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  • Wetland Conservation

    In the news: Pulicat Wetland

    India MappingPrelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the news?

    • Settlement of claims for local communities within Pulicat Wetland and Birds Sanctuary boundary raises concerns.
    • State government plans to denotify a significant portion of the sanctuary and Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ) for industrial park development.

    About Pulicat Wetland and Birds Sanctuary

    • Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary is the second-largest bird sanctuary in India.
    • It cuts across Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh and Thiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu.
    • The sanctuary is situated along the coast of the Bay of Bengal covering an area of 759 square kilometers.
    • The sanctuary is bordered by the Arani River at its southern tip, the Kalangi River from the Northwest, and the Swarnamukhi River at the northern end.
    • Pulicat Lake runs parallel to the Bay of Bengal and has a sand bar, making it a lagoon of its own kind.
    • Sriharikota, renowned as India’s rocket launch pad and home to the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, separates the lake from the Bay of Bengal.
    • The sanctuary includes 16 island villages and 30 villages adjoining the lake, whose inhabitants depend on the lake for their livelihood.
    • Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary hosts a large number of migratory birds during winter, including gulls, terns, plovers, shanks, curlews, and storks.
    • It is a habitat for a variety of bird species such as flamingos, pelicans, storks, herons, and ducks.

    What are the Eco-sensitive Zones (ESZs)?

    •  Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) or Ecologically Fragile Areas (EFAs) are areas notified by the MoEFCC around Protected Areas, National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
    • The purpose of declaring ESZs is to create some kind of “shock absorbers” to the protected areas by regulating and managing the activities around such areas.
    • They also act as a transition zone from areas of high protection to areas involving lesser protection.

     How are they demarcated?

    • The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 does NOT mention the word “Eco-Sensitive Zones”.
    • However, Section 3(2)(v) of the Act, says that Central Government can restrict areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries, operations or processes shall be carried out or shall not, subject to certain safeguards.
    • Besides Rule 5(1) of the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 states that central government can prohibit or restrict the location of industries and carrying on certain operations or processes on the basis of certain considerations.
    • The same criteria have been used by the government to declare No Development Zones (NDZs).

    Defining its boundaries

    • An ESZ could go up to 10 kilometres around a protected area as provided in the Wildlife Conservation Strategy, 2002.
    • Moreover, in the case where sensitive corridors, connectivity and ecologically important patches, crucial for landscape linkage, are beyond 10 km width, these should be included in the ESZs.
    • Further, even in the context of a particular Protected Area, the distribution of an area of ESZ and the extent of regulation may not be uniform all around and it could be of variable width and extent.

     

    PYQ:

     [2017] Consider the following statements:

    1. In India, the Himalayas are spread over five States only.

    2. Western Ghats are spread over five States only.

    3. Pulicat Lake is spread over two States only.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1 and 3 only

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC-4) Meeting in Ottawa

    IOCR | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the news?

    • The fourth session of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC-4) is happening in Ottawa, Canada.
    • The goal is to finalize a global agreement on plastic pollution by November this year.

    What is the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC)?

    • INC is a committee that aims to develop a legally binding international instrument to end plastic pollution by 2025, as mandated by United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) Resolution 5/14.
    • It began working in November 2022 at Punta del Este, Uruguay (INC-1).
      • The second meeting (INC-2) took place in May-June, 2023 at Paris, France.
      • The INC-3 met in Nairobi in December 2023.
    • INC is scheduled to complete its work by the end of 2024.

    Key Points from INC-4:

    • Previous meetings (INC-1, INC-2, INC-3) paved the way for this one.
    • They’re focusing on cutting out unnecessary plastic use while still using it for important things like renewable energy.

    Future Prospects:

    • INC-5 will happen in Busan, South Korea, and it’s meant to finalize everything.
    • After that, leaders from different countries will sign the agreement.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] With reference to ‘Global Environment Facility’, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    (a) It serves as financial mechanism for ‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ and ‘United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’

    (b) It undertakes scientific research on environmental issues at global level

    (c) It is an agency under OECD to facilitate the transfer of technology and funds to underdeveloped countries with specific aim to protect their environment.

    (d) Both A and B

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  • Coal and Mining Sector

    [pib]  Role of the Coal Controller’s Organisation (CCO)

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

    Why in the news?

    The Coal Controller’s Organisation (CCO) recently held inspections of Coal Mines to ensure the accuracy of Coal class and grade declarations.

    Coal Sector in Indian Economy:

    • The Indian coal sector is one of the 8 core sectors contributing heavily to the economic development of India.
    • In India, there are 4 grades of coal available: Lignite, Bituminous, Sub-Bituminous, and Anthracite, and out of which Anthracite is the highest grade of coal.
    • More than 70% of Coal reserves in India are mainly found in the South-Central region i.e. in Orissa, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand.
    • India is the second-largest producer of Anthracite globally after China.
    • The mining sector accounts for more than 2% contribution to the total GDP of India.
    • India, had a global share of Coal production nearly 9%.
    • India’s share of coal in major imports in FY 2023 was estimated at 8%.
    • India exports coking coal to neighboring countries, including Nepal, Bangladesh, and Bhutan.

    About Coal Controller’s Organisation (CCO)

    • The CCO was established in 1975 under the Coal Mines (Conservation and Development) Act, 1974.
    • It operates under the Ministry of Coal.
    • It is headquartered in Kolkata and field offices at Dhanbad, Ranchi, Bilaspur, Nagpur, Sambalpur, Kothagudem, and Asansol.

    Functions of CCO

    • Regulatory Oversight: Regulates coal industry activities, ensuring compliance with laws and policies.
    • Inspections: It conducts inspections of collieries to ensure the accuracy of coal class and grade declarations under the Colliery Control Rules, 2004 (Amended in 2021).
    • Quality Control: Establishes and enforces standards for coal quality through testing and inspection.
    • Grading and Classification: Categorizes coal into grades based on quality and intended use.
    • Licensing and Permissions: Issues licenses and permits to coal producers, traders, and consumers.
    • Data Collection and Analysis: Collects and analyzes data on coal production, consumption, and market trends.
    • Research and Development: Conducts or sponsors R&D to improve mining techniques and coal quality.
    • Conservation and Sustainability: Formulates policies for coal resource conservation and sustainable development.
    • Enforcement and Compliance: Ensures compliance with coal-related regulations through inspections and enforcement actions.

    Grades of Coal in India

    The gradation of coal is based on-

    1. Non-Coking Coal: Based on Gross Calorific Value (GCV).
    2. Coking Coal: Ash Content
    3. Semi Coking /Weakly Coking Coal: Ash plus Moisture Content

    What is Coke?

    • Coke is a solid carbonaceous material derived from heating coal in the absence of air.
    • It is a porous, hard, black substance with a high carbon content and few impurities.
    • Coke is primarily used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in the process of smelting iron ore to produce steel in a blast furnace.

    Types of Coal based on Coking ability

    1. Non-Coking Coal: Non-coking coal, also known as thermal coal, is coal that does not have the ability to undergo conversion into coke when heated in the absence of air. It is primarily used for power generation in thermal power plants, as well as for other industrial applications such as cement production and heating.
    2. Coking Coal: Coking coal, also known as metallurgical coal, is a type of coal that possesses the necessary properties to undergo conversion into coke when heated in the absence of air. Coking coal is characterized by its high carbon content, low ash content, and ability to form a strong, porous coke when heated.
    3. Semi Coking / Weakly Coking Coal: Semi-coking or weakly coking coal is a coal type that falls between non-coking coal and coking coal in terms of its properties. While it does not fully qualify as coking coal due to certain limitations in its coking properties, it exhibits some degree of coking ability when heated.

     

    PYQ:

    [2022] In India, what is the role of the Coal Controller’s Organization (CCO)?

    1. CCO is the major source of Coal Statistics in Government of India.
    2. It monitors progress of development of Captive Coal/Lignite blocks.
    3. It hears any objection to the Government’s notification relating to acquisition of coal-bearing areas.
    4. It ensures that coal mining companies deliver the coal to end users in the prescribed time.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2 and 3

    (b) 3 and 4 only

    (c) 1 and 2 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 4

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  • Air Pollution

    On the National Clean Air Programme | Explained

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the news? 

    When the Indian government launched the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) in 2019, it’s target was to cut the concentration of atmospheric Particulate Matter (PM) by 20-30% by 2024, from 2017 levels. This was later revised to 40% by 2026.

    What is the NCAP?

    • The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) was launched in India in January 2019 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
    • The NCAP aims to achieve reductions in PM10 levels through various measures.

    What is PM10? 

    • PM 10, also known as particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 micrometers.
    • PM 10 particles can irritate the eyes, nose, and throat, and prolonged exposure to high levels of PM 10 can lead to serious health problems, including respiratory issues, cardiovascular disease, and even premature death.

    Key features of NCAP (Note: asked in UPSC 2020 mains)

    • Target: Achieving 20% to 30% reduction target in Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5) concentrations by 2024, where 2017 is kept as the base year for the comparison of concentration. But it has been revised to 40% by 2026.
    • Cities based on air quality:Identification of 122 non-attainment cities across the country based on the 2014-2018 Air Quality data.
    • City specific plans: Preparation of city-specific action plans, including measures to strengthen the monitoring network, reduce vehicular/industrial emissions, and increase public awareness.
    • Coordination between centre, state and local: Facilitating collaborative, multi-scale, and cross-sectoral coordination between the relevant central ministries, state governments, and local bodies.
    • Right mix with exixting policies: Establishing a right mix with the existing policies and programs, including the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and other government initiatives related to climate change.
    • Changes as per additional scientific information: Constant change, activity, and progress to get evolved based on the additional scientific and technical information as they emerge.
    • Monitoring station: Increasing the number of monitoring stations in the country, including rural monitoring stations, technology support, and data analysis.
    • Awareness and capicity building: Emphasis on awareness and capacity building initiatives, including public awareness campaigns, training programs, and research and development activities.

     Challenges related to NCAP 

    • Lack of fund Utilization: On average, only 60% of the allocated funds have been utilized so far, with 27% of cities spending less than 30% of their designated budgets. Notably, Visakhapatnam and Bengaluru have spent 0% and 1% of their NCAP funds, respectively.
    • Implementation Delays: Delays in implementing CAAPs are attributed to various factors, including bureaucratic hurdles such as delays in approvals from competent authorities and the absence of standard operating procedures.
    • Technical Challenges: Technical challenges, such as defining technical specifications for tendering processes and procuring necessary equipment like mechanical sweepers and electric buses, contribute to implementation delays.

    How scientific tool can help?

    • Emissions Inventory (EI): EIs provide crucial insights into local pollution sources and their contributions, aiding in forecasting future emissions and shaping targeted pollution control strategies. 
    • Source Apportionment (SA) Studies: SA studies offer detailed analyses of contributions from various pollution sources, including distant ones.
    • Role of Air Quality (AQ) Modelling: AQ modelling helps in understanding pollution dispersion, including from distant sources.
    • Role of EI, SA and AQ: Combining EI, SA studies, and AQ modelling allows for a comprehensive understanding of pollution sources, their contributions, and dispersion patterns.

    Conclusion: 

    Implement stricter monitoring mechanisms to ensure timely and efficient fund utilization. Regular audits and reviews can help identify underutilization and take corrective actions promptly.

    Mains PYQ

    Q What are the key features of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) initiated by the government of India? (UPSC IAS/2020)

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  • The Crisis In The Middle East

    Tensions grow in West Asia, a heavily militarised region

    ExplainedIOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the news? 

    According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute’s ‘Trends in International Arms Transfers 2023’, four of the top 10 largest importers of arms last year were from West Asia, with the U.S. being the main supplier

    SIPRI Report: Trends in International Arms Transfers, 2023

    • India’s Arms Imports: Increased by 4.7% compared to 2014-18.
    • European Arms Imports: Saw a staggering 94% increase between 2014-18 and 2019-23, likely influenced by the Russia-Ukraine conflict.
    • Russia-India Arms Trade: Russia remained India’s largest arms supplier, accounting for 36% of total imports.
    • Top Global Importers: India, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar emerged as the top three importers globally.
    • Ukraine’s Arms Imports: Became the fourth largest arms importer during the specified period.
    • China-Pakistan Arms Trade: Pakistan, the fifth largest arms importer, obtained 82% of its arms from China.
    • France’s Arms Exports: Emerged as the world’s second-largest arms supplier, after the United States.
    • French Arms Exports to India: India was highlighted as the largest single recipient of French arms exports.

     

    West Asia has largest expenditure in Defence as per GDP %

    Reason behind the west Asia is heavily militarised region:

    • Regional Conflicts and Tensions: The region is characterized by ongoing conflicts and tensions, such as those in Yemen and Syria, leading countries to seek advanced weaponry to address security challenges
    • Oil Boom: The oil boom in West Asia has led to increased military spending as countries seek to protect their oil resources and maintain regional stability
    • Internal Factors: The presence of Western arms and personnel in some Persian Gulf countries has contributed to internal resurgences, leading states to invest in military capabilities for self-defense
    • Diversification of Arms Suppliers: West Asian states have adopted the principle of diversifying sources of arms supply, leading to a broader range of arms imports from various suppliers globally
    • Client-Supplier Relationship: The relationship between client states and arms suppliers is often favorable to the recipient, with the recipient receiving the arms they wish and the supplier bowing to their demands
    • Regional Disputes and Border Skirmishes: Border disputes, threats, and wars have made it imperative for West Asian states to resort to modern and efficient national defense systems like conflict between Iran and Israel

    Conclusion: 

    Encourage diplomatic efforts to resolve regional conflicts and tensions through dialogue and negotiation, aiming to reduce the need for excessive military spending. Advocate for the establishment of regional arms control agreements to limit the proliferation of weapons and promote stability in the West Asia region.

    Mains PYQ 

    Q How will I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE and USA) grouping transform India’s position in global politics?

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  • Swachh Bharat Mission

    The reality of the Swachh Bharat Mission

    Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

    Why in the news? 

    India was ranked right at the bottom of 180 countries in the Environment Performance Index (EPI) in 2022. The EPI ranks countries on climate change performance, environmental health, and ecosystem vitality.

    Swachh Bharat Abhiyan

    • It is also known as the Clean India Mission, is a significant campaign initiated by the Government of India on October 2, 2014,
    • It is primarily aimed at eliminating open defecation, improving solid waste management, and promoting cleanliness across the country.

    Key challenges related to Swachh Bharat Mission

    • Poor Quality of Infrastructure: Reports suggest inadequate construction quality of toilets under the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), raising questions about the effectiveness of the initiative.
    • Inadequate Access to Sanitation Facilities: Despite government claims, communities in slums and peri-urban areas still lack access to public toilets, contributing to sanitation challenges.
    • Lack of Waste Treatment: Toilet construction in rural areas is not linked to waste treatment, leading to improper disposal of faecal sludge and environmental contamination.
    • Ineffective Waste Management Technologies: Large, capital-intensive waste management technologies have failed to meet expectations, resulting in health crises and the need for additional resources to fix them.
    • Privatization of Public Health Services: The outsourcing of sanitation work to private contractors, often employing subjugated communities, has led to the privatization of public health services and perpetuated caste discrimination.
    • Insufficient Human Resources: Shortage of sanitation inspectors and inadequacy in recruitment efforts hinder effective monitoring and management of sanitation programs at the local level.

    Way forward

    • Enhanced Quality Assurance: Implement stricter quality control measures to ensure the construction of toilets meets prescribed standards. Regular inspections and audits can help identify and rectify any construction deficiencies.
    • Targeted Infrastructure Development: Prioritize the construction of public toilets in slums and peri-urban areas to improve access to sanitation facilities for marginalized communities.
    • Integrated Waste Management: Integrate toilet construction with waste treatment facilities in rural areas to ensure proper disposal of faecal sludge.

    Mains PYQ 

    Q What are the impediments in disposing the huge quantities of discarded solid wastes which are continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment? (UPSC IAS/2018)

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    95Mat5 Antibody: Revolutionizing Snakebite Treatment

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the news?

    After multiple rounds of screening, researchers have identified an antibody, 95Mat5 that showed promising results in making a potent antidote against various snake venoms.

    What is 95Mat5?

    • 95Mat5 is a universal antivenom developed to neutralize the toxins present in snake venoms.
    • Development Process:
    1. The scientists first synthesized variants of a toxin called long-chain 3FTxs (3FTx-L), which are found in the venoms of various snakes, including cobras, kraits, mambas, and monocled cobras.
    2. They then screened billions of human antibodies expressed on the surface of yeast cells to find antibodies that bound best to the synthesized toxins.
    3. After multiple rounds of screening, they identified a shortlist of antibodies that broadly reacted with most of the 3FTx variants used in the study.
    4. The selected antibodies were further tested in vitro in human cells to determine which ones could best neutralize the toxins.

    Mechanism of Action

    • 95Mat5 specifically targets α-neurotoxins, which are a specific class of 3FTxs that prevent nerve and muscle cells from responding to acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in carrying messages from neurons to muscles.
    • By binding to the toxins, 95Mat5 prevents toxins from interacting with the receptors in human nerve and muscle cells, thereby blocking their ability to induce paralysis and other deadly effects.
    • In animal experiments, 95Mat5 demonstrated efficacy in neutralizing the toxins present in the venoms of various snake species, protecting the animals from death.

    Global Impact of Snakebites

    • Venomous snakebites claim over 100,000 lives annually, with around 400,000 individuals suffering permanent disability.
    • Low and middle-income countries, especially India and Africa, bear the brunt of this burden.
      • India alone witnessing an average of 58,000 deaths each year.
    • In 2017, the World Health Organisation (WHO) declared snakebite envenoming as a highest priority Neglected Tropical Disease, shedding light on a long-hidden health crisis.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] With reference to carbon nanotubes, consider the following statements:

    1. They can be used as carriers of drugs and antigens in the human body.
    2. They can be made into artificial blood capillaries for an injured part of human body.
    3. They can be used in biochemical sensors.
    4. Carbon nanotubes are biodegradable.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2, 3 and 4 only

    (c) 1, 3 and 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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  • Digital India Initiatives

    [pib] India showcases CPGRAMS at 3rd Biennial Pan-Commonwealth Meeting in London

    IOCRPrelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the news?

    India’s Centralised Public Grievance Redress and Monitoring System (CPGRAMS) received global recognition during the 3rd Biennial Pan-Commonwealth Heads in London.

    What is CPGRAMS?

    • The primary objective of CPGRAMS is to provide citizens with a user-friendly mechanism to register complaints or grievances related to various government departments and agencies.
    • It is an online platform available to the citizens 24×7 to lodge their grievances to the public authorities on any subject related to service delivery.
    • It was created in June 2007 by the Department of Administrative Reforms & Public Grievances.
    • It has been designed in-house by the National Informatics Centre team.
    • Prime Minister is the supreme head of the CPGRAMS.

    Key functions of CPGRAMS include:

    • Grievance Lodging and Tracking: Citizens can lodge grievances online and track their progress using a unique registration number generated by the system.
    • Role-Based Access: Every Ministry and state have role-based access to this system, ensuring that grievances are forwarded to the concerned Ministries or Government Departments.
    • Appeal Facility: CPGRAMS provides an appeal facility to the citizens if they are not satisfied with the resolution by the Grievance Officer.
    • Feedback Mechanism: After the closure of grievance, if the complainant is not satisfied with the resolution, they can provide feedback. If the rating is ‘Poor’, the option to file an appeal is enabled. The status of the Appeal can also be tracked by the petitioner with the grievance registration number.

    Issues that are NOT taken up under CPGRAMS:

    • Subjudice cases or any matter concerning judgment given by any court.
    • Personal and Family disputes.
    • Right to Information (RTI) Queries.
    • Anything that impacts upon territorial integrity of the country or friendly relations with other countries.
    • Grievances of Government employees concerning their service matters including disciplinary proceedings etc because there is already a mechanism for addressing these issues.

    What is the Commonwealth of Nations?

    • The Commonwealth of Nations is an intergovernmental organization of 53 member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire.
    • It dates back to the first half of the 20th century with the decolonization of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories.
    • It was originally created as the British Commonwealth of Nations through the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference.
    • It was formalized by the UK through the Statute of Westminster in 1931.
    • The symbol of this free association is Queen Elizabeth II, who is the Head of the Commonwealth.
      • Membership: Based on free and equal voluntary cooperation.

    History of its creation

    • The Commonwealth was created in the early 1900s when nations that were formerly a part of the British Empire began to secede.
    • India is one of the founding members of the modern Commonwealth.
    • India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, played a key role in the creation of the modern Commonwealth in 1949, Indian policy-makers over the years have considered it as a relic of empire and steeped in colonial legacy.

    Working of Commonwealth

    • Commonwealth members have no legal obligations to one another.
    • Instead, they are united by language, history, culture and their shared values of democracy, human rights and the rule of law.

    Actual functioning: Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM)

    • CHOGM which takes place every two years is a platform for all Commonwealth leaders to meet and discuss issues about the Commonwealth.
    • The motto behind the meeting is to reaffirm common values, address the shared global challenges and agree on how to work to create a better future.

     

    PYQ:

    [2012] With reference to consumers rights/privileges under the provisions of law in India, which of the following statements is/are correct?
    1. Consumers are empowered to take samples for food testing.

    2. When a consumer files a complaint in any consumer forum, no fee is required to be paid.

    3. In case of death of a consumer, his/her legal heir can file a complaint in the consumer forum on his/her behalf.

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

    [2016] The plan of Sir Stafford Cripps envisaged that after the Second World War,

    (a) India should be granted complete independence

    (b) India should be partitioned into two before granting independence

    (c) India should be made a republic with the condition that it will join the Commonwealth

    (d) India should be given Dominion status

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  • Minimum Support Prices for Agricultural Produce

    PREMIUM – Subsidies – Good or Bad for India?

    Explained | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues,Major Crops & Cropping Patterns,PDS, Buffer Stock & Food Security

    Why in the News? 

    Issues have been raised by the World Trade Organization (WTO) concerning Agricultural Subsidies in India. Major subsidies in India are on fertilizer, power, credit, output, seed, and export products.

    What is Subsidy?

    • The term subsidy refers to financial assistance in the form of discounts or monetary grants by the Central government to public entities or private institutions. 
    • The objective is to make the products offered by these institutions affordable for public consumption. 
    • The subsidized products are necessary for the larger public good and are a means of supporting the community’s welfare.

     

    Historical Background

    • Post-Independence Era (1947 onwards): The government introduced various subsidies to promote industrialization, agriculture, and social welfare, aiming to reduce poverty and achieve self-sufficiency in key sectors.
    • Green Revolution (1960s): During the 1960s and 1970s, Subsidies on fertilizers, seeds, and credit were provided to farmers to encourage the adoption of new agricultural technologies and boost food production.
    • Liberalization Reforms (1991):  While liberalization led to a reduction in some subsidies and a shift towards market-oriented policies, the government continued to provide support to sectors deemed crucial for social welfare and economic development.

    Types of Subsidies:

    • Food subsidy: The food subsidy’s main objective is to provide essential eatables to a large section of the population living below the poverty line in India. 
      • The major food items supplied to the BPL families (by PDS system) vary as per the region, it includes – Wheat, Rice, Sugar, Milk, Cooking oil, and more.
    • Education subsidy: The Central government extends the education subsidy to eligible students to pursue higher technical and professional education.
    • Export subsidy: To make exports attractive and lend support to the companies, the government offers export subsidies. 
    • Fertilizer subsidy: The fertilizer is provided at a fixed MRP that is below the actual price; the government pays the difference between the actual coat and the MRP.

    (Note: There are various types of subsidies but UPSC usually asks for Agriculture subsidies) 

    Subsidies in Agriculture:

    Direct Subsidies: 

    • Credit Subsidies: Subsidized credit programs offer farmers loans at lower interest rates or with relaxed repayment terms to finance agricultural activities, such as purchasing inputs, machinery, or land.
      • Ex-The Government of India provides interest subvention of 2% and Prompt Repayment Incentive of 3% to the farmers, thus making the credit available at a very subsidized rate of 4% per annum as per Kisan Credit Card.
    • Direct Income Transfers: Governments provide direct cash transfers or income support schemes to farmers to supplement their incomes, improve their financial stability, and alleviate rural poverty. Ex-PM Kisan Samman Nidhi Scheme under which support of Rs.6000/- per year 

    Indirect Subsidies 

    • Fertilizer Subsidies: Governments often provide subsidies on fertilizers to reduce the cost burden on farmers and promote fertilizer use, which enhances crop productivity. Ex- the Union Budget for the fiscal year 2024-25 (FY25) allocated ₹1.64 trillion for fertilizer subsidy.
    • Seed Subsidies: Subsidies on quality seeds help farmers access improved varieties that are disease-resistant, drought-tolerant or have higher yields. Ex- the government provides a subsidy of Rs. 1000/- per quintal or 50% of the cost.
    • Water Subsidies: Subsidized irrigation infrastructure and water supply schemes aim to improve water availability for agricultural purposes, especially in regions facing water scarcity. Ex- Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana.
    • Minimum Support Prices (MSP): Governments guarantee a minimum price for certain crops to protect farmers from market price fluctuations and ensure stable income. Procurement agencies purchase crops from farmers at MSP, often for staples like wheat, rice, and pulses. Ex- the government of India sets the MSP twice a year for 24 commodities (23 crops + 1 sugarcane).
    • Crop Insurance Subsidies: Subsidies are offered on crop insurance premiums to encourage farmers to enroll in crop insurance schemes, which protect them against yield or revenue losses due to adverse weather, pests, or other risks. Ex- Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)
    • Subsidized Agricultural Machinery: Governments may subsidize the purchase of farm machinery, equipment, and tools to mechanize agricultural operations, increase efficiency, and reduce labor costs. Ex- Sub-mission On Agriculture Mechanization (SMAM scheme)

    Present issues raised by the WTO:

    • Market Distortion: The WTO contends that agricultural subsidies have the potential to disrupt global markets. For instance, subsidies like India’s Minimum Support Price (MSP) may result in the undervaluation of Indian agricultural goods on the international stage. 
    • Trade Barriers: Subsidies can create challenges for foreign producers without subsidies to compete effectively in markets where subsidized goods are sold.
    • Overproduction of certain crops: Subsidies can lead to overproduction of certain crops, which can further distort the market and lead to wastage.
    • Negative Environmental Impact: Overuse of fertilizers and water for irrigation, encouraged by subsidies, can lead to environmental degradation.
    • Inequity: The benefits of subsidies often go to larger farmers rather than small-scale farmers who need them the most.

    Limitations Faced by Indian Agriculture:

    • Subsidies on few crops: Subsidies like MSP, which are applicable for only a few crops, have led to cereal-centric agriculture with distorted cropping patterns, as farmers tend to grow only those crops for which they are given subsidies.
    • Benefiting only wealthy Farmers: As per the Economic Survey 2018, wealthy farmers benefited over small farmers from the farm subsidies. Thus the objective of giving subsidies is not fulfilled. This is the case frequently witnessed in Punjab and Haryana, where affluent farmers enjoy taxpayer money.
    • Fiscal deficit: Also, the subsidies lead to a substantial financial deficit and burden on the financial exchequer.
    • Cause of pollution: Subsidies for agriculture can foster the overloading of croplands, which leads to erosion and compaction of topsoil, pollution from synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, and release of greenhouse gases, among other adverse effects.

    Way Forward:

    • Diversification of Subsidies: Expand subsidy programs to cover a wider range of crops, including fruits, vegetables, pulses, and other diversified agricultural products, to promote crop diversification and mitigate the cereal-centric focus.
    • Targeted Subsidy Programs: Implement targeted subsidy schemes that prioritize support for small and marginalized farmers, ensuring that subsidies reach those who need them most and reducing the disproportionate benefit to wealthy farmers.
    • Price Stabilization Mechanisms: Develop price stabilization mechanisms beyond MSP, such as futures markets, crop insurance, and warehouse receipt systems, to mitigate price volatility and provide income security to farmers without distorting cropping patterns.

    Prelims PYQ

    In India, markets in agricultural products are regulated under the (UPSC IAS/2015)

    a) Essential Commodities Act, 1955

    b) Agricultural Produce Market Committee Act enacted by States

    c) Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking) Act, 1937

    d) Food Products Order, 1956 and Meat and Food Products Order, 1973

    Mains PYQ 

    Q How do subsidies affect the cropping pattern, crop diversity and economy of farmers? What is the significance of crop insurance, minimum support price and food processing for small and marginal farmers? (UPSC IAS/2017) 

    Q What are the different types of agriculture subsidies given to farmers at the national and at state levels? Critically analyse the agricultural subsidy regime with reference to the distortions created by it (UPSC IAS/2013)

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    PREMIUM – Travelling the Regions of South America

    Prelims Only | | Mains Paper 1: Distribution Of Key Natural Resources Across The World,Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the News?

    South America, known for its diverse landscapes and cultures, also harbors several disputed territories, each with its own historical, geopolitical, and economic significance. These disputes often arise from conflicting territorial claims, historical grievances, or resource-rich areas. 

    Diverse Landscapes of South America:

    • The Pacific Coastal Strip:
      • Between the ocean and the Andes mountain Range.
      • The coastline of South America is smooth and regular. At the river mouths, some inlets are used as harbors. The southwestern coast of the continent has fiords or deep inlets of the sea.
    • Andes Mountain Range:
      • The Andes stretch through the entire continent, running in the north-south direction from the Isthmus of Panama to the Strait of Magellan. The second-highest mountain system in the world.
      • Mount Aconcagua (an extinct volcano lies in Argentina)
      • Mount Ojas del Salado is the highest active volcano in the world of Argentina.
      • Part of seven countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, Chile, and Argentina.
      • They form a chain of ranges and knots with enclosed intermontane plateaus namely in Ecuador and Bolivia.
      • Being part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, there are many volcanoes and frequent earthquakes in this region. Mount Cotopaxi and Mount Chimborazo are active volcanic peaks, which is the highest peak in South America.
    • About the Amazon River:
      • It is the world’s largest and second-longest (6,400 km) river in the world after the Nile.
      • Its journey begins high in the Andes Mountains. The river then makes its way east through thousands of miles of rainforests and lowlands until it empties into the Atlantic Ocean on the northeastern coast of Brazil
      • Its watershed spans the countries of Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and Bolivia.
      • It has more than 1,100 tributaries, which include the rivers like the Rio Negro, the Madeira River, and the Xingu River, etc.
      • The Amazon Rainforest, which represents about half of the Earth’s remaining rainforest, also constitutes its single largest reserve of biological resources.
      • It is sometimes referred to as the “lungs of the Earth” due to its role in regulating the planet’s oxygen and carbon cycles.

    Disputed Areas in South America

    Countries Involved Key Points Geographical Features
    Gulf of Venezuela Colombia, Venezuela
    • Inlet of the Caribbean Sea is Disputed over islands such as Los Monjes Archipelago due to Fishing rights and potential oil reserves.
    • Interpretation disputes regarding the 1941 Treaty of Delimitation            
    • Recent tensions over maritime confrontations and oil exploration activities.
    		 Surrounded by coastal mountain ranges with waters fed by several rivers
    Essequibo Region Guyana, Venezuela
    • Covers two-thirds of Guyana’s territory Historical grievances claimed by Venezuela.         
    • Recent oil discoveries raising tensions; ICJ case filed by Guyana.
    • Essequibo River flows through this region.
    		 Diverse landscapes including rainforests, savannahs, and mountains with the Essequibo River
    Atacama Desert Peru, Chile
    • Extremely Arid desert region            
    • War of the Pacific led to Chile’s control           
    • Valuable mineral resources contribute to disputes            
    • Bilateral talks and arbitration proposals for settlement
    		 Bordered by the Andes Mountains and the Pacific Ocean with salt flats, sand dunes, and volcanic formations
    Falkland Islands (Malvinas) Argentina, UK
    • Sovereignty disputes since 1833           
    • Economic interests include fisheries, tourism, and potential oil reserves           
    • Diplomatic efforts and UN resolutions for resolution
    		 Consists of two main islands with rugged coastlines and low mountains
    Darien Gap Colombia, Panama
    • Dense jungle terrain separating North and South America            
    • Challenges in illegal immigration discussions            
    • Characterized by dense rainforests, swamps, and mountains
    		 Part of the Darien National Park with dense rainforests, mangroves, and steep mountain slopes
    Arroyo de la Invernada or Rincon de Artigas… Brazil, Uruguay
    • Dispute over the Invernada River region near Masoller            
    • UN does not officially recognize the claim            
    • 237 km2 region with significant natural resources            
    • Efforts to resolve through bilateral talks and international mediation
    		 Rolling hills, grasslands, and small rivers with the Invernada River
    New River Triangle (Tigri Area) Suriname, Guyana
    • Disputed region within the Guiana Highlands            
    • Conflicting claims over territory interpretation of historical treaties and boundaries
    		 Dense rainforests, mountain ranges, and numerous rivers
    Isla Brasilera/Ilha Brasileira Brazil, Uruguay
    • Uruguay claims ownership of Isla Brasilera            
    • Strategically located near the tripoint with Argentina            
    • Efforts to resolve through diplomatic negotiations and legal arguments
    		 Small island located in the Uruguay River with lush vegetation
    Isla Suarez/Ilha de Guajara-mirim Bolivia, Brazil
    • Located in the Rio Mamore as a border between Bolivia and Brazil           
    • Economically dependent on Guajara-Mirim, Brazil            
    • Treaty signed in 1958 maintains the status quo            
    • Challenges of border management in riverine environments
    		 Riverine island characterized by tropical vegetation and wetlands
    Southern Patagonian Ice Field Argentina, Chile
    • Spanning parts of Argentina and Chile            
    • Border demarcation remains undefined in certain areas           
    • Bilateral efforts for resolution include scientific cooperation and mapping projects
    		 Vast expanse of ice and snow covering rugged mountain ranges and deep valleys
    Lithium Triangle  Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile
    • It is characterized by various salt pans or salars, concentrated along the Atacama Desert and adjacent arid regions.
    • The Salar de Atacama in Chile boasts the highest lithium concentration (0.15% by weight) among all brine sources worldwide. 
    • Argentina boasts more than half of the world’s total lithium resources and holds the distinction of having the 2nd-largest lithium resources, the 3rd-largest lithium reserves, and the 4th-largest lithium production in the world.
    • India’s KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Ltd) has announced an investment of ₹211 crore ($25.712 million) over five years for exploration stage activities in five lithium blocks in the Fiambala area of Argentina.
    		 Key reserves of Lithium include:

    1. Uyuni (Bolivia): This salt flat is not only the world’s largest salt flat but also contains significant lithium reserves.  
    2. Atacama (Chile): Located in the Atacama Desert, Salar de Atacama is home to one of the largest lithium reserves globally. 
    3. Hombre Muerto (Argentina): This salt flat in northwestern Argentina also hosts lithium extraction operations.

     

    Note: Bolivia and Paraguay are land-locked countries in South America

    PYQ:

    [2013] “Climate is extreme, rainfall is scanty and the people used to be nomadic herders.”  

    The above statement best describes which of the following regions?

    (a) African Savannah

    (b) Central Asian Steppe

    (c) South American Tropical

    (d) Siberian Tundra

     

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  • Housing for all – PMAY, etc.

    An overview of the PMAY-U scheme | Explained

    Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters,Government Scheme/Policies

    Why in the News? 

    As the current Union government completes two terms, one of its flagship programs was Housing For All (HfA) by 2022, both in urban and rural areas, planned under the PMAY (Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana) scheme in 2015.

    About the PMAY scheme:

    The declared objectives of the scheme included rehabilitation of slum dwellers with private developers’ participation; promotion of affordable housing for the weaker sections through Credit Linked Subsidy Schemes (CLSS); affordable housing in partnership with public and private sectors; and subsidy for Beneficiary-led Construction (BLC).

    Issues related to the PMAY Scheme:

    • PMAY-U faltering Performance: The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Urban (PMAY-U) initiative has been criticized for its faltering performance. Data from the PMAY dashboard suggests a shortfall of around 40 lakh houses from sanctioned and completed segments.
    • ISSR Failure: The in-situ slum redevelopment (ISSR) component, aimed at addressing the largest demand in cities, has been particularly criticized for its failure. Only a small number of houses have been sanctioned under ISSR, falling far short of expectations.
    • The large difference between achievement and need: Despite delivering 80 lakh homes, the PMAY-U program has only addressed about 25.15% of the housing shortage. Even if the remaining sanctioned houses are constructed by the end of 2024, it would only address about 37% of the real need, leaving almost 2.4 crore households without adequate housing.
    • Not fulfilling the promise as per Spending: The housing program, which received significant budgetary allocation (over $29 billion in the last five years), has not been able to fulfill its promise of “Housing for All.” Despite the focus and financial support, the goal remains unfulfilled.

    The reason behind the failure of the PMAY Scheme

    • Challenges in Slum Rehabilitation: Despite efforts, some projects aimed at slum rehabilitation have faced issues, such as vertical growth leading to increased utility costs and unsuitable living spaces, as well as difficulties in acquiring land.
    • Neglecting social housing needs: City development plans, including PMAY, are often influenced by consultants favoring capital-intensive solutions, potentially neglecting social housing needs and community involvement.
    • Less central government’s share: The funding structure of PMAY involves significant contributions from beneficiary households and state governments, with the central government’s share being relatively small.
    • Limited Government Role: The architecture of PMAY places limited responsibility on the government, particularly in providing interest subsidies and cost-sharing with beneficiaries, leading to concerns about addressing the needs of the landless and the poor.

    Way Forward:

    • Reevaluation of Funding Allocation: The central government should consider increasing its share of funding to ensure adequate resources for housing projects. 
    • Enhanced Focus on Slum Rehabilitation: The government should review and enhance the implementation of the in-situ slum redevelopment (ISSR) component. This may involve better planning, community engagement, and addressing challenges such as land acquisition and vertical growth.
    • Community Participation and Needs Assessment: Incorporating community participation in the planning and implementation of housing projects is crucial 

    Mains PYQ 

    Q Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) is necessary for bringing unbanked to the institutional fiancé fold. Do you agree with this for financial inclusion of the poorer section of the Indian society? Give arguments to justify your opinion (UPSC IAS/2016)

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  • Electric and Hybrid Cars – FAME, National Electric Mobility Mission, etc.

    How is India planning to boost EV production?

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia,Indigenization Of Technology

    Why in the News? 

    The Union government approved a policy to promote India as a manufacturing hub for Electric Vehicles (EVs).

    Features of the Electric Vehicles policy:

    • Reduction of Import Duty: Import duty on electric vehicles (EVs) imported as Completely Built Units (CBUs) with a minimum CIF value of $35,000 is reduced from 70%-100% to 15% for five years.  
    • Waiver of Duty: A maximum of 40,000 EV imports in five years, with a duty waiver of ₹6,484 crore or proportional to investment (whichever is lower), requires a minimum $800 million investment.
    • Localization Targets: Manufacturers are required to set up manufacturing facilities in India within three years. They must achieve 25% localization by the third year and 50% localization by the fifth year of incentivized operation.
    • Incentives for Setting Up Manufacturing Facilities: The policy incentivizes manufacturers to establish manufacturing facilities in India by offering reduced import duties and waivers, provided they meet certain investment and localization targets.
    • Encouragement of Global EV Makers: The policy aims to encourage global EV makers like Tesla and Chinese EV maker BYD to enter the Indian market by providing favorable conditions for setting up manufacturing facilities and importing EVs.

    Present concerns raised by Private Players in the Market:

    • Impact on Domestic Industry: Tata Motors opposed the reduction of import duties, fearing it would negatively affect the domestic industry. They argued that lowering duties could harm the investment climate.
    • Competitive Disadvantage: Domestic players are concerned that the policy benefits mainly higher-end Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), potentially placing them at a competitive disadvantage in segments below ₹29 lakh.
    • Favoring Global Players: The policy appears to favor global EV players and Indian joint ventures with such players, potentially making it more challenging for purely domestic players to compete effectively.

    Conclusion: The government should engage in dialogue with stakeholders, including domestic players like Tata Motors, to address their concerns and seek their input in shaping the policy framework. Need to implement measures to support domestic players, including providing incentives and support for technology development, innovation, and capacity building.

    Mains question for practice 

    Q Indian Government has recently approved a policy aimed at promoting the country as a manufacturing hub for Electric Vehicles (EVs). Discuss the key features of this policy. Highlight the concerns raised by private players.

    Mains PYQ 

    Q How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid economic development in India? (UPSC IAS/2019)

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  • Human Development Report by UNDP

    Towards a less poor and more equal country

    Explained | | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

    Why in the news? 

    In March, World Inequality Lab, a Global Research Center focused on inequality and public policies, published in a paper titled, ‘Income and Wealth Inequality in India, 1922-2023: The Rise of the Billionaire Raj’. 

    Income and wealth inequality as per the World Inequality Lab: 

    • Income Inequality: In 2022-23, the top 1% of Indians received 22.6% of the national income, the highest in a century. The top 0.1% earned nearly 10% of the national income. Wealth inequality was also stark, with the top 1% holding 40.1% of the wealth in 2022-23, the highest since 1961.
    • Wealth Inequality Trends: Wealth concentration increased significantly between 1961 and 2023. The top 10% held 65% of the wealth in 2022-23, up from 45% in 1961. The bottom 50% and middle 40% saw declines in their share of wealth.
    • Comparison with Other Countries: India’s wealth inequality, while not as extreme as in Brazil and South Africa, increased threefold between 1961 and 2023. India’s income inequality is among the highest globally, surpassing South Africa, Brazil, and the U.S.
    • Impact of 1991 Economic Reforms: Inequality increased notably after the 1991 economic reforms in India. Growth in China has been broad-based compared to India, resulting in lesser income inequality despite higher growth rates in China.

    Present Dilemma in Human Development:

    • The Human Development Report (HDR) 2023-2024 ranked India 134 out of 193 countries. 
    • India is now the fifth-largest economy but it still ranks lower than Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and Bangladesh in human development. Its economic growth has not translated into growth in human development.

    Measures to Improve Human Development:

    • Investment in Education: Ensure access to quality education for all, from primary to higher levels. Focus on improving educational infrastructure, teacher training, and curriculum development.
    • Healthcare Access and Quality: Expand access to affordable and quality healthcare services, including preventive, primary, and specialized care. Invest in healthcare infrastructure, medical personnel, and technology.
    • Poverty Reduction: Implement social welfare programs to provide basic needs such as food, shelter, and clothing to the disadvantaged. Promote inclusive economic growth to create employment opportunities and increase household incomes.

    Conclusion: The Indian government has taken several steps including the creation and organization of women’s self-help groups, sending civil servants to areas with poor levels of human development,  and implementing land reforms. However, a major necessity of raising awareness is through an organic approach.

     

    Mains PYQ 

    Q Despite the consistent experience of high growth, India still goes with the lowest indicators of human development. Examine the issues that make balanced and inclusive development elusive (UPSC IAS/2019)

     

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    ISRO’s Findings on Glacial Lake Dynamics in Himalaya

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

     

    Why in the News?

    • The Satellite images by ISRO show an increase in the size of Gepang Gath Lake amidst rising concerns about Climate Change.
    • Gepang Gath Lake (one of the biggest Glacial lakes in the Chandra basin) is located in the Western Indian Himalaya at the terminus of the Gepan Gath glacier.

    ISRO’s Findings on Glacial Lakes in Himalayas 

    Expansion of Glacial Lakes

    • During 2016-17, total of 2,431 lakes larger than 10 hectares were identified, among which 676 were identified as glacial lakes. Notably, these 676 glacial lakes have shown significant expansion since 1984. A staggering 89% (601 lakes) of the expanding lakes have more than doubled in size since 1984.
    • Regional Distribution: Out of these expanding glacial lakes, 130 are situated within India. Among these, 65 lakes are located in the Indus River basin, seven in the Ganga River basin, and 58 in the Brahmaputra River basin.
    • The derived analysis from the Satellite provides valuable insights for understanding glacial lake dynamics.
    • It is essential for assessing environmental impacts and developing strategies for Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF) risk management and climate change adaptation in glacial environments.

     

    What are Glacial Lakes?

     

      • Glacial lakes are bodies of water formed in depressions on the surface of glaciers or in moraines left behind by retreating glaciers.
      • Glacial lakes were categorized based on their formation process into four broad categories: 
        • Moraine-dammed, 
        • Ice-dammed, 
        • Erosion, and 
        • Other glacial lakes.
      • Among the expanding lakes, the majority are Moraine-dammed (307), followed by Erosion (265), other (96), and Ice-dammed (8) glacial lakes.
      • Formation Process: Glacial lakes form through the accumulation of meltwater from the melting ice of glaciers. As glaciers move, they carve out depressions in the landscape, which may fill with water to form lakes.
        • When glaciers retreat, they leave behind moraines, which can act as natural dams, trapping meltwater and forming lakes.
      • Characteristics:
        • Vary in size, depending on the size and activity of the glacier.
        • Found in mountainous regions and polar areas where glaciers are present.
        • The primary source of water is melting glacial ice, precipitation and runoff.
    • Significance of Glacial Lakes:
      • Glacial lakes play a crucial role in regulating water flow in glacier-fed rivers, particularly during the dry season.
      • Provides habitat for unique aquatic species adapted to cold, high-altitude environments.
      • Contributes to landscape evolution and the formation of landforms such as cirques and tarns.
    • Present Ecological Challenges:
      • Glacial Outburst Floods: The sudden release of water from glacial lakes, known as glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), can pose significant hazards to downstream communities and infrastructure. Ex. Chamoli Disaster.
      • Rapid Expansion: Glacial lakes can rapidly expand due to the increased melting of glaciers, leading to the risk of flooding and landslides in surrounding areas.

    Important Glacial Lakes in India:

    • Deosai National Park (Jammu and Kashmir): Known for its numerous glacial lakes.
    • Gangbal Lake (Jammu and Kashmir): At the base of Mount Haramukh.
    • Zanskar Valley Lakes (Jammu and Kashmir): Includes Tsomoriri Lake, Tsokar Lake, and many others.
    • Roopkund Lake (Uttarakhand): Known for the human skeletons found at its bottom.
    • Sarson Patal Lake (Uttarakhand): Within the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve.
    • Deoria Tal (Uttarakhand): Offering stunning views of the surrounding peaks.
    • Hemkund Lake (Uttarakhand): Near the Hemkund Sahib Gurudwara.
    • Kedar Tal (Uttarakhand): At the foot of the Thalay Sagar peak.
    • Nanda Devi East Base Lake (Uttarakhand): Offering views of the Nanda Devi peaks.
    • Vasuki Tal (Uttarakhand): Near the Chaturangi Glacier.
    • Chandratal Lake (Himachal Pradesh): Known for its crescent shape.
    • Suraj Tal (Himachal Pradesh): Close to the Baralacha La pass.
    • Rupin Lake (Himachal Pradesh): Near the Rupin Pass.
    • Gurudongmar Lake (Sikkim): One of the highest lakes in the world.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] Siachen Glacier is situated to the

    (a) East of Aksai Chin

    (b) East of Leh

    (c) North of Gilgit

    (d) North of Nubra Valley

     

     

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    NABARD Unveils Climate Strategy 2030 for Green Financing

    Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues,Mobilization Of Resources

    Why in the news?

    The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) revealed its ‘Climate Strategy 2030’ document, aiming to address India’s need for enhanced green financing.

    Key Pillars of Climate Strategy 2030:

    • The strategy focuses on four key pillars: 
      1. Accelerating green lending across sectors, 
      2. Playing a broader market-making role, 
      3. Internal green transformation, and 
      4. Strategic resource mobilization.
    Green Financing Scenario in India

    • Despite India’s requirement of $170 billion annually for achieving sustainable development goals by 2030, the current green finance inflows remain critically insufficient.
    • As of 2019-20, India secured only about $49 billion in green financing, with a significant portion allocated to mitigation efforts, leaving minimal funds for adaptation and resilience.

     

    About NABARD:

    • It was established on July 12, 1982, based on the recommendation of the Sivaraman Committee to promote sustainable rural development and agricultural growth in India.
    • Aim:  To facilitate credit flow for the promotion and development of agriculture, small-scale industries, cottage and village industries, handicrafts, and other rural crafts.
    • It operates as a statutory body under the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Act, 1934, with its headquarters located in Mumbai.
    • It is governed by a Board of Directors appointed by the GoI:
      • Representatives from the RBI;
      • Central and state governments; 
      • Experts from various fields related to Rural Development and Finance.

     Functions of NABARD:

    • Refinance Support: NABARD provides refinance facilities to banks and financial institutions for agricultural and rural development activities, including crop loans and rural infrastructure projects.
    • Financial Inclusion: It promotes financial inclusion by expanding banking services in rural areas, supporting SHGs, FPOs, and MFIs, and facilitating access to credit for rural communities.
    • Priority Sector Lending: NABARD plays a crucial role in channelling credit to priority sectors such as agriculture, small-scale industries, and rural infrastructure, in alignment with the Reserve Bank of India’s priority sector lending guidelines.
    • Direct Lending: It extends direct loans to institutions for specific rural development projects, such as agricultural production, rural infrastructure development, and agri-processing units.
    • Scheme Implementation: The organization administers government schemes and funds like Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF), Watershed Development Fund (WDF) to finance rural infrastructure projects and watershed development activities.
    • Credit Planning: NABARD collaborates with central and state governments, RBI, and other stakeholders to formulate credit policies and plans for agriculture and rural sectors.
    • Research and Training: NABARD promotes research and development in agriculture, supports capacity building and training programs for rural stakeholders, and facilitates technology transfer initiatives.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Which of the following grants/grants direct credit assistance to rural households? 

    1. Regional Rural Banks
    2. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
    3. Land Development Banks

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only 

    (b) 2 only 

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

    Census to be conducted under Nilgiri Tahr Conservation Project

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

     Why in the News?

    After the launch of the Nilgiri Tahr Conservation Project, the Tamil Nadu government gears up to assess the population of Nilgiri Tahr (state animal).

    • The Forest Departments of Tamil Nadu and Kerala will collaborate in a synchronized way.

    Nilgiri Tahr Conservation Project (2022 to 2027):

    • Under The Nilgiri Tahr project, the Tamil Nadu government plans to develop a better understanding of the Nilgiri Tahr population through-
      • Surveys and radio telemetry studies;
      • Reintroduce the Tahrs to their historical habitat;
      • Address proximate threats; and
      • Increase public awareness of the species.
    • October 7 will be celebrated as ‘Niligiri Tahr Day’ in honour of E.R.C. Davidar, who was responsible for pioneering one of the first studies of the species in 1975.
    • Historic significance of Nilgiri Tahr:
    • Evidence in Tamil Sangam literature dating back to 2,000 years.
    • The late Mesolithic (10,000-4,000 BC) paintings highlight the significance of the Tahr in folklore, culture, and life.

     

    About Nilgiri Tahr

      • It is endemic to the Nilgiri Hills and the southern portion of the Western Ghats in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in Southern India.
      • It is the state animal of Tamil Nadu.
      • The Nilgiri tahr inhabits the open montane grassland habitat of the South Western Ghats montane rain forests eco-region.
      • At elevations from 1,200 to 2,600 metres (3,900 to 8,500 ft), the forests open into grasslands interspersed with pockets of stunted forests, locally known as sholas.
      • It is estimated that there are 3,122 Nilgiri Tahrs in the wild. It has become locally extinct in around 14% of its traditional shola forest-grassland habitat.
    • Conservation Status:
      • IUCN Conservation Status: Endangered
      • Wildlife (Protection) Act of India, 1972: Schedule I
    • Eravikulam National Park in Anamalai hills of Kerala is home to the largest population of this Tahr.
    • October 7 is celebrated as ‘Nilgiri Tahr Day’ to honour E.R.C. Davidar, the man who was responsible for conducting first studies of the species in 1975.

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  • Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

    A lesson from Taiwan in quake resilience

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

    Why in the news? 

    On April 3, Taiwan was struck by an earthquake of 7.4 magnitude. This was strongest in last 25 years.

    Reason behind the earthquake in Taiwan

    • In the Taiwan region, the Philippine Sea plate is moving northwest towards the Eurasian plate at a velocity of about 7.8 cm per year, which is faster than the motion of the Indian plate. 
    • Lying 160 km off the coast of China, Taiwan was formed at a convergent boundary of the Philippine and Eurasian plates in the western Pacific Ocean. It is a country of strong earthquakes.

    Why other countries should take lesson from Taiwan in quake resilience?

    • In 1999, the Chi-Chi earthquake of magnitude 7.7 occurred in the central part of Taiwan and impacted the western region. It killed more than 2,430 people and left 11,305 wounded. It caused more than 50,000 buildings to collapse and partially damaged as many.
    • In 2024, Hualien earthquake killed at least 13 people and injured about 1,000. Most of the deaths were caused by earthquake-triggered rockfalls and not by toppled buildings. Despite being of nearly comparable magnitude, the 2024 earthquake has caused minimal damage compared to the 1999 earthquake.

    Taiwan’s earthquake preparedness

    • Advanced Monitoring and Early Warning Systems: Taiwan boasts the most advanced earthquake-monitoring network and early warning systems, allowing for quick detection and alerting of seismic activity.
    • Public Awareness Campaigns and Drills: Widespread awareness campaigns and regular drills on earthquake safety have significantly improved the public’s understanding of earthquake risks and proper safety protocols.
    • Government Regulations and Incentives: The government constantly updates earthquake safety requirements for both new and existing buildings. Additionally, incentives such as subsidies are offered to residents to improve the quake resistance of buildings, encouraging compliance with safety standards.
    • Scientific Judgments for Seismic Risk: Utilizing knowledge of earthquake frequency and severity in different areas, Taiwan is able to make sound scientific judgments regarding seismic risk.
    • Utilization of New Technologies: Taiwan employs cutting-edge technologies such as seismic dampers and base isolation systems to enhance building resilience. For example, Taipei 101, the nation’s iconic building, features a tuned mass damper—a massive steel sphere suspended by cables within the tower—which acts as a pendulum to counteract building motion during earthquakes.

    What India can learn from Taiwan?

    • Importance of Seismic Safety Regulations: India, especially in tectonically unstable regions like the Himalayas, must prioritize seismic safety regulations in all infrastructure projects.  
    • Customized Seismic Codes: Similar to Taiwan, India should develop seismic codes tailored to specific regions based on local earthquake activity, building types, and construction materials. These customized codes can better address the unique seismic risks faced by different parts of the country.
    • Utilization of Traditional Architectural Styles: In some parts of India, traditional architectural styles may possess inherent earthquake resistivity. By rediscovering and encouraging the use of these traditional techniques, India can promote earthquake-resistant building practices that are culturally and environmentally sustainable.
    • Integration of Seismic Zonation Maps: Indian code IS 1893 already specifies seismic designs based on seismic zonation maps. It’s crucial for India to integrate these maps effectively into urban planning and construction practices to ensure that buildings are designed and located in accordance with seismic risk assessments.

    Conclusion

    Earthquakes is natural disasters with unpredictable occurrences, can have devastating effects on society. However, their impact can be mitigated through preventive measures such as early warning systems, construction regulations, and raising awareness about earthquake preparedness.

    Mains PYQ 

    Q Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades.(UPSC IAS/2021)

    Mains question for practice 

    Q Analyzing Taiwan’s earthquake preparedness following the April 3rd 7.4 magnitude earthquake, explore lessons for India’s earthquake resilience strategy.

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  • Juvenile Justice (JJ) Act

    SC allows termination of pregnancy of minor rape survivor

    Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary,Health & Education

    Why in the news? 

    The Supreme Court on Monday used its extraordinary powers under Article 142 of the Constitution to do “complete justice” to permit the medical termination of pregnancy of a 14- year-old rape.Her pregnancy is nearing 30 weeks. The minor became aware of her condition only at a very late stage.

    Article 142

    • Article 142 of the Indian Constitution grants extraordinary powers to the Supreme Court of India to deliver complete justice. It empowers the Supreme Court to pass any order or issue any writ necessary for doing “complete justice” in any cause or matter pending before it, even if the case does not fall directly within its jurisdiction. 

    Distinctive features of Article 142:

    • Extraordinary Powers: Article 142 grants the Supreme Court of India extraordinary powers to deliver complete justice. These powers are exceptional and not restricted by the ordinary limitations of jurisdiction or procedure.
    • Wide Discretion: The provision grants the Supreme Court wide discretion in passing orders or issuing writs to achieve complete justice.  
    • Non-obstante Clause: Article 142 begins with a non-obstante clause, which means that the powers conferred by this article prevail over any other provision of the Constitution or law. This underscores the supremacy of the Supreme Court’s authority in exercising these powers.
    • Judicial Activism: Article 142 is often invoked to enable the judiciary to intervene in matters where existing laws or legal provisions are inadequate or where there are gaps in the law. This enables the court to play an active role in shaping legal principles and addressing societal concerns.

    Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act 2020

    • Gestation Limits: The Act allows for the termination of pregnancy up to 20 weeks with the opinion of one registered medical practitioner.
    • For termination between 20 to 24 weeks, the opinion of two registered medical practitioners is required.
    • The upper gestation limit has been increased from 20 to 24 weeks for special categories of women, including survivors of rape, victims of incest, differently-abled women, and minors.
    • Medical Board: In cases of substantial foetal abnormalities diagnosed by a Medical Board, the upper gestation limit does not apply.
    • The Medical Board consists of a gynaecologist, a paediatrician, a radiologist or sonologist, and other notified members.
    • Privacy Protection: The Act ensures the protection of privacy for women who have terminated their pregnancy. The name and other details of the woman are not to be revealed except to authorized individuals.

    Conclusion: 

    Need to take Measures to prevent rape in society by providing education on consent, promoting gender equality, ensuring swift and awareness about severe punishment for perpetrators, enhancing support for survivors, and fostering a culture of respect.

    Mains PYQ

    Q ‘Constitutional Morality’ is rooted in the Constitution itself and is founded on its essential facets. Explain the doctrine of ‘Constitutional Morality’ with the help of relevant judicial decisions.

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-Iran

    What Iran-Israel conflict means for Middle East and India

    Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Indian Diaspora

    Why in the news?

    The turmoil resulting from the Iran-Israel conflict poses a threat to the security of the extensive Indian diaspora residing in the Gulf region, with an added risk of piracy and hostage situations.

    The conflict between Israel and Iran:

    • Historical Context: The roots of the conflict can be traced back to the Islamic Revolution in 1979 when Iran rejected Israel’s existence and vowed to undermine it. Iran has supported anti-Israeli militant groups like Hezbollah and Hamas and pursued a nuclear program, which Israel sees as a threat
    • Recent Escalation: Recent events, such as the unprecedented missile and drone assault on Israel originating from Iran, have raised concerns about a potential all-out war between the two nations. Israel successfully intercepted most of the attacks, but the implications of this escalation are significant
    • Israel’s Response Options: Israel faces decisions on how to respond to Iran, with options including retaliation by proxy, assassinations, cyberattacks, or direct attacks. Each option carries risks of escalation and broader regional consequences
    • The nuclear issue: The long history of animosity and confrontation between the sides has now erupted in direct attacks. Israel is believed to be nuclear-capable and Iran’s desired programmes for nuclear capability have been in the spotlight

    Impact of the Iran-Israel conflict on India:

    • Economic Interests: India has significant economic ties in the Middle East, including trade, investment, and energy imports. Any escalation of conflict in the region threatens India’s economic interests, potentially leading to disruptions in trade routes and increased oil prices.
    • Security of Indian Diaspora: The Middle East hosts a large Indian diaspora, particularly in the Gulf region. Turmoil and conflict pose risks to their safety and security, with concerns about piracy, hostage-taking, and general instability.
    • Instability in Global south Governance : India recognizes the importance of stability in the Middle East for global south governance and stability. Instability in the region affects not only regional dynamics but also has broader implications for international security and cooperation.

    Diplomatic solution for this conflict:

    •  India advocates for diplomatic solutions to conflicts in the Middle East and supports initiatives for peace and stability, including the two-state solution for the Israel-Palestine conflict. India’s historical and cultural ties with the region position it as a potential mediator and facilitator for dialogue.

    Way forward:

    • Restraint and De-escalation: Call upon both parties to exercise restraint and avoid actions that could escalate the conflict further.  
    • Regional Cooperation: Encourage regional actors, including neighboring countries  to work together to promote stability and security in the Middle East.  
    • International Support: Seek support from the international community, including major powers and multilateral organizations, to pressure Iran and Israel to pursue peaceful resolutions.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q How will I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE and USA) grouping transform India’s position in global politics?

    Mains question for practice:

    Q The turmoil resulting from the Iran-Israel conflict poses a threat to the security of the  Indian diaspora residing in the Gulf region. Discuss the Impact of the Iran-Israel conflict on India and suggest the solution.

     

     

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  • Finance Commission – Issues related to devolution of resources

    Premium- Indian Federalism as a Mad Hatter’s Tea Party

    Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

    Why in the News? 

    In recent times, the Central government has exerted significant political and financial control over the regional states.

    What is Federalism?

    • Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided and shared between a central authority (usually a national government) and constituent political units (such as states or provinces). 
    • Both levels of government have their spheres of authority, and they coexist within the same political framework.

     

    Indian Federalism:

    • India opted for a federal form of government because of linguistic and regional diversity. It has dual objectives, to safeguard and promote the unity, and to accommodate regional diversity.
    • However, Indian Federalism has been described as quasi-federal since it contains major federation and union features (Article 1 says, “India that is ‘Bharat’, shall be the Union of the states”).
    • The central government has more authority, especially in fiscal matters (due to which it is sometimes called “asymmetrical federalism”).
    • Federalism is part of the basic structure which cannot be altered or destroyed under the constituent powers of the Parliament without undergoing judicial review by the Supreme Court.

    Federal Features

    Non-federal features

    The Present Political Federal Issues in India:

    • Centralization of Power: Certain propositions laid down in the Supreme Court’s judgment, have upheld the prospects of Federalism in India
      • For example, the abrogation of Article 370 concerning Jammu and Kashmir’s special status by the central government without adequate consultation with the state government was seen as a move towards the Centralization of power.
    • Reorganization of States: The provision under Article 3 of the Constitution states that the President shall refer the Bill for the reorganization of any State to the legislature of the State concerned to elicit its opinion. 
      • The recent SC’s verdict that dismissed the challenges to the abrogation of Article 370 led to a serious undermining of federalism and the rights of the elected State legislatures.
    • Lack of clarity in Division of Powers: Although the subjects are enlisted in the Seventh Schedule and Emergency Provisions of the Constitution, the distribution of power between the Central government and the states lacks clarity and equity. 
      • For example, internal security assumes utmost importance with the Maoist challenge and cross-border terrorism, which threaten all the states across the country.
      • The Constitution does not refer either to ‘security’ or ‘internal security’ anywhere. However, it mentions five related terms namely ‘pubic order’ (List II, Entry 2), ‘war’ (Article 352), ‘external aggression’ (Article 352), ‘armed rebellion’ (Article 352), and ‘internal disturbance’ (Article 355).
      • Further, the imposition of President’s Rule in states under Article 356 has been recently criticized for being used arbitrarily by the central government.
    • Unequal Representation in Rajya Sabha: The representation of states in Parliament and other federal institutions does not accurately reflect their population, size, or contributions. Some states are over-represented while others are under-represented.
      • For example, the allocation of 80 Lok Sabha seats to Uttar Pradesh and only one to Sikkim results in unequal representation, impacting resource distribution and decision-making.
    • Simultaneous Elections: Measures discussed and recommended like the “One Nation One Election” undermined India’s federal structure and conflated the different priorities voters had for National, State, and “Panchayati raj” institutions, degrading each one’s different sphere of responsibility. 

    The Present Fiscal Federal issues in India:

    • Fiscal Divisible Pool: The states often face financial constraints due to their dependence on the central government for funds. The unequal distribution of resources can exacerbate disparities among states. 
      • For example, states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh receive more funds from the central government under various schemes. However, recently the Kerala government faced serious financial crunches due to a lack of funds.
    • Implementation of Goods and Services Tax (GST): GST’s implementation has raised issues related to fiscal autonomy. States have voiced concerns about the loss of their taxation powers and uncertainties regarding compensation from the central government for revenue losses.

    Bodies related to the Federal System in India:

    • The Inter-State Council: It was constituted under Article 263 of the Constitution, and serves as a constitutional entity aimed at fostering coordination and collaboration between the Central government and the states regarding shared interests and issues of significance.  
    • The Finance Commission: It is a Constitutional Body established under Article 280 of the Constitution to recommend the distribution of revenues between the Centre and the states.
    • The NITI Aayog: Established in 2015 to replace the Planning Commission. It fosters cooperative federalism by involving states in policy formulation and implementation.

    Committee Recommendation:

    • Sarkaria Commission (1983):
        • Balanced Distribution of Powers: Recommended a balanced distribution of powers between the central government and states, ensuring that each level of government has adequate authority to perform its functions.
        • Cooperative Federalism: Emphasized the need for cooperative federalism, where the central and state governments work together in the spirit of partnership and collaboration.
    • Punchhi Commission (2007):
      • Strengthening Inter-State Council: Recommended strengthening the Inter-State Council, an institution tasked with promoting cooperation among states and between the center and states.
      • Revisiting Center-State Relations: Suggested revisiting and updating the provisions related to center-state relations to address contemporary challenges and promote cooperative federalism.

     

    Way Forward: The Centre cannot afford to ignore the importance of states to effectively respond to the Federal issues:

    • Empowerment of State Governments: Strengthen the powers and autonomy of state governments in decision-making processes, allowing them greater authority over issues within their jurisdiction, and revenue management is necessary.
    • Promoting Co-operative Federalism: Enhance the effectiveness of the Inter-State Council as a forum for dialogue and cooperation between the Centre and states on matters of common interest, ensuring meaningful participation of state leaders in decision-making processes.
    • Need a Balanced Approach: First, the government needs to review and make necessary amendments to clarify the distribution of powers, ensuring a more balanced and transparent framework for political governance.  Second, implement a balanced system of grants where states with weaker fiscal capacities receive adequate support to address developmental disparities.
    • Bringing Clarity: Clearly define revenue-sharing boundaries and internal security mechanisms between the Centre and states to ensure equitable distribution of resources.

    Prelims PYQ 

    Q) Which one of the following is not a feature of Indian federalism? (UPSC IAS/2017)

    1. a) There is an independent judiciary in India.
    2. b) Powers have been clearly divided between the Centre and the States.
    3. c) The federating units have been given unequal representation in the Rajya Sabha.
    4. d) It is the result of an agreement among the federating units.

     

    Q) Consider the following statements: (UPSC IAS/2020)

    1) The Consititution of India defines its ‘basic structure’ in terms of federalism, secularism, fundamental rights and democracy.

    2) The Constitution of India provides for ‘judical review to safeguard the citizens’ liberties and to preserve the ideals on which the Constitution is based.

    Which of the Statement given above is/are correct?

    1. a) 1 only
    2. b) 2 only
    3. c) Both 1 and 2
    4. d) Neither 1 nor 2

    Mains PYQ 

    Q1 How far do you think cooperation, competition and confrontation have shaped the nature of federation in India? Cite some recent examples to validate your answer. (UPSC IAS/2020) 

    Q2 The concept of cooperative federalism has been increasingly emphasised in recent years. Highlight the drawbacks in the existing structure and the extent to which cooperative federalism would answer the shortcomings.

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