosystems, and healthier communities.

Why is this news significant?

India’s absence at Belém stands out because for the first time a global platform is drafting a climate-health action plan. While India has often been viewed through the prism of its energy transition challenges, this moment presented a chance to highlight its homegrown welfare successes with global resonance. The paradox is striking: even without designing policies as “climate policies,” India has reaped climate-health co-benefits, unlike many countries still struggling to integrate the two. Yet, persistent failures like high LPG refill costs in PMUY and siloed governance highlight the scale of unfinished work.

What is the Belém Health Action Plan (BHAP)?

  • The BHAP is a strategic framework being finalized ahead of COP30 (Nov 2025, Belém, Brazil) intended to integrate health into climate change adaptation.
  • It emphasizes health equity, climate justice, and social participation alongside strengthening health systems to be resilient in face of climate change.

Key Features / Action Lines

Some of its priority action lines include:

  • Surveillance & Monitoring:
    • Linking climate/environmental data with health surveillance, early warning systems (for heatwaves, epidemics, etc.).
    • Real-time data, local / community-level monitoring.
  • Evidence-Based Policy Strategy & Capacity Building:
    • Training health workforce, integrating mental health & psychosocial support measures.
    • Gender-responsive, inclusive policies, recognizing most vulnerable groups (women, Indigenous people, persons with disabilities).
  • Innovation & Production:
    • Resilient infrastructure and services (e.g. climate-adapted health facilities), sustainable supply chains.
    • Focus on blended financing and mobilizing investments to make health systems adaptive and equitable.
  • Cross-cutting priorities:
    • Health equity & climate justice: ensuring that adaptation efforts do not further marginalize vulnerable groups.
    • Leadership & governance: accountability, social participation from civil society, clear institutional roles.

What lessons do India’s welfare programmes offer for climate-health synergy?

  1. PM POSHAN: Covers 11 crore children in 11 lakh schools, linking nutrition, agriculture, and education. Promotion of millets strengthens climate-resilient food systems.
  2. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Improved sanitation, public health, and environmental sustainability, while embedding dignity and cultural symbolism via Gandhi’s vision.
  3. MNREGA: Enhanced livelihood security while simultaneously restoring degraded ecosystems through water conservation and afforestation.
  4. PM Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): Transition to clean cooking fuel cut household air pollution — a leading cause of respiratory illness — while reducing carbon emissions.

How has leadership and community engagement shaped outcomes?

  1. Political leadership: Direct involvement of the Prime Minister gave Swachh Bharat and PMUY inter-ministerial traction and public legitimacy.
  2. Community engagement: PM POSHAN leveraged parent-teacher committees, Swachh Bharat invoked cultural pride in cleanliness, ensuring local ownership.
  3. Cultural anchoring: Climate action framed as health protection resonates more deeply than carbon metrics.

What structural challenges persist in implementation?

  1. Administrative silos: Divergent sectoral mandates limit integrated outcomes.
  2. High refill costs in PMUY: Oil marketing interests often outweigh beneficiary affordability.
  3. Social barriers: Gender norms and cultural practices limit uptake of clean fuel and sanitation.
  4. Output vs. outcome gap: Programmes measure immediate coverage but not long-term health-climate impact.

What framework does India’s experience suggest for climate-health governance?

  1. Strategic prioritisation: Frame climate action as immediate health security, not distant environmental risk.
  2. Procedural integration: Embed health impact assessments into energy, transport, and urban policies.
  3. Participatory implementation: Leverage ASHA workers, SHGs, Panchayats as health-climate advocates.

Why is this vision critical for the future?

  1. High stakes: Delinking climate and health crises leads to fragmented solutions with escalating costs.
  2. Transformative potential: An intersectoral, whole-of-society approach could position India as a global leader in climate-health governance.
  3. Clear choice: Continue piecemeal efforts or pioneer a bold model aligning welfare with planetary health.

Conclusion

India’s welfare architecture has shown that policies designed for social welfare can unintentionally become climate-health interventions. The challenge now is to make this synergy intentional and institutionalised, with robust political framing, procedural integration, and community mobilisation. At a time when the world is drafting a global climate-health action plan, India’s absence from the table is a wake-up call: to convert scattered lessons into a coherent model of governance that others can emulate.

Value Addition

Key Concepts

  1. Climate-Health Nexus: Environmental policies often have unintended health impacts; health policies also influence climate outcomes.
  2. Co-Benefits Approach: One intervention (e.g., PMUY for clean cooking fuel) yields multiple dividends (better health, women’s empowerment, reduced emissions).
  3. Whole-of-Society Approach: Intersectoral coordination between ministries, communities, and local bodies ensures impact.
  4. Output vs Outcome Gap: Many Indian schemes achieve outputs (LPG connections, toilets built) but outcomes (sustained use, cleaner air, health equity) remain weak.

Important Data / Reports

  1. WHO Report (2021): Air pollution causes 7 million premature deaths annually worldwide.
  2. Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change (2022): South Asia faces one of the highest global burdens of climate-related health risks.
  3. India’s National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2021): Despite welfare schemes, 35.5% of children under 5 are stunted and 32.1% are underweight, showing links between nutrition, climate resilience, and health.
  4. UNDP (2023): Every $1 invested in resilience and adaptation yields $4 in avoided losses.
  5. Global Conference on Climate & Health (Belém Plan, 2025): First global blueprint on climate-health integration.

PYQ Linkage:

[UPSC 2017] ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?

Linkage: India’s welfare schemes like PM POSHAN, PMUY, Swachh Bharat and MNREGA demonstrate that non-health interventions can mitigate climate impacts while improving public health. The Himalayan and coastal states, most vulnerable to warming, floods, and sea-level rise, can benefit from such intersectoral, resilience-building models. Thus, India’s climate-health vision provides practical pathways to address both regional vulnerabilities and national climate commitments.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Nepal

Turmoil, tragedy, and tenacity in Nepal

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Introduction

In early September 2025, Nepal was rocked by its most intense youth uprising since the end of monarchy in 2008. Peaceful demonstrations against corruption and inequality, largely organised online, escalated into violent clashes, leaving 73 dead and vital government institutions in flames. The resignation of Oli and the appointment of Sushila Karki as interim Prime Minister has opened a critical transition. The protests underscore the growing role of Gen Z digital activism in reshaping political landscapes.

Timeline of the protests

  1. 4 Sept 2025: Government orders registration/ban of 26 social media platforms (trigger).
  2. Early Sept (pre-8): Weeks of online organising; #NepoBabies and related trends circulate.
  3. 8 Sept 2025 (Day 1): Large peaceful gatherings at Maitighar Mandala; clashes erupt; official reports of first deaths (≈19 reported that night).
  4. 9 Sept 2025 (Day 2): Violence spreads; Parliament, Supreme Court, Singha Durbar attacked and some set on fire; casualty and injury figures climb.
  5. 10–12 Sept 2025: Army deployed to secure cities; Home Minister and Oli resign; negotiations with youth representatives begin.
  6. 12–14 Sept 2025: Sushila Karki sworn in as interim prime minister; Parliament dissolved; elections scheduled for March (caretaker mandate announced).

How did legal restraints on digital space ignite a national revolt?

  1. Trigger — Social Media Ban: On 4 September 2025, the government ordered the blocking/registration of 26 social media platforms, including X, Facebook, and Instagram.
  2. Impact: This cut off Gen-Z’s primary space for organisation, expression, and economic activity, seen as a direct assault on civic freedom.
  3. Outcome: Scattered anger was transformed into coordinated protests.
  4. Example: Youth groups used Discord and TikTok to plan assemblies at Maitighar Mandala and coordinate marches towards Parliament.

What were the structural grievances behind the uprising?

  1. Corruption & Elitism: Perceptions of elite capture, misuse of resources, and impunity fuelled resentment.
  2. Symbol of Rage: The #NepoKids / #NepoBabies campaign exposed politicians’ children flaunting luxury while ordinary youth faced precarity.
  3. Example: Viral clips contrasting lavish lifestyles with student unemployment intensified outrage.
  4. Data: Transparency International (2025): Nepal ranked 107/180 on the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI score: 34).

Why did peaceful protests become deadly and destructive?

  1. Escalation: Initially peaceful gatherings on 8 September were dispersed using tear gas and reportedly live ammunition.
  2. Violence: Retaliatory riots followed; demonstrators targeted symbols of state power.
  3. Example: On 9 September, Parliament, Supreme Court, and Singha Durbar were set ablaze; crucial judicial records were damaged.
  4. Data: 72–73 deaths reported, with hundreds injured, mostly between ages 19–24.

What immediate political fallout followed the unrest?

  1. Leadership Change: Home Minister resigned on 8 Sept; PM K.P. Sharma Oli stepped down on 9 Sept.
  2. Caretaker Transition: The Army mediated negotiations; Parliament was dissolved.
  3. Interim PM: Sushila Karki, former Chief Justice, sworn in on 12 Sept 2025, mandated to hold elections within six months.
    • Karki visited hospitals, assured investigations, and pledged accountability and timely polls.

How did digital tools shape both mobilisation and misinformation?

  1. Mobilisation: Platforms like Discord, TikTok, and hashtags enabled rapid outreach, meme-culture, and youth identity in protests.
  2. Creativity: Anime/manga flags and viral videos energised Gen-Z demonstrations.
  3. Misinformation: False reports and AI-generated images (e.g., Pashupati Temple “burning”) created panic and confusion.
  4. Example: Fake claims about a senior politician’s family being killed circulated widely before being disproved.

What are the main challenges facing Nepal’s interim rulers?

  1. Legitimacy Concerns: Traditional political parties, deposed MPs, and royalist factions question the constitutional mandate of the interim set-up.
  2. Balancing Act: The government must address youth expectations of anti-corruption and inclusivity while ensuring political buy-in from entrenched elites.
  3. Stability: Conducting free and fair elections by March 2026 without undermining the democratic spirit of Gen-Z protests remains the foremost task.
  4. Example: Political parties and royalists have already raised doubts over Karki’s legitimacy despite broad youth support.

Implications for Nepal (domestic)

  • Political Legitimacy and Party Renewal
    • The protests revealed a deep erosion of trust in established parties.
    • Unless political parties reform and integrate youth aspirations into institutional politics, cycles of protest could continue.
    • Revamping youth wings and embracing inclusivity may be crucial for long-term stability.
    • (Echoes analysts’ calls for parties to redefine themselves in light of 1990 and 2006 lessons.)
  • Rule of Law and Accountability
    • Strong demands exist for independent investigations into the use of excessive force and arson during protests.
    • The credibility of Nepal’s democracy depends on whether security forces and political elites are held accountable.
    • Sushila Karki’s pledge to investigate abuses and compensate victims sets both a legal and moral benchmark.
  • Economic and Social Policy Pressure
    • With youth unemployment at 20%, migration pressures, and widening inequality, socio-economic grievances remain central.
    • The interim government faces urgent pressure to deliver short-term relief (jobs, anti-corruption crackdowns) while laying the groundwork for structural reforms in education, employment, and inclusivity.
    • Failure to deliver may reignite unrest and deepen distrust in democratic institutions.

Implications for South Asia (regional)

  • Contagion Risk and Inspiration:
    • The Nepali uprising reflects a wider Gen-Z dissent pattern in Asia.
    • Similar youth-led movements in Sri Lanka (2022), Bangladesh, Indonesia, Philippines have challenged entrenched elites.
    • Nepal’s protests may inspire emulation across borders, intensifying regional instability.
  • Cross-Border Diplomacy & Stability:
    • Political turbulence in Kathmandu could strain bilateral relations with neighbours.
    • Instability may disrupt migration flows, remittances, and border trade.
    • Governments in South Asia may reassess youth policy, unemployment measures, and digital freedoms to preempt unrest.
  • Policy Lessons on Digital Platforms:
    • Nepal’s ban highlights the risks of hard regulation of social media.
    • Neighbouring states will closely observe whether bans quell dissent or provoke backlash.
    • The episode may shape future regional digital governance frameworks balancing free expression with misinformation control.

Conclusion

Nepal’s Gen Z uprising is both tragic and transformative. It highlights the power of digital natives to hold governments accountable, but also the dangers of violence and misinformation. The coming months will test whether Nepal can channel this energy into transparent, inclusive governance or relapse into instability.

PYQ Linkage:

[UPSC 2012] Discuss the contentious issues that have caused the prolonged

constitutional logjam in Nepal.

Linkage: The 2025 Gen Z protests in Nepal show that unresolved constitutional questions of inclusiveness, accountability, and representation remain central even after the 2015 Constitution. The uprising exposed youth anger at elite capture and exclusion of caste, ethnic, and gender groups — echoing the very fault lines that prolonged Nepal’s constitutional logjam post-2008 monarchy abolition. Thus, the recent turmoil is a continuation of the older struggle for a truly inclusive and accountable Nepali state.

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Supreme Court cites Preamble to reject a plea

Prelims OnlySC Judgements | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Why in the News?

The Supreme Court rejected a plea against a religious leader inaugurating Mysuru Dasara, reminding that the Preamble upholds secularism, liberty, equality, and fraternity as core ideals of unity.

Backgrounder:

  • The Karnataka government invited Banu Mushtaq, 2025 International Booker Prize winner, to inaugurate Mysuru Dasara Festival and perform the pooja.
  • A 2023 video resurfaced where she questioned the worship of Goddess Bhuvaneshwari, sparking controversy.
  • BJP and others opposed the invite, for her selective criticism of Hindu rituals and demanded withdrawal of the invite sent to her.

Supreme Court’s Observations:

  • Secular Character: The Court reminded that the Preamble enshrines secularism, liberty, equality, and fraternity as unifying ideals.
  • State’s Neutrality: Dasara inauguration was a State event, not a private ritual. The State “maintains no religion of its own” (echoing M. Ismail Faruqui, 1994).
  • Key Precedents Recalled:
    • Kesavananda Bharati (1973) & S.R. Bommai (1994): Secularism = basic feature of the Constitution.
    • R.C. Poudyal (1994): Even before “secular” was inserted (42nd Amendment, 1976), the Constitution upheld equal treatment of all faiths.
    • Dr. Balram Singh v. UOI (2024): State can intervene to curb religious practices impeding equality & development.

Preamble

About the Preamble:

  • Nature: Introductory statement; reflects philosophy, vision, and objectives.
  • Origin: Based on Objectives Resolution (Nehru, 1946); adopted 1947.
  • Declarations: India as Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic ensuring Justice, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.

  • Symbolism:

    1. Source of Authority: “We, the People of India.”
    2. Nature of State: Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic.

Amendment of the Preamble:

  • Permissible: Supreme Court (Kesavananda Bharati, 1973) has held that Preamble is part of Constitution and can be amended without violating Basic Structure.
  • Only Amendment: 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 (during Emergency).
    • Added “Socialist” and “Secular” between Sovereign and Democratic.
    • Added “Integrity” to Unity of the Nation.

Key Judicial Pronouncements:

  • Berubari Union Case (1960): Preamble not a part of the Constitution; only a tool for interpretation.
  • Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973): Overruled Berubari; Preamble is part of the Constitution, embodies basic structure but cannot override provisions.
  • S.R. Bommai Case (1994): Secularism upheld as basic feature of the Constitution.
  • LIC of India Case (1995): Reaffirmed Preamble as integral, but non-justiciable (not enforceable in court).
[UPSC 2020] The Preamble to the Constitution of India is:

Options: (a) a part of the Constitution but has no legal effect

(b) not a part of the Constitution and has no legal effect either

(c) part of the Constitution and has the same legal effect as any other part

(d) a part of the Constitution but has no legal effect independently of other parts*

 

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Electoral Reforms In India

Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPP)

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People's Act

Why in the News?

The Election Commission de-listed 474 Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPP) for not contesting polls in six years, as part of its electoral clean-up drive.

Delisting of Political Parties:

  • ECI’s Powers: Governed by Section 29A, RP Act, 1951.
    • No explicit power with ECI to de-register a party once registered, except for fraud or anti-Constitutional allegiance.
  • Judicial Interpretation:
    • INC vs Institute of Social Welfare (2002): SC ruled that ECI cannot de-register parties, only delist or declare inactive, which removes privileges but NOT their legal entity.

About Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPPs):

  • Constitutional Right: Right to form political associations is guaranteed under Article 19(1)(c).
  • Registration: RUPPs are political associations registered with the Election Commission of India (ECI) under Section 29A, Representation of the People Act, 1951.
  • Not recognised: As either State or National parties because they have not secured the required vote share or seats in past elections.
  • Privileges & Benefits:
    • Tax exemption under Section 13A, Income Tax Act, 1961.
    • Eligibility for common poll symbols during elections (under Symbols Order, 1968).
    • Can nominate up to 20 star campaigners.
  • Obligations:
    • Must contest elections periodically.
    • File annual audit accounts and contribution reports.
    • Disclose donations above ₹20,000.
    • Ensure no donations above ₹2,000 are taken in cash.
  • Issues: Many RUPPs exploit privileges without contesting elections, crowding out genuine contesting parties and confusing voters.

What are Recognised Political Parties?

  • Types: Recognised parties are classified as National Parties or State Parties.
  • Privileges:
    • Exclusive reserved symbols.
    • Free copies of electoral rolls.
    • Broadcasting time on Doordarshan/All India Radio.
    • Consultation rights with ECI in election matters.
  • Recognition depends on vote share or seats won in Lok Sabha/Assembly elections.

Conditions for Recognition:

National Party State Party
Secures 6% of valid votes in Lok Sabha/Assembly elections in any 4 or more states + wins 4 Lok Sabha seats. Secures 6% of valid votes in the state Assembly election + wins 2 Assembly seats.
Wins 2% of Lok Sabha seats (currently 11 seats) from at least 3 states. Secures 6% of valid votes in the state’s Lok Sabha election + wins 1 Lok Sabha seat.
Recognised as a State Party in 4 or more states. Wins 3% of Assembly seats or 3 seats (whichever is higher) in the state Assembly.
— Wins 1 Lok Sabha seat for every 25 seats allotted to that state.
— Secures 8% of total valid votes in the state’s Assembly or Lok Sabha election (added in 2011).

 

[UPSC 2001] Consider the following statements regarding the political parties in India:

1. The Representation of the People Act, 1951 provides for the registration of political parties.

2. Registration of political parties is carried out by the Election Commission.

3. A national level political party is one which is recognised in four or more States.

4. During the 1999 general elections, there were six National and 48 State level parties recognised by the Election Commission.

Options: (a) I, II and IV (b) I and III (c) II and IV (d) I, II, III and IV*

 

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

Gaganyaan Analog Experiments (Gyanex)

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Why in the News?

Gyanex (Gaganyaan Analog Experiments) ground-based astronaut simulations are being conducted by ISRO with ICMR and Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Bengaluru, to prepare Indian astronauts for the 2027 Gaganyaan mission.

What are Gaganyaan Analog Experiments (Gyanex)?

  • Purpose: India’s first systematic programme in space medicine and astronaut psychology, preparing protocols for Gaganyaan and future missions like space stations and lunar expeditions.
  • Setup: Conducted at the Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Bengaluru, with ICMR support. Astronauts and defence personnel live in a mock spacecraft simulator under confinement, consuming DRDO-developed space food.
  • Activities: Strict space-like routines involving scientific experiments, resource management, schedules, and limited supplies. Tests also cover communication with time-delay simulation.
  • Gyanex-1: Group Captain Angad Pratap and two others confined for 10 days; completed 11 experiments on psychology, biomedicine, and communications.
  • Microgravity Simulation: Weightlessness cannot be reproduced on Earth; instead, 7-day bed-confinement at 6° head tilt studied microgravity effects.
  • Other Indian Analog Missions:
    • Ladakh Human Analog Mission (Nov 2024): Simulated interplanetary survival in cold, barren terrain.
    • HOPE Habitat at Tso Kar (Aug 2025): Tested 8 m habitat + 5 m utility module in Mars-like conditions of low pressure, saline permafrost, and high UV radiation.

About Gaganyaan Mission:

  • Overview: India’s first human spaceflight mission, initiated in 2007, to send 3 astronauts into Low Earth Orbit (400 km) for 3 days, followed by Arabian Sea splashdown.
  • Rocket: Human-Rated LVM3 (HLVM3), adapted from GSLV Mk3, certified in 2025 for safe human use.
  • Significance: India to become the 4th nation (after US, Russia, China) with crewed spaceflight capability.
  • Latest Timeline (as of Sept 2025):
    • Dec 2025: First uncrewed mission (G1) with humanoid Vyommitra.
    • 2026: Two more uncrewed flights for life-support, avionics, and escape tests.
    • Early 2027: First crewed mission – 3 astronauts in orbit for 3 days.
  • Progress so far:
    • 80–85% development complete: avionics, parachutes, crew safety systems validated.
    • Integrated Air Drop Test (Aug 2025): Confirmed crew module deceleration.
    • Crew Escape System: Multiple ground and flight tests successful.
    • Recovery: Indian Navy and Australian Space Agency conducting splashdown drills.
    • Four IAF test pilots shortlisted: Shubhanshu Shukla, Prasanth Balakrishnan Nair, Angad Pratap, Ajit Krishnan.
    • All trained in Russia, now in advanced Indian training. Final crew of three will be chosen for maiden flight.
[UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements: The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO

1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission

2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA

3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its first attempt.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

Ecological Impact of the ELSA 3 Shipwreck in the Arabian Sea

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The sinking of the ELSA 3 ship off the Kerala coast in May led to a significant ecological disruption in the south-eastern Arabian Sea, a new study has confirmed.

Ecological Impact of the ELSA 3 Shipwreck in the Arabian Sea

About the Pollution and Contaminants:

  • Oil Slick: Wreck of ELSA 3 released petroleum pollutants, initially forming a slick of about 2 square miles.
  • Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): Compounds like naphthalene, fluorene, anthracene, phenanthrene, fluoranthene, pyrene detected; toxic, carcinogenic, and bioaccumulative.
  • Naphthalene Marker: High levels confirmed continuous leakage from fuel tanks.
  • Trace Metals: Nickel, lead, copper, vanadium found in elevated levels in water and sediments, worsening toxicity.
  • Distribution: Oil spread shifted with sea turbulence—first mid-depth concentration, later visible on the surface.

Ecological Impacts of the Oil Spill:

  • Plankton: Zooplankton showed pollutant accumulation, marking entry into the marine food chain.
  • Fish Eggs & Larvae: Collected in the southwest monsoon spawning season displayed decay and mortality, threatening commercial species recruitment.
  • Benthic Organisms: Sensitive species declined within days; only pollution-tolerant worms and bivalves survived, reflecting seabed stress.
  • Higher Fauna: Brown Noddy seabird (Anous stolidus) recorded with oil-soaked plumage, highlighting risks to birds and larger marine life.
  • Overall Effect: A multi-level disruption from plankton to fish stocks to seabirds.

Microbial Response and Bioremediation:

  • Bacterial Diversity: Metagenomic studies found hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria near the wreck.
  • Key Strains: Neptunomonas acidivorans, Halomonas tabrizica, Acinetobacter baumannii detected.
  • Implications: Their presence reflects both severe contamination and natural bioremediation potential.
  • Outlook: Microbial action may reduce pollution gradually, but contamination in the Arabian Sea remains significant.
[UPSC 2017] In the context of solving pollution problems what is/are the advantage/disadvantages of bioremediation technique?

1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by enhancing the same biodegradation process that occurs in nature.

2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be readily and completely treated by bioremediation using microorganisms.

3. Genetic engineering can be used to create microorganisms specifically designed for bioremediation.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1 only, (b) 2 and 3 only, (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Food Procurement and Distribution – PDS & NFSA, Shanta Kumar Committee, FCI restructuring, Buffer stock, etc.

[19th Septmeber 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Equalising Primary Food Consumption in India

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: PDS, Buffer Stock & Food Security

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] What are the reformative steps taken by the Government to make food grain distribution system more effective?

Linkage: The article’s proposal to restructure the PDS by trimming excess cereal entitlements and expanding pulse distribution directly links with UPSC 2019’s question. It highlights how reformative steps—like targeted subsidies, rationalised stocking by FCI, and focus on nutritional security beyond cereals—can make the food grain distribution system more effective. Thus, it connects poverty reduction with sustainable and equitable food security reforms.

Mentor’s Comment

The recent NSS household consumption survey, coupled with World Bank estimates, has painted a contrasting picture of India’s poverty and food deprivation. While global narratives celebrate the near-eradication of extreme poverty, ground-level consumption data tells a more sobering story, half of rural India still struggles to afford two simple thalis a day. This article unpacks the deeper meaning of food security beyond calorie intake, critiques the existing Public Distribution System (PDS), and explores how restructuring subsidies, especially towards pulses, can equalise food consumption in India. For UPSC aspirants, the debate is not only about statistics but also about welfare priorities, distributional justice, and the role of the state in ensuring dignified living standards.

Introduction

India has long battled poverty and hunger, but the release of the 2024 NSS Household Consumption Survey and the World Bank’s Poverty and Equity Brief (2025) has reshaped the debate. The World Bank report claims that extreme poverty has fallen from 16.2% in 2011-12 to just 2.3% in 2022-23, a historic achievement if true. Yet, when food consumption is measured through the “thali index” rather than calorie-based poverty lines, stark disparities emerge: 50% of rural India and 20% of urban India could not afford two thalis a day in 2023-24. This contradiction raises a crucial policy question—how can India ensure not just calorie intake but nutritional adequacy and equal access to primary food consumption?

The contrasting narratives of poverty in India

  1. World Bank Estimate: Extreme poverty has “virtually disappeared,” with only 2.3% living below $2.15/day.
  2. Thali Index Reality: Despite rising incomes, half of rural India could not afford two balanced meals (thalis) daily in 2023-24.
  3. Deprivation Gap: The difference arises because food is residual expenditure after households spend on essentials like rent, health, and transport.

Why measure poverty through the thali meal?

  1. Beyond Calories: Traditional poverty lines only measure calorific intake, ignoring nutrition and satisfaction.
  2. Balanced Meal: A thali (rice, dal, roti, vegetables, curd, salad) represents a self-contained, nutritious unit of food consumption.
  3. Cost Factor: Crisil estimates a home-cooked thali costs ₹30. Many households fall short of affording even two thalis/day per person.

How effective is the Public Distribution System?

  1. Food Deprivation with PDS: Even after including PDS food supplies, deprivation persists—40% rural and 10% urban cannot afford two thalis daily.
  2. Subsidy Distribution: In rural India, a person in the 90–95% expenditure class receives 88% of the subsidy given to the poorest 5%, despite much higher consumption capacity.
  3. Urban Progressivity: The PDS is more progressive in urban areas, but still, 80% receive subsidised or free food, including those not in need.

Why are cereals not enough

  1. Equalised Cereal Consumption: Both the poorest and richest consume similar amounts of rice and wheat, showing PDS success but also its limits.
  2. Expenditure Share: Cereals now account for only 10% of average household expenditure, so increasing cereal subsidy has diminishing returns.
  3. Need for Protein: Pulses consumption is half in the poorest 5% compared to the richest 5%, highlighting protein inequality.

Policy path: Equalising food consumption through pulses

  1. Expand PDS Coverage: Redirect subsidies towards pulses, the main protein source for many Indians.
  2. Rationalise Cereals Subsidy: Trim excess rice/wheat entitlements, especially for better-off groups, reducing stocking costs for FCI.
  3. Compact and Targeted PDS: By focusing on pulses and eliminating subsidies beyond the “two thali/day” norm, the system becomes both cost-effective and equitable.
  4. Global Significance: Achieving equalised food consumption across social classes would be a unique welfare success story worldwide.

Conclusion

The thali index reveals a hidden crisis of food deprivation that headline poverty numbers obscure. While cereal consumption has been equalised through decades of PDS efforts, the next frontier lies in ensuring protein security via pulses distribution. Rationalising subsidies and targeting them effectively can not only optimise public spending but also equalise primary food consumption across India, a feat that would stand as a benchmark in global welfare policy.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

How the DeepSeek-R1 AI model was taught to teach itself to reason

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

Reasoning, the ability to reflect, verify, self-correct, and adapt, has historically been considered uniquely human. From mathematics to moral decision-making, reasoning shapes every facet of human civilisation. Large language models (LLMs) like GPT-4 have shown glimpses of reasoning, but these were achieved with human-provided examples, introducing cost, bias, and limits. In September 2024, researchers at DeepSeek unveiled their model R1, which demonstrated reasoning through reinforcement learning (trial and error with rewards), without supervised fine-tuning. This represents a paradigm shift in how machines may learn, reason, and potentially evolve intelligence.

Why is DeepSeek-R1 in the News?

For the first time, an AI model has taught itself to reason without human-crafted examples. The results were dramatic: DeepSeek-R1 improved from 15.6% to 86.7% accuracy in solving American Invitational Mathematics Examination (AIME) problems, even surpassing the average performance of top human students. It also demonstrated reflection (“wait… let’s try again”) and verification—human-like traits of reasoning. The scale and quality of progress mark this as a milestone in AI research, contrasting sharply with traditional methods that heavily relied on human-labelled data.

What is Reinforcement Learning in AI?

  1. Definition: Reinforcement learning (RL) is a trial-and-error method where a system receives rewards for correct answers and penalties for wrong ones.
  2. DeepSeek’s Application: Instead of providing reasoning steps, the model was only rewarded for correct final answers.
  3. Outcome: Over time, R1 developed reflective chains of reasoning, dynamically adjusting “thinking time” based on task complexity.

How Did DeepSeek-R1 Achieve Self-Reasoning?

  1. R1-Zero Phase: Started with solving maths/coding problems, producing reasoning inside <think> tags and answers in <answer> tags.
  2. Trial-and-Error Learning: Wrong reasoning paths were discouraged, correct ones reinforced.
  3. Emergence of Reflection: Model started using “wait” or “let’s try again,” indicating self-correction.

What Were the Major Successes?

  1. Mathematical Benchmarks: R1-Zero improved from 15.6% to 77.9%, and with fine-tuning, to 86.7% on AIME.
  2. General Knowledge & Instruction Following: 25% improvement on AlpacaEval 2.0 and 17% on Arena-Hard.
  3. Efficiency: Adaptive thinking chains—shorter for easy tasks, longer for difficult ones—conserving computational resources.
  4. Alignment: Improved readability, language consistency, and safety.

What Are the Limitations and Risks

  1. High Energy Costs: Reinforcement learning is computationally expensive.
  2. Human Role Not Fully Eliminated: Open-ended tasks (e.g., writing) still require human-labelled data for reward models.
  3. Ethical Concerns: Ability to “reflect” raises risks of generating manipulative or unsafe content.
  4. Need for Stronger Safeguards: As AI reasoning grows, so does the risk of misuse.

Why Does this Matter for the Future of AI?

  1. Reduces Dependence on Human Labour: Cuts costs and addresses exploitative conditions in data annotation.
  2. Potential for Creativity: If reasoning can emerge from incentives, could creativity and understanding follow?
  3. Shift in AI Training Paradigm: From “learning by example” to “learning by exploration.”
  4. Global Implications: Impacts education, coding, mathematics, governance, and ethics of AI.

Conclusion

DeepSeek-R1 marks a turning point in AI evolution. By demonstrating reasoning through reinforcement learning alone, it challenges the notion that human-labelled data is indispensable. Yet, this very capability opens new debates—about creativity, autonomy, and control. For policymakers and citizens alike, the task is to harness AI’s promise while ensuring safety, fairness, and ethical integrity.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2023] Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does Al help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of Al in healthcare?

Linkage: The breakthrough of DeepSeek-R1 shows how AI can now reason through reinforcement learning without human-labelled data, making it more efficient and adaptive. Such reasoning ability can enhance clinical diagnosis by enabling AI to self-correct and refine decision-making in complex medical cases. However, as with healthcare AI generally, the privacy threat persists if sensitive patient data is fed into models without strong safeguards.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-China

Should India overlook boundary issues while normalizing ties with China?

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Introduction

The India-China relationship has historically oscillated between cautious cooperation and sharp confrontation. The latest Modi–Xi meeting on the sidelines of the SCO Summit reopened bilateral trade, air connectivity, and emphasised peace at the border. Yet, the memory of the 2020 Galwan clashes looms large. At stake is the central question: Can India afford to set aside the boundary dispute for the sake of wider cooperation, or would that compromise its strategic autonomy and long-term security?

Why is this debate in the news?

Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s China visit marks the first high-level attempt in five years to restore normalcy after Galwan. The move is significant as it reflects India’s willingness to restart engagement despite recent military tensions and China’s continued strategic partnership with Pakistan. The revival of trade and connectivity signals pragmatism, but it raises the question of whether unresolved boundary tensions can remain compartmentalised. This sharp contrast with the hostility of recent years makes the issue both urgent and unprecedented.

Can India normalise ties without resolving the boundary issue?

  1. Historical Precedent (1988, 1990s): Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to Beijing in 1988 initiated the idea of cooperation in other domains while border talks continued separately. Both sides agreed to maintain peace and tranquility along the LAC despite unresolved sovereignty disputes.
  2. Galwan Disruption (2020): The deadly clash exposed the fragility of this arrangement and highlighted China’s aggressive posture, a setback far greater than earlier skirmishes.
  3. Current Diplomatic Push: Since 2020, both countries have restored disengagement through buffer zones, with the 2024 Border Patrol Agreement marking an important breakthrough, including restoration of patrol rights in Demchok and Depsang.

What explains China’s actions and insecurities?

  1. Article 370 Effect: Chinese analysts linked Galwan to India’s constitutional move in Jammu & Kashmir, which Beijing opposed.
  2. Economic Competition: During the U.S.-China trade war, Beijing feared India aligning with Washington to grab supply-chain opportunities.
  3. India’s Growth Factor: China increasingly perceives India’s demographic dividend and economic rise as a potential threat, at a time when its own population is shrinking.
  4. Manufacturing Prowess: Despite insecurities, China’s dominance is overwhelming—accounting for 45% of global manufacturing output, highlighted by India’s Economic Survey 2024-25.

How fragile is the current normalisation?

  1. Possibility of Galwan-2: Any fresh military clash could derail progress entirely, as mistrust remains deep-rooted.
  2. Chinese Perception of India: Beijing no longer treats India as a peer but as a regional player to be managed, often subordinated to its ties with Pakistan.
  3. Infrastructure Build-up: China continues rapid military expansion on the Tibetan plateau, forcing India to invest heavily in its own LAC infrastructure.
  4. Diplomatic Asymmetry: Even as dialogue continues, China shows little real interest in a final border settlement.

Can India-China cooperation coexist with China’s South Asia strategy?

  1. China’s Trilateral Mechanisms: Beijing is building frameworks like Pakistan-China-Afghanistan and Pakistan-China-Bangladesh, which aim to sideline India.
  2. Strategic Rivalry: China views India as a long-term competitor; India counters with its own diplomatic cards.
  3. Interdependence Factor: Despite rivalry, both economies remain connected—India dependent on China’s manufacturing, and China wary of India’s market potential.

Conclusion

India cannot afford to overlook the boundary issue entirely, as sovereignty and security form the bedrock of foreign policy. Yet, pragmatic engagement, through trade, connectivity, and multilateral platforms, remains equally important. A calibrated approach that safeguards territorial integrity while leveraging cooperation where possible may be the most realistic path forward.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2014] With respect to the South China Sea, maritime territorial disputes and rising tension affirm the need for safeguarding maritime security to ensure freedom of navigation and ever flight throughout the region. In this context, discuss the bilateral issues between India and China.

Linkage: The South China Sea tensions highlight China’s assertive behaviour in territorial disputes, which parallels its aggressive stance on the India-China boundary issue, especially after Galwan. Just as freedom of navigation is contested in the maritime domain, peace and tranquility along the LAC is fragile despite agreements like the 2024 Border Patrol pact. Thus, bilateral issues centre on sovereignty, security dilemmas, and China’s attempts to limit India’s strategic space in both continental and regional contexts.

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Iran’s Nuclear Program & Western Sanctions

US revokes sanctions waiver on Chabahar Port

Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Why in the News?

The U.S. has ended the 2018 waiver that let India use Iran’s Chabahar Port for Afghanistan’s reconstruction, revoking it within 10 days.

US revokes sanctions waiver on Chabahar Port

About Chabahar Port:

  • Location: Deep-water port in Sistan-Baluchistan province of Iran, on the Gulf of Oman at the mouth of the Strait of Hormuz.
  • Unique Feature: The only Iranian port with direct access to the Indian Ocean.
  • Distances: Kandla Port, Gujarat – 550 nautical miles, Mumbai – 786 nautical miles from Chabahar.
  • Structure: Comprises Shahid Beheshti and Shahid Kalantari terminals.
  • Connectivity Potential: Its proximity to Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India and position on the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) gives it the ability to become a major commercial hub.
  • INSTC: A multi-modal route linking the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea via Iran, and onward to northern Europe via Russia.

India’s Engagements for Chabahar Port:

  • Tripartite Agreement (2016): India, Iran, and Afghanistan agreed to develop the Shahid Beheshti terminal, marking India’s first foreign port project.
  • Infrastructure Goals: Develop the port and build a rail line to Zahedan, bypassing Pakistan to reach Afghanistan and Central Asia.
  • Recent Developments: In May 2024, India Ports Global Ltd (IPGL) signed a 10-year lease to operate Shahid Beheshti.
  • Commitments: India pledged $120 million in equipment and a $250 million credit line.
  • Operations: India supplied 6 harbour cranes; facilitated shipments of 2.5 million tonnes of wheat and 2,000 tonnes of pulses to Afghanistan.

Implications of US Sanctions for India:

  • Economic Setback: Jeopardises India’s ₹200 crore investment and future projects.
  • Connectivity Loss: Cuts India’s only direct maritime gateway to Afghanistan, Central Asia, and INSTC.
  • Strategic Impact: Weakens India’s counter to China’s Gwadar Port in Pakistan under CPEC.
  • Diplomatic Strain: Risks tensions with Iran (strategic partner) and the United States (major trade partner).
  • Operational Challenges: Sanctions may deter shippers, insurers, and suppliers, slowing port activity.
[UPSC 2017] What is the importance of developing Chabahar Port by India?

Options: (a) India’s trade with African countries will enormously increase.

(b) India’s relations with oil-producing Arab countries will be strengthened.

(c) India will not depend on Pakistan for access to Afghanistan and Central Asia *

(d) Pakistan will facilitate and protect the installation of a gas pipeline between Iraq and India

 

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7 Natural Heritage Sites from India added to UNESCO’s Tentative List

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Why in the News?

Seven natural heritage sites from India were added to UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites, raising India’s tally from 62 to 69 places.

About the 7 newly added UNESCO Tentative List Sites:

Site

Detailed Facts
Deccan Traps (Panchgani & Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra) • One of the world’s largest volcanic provinces (~66 mya)
• Basalt lava flows covering ~500,000 sq. km
• Step-like “trap” topography, fossil beds, red bole layers
• Linked to end-Cretaceous mass extinction
• Part of Western Ghats; within Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary
St. Mary’s Island Cluster (Udupi, Karnataka) • Four islands in Arabian Sea near Udupi
• Famous for hexagonal/polygonal rhyolitic lava columns (~85–88 mya)
• Formed during breakup of India–Madagascar
• Declared National Geo-heritage Monument (2016)
• Rare acidic lava formations, unique in India
Meghalayan Age Caves (East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya) • Mawmluh Cave is type locality for Meghalayan Age (~4,200 years ago)
• Records global drought event in late Holocene
• Meghalaya has longest sandstone cave (Krem Puri – 24.5 km)
• Karst systems preserve stalagmites, paleoclimate archives
• Culturally significant to Khasi tribes; threatened by mining
Naga Hill Ophiolite (Nagaland) • 200 km belt of uplifted oceanic crust & mantle rocks
• Composed of gabbro, peridotite, basalt
• Formed at supra-subduction / mid-ocean ridge zones
• Later thrust onto Indian continental plate
• Only major ophiolite exposure in India; National Geological Monument
Erra Matti Dibbalu (Red Sand Hills, Andhra Pradesh) • Quaternary-age coastal red sand mounds (~12,000–18,500 years old)
• Spread over 5 km near Visakhapatnam
• Derived from ancient Khondalite rocks
• Record climate shifts, sea-level oscillations, monsoon history
• Mesolithic–Neolithic artefacts found; National Geo-heritage Monument
Tirumala Hills (Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh) • Famous for Eparchaean Unconformity (1.5 billion-year gap)
• Boundary between Archaean gneiss & Proterozoic quartzites
• Hosts Silathoranam natural arch, rare erosional landform
• Hills rise to ~900 m; part of Cuddapah Basin
• Combines geological, tectonic, and spiritual significance
Varkala Cliff (Kerala) • Coastal cliff escarpment up to 80 m high
• Exposes Mio-Pliocene Warkalli Formation (1.3–25 mya)
• Fossiliferous sedimentary rocks beside sea (rare in India)
• Natural springs and aquifers emerge from cliff face
• Declared National Geological Monument; major tourism hub (Papanasam Beach)

Back2Basics: UNESCO’s Tentative List

  • What is it: An inventory of cultural and natural sites that a member country plans to nominate for future World Heritage status.
  • Requirement: A site must stay on this list for at least one year before nomination.
  • Purpose: Allows UNESCO to assess Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) and plan conservation.
  • Note: Not all sites on the Tentative List become World Heritage Sites.
  • World Heritage Sites (WHS): Cultural, natural, or mixed sites recognised under the 1972 World Heritage Convention for their OUV.
  • Categories of WHS:
    • Cultural: Temples, monuments, forts, archaeological remains.
    • Natural: National parks, caves, biodiversity zones.
    • Mixed: Sacred landscapes with both cultural and natural value.
  • 10 Criteria for Selection: A site must satisfy at least one of these:
    • Cultural (i–vi): Masterpiece of human genius; interchange of values; unique cultural testimony; outstanding architecture/landscape; example of settlement/land use; linked to events, traditions, or ideas of universal significance.
    • Natural (vii–x): Exceptional natural beauty; example of Earth’s history; ecological or biological processes; key habitats for in-situ biodiversity conservation and threatened species.
  • India: It is currently a member of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee (2021–2025 term); Has 42 World Heritage Sites (34 cultural, 7 natural, 1 mixed).
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:

1. Shantiniketan 2. Rani-ki-Vav 3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya

How many of the above properties were included in 2023?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four

 

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

National Maritime Heritage Complex at Lothal

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

The PM has recently inspected the progress of the National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC) at Lothal in the Ahmedabad district.

dhol.jpg

About National Maritime Heritage Complex at Lothal:

  • Location: Lothal, Ahmedabad district, Gujarat, in the Bhal region near the Gulf of Khambhat.
  • Developer: Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways, Government of India.
  • Objective: To showcase India’s 5,000-year-old maritime history, especially the role of Lothal as the world’s earliest dockyard during the Indus Valley Civilization.
  • Historical Significance of Lothal:
    • Built around 2200 BCE as a major Harappan trade and craft centre for beads, gems, and ornaments.
    • Lothal in Gujarati means “Mound of the Dead”, similar to Mohenjo-daro.
    • Excavated by S.R. Rao (1955–1960).
    • Dockyard confirmed through studies (size: 222 x 37 m), once linked with Sabarmati’s old course.
    • Evidence of Lock Gates and Sluice System to regulate flow of water.
    • Trade connections extended to Mesopotamia and other ancient regions.
    • Nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2014); only known port-town of the Indus Valley Civilization.
  • Features of the Complex:
    • Exhibition halls, maritime park, amphitheater, museum, and research/educational facilities.
    • Will highlight ancient trade routes, shipbuilding traditions, and navigation techniques.
    • Expected to be a major hub for cultural tourism and heritage education.
[UPSC 2021] Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelling water into connected reservoirs?

(a) Dholavira*  (b) Kalibangan (c) Rakhigarhi (d) Ropar

 

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Innovation Ecosystem in India

Highlights of the Global Innovation Index, 2025

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

Why in the News?

The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) has released the Global Innovation Index (GII) 2025.

About the Global Innovation Index (GII):

  • Overview: Annual ranking of 139 economies by their innovation capacity and success.
  • Publishers: Jointly by Cornell University, INSEAD, and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
  • Origin: First published in 2007.
  • Indicators: Uses 80+ metrics across 7 pillars.
  • Structure:
    • Innovation Input Sub-Index: Institutions, human capital and research, infrastructure, market sophistication, business sophistication.
    • Innovation Output Sub-Index: Knowledge and technology outputs, creative outputs.
  • Purpose: Helps governments evaluate how effectively R&D, education, and infrastructure are translated into innovation outcomes.

Key Highlights of GII 2025:

  • Global R&D growth: Slowed to 2.9% (2024) and 2.3% (2025 projection), down from 4.4% earlier; lowest since the 2010 financial crisis.
  • Top Performers: Switzerland (1st), Sweden (2nd), United States (3rd), followed by Republic of Korea, Singapore, United Kingdom, Finland, Netherlands, Denmark, and China (10th).
  • China: Surpassed Switzerland in knowledge and technology outputs; 2nd highest in R&D expenditure; world leader in patent filings.
  • Regional Trends: Europe dominates with 15 of top 25 economies; Southeast, East Asia and Oceania (SEAO) region has 6 economies in top 25.
  • India: Ranked 38th globally with a score of ~40.5; top among lower-middle income countries and in Central & Southern Asia.
    • Strengths: Knowledge and technology outputs (22nd), market sophistication, and human capital and research.
    • Weaknesses: Business sophistication, infrastructure, and institutions remain lagging.
[UPSC 2019] The Global Competitiveness Report is published by the:

Options:

(a) International Monetary Fund  (b) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development  (c) World Economic Forum * (d) World Bank

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

Sirarakhong Hathei Chilli Festival

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

The 14th Sirarakhong Hathei Chilli Festival was inaugurated in Manipur.

Sirarakhong Hathei Chilli Festival

About Sirarakhong Hathei Chilli Festival:

  • Overview: An annual agricultural and cultural festival celebrated in Sirarakhong village, Ukhrul district, Manipur.
  • Origin: Began in 2010 to promote the Hathei chilli and its farming traditions.
  • Focus: Highlights the Geographical Indication (GI)-tagged Hathei chilli, which received GI status in 2021.
  • Activities: Involves flag hoisting, Tangkhul Naga cultural events, buyer–seller meets, marketing programmes, exhibitions, and awareness drives on government schemes.

Salient Features of Hathei Chilli:

  • Local Identity: Known as Sirarakhong chilli, indigenous to Ukhrul district.
  • Cultivation: Grown on slopes under the traditional jhum system.
  • Distinct Qualities: Recognised for its bright red colour, unique flavour, and medium pungency.
  • ASTA Value: Possesses a high American Spice Trade Association colour value, making it sought after for food colouring.
  • Nutritional Benefits: Rich in antioxidants, Vitamin C, and calcium, with medicinal value.
  • Uses: Widely used in cooking, pickles, flavouring, food colouring, and processing industries.
  • Uniqueness: Its qualities stem from the soil and climate of Sirarakhong, not reproducible elsewhere.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs:

Tradition- State

1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram

2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur

3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim

Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

 

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Textile Sector – Cotton, Jute, Wool, Silk, Handloom, etc.

What is PM MITRA Park?

Schemes | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

Why in the News?

Prime Minister recently laid the foundation stone for India’s first PM MITRA (Mega Integrated Textile Region and Apparel) Park in Dhar, Madhya Pradesh.

About PM MITRA Scheme:

  • Overview: Introduced by the Ministry of Textiles in 2021, the scheme aims to strengthen India’s textile sector by creating 7 world-class integrated parks.
  • Concept: Designed on the vision “Farm to Fibre to Factory to Fashion to Foreign”, each park consolidates the entire textile value chain—spinning, weaving, dyeing, processing, printing, and garment-making—within a single ecosystem.
  • Sites Selected: Tamil Nadu (Virudhunagar), Telangana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh (Dhar), and Uttar Pradesh (Lucknow).
  • Timeline: All parks are targeted to be established by 2026–27, with each covering around 1,000+ acres.
  • Implementation Structure:
    • Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV): Each park will be developed by an SPV jointly owned by the Centre and State Governments, operating in Public–Private Partnership (PPP) mode.
    • Development Capital Support (DCS): Up to ₹500 crore per park provided by the Centre to SPVs.
    • Competitive Incentive Support (CIS): Up to ₹300 crore per park offered to manufacturing units to encourage rapid implementation.

Key Features and Benefits:

  • Integrated Value Chain: All stages of textile production are located in one hub, reducing transport costs, delays, and inefficiencies.
  • World-Class Infrastructure: Includes incubation centres, design/testing labs, effluent treatment plants, reliable utilities, logistics facilities, and worker hostels.
  • Employment Generation: Each park expected to create ~1 lakh direct and ~2 lakh indirect jobs, especially benefiting women and rural youth.
  • Investment Boost: Scheme aims to attract over ₹70,000 crore in investments in the textile sector.

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Governor vs. State

[18th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: A judicial nudge following stuck legislative business

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

PYQ Relevance:

UPSC 2022: Discuss the essential conditions for exercise of the legislative powers by the Governor. Discuss the legality of re-promulgation of ordinances by the Governor without placing them before the Legislature.

Linkage: The recent Supreme Court directive fixing a timeline for Governors under Article 200 directly relates to the constitutional limits on gubernatorial powers discussed in the 2022 question. Both highlight that the Governor, as a constitutional head, must act on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers and not misuse discretion to stall legislation. Just as re-promulgation of ordinances undermines legislative supremacy, withholding assent indefinitely violates constitutional morality and federal balance.

Mentor’s Comment:

The recent Supreme Court intervention fixing a time limit for Governors and the President to act on Bills marks a constitutional milestone. This decision is not merely about timelines but about strengthening federalism, ensuring legislative efficacy, and curbing misuse of gubernatorial discretion. For UPSC aspirants, it becomes a vital case study in Centre-State relations, separation of powers, and the evolving role of the judiciary in sustaining democracy.

Introduction

The Supreme Court’s decision to prescribe a three-month time limit for Governors and the President to take a final call on Bills under Article 200/201 has reignited debates on federalism, separation of powers, and the scope of judicial activism. For decades, Governors have been accused of sitting indefinitely on Bills, creating a legislative deadlock and undermining the democratic will of elected legislatures. This judicial nudge aims to resolve what has become a serious constitutional anomaly, ensuring that governance does not remain hostage to political manoeuvring.

Why is this in the news?

The issue is significant because, for the first time, the Supreme Court has imposed a specific timeline—three months—for Governors and the President to act on Bills, despite the Constitution prescribing none. This intervention arose after repeated instances where Governors withheld assent or simply delayed action on Bills for years, undermining legislative functioning. The decision is both a remedy for constitutional paralysis and a reinforcement of federal balance, making it a landmark moment in India’s constitutional journey.

Judicial clarity on Article 200:

  1. Four options under Article 200: Assent to the Bill, withhold assent, return the Bill for reconsideration, or reserve it for the President.
  2. No discretion intended: The omission of the words “in his discretion” (present in Government of India Act, 1935, Section 75) shows the Constituent Assembly wanted Governors to act only on aid and advice of the Council of Ministers.
  3. Judicial commissions’ stand: Both Sarkaria and Punchhi Commissions reiterated that Governors are constitutional heads, not independent power centres.

Has the Governor misused discretionary powers?

  1. Contradictory judicial stance: While Shamsher Singh (1974) acknowledged discretionary scope, later judgments including Nabam Rebia (2016) and Tamil Nadu Governor case (2025) rejected such independence.
  2. Risk of overreach: Allowing Governors unilateral discretion would convert them into “super constitutional authorities,” stalling state governance.
  3. Expert view: D.D. Basu highlighted that unlike UK sovereigns, Indian Governors have no scope for withholding assent independently.

Why did the Supreme Court fix a timeline?

  1. Legislative paralysis: Governors had sat on Bills for years without decision, blocking governance.
  2. Judicial remedy: By fixing three months, the Court ensured smooth functioning of legislatures, akin to how Article 21’s scope was expanded through judicial interpretation in Maneka Gandhi.
  3. Federal protection: Recent rulings in State of Punjab v. Governor (2023) and State of Tamil Nadu v. Governor (2025) strengthened states’ autonomy, preventing misuse of gubernatorial office.

Could the Union have intervened earlier?

  1. Role under Article 355: The Union is duty-bound to ensure constitutional governance in states. A Governor blocking Bills indefinitely amounts to violation of constitutional provisions.
  2. Non-intervention so far: Successive Union governments avoided directing Governors, leading to judicial stepping in.
  3. Judicial nudge as necessity: The Court’s ruling acts as a constitutional guardrail in absence of executive remedy.

Implications for federalism and democracy

  1. Strengthening federal balance: Prevents Governors from acting as political agents of the Centre.
  2. Judicial activism or necessity?: Critics see it as judicial overreach, but history shows courts often expand constitutional meaning to meet new realities (e.g., Article 21 due process).
  3. Legislative efficiency: Restores faith in elected assemblies’ authority, ensuring people’s mandate is not subverted.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s directive to Governors and the President is a pragmatic response to a constitutional vacuum. It plugs misuse, safeguards federalism, and ensures legislative efficiency. Far from amending the Constitution, it exemplifies how judicial interpretation adapts constitutional principles to emerging challenges. This marks a significant moment where judicial innovation has strengthened democracy by preventing paralysis of governance.

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

The Hard Truth About Out-of-Pocket Health Expenditure

Explained | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Introduction

In India, healthcare financing is still heavily dependent on households directly paying for medical services. This out-of-pocket expenditure (OOPE) often pushes families into a vicious cycle of poverty and ill-health. The National Health Accounts (NHA) claims that OOPE as a share of total health expenditure has sharply declined, from 64% in 2013-14 to 39% in 2021-22. On the surface, this appears to be a major policy success. However, a closer look suggests that these numbers may be misleading, as they rely heavily on a single survey base (NSS 75th round, 2017-18) and ignore the lived realities of health shocks, especially during COVID-19.

Is OOPE in India Really Declining?

  1. NHA estimates: Show a steep decline in OOPE—from 64% in 2013-14 to 49% in 2017-18, and further to 39% in 2021-22.
  2. Basis of estimation: The 2017-18 NSS (75th round) forms the primary source, with later estimates extrapolated only for inflation.
  3. Question of accuracy: The decline may be linked to lower ailment reporting and reduced hospitalisation, not to falling medical costs.

How Do Other Data Sources Contradict NHA?

  1. Consumer Expenditure Survey (CES) 2022-23: OOPE as share of household consumption rose—from 5.5% to 5.9% in rural areas and 6.9% to 7.1% in urban areas (2011-12 to 2022-23).
  2. Longitudinal Ageing Study in India (LASI): Shows higher hospitalisation rates among the elderly, contrary to NSS-based decline.
  3. CPHS-CMIE Data: Reveals a V-shaped trend—steep fall in OOPE during COVID-19 due to under-utilisation, followed by a sharp rise. The NHA completely misses this fluctuation.
  4. National Income Accounts (NIA): Estimates show a steady rise in household health spending as a share of GDP, contradicting the NHA’s declining trend.

Why Are NHA Estimates Considered Flawed?

  1. Single-source dependency: NHA depends mainly on the NSS morbidity survey, which underreports ailments.
  2. Exclusion of COVID-19 impact: No NSS data during the pandemic, leading to an unrealistic secular decline in NHA series.
  3. Ignoring insurance and premiums: Even after including premiums, NHA still shows a steep, unexplained fall in OOPE.
  4. Political convenience: Numbers risk being used for policy propaganda without reflecting ground-level hardship.

What Are the Real Consequences of High OOPE?

  1. Poverty trap: Families borrow, sell assets, or cut consumption, leading to intergenerational poverty.
  2. Social impacts: Children drop out of school, women work longer hours, households skip meals.
  3. Rising health costs: Medicine prices and private care charges continue to rise, eroding household savings.
  4. COVID-19 experience: Families suffered catastrophic costs, which remain invisible in official accounts.

What Is the Way Forward?

  1. Diversified data sources: Use CES, LASI, CMIE, NFHS, and private medical sales databases alongside NSS.
  2. Regular, timely surveys: Health rounds of NSS must be more frequent to capture shocks like pandemics.
  3. Integration with NIA: Align NHA estimates with National Income Accounts for consistency.
  4. Transparent policymaking: Avoid over-reliance on selective data that paints a rosy picture.

Conclusion

The debate over out-of-pocket health expenditure in India highlights the gulf between official statistics and lived realities. While the National Health Accounts show a sharp decline in OOPE, independent surveys and household-level data point towards rising medical costs and deepening financial distress. Over-reliance on a single survey base not only distorts the picture but also risks misleading health policy. For a country aspiring to achieve Universal Health Coverage, credible, diversified, and transparent data must form the backbone of decision-making. Without this, India risks celebrating statistical success while millions continue to be pushed into poverty and ill-health by catastrophic healthcare expenses.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Besides being a moral imperative of a Welfare State, primary health structure is a necessary precondition for sustainable development. Analyse.

Linkage: The persistence of high out-of-pocket health expenditure (OOPE) despite claims of decline shows the weakness of India’s primary health structure, as families still bear catastrophic costs. A robust primary health system would reduce dependence on expensive hospitalisation and prevent poverty traps. Thus, strengthening primary health care is not just a welfare obligation, but essential for achieving sustainable and inclusive development.

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Iran’s Nuclear Program & Western Sanctions

Let Griger counters, not guesses, shape Iran Actions

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Introduction

The nuclear question has once again moved to the forefront of global geopolitics. Following the U.S. strikes on Iran’s underground nuclear site at Fordow in June 2025, the E3 (Britain, France, Germany) invoked the “snapback” clause of the 2015 nuclear deal, citing Iranian violations. If diplomacy falters, UN sanctions on enrichment, arms transfers, finance, and shipping will return, escalating global risks. The crisis is magnified by the absence of verified facts after the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) staff withdrew from Iran. In this environment of speculation and heightened risks, verification, not guesswork, must anchor diplomacy.

Why is this news significant?

The crisis is not just another Middle Eastern standoff; it is unprecedented in multiple ways. For the first time since 2015, the snapback clause has been triggered, threatening the revival of stringent UN sanctions. The crisis has exposed the vacuum of verified facts, as IAEA inspectors have been expelled, leaving the world to act on rumors. The stakes are global from oil markets and shipping insurance to regional stability and nuclear proliferation. For India, the challenge is sharper: ensuring uninterrupted oil flows through the Strait of Hormuz, stability in its extended neighborhood, and the safety of 8 million Indian citizens in West Asia.

Why does the absence of IAEA verification matter?

  1. Verification as the hinge of diplomacy: IAEA access substitutes speculation with facts and provides baselines for negotiations.
  2. Market stability: Comparable IAEA presence in Ukraine’s Zaporizhzhia plant calmed global markets; similar oversight in Iran could reduce volatility.
  3. Iran’s sovereignty concerns: Iran argues that inspectors compromise sovereignty and risk enabling strikes — past Israeli and U.S. strikes followed IAEA disclosures.
  4. Parliamentary resistance: Such episodes have hardened Iranian domestic opposition to IAEA cooperation.

What are the risks if Iran withdraws from the NPT?

  1. Legal vacuum: Withdrawal strips the IAEA of legal authority to inspect Iranian sites.
  2. Escalation to uncharted territory: Harder sanctions, further isolation, and the military option returning to the table.
  3. Global instability: From oil prices to nuclear proliferation, the fallout would be worldwide.

How is India placed in this unfolding crisis?

  1. Bridge-builder role: As a long-standing IAEA Board member with ties across divides, India is well-positioned to facilitate consensus.
  2. SCO and BRICS engagement: India joined others in condemning U.S.-Israel strikes, supporting a multilateral call for technical IAEA access.
  3. Technical contribution: India’s IAEA-certified Tarapur facility could analyze samples under safeguards, providing credible support.
  4. Energy and diaspora stakes: Protecting oil supplies and ensuring the safety of Indians abroad makes stability in West Asia non-negotiable for New Delhi.

What are the choices before the global community?

  1. Diplomatic opening: Iran’s recent agreement with the IAEA in Cairo (Sept 9, 2025) and allowing inspectors at Bushehr offer small openings.
  2. Snapback pause: If Iran extends verification to bombed sites, E3 may pause the snapback, shifting momentum back to diplomacy.
  3. Alternative — escalation: Failure of diplomacy risks sanctions, military standoffs, and cycles of strike and counterstrike.

Conclusion

The Iran nuclear standoff represents a defining moment for global non-proliferation and regional stability. What the world requires today is not speculation, but credible verification, structured dialogue, and sustained diplomacy. For India, the stakes go beyond principles of international order to immediate concerns of energy security, diaspora protection, and regional peace. By using its credibility in multilateral forums and offering technical expertise, India can position itself as a constructive stakeholder. Ultimately, the crisis will test whether global powers can rise above unilateralism and competing interests to uphold collective security and prevent a slide into escalation.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact Controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?

Linkage: The ongoing U.S.-Iran nuclear pact controversy directly impacts India’s energy security, diaspora safety in West Asia, and regional stability. Escalation could disrupt oil supplies through the Strait of Hormuz and complicate India’s strategic balance between the U.S., Iran, and Gulf states. India must respond with measured diplomacy, supporting verification through the IAEA while safeguarding its vital national interests.

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Renewable Energy – Wind, Tidal, Geothermal, etc.

Govt to push Geothermal Pilots under New Policy

| Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

The Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE) has launched its first National Policy on Geothermal Energy, aiming to create a regulatory and developmental framework for tapping geothermal resources.

Govt to push Geothermal Pilots under New Policy

India’s Geothermal Policy, 2025: Key Highlights

  • Launch: India’s first National Policy on Geothermal Energy was officially notified in September 2025 by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
  • Alignment with Goals: The policy is designed to support Net Zero by 2070, dovetailing with India’s renewable energy targets.
  • Scope: Applies to both power generation and direct-use applications such as district heating, agriculture, aquaculture, spa tourism, and industrial cooling.
  • Implementation Agency: MNRE is the nodal agency; other ministries, state governments, oil & gas firms, and academic institutions will collaborate.
  • Financial & Regulatory Support:
    • Tax incentives, grants, concessional financing, long-term leases (up to 30 years).
    • Viability Gap Funding (VGF) to offset high upfront costs (₹36 crore per MW).
    • Open access waivers, must-run status, and parity with other renewables.
  • Repurposing Wells: A strong focus on repurposing abandoned oil & gas wells for geothermal energy; MNRE already working with ONGC, Vedanta Ltd’s Cairn Oil & Gas, Reliance.
  • Global Collaboration: Partnerships with Iceland, Norway, US, and Indonesia for R&D, Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) and Advanced Geothermal Systems (AGS).
  • Pilot Projects: Five sanctioned projects for resource assessment and demonstration across multiple regions.

Geothermal Energy Scenario in India:

  • Potential: Estimated at 10.6 GW (10,600 MW), as identified by the Geological Survey of India (GSI).
  • Mapping: Over 381 hot springs mapped with surface temperatures ranging 35°C – 89°C.
  • Global Context: According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), India, US, and China together account for 75% of global potential for next-gen geothermal.
  • Projects & Status:
    • NO grid-connected geothermal plants yet; focus is on pilot, demo, and R&D projects.
    • 20 kW pilot binary-cycle plant commissioned at Manuguru, Telangana.
    • Ongoing pilots: Puga (Ladakh), Chhumathang (Ladakh), Cambay (Gujarat), Barmer (Rajasthan).
    • IIT Madras + Vedanta project: retrofitting abandoned oil wells in Barmer to generate 450 kWh of electricity.
  • Future Roadmap:
    • 10 GW target by 2030, ~100 GW potential by 2045.
    • Vision 2047: Viksit Bharat, hybrid solar-geothermal projects, and heating for cold regions (Ladakh, NE, Andamans).

Govt to push Geothermal Pilots under New Policy

Major Geothermal Sites in India

Region/State Site/Province Key Features & Notes
Ladakh (Himalayan Province) Puga Valley High-temperature hot springs; identified by US ITA (2024) as most promising; pilot projects underway.
Chhumathang Similar potential as Puga; targeted for power generation and direct heating applications.
Himachal Pradesh Manikaran Popular hot spring zone; suitable for pilot geothermal plants and tourism-linked heating.
Satluj, Beas, Spiti Valleys Multiple geothermal spots mapped by GSI; moderate-to-high potential.
Uttarakhand Tapoban & Alaknanda Valley Himalayan geothermal systems; identified for research and pilot use.
Gujarat Cambay Graben Abandoned oil wells available for repurposing (ONGC, Reliance, Vedanta pilots).
Lasundra (Vadodara) Known hot spring site; potential for direct-use applications.
Chhattisgarh Tattapani Field Well-studied geothermal site; suitable for direct heat use and demonstration projects.
Jharkhand / West Bengal Damodar Valley Identified geothermal prospects; part of GSI mapping.
Surajkund (Jharkhand) Among hottest springs in India (85–87°C).
Andaman & Nicobar Islands Volcanic geothermal fields High geothermal promise; strategic as islands rely on costly power (₹30–32/unit → could drop below ₹10–11).
Telangana Manuguru 20 kW pilot binary-cycle geothermal power plant commissioned.
Other States Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Maharashtra, Meghalaya Multiple small hot spring clusters mapped by GSI; low-to-moderate potential.

 

[UPSC 2013] Consider the following:

1. Electromagnetic radiation

2. Geothermal energy

3. Gravitational force

4. Plate movements

5. Rotation of the earth

6. Revolution of the earth

Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?

(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only (b) 1, 3, 5 and 6 only (c) 2, 4, 5 and 6 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 *

 

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Mother and Child Health – Immunization Program, BPBB, PMJSY, PMMSY, etc.

[pib] Swasth Nari, Sashakt Parivar Abhiyaan (SNSPA)

Schemes | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

Why in the News?

Prime Minister has launched the Swasth Nari, Sashakt Parivar Abhiyaan (SNSPA) alongside the 8th Rashtriya Poshan Maah.

[pib] Swasth Nari, Sashakt Parivar Abhiyaan (SNSPA)

About Swasth Nari, Sashakt Parivar Abhiyaan (SNSPA):

  • Launch: Introduced on 17 September 2025 by the PM, jointly led by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and the Ministry of Women and Child Development.
  • Objective: Strengthen women’s, children’s, and family health services, focusing on rural, tribal, and underserved regions.
  • Scale: Over 10 lakh health camps at Ayushman Arogya Mandirs, Community Health Centres (CHCs), and District Hospitals.
  • Screenings: Anaemia, hypertension, diabetes, TB, breast and cervical cancers, sickle cell disease, reproductive health conditions.
  • Services offered: Maternal, child, adolescent health including antenatal care, immunisation, nutrition counselling, menstrual hygiene, mental health, lifestyle awareness.
  • Digital Monitoring: SASHAKT portal ensures real-time data tracking and transparency.
  • Jan Bhagidaari: Collaboration with private hospitals, SHGs, Anganwadis, Panchayati Raj institutions, volunteers.
  • Tribal Focus: Specialised medical services and tailored counselling for remote and tribal areas.

What is Rashtriya Poshan Maah?

  • Overview: Part of POSHAN Abhiyaan (National Nutrition Mission); celebrated annually since 2018.
  • 2025 Edition: 8th Poshan Maah, aligned with SNSPA for synergised impact.
  • Aim: Mobilise communities to improve nutrition of children, pregnant women, lactating mothers, and adolescent girls.
  • Activities: Poshan Panchayats, health and nutrition camps, recipe demos, rallies, school-Anganwadi outreach, Jan Andolan approach.
  • Focus Areas (2025):
    • Anaemia Mukt Bharat and micronutrient awareness.
    • Complementary feeding practices for infants and toddlers.
    • Poshan-Vatika (nutri-gardens) for food security.
    • Promotion of traditional and regional diets for sustainable nutrition.
[UPSC 2024] With reference to the ‘Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan’, consider the following statements:

1. This scheme guarantees a minimum package of antenatal care services to women in their second and third trimesters of pregnancy and six months post-delivery health care service in any government health facility.

2. Under this scheme, private sector health care providers of certain specialities can volunteer to provide services at nearby government health facilities.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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