Why in the News?
The Supreme Court overturned the Delhi High Court’s order, which had asked Wikimedia to remove a Wikipedia page due to a defamation case filed by the news agency Asian News International (ANI). The Supreme Court corrected a mistake made by the High Court.
What was the Supreme Court’s main reason for quashing the Delhi High Court’s order against Wikimedia?
- Overbroad Takedown Order: The Supreme Court found the High Court’s direction to remove “all false, misleading, and defamatory content” to be too broad and vague. It emphasized that such general orders lack precision and could lead to over-censorship.Eg: Asking to remove an entire Wikipedia page without identifying specific defamatory lines is like banning an entire book over one disputed paragraph.
- Safe Harbour Protection for Intermediaries: The Court reaffirmed that Wikipedia enjoys safe harbour under the IT Act as an internet intermediary, meaning it is not directly responsible for user-generated content unless a specific violation is pointed out. Eg: Just like social media platforms aren’t liable for every comment made by users, Wikipedia too cannot be penalized without clear proof of harmful content.
- Need for Specific Pleas: The Bench advised that ANI should file a fresh, specific plea pointing out the exact portions of the content they consider defamatory. This would allow the Court to consider actual harm rather than act on general accusations. Eg: It’s more reasonable to ask a website to remove a sentence that says “X is a fraud” rather than demanding the removal of an entire article about X.
Why did the Delhi High Court originally ask Wikipedia to take down the page related to ANI?
- Defamation Claim: The Delhi High Court ruled that the statements on the Wikipedia page were defamatory towards the news agency, Asian News International (ANI). It concluded that the content harmed ANI’s reputation and was therefore damaging. Eg: If an article on Wikipedia falsely claims that ANI is involved in unethical practices, it could damage the agency’s credibility and reputation.
- Non-Verbatim Reproduction of Sources: The Court stated that the Wikipedia page did not accurately reproduce the references it cited, but rather presented them in a distorted or selective manner, which misrepresented the original information. It emphasized that this misrepresentation contributed to the defamatory nature of the content. Eg: If the page quoted investigative reports but omitted important context, it could lead to a misleading understanding of ANI’s role in the events.
- Higher Responsibility of Wikipedia: The Court held that Wikipedia, as an encyclopaedia, carries a higher responsibility in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of its content, especially since it’s widely accessed and can influence public perception. It believed that as a trusted platform, Wikipedia should prevent the spread of defamatory or misleading content. Eg: Just like traditional encyclopaedias, Wikipedia should uphold higher standards of verification to avoid spreading misinformation.
Who is responsible for creating and moderating content on Wikipedia?
- Wikipedia Users and Volunteers: Users and volunteers create and edit content on Wikipedia by contributing articles and making revisions. Eg: A user with knowledge of climate change might write or update articles related to global warming.
- Wikipedia Community: Content is moderated by the Wikipedia community through discussions, consensus, and resolving disputes. Eg: If two users disagree on an article, the community helps decide on the final content through discussion or voting.
- Administrators (Admins): Admins, elected by the community, have special privileges to manage disputes, protect pages, and enforce Wikipedia’s guidelines. Eg: Admins might restrict editing on a page to prevent vandalism, allowing only trusted users to make changes.
How does Wikipedia usually resolve disputes or “editing wars” over content?
- Community Discussion and Consensus: Disputes are typically resolved through discussion on the article’s talk page, where editors reach a consensus on the correct content. Eg: If two users disagree on the phrasing of a sentence, they may discuss it on the talk page and come to an agreement.
- Page Protection: If disputes persist, Wikipedia may protect the page, limiting edits to trusted editors or administrators to prevent further conflicts. Eg: A page on a controversial topic may be locked to prevent constant changes, with only experienced users allowed to make edits.
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What could be the potential consequence of allowing broad takedown orders against platforms like Wikipedia?
- Censorship and Suppression of Information: Broad takedown orders could lead to censorship, stifling the free flow of information and limiting access to diverse perspectives. Eg: If a controversial topic is targeted, it could lead to entire pages being removed, denying users access to critical information.
- Chilling Effect on Open Discussion: Such orders could create a chilling effect, discouraging people from contributing to platforms like Wikipedia for fear of legal consequences. Eg: Contributors might avoid writing about sensitive topics like politics or social issues to prevent being involved in legal disputes.
- Undermining the Platform’s Model: Wikipedia’s model relies on user-generated content and community moderation; broad takedown orders could disrupt this and harm the platform’s collaborative nature. Eg: If Wikipedia faces constant takedown requests, it might have to impose strict content restrictions, altering its open editing structure and reducing the reliability of information.
Way forward:
- Clearer Guidelines and Specificity in Takedown Requests: Courts and platforms should establish clear guidelines for takedown requests, ensuring that only specific defamatory content is targeted rather than broad or vague orders. Eg: Legal requests should identify exact defamatory statements rather than asking for the removal of entire pages.
- Strengthening Community Moderation and Accountability: Encourage community-based solutions to resolve disputes, with oversight from trusted administrators, while respecting Wikipedia’s open model. Eg: Wikipedia could enhance its dispute resolution processes and ensure content integrity by empowering its community to handle content concerns collaboratively.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] What do you understand by the concept “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.
Linkage: Fundamental right of speech and expression, which is central to the discussion about taking down online content like Wikipedia pages. The Supreme Court’s order emphasizes the need to carefully consider the implications for the free flow of information, a key aspect of freedom of speech.
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Why in the News?
Concerns about an AI arms race and AGI are rising, but research on AI’s impact on strategic affairs remains limited.
What are the key strategic differences between AI and nuclear weapons?
| Strategic Difference |
Artificial Intelligence (AI) |
Nuclear Weapons |
| Development and Control |
Driven by private companies and research institutions (Eg: OpenAI) |
Developed and strictly controlled by state actors |
| Resource Dependence |
No ongoing physical resources needed once trained |
Depend on rare materials like enriched uranium, requiring secure control |
| Global Accessibility |
Rapidly accessible and globally developable (Eg: AI in healthcare) |
Restricted to a few nations with production and maintenance capacity |
How should these affect policy?
- Focus on Global Tech Governance: Policies should emphasize international collaboration on AI standards and ethics, not just state-centric treaties. Eg: The OECD AI Principles guide responsible AI use across countries and private entities.
- Regulate Private Sector Innovation: Governments must work closely with tech firms to monitor and regulate AI development. Eg: The EU AI Act places obligations on companies deploying high-risk AI systems.
- Invest in Civilian and Dual-Use Oversight: Policies should ensure AI developed for civilian use isn’t misused for harmful purposes. Eg: Export controls on advanced AI chips to prevent their misuse by authoritarian regimes.
Why is the comparison between Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) and Mutual Assured AI Malfunction (MAIM) flawed?
- Different Nature of Threats: MAD is based on physical destruction through nuclear weapons, while MAIM assumes AI failure or sabotage, which is less predictable and harder to control. Eg: A nuclear missile has a clear origin and impact but an AI malfunction could be decentralized and ambiguous.
- Diffuse Infrastructure: Nuclear programs are centralized and state-controlled, but AI development is global, decentralized, and often driven by private entities. Eg: Open-source AI models can be developed by individuals or startups across countries, unlike nuclear weapons.
- Unreliable Deterrence Mechanism: MAD relies on guaranteed retaliation; AI malfunction is not guaranteed nor clearly attributable, making deterrence weak. Eg: It’s hard to prove who caused an AI collapse, unlike a nuclear strike which can be traced.
What are its policy implications?
- Risk of Escalation: Using MAIM as a deterrence may justify preemptive strikes or sabotage, increasing chances of conflict. Eg: States might attack suspected AI labs without solid proof, causing diplomatic or military escalation.
- False Sense of Security: Assuming AI deterrence works like nuclear deterrence may lead to complacency in governance and oversight. Eg: Policymakers might underinvest in AI safety, believing threat of malfunction is enough to prevent misuse.
- Lack of Accountability: Diffuse AI development makes retaliation or regulation difficult, weakening the policy’s enforceability. Eg: If a rogue actor causes an AI incident, it’s hard to trace or penalize, unlike state-driven nuclear attacks.
How feasible is controlling AI chip distribution like nuclear materials?
- Different Resource Requirements: Unlike nuclear tech, AI doesn’t need rare or radioactive materials, making chip controls less effective. Eg: Once AI models are trained, they can run on widely available hardware like GPUs.
- Widespread Availability: AI chips are mass-produced and used in consumer electronics globally, making strict regulation difficult. Eg: Chips used for gaming or smartphones can also power AI applications.
- Black Market and Bypass Risks: Efforts to restrict chip distribution may lead to smuggling or development of alternative supply chains. Eg: Countries barred from chip exports may create domestic chip industries or resort to illegal imports.
What assumptions about AI-powered bioweapons and cyberattacks are speculative, and why?
- Inevitability of AI-powered attacks: It’s assumed AI will inevitably be used to develop bioweapons or launch cyberattacks, but such outcomes aren’t guaranteed. Eg: While AI can assist in simulations, creating bioweapons still requires complex biological expertise.
- State-driven development dominance: The assumption that states will lead AI weaponization ignores the current dominance of private tech firms. Eg: Companies like OpenAI or Google, not governments, are at the forefront of AI research.
- Equating AI with WMDs: Treating AI as a weapon of mass destruction assumes similar scale and impact, which is yet unproven. Eg: Cyberattacks can cause disruption, but rarely match the immediate devastation of a nuclear blast.
Why is more scholarship needed on AI in strategic affairs?
- Lack of tailored strategic frameworks: Current strategies often rely on outdated comparisons like nuclear weapons, which don’t suit AI’s complexity. Eg: Using MAD to model AI deterrence ignores AI’s decentralized development and dual-use nature.
- Unclear trajectory of AI capabilities: Without deeper research, it’s difficult to predict how AI might evolve or impact global security. Eg: The potential of superintelligent AI remains hypothetical, needing scenario-based academic exploration.
- Policy gaps and ethical dilemmas: Scholarly input is crucial to guide regulation and international norms around AI use. Eg: Without academic insight, actions like preemptive strikes on AI labs could escalate conflicts unjustly.
Way forward:
- Establish Multilateral AI Governance Frameworks: Nations should collaborate with international organizations, academia, and private stakeholders to create adaptive, inclusive, and enforceable AI governance structures. Eg: A global AI treaty modeled on the Paris Climate Accord can align safety, ethics, and innovation priorities.
- Promote Interdisciplinary Strategic Research: Invest in dedicated research centers combining expertise from technology, security studies, ethics, and international law to anticipate and mitigate AI-related risks. Eg: Establishing think tanks like the “AI and National Security Institute” to inform real-time policy with evidence-based analysis.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2015] Considering the threats cyberspace poses to the country, India needs a “Digital Armed Force” to prevent crimes. Critically evaluate the National Cyber Security Policy, 2013, outlining the challenges perceived in its effective implementation.
Linkage: The strategic importance of cybersecurity and the need for a digital defence force, which would involve AI capabilities. This article will talk about the strategic significance of AI.
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Why in the News?
Public health has evolved with the growing economy and modern lifestyles. Key challenges include antimicrobial resistance, chronic diseases, zoonotic diseases, and mental health, with NCDs making up 60% of global deaths.
What are the key modern public health challenges faced globally, and how do they impact India?
- Rise of Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs): NCDs like heart disease, diabetes, and cancer account for over 60% of global deaths and are projected to rise by 17% in the next decade. India faces a dual burden of NCDs and infectious diseases. Eg: As per National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), over 20% of Indian adults suffer from high blood pressure.
- Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR): Misuse of antibiotics in humans and livestock has led to drug-resistant infections, making common illnesses harder to treat. India is one of the largest consumers of antibiotics, and AMR increases mortality rates and healthcare costs. Eg: A 2019 ICMR report showed a rise in resistance to last-resort antibiotics like colistin in Indian hospitals.
- Mental Health Crisis: Stress, urbanization, and socio-economic pressures are driving a rise in mental health illnesses, yet policymakers and health systems continue to under-address them. India has a high treatment gap — about 80% of people with mental illness do not receive treatment due to stigma and lack of resources. Eg: WHO estimates that India loses nearly $1 trillion in productivity annually due to mental health issues.
How does the ‘Ayushman Bharat’ scheme aim to strengthen India’s public health system?
- Financial Protection through PM-JAY: The Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY) offers ₹5 lakh health insurance coverage per family per year to poor and vulnerable populations. It reduces the financial burden of hospitalization and protects against catastrophic health expenditure. Eg: A BPL family needing heart surgery under PM-JAY can avail treatment in empanelled hospitals without paying out-of-pocket.
- Strengthening Primary Healthcare via Ayushman Arogya Mandirs (AAMs): These upgraded Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs) provide comprehensive care, including preventive, promotive, curative, rehabilitative, and palliative services, close to communities. Eg: A rural health centre now screens for diabetes, mental health, and cancers under the AAM model, increasing early detection and timely treatment.
- Infrastructure Development through PM-ABHIM: The Pradhan Mantri Ayushman Bharat Health Infrastructure Mission (PM-ABHIM) improves health system preparedness by investing in labs, critical care units, and public health surveillance systems. Eg: District hospitals are being upgraded with ICU beds and disease monitoring labs under PM-ABHIM, boosting emergency response and pandemic readiness.
What are the reasons behind the lack of trust in India’s public health system?
- Poor User Experience and Service Quality: Long wait times, overcrowding, and inadequate attention from healthcare staff often lead to patient dissatisfaction and erode trust in public facilities. Eg: Patients at many government hospitals report delays in receiving treatment due to staff shortages and administrative inefficiencies.
- Inconsistent Infrastructure and Cleanliness: Lack of clean facilities, essential medicines, and functional equipment in some centers diminishes public confidence in receiving quality care. Eg: A 2022 Health Ministry survey found that several PHCs in remote areas lacked basic amenities like running water and power backup.
- Stigma and Miscommunication in Care Delivery: Lack of sensitivity among staff, especially in mental health and maternal care, coupled with poor communication, creates a sense of neglect or discrimination. Eg: Many rural women avoid public health centers for childbirth due to past experiences of rude treatment or neglect by staff.
How does the quality and accessibility of private healthcare in India compare to the public sector?
- Better Infrastructure and Perceived Quality in Private Sector: Private hospitals often offer cleaner facilities, modern equipment, and shorter wait times, making them the preferred choice for many. Eg: Urban patients may choose a private multispecialty hospital over a government facility due to advanced diagnostic tools and faster service.
- Higher Costs and Risk of Catastrophic Expenditure: While private healthcare ensures timely treatment, it comes at a high cost, which can push middle- and low-income families into debt. Eg: A cancer patient undergoing chemotherapy in a private hospital may face bills in lakhs, unlike subsidized or free treatment in public hospitals under schemes like PM-JAY.
- Limited Accessibility for Rural and Poor Populations: Private hospitals are concentrated in urban areas and are often unaffordable for rural or economically weaker sections, widening the healthcare gap. Eg: A villager may have to travel over 50 km to access private healthcare, while a nearby government PHC is under-equipped or understaffed.
What is the role of National Quality Assurance Standards (NQAS) in enhancing public health services in India?
- Improves Service Delivery and Patient Care: NQAS ensures that healthcare facilities follow standardized procedures, improving the quality, safety, and effectiveness of care provided. Eg: A district hospital certified under NQAS follows set protocols for infection control and patient safety, reducing the chances of hospital-acquired infections.
- Builds Accountability and Performance Monitoring: Facilities are regularly assessed on key quality indicators, encouraging a culture of accountability and continuous improvement. Eg: A Primary Health Centre (PHC) striving for NQAS certification upgrades its infrastructure and staff training to meet quality benchmarks.
- Enhances Public Trust in Government Facilities: By aligning public health facilities with global standards like ISQua, NQAS boosts confidence among patients to seek care from government institutions. Eg: An NQAS-certified Community Health Centre (CHC) attracts more patients due to its improved cleanliness, better staff behaviour, and reliable service delivery.
Way forward:
- Invest in Quality and Infrastructure: Strengthen public health facilities with adequate staff, modern equipment, and essential supplies to ensure reliable, high-quality care across rural and urban areas.
- Promote Awareness and Trust: Launch community-based health education campaigns and feedback mechanisms to reduce stigma, improve service perception, and increase public trust in government healthcare systems.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] “Besides being a moral imperative of a Welfare State, primary health structure is a necessary precondition for sustainable development.” Analyse.
Linkage: The importance of a strong primary health structure, which is fundamental to making healthcare accessible and achieving broader development goals.
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Why in the News?
During the ongoing U.S.-China tariff war, the Trump administration announced that smartphones, computers, and some electronics would be excluded from the 125% tariffs, easing concerns for firms like Apple.
What decision did the Trump administration make regarding smartphones and computers in the tariff war with China?
- Exemption from High Tariff Slab: The Trump administration decided that smartphones, computers, and certain other electronics would not be subjected to the 125% reciprocal tariffs on China. Eg: Apple products like iPhones and MacBooks were spared from the highest tariff bracket.
- Reclassification to Lower Tariff Bucket: These items were instead moved to a lower tariff category of 20%, which was presented as a strategic decision, not a full exemption. Eg: Laptops and other consumer electronics faced a reduced tariff rate instead of the originally proposed higher one.
Why are semiconductors considered critical for the United States’ national security and economy?
- Foundation of Modern Technology: Semiconductors power essential devices from smartphones and laptops to defense systems and AI tools, making them indispensable to both daily life and strategic operations. Eg: Military drones and radar systems rely on advanced microchips for data processing.
- Supply Chain Vulnerability: Heavy reliance on a few countries, especially Taiwan, for chip manufacturing exposes the U.S. to supply disruptions and geopolitical risks. Eg: The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted global chip shortages, affecting car and electronics industries.
- Need for Technological Sovereignty: Boosting domestic semiconductor production ensures technological leadership, economic resilience, and reduces dependence on potentially hostile nations. Eg: New tariffs and subsidies aim to encourage U.S.-based chip manufacturing to reduce reliance on China.
Where is most of the world’s semiconductor manufacturing currently concentrated?
- Taiwan: Taiwan leads global semiconductor manufacturing, especially in advanced chips, due to companies like TSMC (Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company). Eg: TSMC produces over 50% of the world’s advanced semiconductors.
- South Korea: A major player in memory chip production, with giants like Samsung and SK Hynix dominating the market. Eg: Samsung is a global leader in DRAM and NAND flash memory chips.
- China: Rapidly expanding its semiconductor industry through state support, though still dependent on foreign technology for advanced manufacturing. Eg: SMIC (Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation) is China’s largest chipmaker but faces U.S. export restrictions.
When did the US’s share in global semiconductor manufacturing decline significantly?
- Since the 1990s: The U.S. share fell from 37% in 1990 to 12% by 2020, as production increasingly shifted to Asia due to lower costs and better infrastructure. Eg: Companies like TSMC (Taiwan) and Samsung (South Korea) became dominant players.
- Post-globalization era: With the rise of global supply chains and outsourcing, the U.S. focused more on chip design than manufacturing, leading to a production gap. Eg: Firms like Intel design chips in the U.S. but get them manufactured overseas.
Can India grab the semiconductor supply chain?
India has strong potential to become a major player in the global semiconductor supply chain.
- Government Push & Incentives: India has launched a ₹76,000 crore (US $10 billion) semiconductor incentive scheme to attract global chipmakers and boost domestic production. Eg: Micron is investing $2.75 billion in a chip assembly plant in Gujarat under this scheme.
- Strategic Location & Talent Pool: India offers a large, skilled workforce in electronics and IT, and is strategically located between key markets like Southeast Asia and Europe. Eg: Tata Group is setting up a semiconductor assembly and testing unit in Assam to tap both local and export markets.
- Global Diversification Needs: Countries and companies want to reduce reliance on Taiwan and China due to geopolitical tensions. India is being seen as a reliable alternative. Eg: U.S. firm Lam Research plans to train 60,000 Indian engineers and invest $1 billion to strengthen India’s semiconductor ecosystem.
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Way forward:
- Accelerate Ecosystem Development: Strengthen infrastructure for fabs, ensure reliable electricity and water supply, and support R&D and design capabilities to build a complete semiconductor ecosystem.
- Foster Global Collaborations: Partner with global semiconductor leaders for technology transfer, workforce training, and joint ventures to fast-track domestic capability and integration into the global supply chain.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?
Linkage: The basic idea behind a tariff war is protectionism, where countries impose taxes on imports to shield their own industries from foreign competition. In this case, India’s manufacturing sector could benefit from the trade war between the USA and China.
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Why in the News?
On Wednesday, the Supreme Court raised concerns about certain parts of the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025.
What provisions of the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025 are under Supreme Court scrutiny?
- Derecognition of “Waqf-by-user” Properties: The Act removes recognition of properties declared Waqf through long-standing community use without formal documentation. Eg: Jama Masjid in Delhi, built centuries ago without a registered deed, is a Waqf-by-user property that may lose its legal status.
- Inclusion of Non-Muslims in Waqf Bodies: The Act allows non-Muslims to be appointed as ex-officio members in the Central and State Waqf Boards. Eg: A Hindu bureaucrat could be appointed to a Waqf Board that oversees Islamic charitable endowments.
- State Power to Decide Waqf Status: The Act empowers a government officer to determine whether a property is Waqf or government-owned and restricts its use during inquiry. Eg: A dargah used by the community for generations may be prevented from religious use while the officer assesses its legal status.
- Religious Identity Condition for Creating Waqf: The Act requires an individual to be a practising Muslim for at least five years to dedicate property as Waqf. Eg: A recent Muslim convert wanting to donate land for a madrasa may be barred if they haven’t completed five years in the faith.
Why did CJI Khanna raise concerns over derecognising Waqf-by-user properties?
- Historical Origin Without Documentation: Many mosques and Waqf properties were established centuries ago, long before land registration laws existed, making it impossible to produce formal documents today. Eg: Jama Masjid, constructed in the 17th century, lacks a registered sale deed but has been in religious use for generations.
- Established Legal Recognition in Earlier Laws: Previous versions of the Waqf Act recognised Waqf-by-user, and removing this category retroactively undermines settled legal rights and community practices. Eg: Properties that were protected under earlier Waqf Acts may now be denotified, leading to legal uncertainty and community unrest.
- Risk of Large-Scale Disputes and Displacement: The derecognition could lead to widespread property disputes, potential communal tensions, and loss of religious spaces vital to Muslim communities. Eg: In states like West Bengal, such provisions have already triggered protests and violence over fears of losing religious sites.
Who can be ex-officio members in Waqf bodies as per the CJI’s interim proposal?
- Non-Muslims Permitted as Ex-Officio Members: CJI Khanna suggested that while all appointed members of Waqf Boards and the Central Waqf Council should be Muslims, non-Muslims could serve as ex-officio members. Eg: A non-Muslim District Collector could be included in a State Waqf Board as an ex-officio member due to their administrative role.
- Maintaining Muslim Majority in Waqf Bodies: The proposal aims to ensure that the religious character of Waqf institutions is preserved by maintaining a Muslim majority among members, with non-Muslims participating only in an ex-officio capacity. This approach seeks to balance administrative inclusivity with religious autonomy. Eg: In a 22-member Central Waqf Council, if 8 members are Muslims and 2 are non-Muslim judges serving ex-officio, the inclusion of additional non-Muslim members could shift the majority, raising concerns about the council’s religious representation.
How did the petitioners argue that the Act violates Article 26 of the Constitution?
- State Cannot Restrict Religious Institutions or Charitable Intentions: The petitioners argued that Article 26 guarantees the right to establish and maintain religious and charitable institutions. The new Act mandates a person to prove they have been a practising Muslim for five years before declaring a Waqf, which interferes with this right. Eg: If a devout Muslim wishes to dedicate their land for charitable Islamic purposes but cannot prove five years of religious practice, their right under Article 26 is restricted.
- Disrupts Traditional Waqf Practices: Recognizing Waqf-by-user dismisses historical Waqfs without documents, disrupting long-standing religious practices. Eg: A 17th-century mosque used by the community could be denotified despite its religious use.
- Enables Excessive State Interference: Giving the state power over Waqf status and allowing non-Muslims in Waqf bodies undermines community autonomy. Eg: A religious property may be declared government-owned without judicial review, violating institutional independence.
Way forward:
- Preserve Historical Waqf Rights: Legal provisions should be revised to recognize and protect Waqf-by-user properties, ensuring that historically significant religious sites are not unduly denotified, thereby maintaining continuity with longstanding community practices.
- Ensure Religious Autonomy in Waqf Management: The state should limit its interference in Waqf management by maintaining Muslim-majority representation on Waqf bodies while allowing non-Muslims to serve in an ex-officio capacity, balancing inclusivity with respect for religious autonomy.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Discuss India as a secular state and compare with the secular principles of the US constitution.
Linkage: Secular nature of the Indian state and its interaction with religious institutions and laws governing them, such as the Waqf Act. The debate over the amendment and the Supreme Court’s intervention highlight the complexities of the state’s role in religious matters within a secular framework.
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Why in the News?
The decline in food prices is seen as a major reason for the drop in inflation. After two rate cuts by the RBI, inflation is expected to stay below 4% in the coming months, which might lead to another rate cut of 50 basis points.
What was India’s retail inflation rate in March?
- March 2025 Retail Inflation Rate: India’s retail inflation eased to 3.34% in March 2025, marking the lowest rate since August 2019.
- Comparison to Previous Month: This rate represents a decrease from February’s 3.61%, indicating a continued downward trend in inflation.
- Primary Contributors to the Decline: The significant drop in food prices, particularly vegetables, eggs, and pulses, contributed to the decline. Eg, vegetable prices fell by 7.04% year-on-year in March.
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Why have food prices been a major factor in the decline of retail inflation?
- Sharp Decline in Vegetable Prices: Vegetable prices saw a significant drop of 7.04% year-on-year in March 2025, compared to a small increase of 1.07% in February. This sharp fall in vegetable prices helped lower overall food inflation.
- Lower Pulses Prices: Pulses prices fell by 2.73% in March, after a smaller 0.35% decrease in February, contributing to reduced food inflation.
- Moderation in Overall Food Inflation: Food inflation in March 2025 decreased to 2.69% from 3.75% in February. This marked the lowest food inflation since November 2021, indicating a significant reduction in food price pressures.
- Improved Farm Output: The moderation in food prices is partly due to better farm output, which led to a more stable supply of food items, especially vegetables and pulses, easing inflationary pressures.
- Government and Central Bank Support: The government’s expectations for above-average monsoon rains in 2025 are likely to boost farm output further, maintaining lower food prices, which will continue to moderate overall inflation.
How did the Reserve Bank of India respond to the easing inflation trend?
- Second Consecutive Rate Cut: On April 9, 2025, the RBI reduced the key policy repo rate by 25 basis points to 6.00%, marking its second consecutive rate cut aimed at stimulating economic growth amid moderating inflation.
- Shift to Accommodative Stance: The RBI changed its monetary policy stance from “neutral” to “accommodative,” signaling a more supportive approach to economic growth while maintaining vigilance over inflation.
- Revised Inflation Forecast: The central bank projected the Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation to average 4% for the fiscal year 2025–26, down from the previous forecast of 4.2%, reflecting improved inflation dynamics.
- Lowered GDP Growth Estimate: The RBI revised its GDP growth forecast for the fiscal year to 6.5%, down from 6.7%, acknowledging the challenges posed by global uncertainties and trade tensions.
What risks did the RBI highlight that could impact the inflation outlook?
- Global Market Uncertainties: The RBI noted that ongoing global uncertainties, such as trade tensions (like the U.S.-China trade war), could disrupt supply chains and impact inflationary pressures in India. Eg, any further escalation in global trade disputes could lead to higher import costs.
- Adverse Weather Conditions: The RBI pointed out that unpredictable weather events, such as unseasonal rains or droughts, could lead to food supply disruptions and push up food prices, affecting overall inflation. Eg, a poor monsoon could lead to shortages in key agricultural products.
- Rising Global Commodity Prices: The central bank warned that fluctuations in global commodity prices, including oil and metals, could lead to higher domestic prices, contributing to inflation. Eg, a rise in global crude oil prices could increase transportation and fuel costs in India.
- Supply Chain Disruptions: The RBI highlighted the risk of supply-side bottlenecks, especially due to external factors like geopolitical conflicts or supply chain disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. These could raise prices for imported goods and affect domestic inflation. Eg, disruptions in global electronics supply chains could lead to higher prices for tech products.
- Core Inflation Pressures: The RBI also noted that core inflation, which excludes volatile items like food and fuel, remained persistently high at 4.1%, signaling that inflationary pressures could be more entrenched in the economy, which poses a risk to the inflation outlook. Eg, rising demand for services could contribute to sustained core inflation.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Supply Chain Resilience: The government and RBI should work together to improve supply chain infrastructure and reduce vulnerabilities to global disruptions. This includes addressing logistical bottlenecks, improving domestic production capabilities, and diversifying import sources to mitigate the impact of geopolitical tensions and climate events.
- Focus on Sustainable Agricultural Practices: To ensure stable food prices, long-term investments in sustainable farming techniques, irrigation systems, and better farm management practices are crucial. This will not only help stabilize food prices but also contribute to higher farm output and lower volatility in food inflation.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation.
Linkage: Food inflation and the RBI’s role in controlling it, which is a key aspect of the scenario described in the article.
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Why in the News?
Recently, the Supreme Court said that hospitals will lose their licences if newborn babies go missing. It also directed High Courts to make sure all pending child trafficking case trials are finished within six months.
What did the Supreme Court warn parents about regarding child trafficking?
- Vigilance Against Child Trafficking: The Supreme Court warned parents to be “extremely vigilant” to protect their children from trafficking for purposes such as sexual exploitation, forced labour, and begging. A slight negligence or carelessness could lead to severe consequences.
- Consequences of Negligence: The court highlighted that the pain parents experience when losing a child to trafficking is different and more agonising than the loss of a child due to death. The court emphasised that negligence could lead to the lifetime agony of not knowing the whereabouts or fate of the child.
- Exploitation of Poor and Vulnerable Families: The court pointed out that traffickers often prey on families from poor sections of society, exploiting their helplessness. This issue is compounded by well-organized trafficking networks that use technology to track victims.
Why does the court believe child trafficking for forced crime is on the rise?
- Exploitation of Juvenile Justice Laws: Criminal gangs exploit the legal protection offered to minors under the Juvenile Justice (JJ) Act, using trafficked children for illegal activities like theft, drug peddling, and begging, knowing the penalties are lenient. Eg: According to NCRB 2022, over 5,000 children were apprehended for petty crimes, many suspected to be victims of trafficking and coercion by organized gangs who remain untouched by law.
- Demand-Supply Gap in Adoption System: Long waiting periods and a complex legal framework for adoption in India create a black market for child adoption, encouraging trafficking. Eg: As per Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA), while more than 29,000 parents were registered for adoption in 2023, only 3,596 adoptions took place—leading to illegal demand and fueling child trafficking networks.
- Weak State Response and Enforcement: The court criticized state governments like Uttar Pradesh for lack of seriousness in tracking trafficking cases and failing to appeal against bail orders granted to traffickers. Eg: In the case heard, 13 accused granted bail by the Allahabad High Court absconded, and their whereabouts remained unknown for months, showing systemic gaps in enforcement.
How did the Supreme Court respond to the bail granted by the Allahabad High Court in the child trafficking case?
- Criticized the High Court’s Decision as Callous: The Supreme Court strongly condemned the Allahabad High Court’s decision to grant bail, calling it “very callous” and insensitive given the gravity of the crime. Eg: The bail allowed 13 accused in an inter-State child trafficking racket to go free, most of whom later absconded, frustrating the investigation.
- Cancelled the Bail of the Accused: The apex court revoked the bail orders and directed that the accused be taken into custody without delay. Eg: The accused included a nurse at a primary health centre in Chhattisgarh who played a key role in illegal infant sales under the guise of adoption.
- Ordered Speedy Trial: The court directed that the trial be completed within six months to ensure justice is not delayed. Eg: This was aimed at avoiding procedural delays and ensuring accountability in crimes involving vulnerable children.
What actions did the Supreme Court direct hospitals to take in cases of missing newborns?
- Ensure Complete Protection of Newborns: Hospitals must take full responsibility to safeguard infants immediately after birth, ensuring no unauthorized person can access them. Eg: If a newborn goes missing from a maternity ward, the hospital administration will be held accountable for negligence.
- Strict Monitoring and Accountability Measures: Hospitals were warned that if newborns are found trafficked, they could face suspension of license and legal action. Eg: A nurse involved in an infant trafficking racket from a Primary Health Centre in Chhattisgarh was among the accused in the case.
- Implement Protocols for Birth and Discharge: The court emphasized the need for strict procedures during childbirth and discharge, including documentation and identity verification. Eg: Hospitals must verify the identity of guardians or parents before handing over the baby, to prevent impersonation or baby-swapping.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Surveillance and Inter-agency Coordination: Establish a centralized digital monitoring system linking hospitals, child welfare committees, and law enforcement to track births, adoptions, and missing children in real time.
- Community Awareness and Legal Safeguards: Launch nationwide awareness campaigns on child trafficking risks and ensure strict enforcement of child protection laws with fast-track courts for trafficking cases.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] Development and welfare schemes for the vulnerable, by its nature, are discriminatory in approach.” Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.
Linkage: Child victims of trafficking are undoubtedly among the most vulnerable. This PYQ examines the nature of welfare schemes for vulnerable populations, which is relevant to the effectiveness of state interventions aimed at preventing child trafficking and rescuing victims.
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Why in the News?
The Right to Information (RTI) Act has clearly helped make those in power more accountable in India. However, in recent years, there have been efforts to weaken some of its important provisions, even though the Act — a major reform — was passed 20 years ago.
What is the role of Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act in promoting transparency?
- Balances Privacy and Public Interest: Section 8(1)(j) permits denial of personal information only if it has no relationship to public activity or interest or causes an unwarranted invasion of privacy. Eg: An officer’s medical records may be withheld, but details of their salary or qualifications can be disclosed if it serves public interest.
- Includes a Public Interest Override: Even if information is personal, it must be disclosed if larger public interest is involved. Eg: A bureaucrat’s caste certificate was disclosed in public interest when he was accused of using a fake caste certificate to secure a reserved post.
- Enhances Accountability of Public Officials: Prevents misuse of power by allowing scrutiny of officials’ actions, qualifications, and benefits. Eg: RTI queries have uncovered cases of bogus educational degrees among elected representatives and civil servants.
- Empowers Citizens to Seek Information: It strengthens democratic participation by giving citizens access to relevant information on public functionaries. Eg: Citizens have used RTI to access asset declarations of elected representatives and government officers.
- Prevents Blanket Denial of Information: Ensures that authorities cannot reject RTI requests merely by labeling the information as ‘personal’; they must justify how it affects privacy and weigh it against public interest. Eg: Information about government employees’ attendance records or transfers can be accessed to detect nepotism or irregularities.
Why does Section 44(3) of the DPDP Act, 2023 worry transparency advocates?
- Removes Public Interest Safeguard: Section 44(3) amends Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act by eliminating the provision that allowed disclosure of personal information in public interest. Eg: A fake caste certificate case could now be shielded from scrutiny as the information might be denied without evaluating public interest.
- Enables Blanket Denial Through Vague Definition: The term “personal information” is broad and undefined, enabling authorities to classify many types of public-relevant data as private. Eg: Details like educational qualifications or property disclosures of public servants could be denied under the label of “personal”.
- Undermines RTI as a Transparency Tool: It weakens the RTI Act’s core intent by restricting access to information that previously helped expose corruption and misconduct. Eg: RTI requests that once revealed official misconduct or nepotism in postings may now be rejected citing privacy under the DPDP Act.
How does the DPDP amendment deviate from the intent of the K.S. Puttaswamy judgment?
- Ignores the Balancing Principle of Privacy and Transparency: The K.S. Puttaswamy judgment (2017) upheld the right to privacy but emphasized that it must be balanced with other fundamental rights, including the right to information and public interest. Eg: The DPDP amendment removes the RTI Act’s public interest test, allowing personal information to be withheld even when it reveals corruption or fraud.
- Undermines Democratic Accountability: The judgment did not suggest overriding transparency laws like RTI but stressed minimum and necessary restrictions on information access. Eg: Instead of proportionate safeguards, the DPDP Act allows authorities to blanket-deny RTI requests without assessing public relevance.
- Distorts the Spirit of “Informed Citizenry”: Puttaswamy emphasized that transparency is essential for democracy, and privacy cannot be used to shield public officials from scrutiny. Eg: Information such as public officials’ property details or caste certificates may now be refused, limiting citizens’ ability to hold them accountable.
What information could now be denied under the amended RTI provisions as ‘personal’?
- Educational Qualifications and Certificates: Details about the academic background or degrees of public servants could be withheld as “personal information” under the amended provision. Eg: RTI queries that previously revealed fake degrees of elected representatives may now be denied.
- Caste and Community Certificates: Information related to caste status, often crucial in verifying eligibility for reservation benefits, may be deemed private. Eg: In cases where a public official allegedly used a fake caste certificate, such details could be denied under the privacy shield.
- Property, Assets, and Financial Disclosures: Disclosures regarding property holdings, assets, and liabilities of government employees might be refused by classifying them as personal. Eg: RTI applications that earlier exposed disproportionate assets could now be blocked.
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Way forward:
- Restore Public Interest Safeguard: Amend the DPDP Act to reinstate the public interest clause from Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act, ensuring transparency is not overridden by vague privacy claims.
- Define ‘Personal Information’ Clearly: Provide a narrow and precise definition of “personal information” to prevent misuse and ensure critical public accountability data remains accessible.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2020] “Recent amendments to the Right to Information Act will have profound impact on the autonomy and independence of the Information Commission”. Discuss.
Linkage: The discussion from 2020 highlights the ongoing attention on potential changes to the RTI Act. It shows that the issue of amending the RTI Act and its effects has been a concern for some time.
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Why in the News?
A new study by researchers Sujit Raghunathrao Jagadale and Javed M. Shaikh from IIM Amritsar looks at the issue of stubble burning by examining how government policies and market systems are failing to manage the problem effectively.
Why do farmers continue stubble burning despite its harm to air quality?
- Cost-Effective Method: Stubble burning is the cheapest way for farmers to clear their fields after harvesting. Eg: Farmers burn stubble to quickly prepare their land for the next crop, especially for wheat, without incurring high labor or machinery costs.
- Lack of Affordable Alternatives: There are limited affordable and efficient alternatives to stubble burning. Eg: Farmers often do not have access to technology or subsidies for machines that can manage stubble, such as Happy Seeder or bio-decomposers.
- Government’s Focus on High-Yield Crops: The Minimum Support Price (MSP) policy incentivizes the cultivation of wheat and rice, leading to monocropping. Eg: Farmers are encouraged to grow rice continuously, which results in an abundance of stubble that needs to be disposed of quickly.
- Debt and Economic Pressure: Many farmers face financial pressures, including debt and low returns on their crops, which makes burning stubble a way to save time and money. Eg: Farmers often sell their crops to middlemen at low prices, leaving them with insufficient income to invest in sustainable farming practices.
- Lack of Strong Enforcement or Support: Although stubble burning is penalized, enforcement of laws is weak, and farmers often feel the state does not provide adequate support for eco-friendly methods. Eg: Despite penalties, farmers feel little pressure to change practices when there is insufficient governmental support or infrastructure for alternatives.
How does India’s MSP policy influence stubble burning?
- Encourages Monocropping: The MSP policy promotes the cultivation of high-yield crops like rice and wheat, leading to monocropping, which results in a large amount of stubble that must be cleared. Eg: Farmers in Punjab often grow rice followed by wheat, creating a cycle where large quantities of rice stubble need to be burned to prepare the soil for the next crop.
- Limits Crop Diversification: The MSP system prioritizes wheat and rice over other crops, making it economically unfeasible for farmers to switch to more sustainable practices or crops that would reduce stubble burning. Eg: Despite the potential for growing other crops, farmers focus on rice and wheat to benefit from MSP, leaving them with stubble that they have no economically viable option to manage.
- Financial Constraints: The MSP rates for crops like rice and wheat have remained stagnant, making it harder for farmers to invest in alternatives to stubble burning, such as machinery or composting. Eg: With wheat MSP seeing only minimal increases, farmers struggle to cover costs for labor and inputs, leading them to resort to stubble burning as the most cost-effective option to clear fields.
What has the government done in this situation?
- Implemented Subsidies for Machinery: The government has provided subsidies for the purchase of machinery like the Happy Seeder to help farmers manage stubble without burning. Eg: The Punjab government has distributed equipment like straw management machines under the Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization to reduce stubble burning.
- Awareness Campaigns: The government has conducted awareness programs to educate farmers about the harmful effects of stubble burning and encourage them to adopt alternative practices. Eg: The Ministry of Agriculture and local bodies in states like Punjab and Haryana have launched campaigns to raise awareness about the environmental and health risks of stubble burning.
- Legal Measures and Penalties: Various state governments, including Punjab, have imposed fines and penalties on farmers found burning stubble, aiming to deter the practice. Eg: The Punjab government introduced a fine for stubble burning, with penalties reaching up to Rs 2,500 for each violation, although enforcement remains challenging.
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Way forward:
- Promote Crop Diversification: Encourage farmers to shift from paddy to less water-intensive and non-stubble-generating crops through assured procurement and better MSP for alternative crops. Eg: Incentivize crops like millets and pulses to reduce stubble generation.
- Strengthen Support and Infrastructure: Scale up access to sustainable stubble management technologies and ensure timely financial and logistic support to small and marginal farmers. Eg: Expand reach of Happy Seeder and bio-decomposer solutions through local cooperatives and custom hiring centers.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2015] Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three Mega cities of the country but the air pollution is much more serious probelm in Delhi as compared to the other two. Why is this so?
Linkage: Delhi’s severe air pollution, especially at certain times of the year, is caused by a combination of its location in the Indo-Gangetic Plain, nearby states burning crop stubble, and weather conditions that trap pollutants.
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Why in the News?
In The State of Tamil Nadu vs. The Governor of Tamil Nadu and Another, a two-judge Bench of the Supreme Court of India, led by Justice J.B. Pardiwala and Justice R. Mahadevan, reaffirmed that Governors’ powers are limited and must follow constitutional boundaries.
What constitutional issue was addressed in the Tamil Nadu vs the Governor case?
| Aspect |
Details |
Example |
| Limits of Gubernatorial Discretion (Article 200) |
The Governor cannot withhold assent to a Bill indefinitely or act independently of the elected State Cabinet, except in constitutionally specified situations. The role is largely ceremonial. |
Governor of Tamil Nadu withheld assent to 12 Bills, including those on the appointment of Vice-Chancellors to public universities. |
| Constitutional Obligations of the Governor and State Executive |
The Governor is bound by the advice of the State Cabinet and cannot act on personal discretion unless explicitly permitted by the Constitution. This upholds representative democracy. |
Governor delayed referrals to the President without valid reasons, thereby undermining the democratic function of the State Legislature. |
| Judicial Review of Governor’s Actions |
Article 361 gives personal immunity to the Governor but does not shield official actions from judicial review. Courts can check if actions comply with the Constitution and democratic norms. |
Supreme Court held that the Governor’s inaction violated the Constitution, and invoked Article 142 to deem the Bills as assented to, resolving the legislative deadlock. |
Why was the Governor’s inaction on Tamil Nadu Bills ruled unconstitutional?
- Violation of Constitutional Duty under Article 200: The Governor is constitutionally bound to either assent to a Bill, withhold assent (and return it for reconsideration), or reserve it for the President. Indefinitely sitting on Bills without any action violates this mandate. Eg: The Governor kept 10 re-enacted Bills pending without any action or justification, undermining the role of the legislature.
- Undermining the Principles of Representative Democracy: By not acting on duly passed Bills, the Governor disregarded the advice of the elected Council of Ministers, thereby disrupting the democratic process and the legislative will of the people. Eg: Despite the Tamil Nadu Assembly passing the Bills again in a special session, the Governor forwarded them to the President without consulting the State Cabinet, showing a lack of respect for democratic norms.
When can a Governor use discretion under Article 200?
- When a Bill Affects the Powers of the High Court: The second proviso to Article 200 allows the Governor to reserve a Bill that directly affects the powers of the High Court for the President’s consideration. Eg: If a State law tries to curtail the High Court’s jurisdiction or authority, the Governor can use discretion to reserve it.
- When Presidential Assent is Constitutionally Mandatory: If a Bill falls under categories where presidential assent is specifically required (such as laws under Article 31C that seek immunity from judicial review), the Governor may reserve it. Eg: A Bill claiming protection under Article 31C, linked to Directive Principles, must be reserved for the President.
- When a Bill Fundamentally Undermines Constitutional Values: The Governor can act without ministerial advice if the Bill threatens the basic structure or core values of the Constitution. Eg: A Bill that violates secularism or federalism in an extreme manner could justify the Governor’s discretionary action.
How did the Supreme Court invoke Article 142 to resolve the constitutional deadlock in the Tamil Nadu Bills case?
- Used Article 142 to Ensure Complete Justice: The Court exercised its special power under Article 142 to deliver complete justice by deeming the 10 re-enacted Bills as having received the Governor’s assent. Eg: Instead of waiting for further assent or action from the Governor, the Court directly validated the Bills to avoid further delays in governance.
- Bypassed Unworkable Remedies Like Mandamus: Issuing a writ of mandamus (to compel the Governor to act) was seen as ineffective since the Governor is protected from personal liability under Article 361. Eg: Since the Governor cannot be punished for contempt, the Court chose Article 142 as a more enforceable solution.
- Restored the Legislative Authority of the State: By invoking Article 142, the Court reinforced the principle that the Governor cannot override the will of an elected legislature through inaction Eg: This prevented indefinite delays in implementing laws passed by the Tamil Nadu Assembly, thus preserving democratic functioning.
Why was issuing a writ of mandamus deemed inadequate?
- Governor is Immune Under Article 361: The Constitution grants the Governor personal immunity from legal proceedings while in office, making it difficult to enforce any court directive. Eg: Even if the Court issued a mandamus to compel assent or action, the Governor could not be held legally accountable for ignoring it.
- Mandamus Cannot Be Enforced Practically: Courts cannot force a Governor to exercise discretion in a particular way, only to consider doing so—making the remedy ineffective when deliberate inaction is involved. Eg: If the Governor simply delays action without giving reasons, courts have limited tools to compel a timely decision.
- Could Cause a Constitutional Standoff: Forcing the Governor through judicial direction risks undermining the separation of powers and could lead to a deadlock between constitutional authorities. Eg: If the Governor resists the court order, it could trigger a conflict between the judiciary and the executive, weakening the constitutional balance.
Way forward:
- Codify Time Limit for Assent: Amend the Constitution or enact a statutory framework to prescribe a reasonable time limit (eg: 30 days) within which the Governor must act on Bills to prevent indefinite delays.
- Enhance Legislative Oversight: Establish a mechanism for State Legislatures to seek judicial clarification or initiate review when the Governor delays action, reinforcing accountability and upholding democratic norms.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] Discuss the essential conditions for exercise of the legislative powers by the Governor. Discuss the legality of re-promulgation of ordinances by the Governor without placing them before the Legislature.
Linkage: This question directly addresses the legislative powers of the Governor, a key aspect of their conduct. The second part specifically asks about the legality of re-promulgation of ordinances, which can be a contentious issue and often involves judicial scrutiny. This relates to the constitutional limits on the Governor’s powers, similar to the issues raised in the article.
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Why in the News?
In March, while many urban consumers were hopeful about job opportunities, many were still negative about their income levels.
What does the gap between job optimism and income pessimism among urban consumers imply?
- Jobs Are Available, But Income Growth Is Stagnant: In March 2025, 35.5% of urban respondents reported improved job opportunities compared to a year ago, but only 23.8% reported an increase in income.
- Rising Cost of Living Without Corresponding Wage Increases: Over 90% of urban respondents indicated that commodity prices have increased over the past year, but income increases remain minimal.
- Negative Economic Outlook Despite Employment Optimism: Despite optimism regarding job opportunities, only 34.7% of urban respondents believed the overall economic situation improved compared to the previous year, the lowest share in over a year.
Why are rural respondents more pessimistic about income than urban ones?
- Dependence on Agriculture and Seasonal Employment: Rural areas heavily depend on agriculture, which is subject to seasonal fluctuations and external factors like weather conditions. Eg: A farmer in a rural area may experience low income during a poor harvest season, while urban workers with more stable jobs may not face similar income volatility.
- Limited Access to Formal and High-Paying Jobs: Urban areas offer more formal employment opportunities with better wages and benefits, while rural areas often lack access to well-paying jobs and may have higher rates of informal employment. Eg: A rural resident working as a daily wage laborer may earn less compared to an office worker in the city with a regular salary, even if both are employed.
- Lower Economic Diversification: Rural economies are less diversified compared to urban areas, which can lead to fewer job opportunities and economic growth. Eg: A rural worker may be reliant on local industries like agriculture or small-scale manufacturing, while an urban worker has access to a variety of sectors like technology, finance, and services, which tend to offer higher income prospects.
How have rising prices affected urban spending?
- Increased Spending on Essential Goods: With rising commodity prices, urban consumers are spending more on essential goods such as food, transportation, and utilities, leading to higher overall expenditures. Eg: An urban resident may see their grocery bills rise significantly due to inflation, causing them to spend more on basic food items like vegetables and grains, even if their income remains unchanged.
- Shifting Spending Priorities: As prices rise, urban consumers are prioritizing necessary expenses, often cutting back on discretionary spending like entertainment, travel, and luxury goods. Eg: A family in an urban area may reduce spending on dining out or vacations to allocate more money towards rent and daily commuting costs, adjusting their lifestyle to account for increased living expenses.
- Financial Strain Despite Employment Stability: Urban residents may continue to hold jobs, but the combination of stagnant incomes and rising costs puts financial pressure on them, leading to a higher sense of economic uncertainty. Eg: An office worker may retain their job but find it increasingly difficult to cover monthly expenses like rent and school fees for children, as inflation causes prices to rise faster than their salary increases.
What was the main factor behind the decline in positive sentiment about the economy among urban consumers in March 2025?
- Rising Commodity Prices Without Income Growth: In March 2025, over 90% of urban respondents reported that commodity prices had increased over the past year, while only 23.8% saw an increase in their income. Eg: With income levels largely stagnant and prices rising, 80% of urban respondents reported increased spending, leading to a more pessimistic view of the economy.
- Stagnant Income and Higher Spending Pressures: The survey revealed that 34.7% of urban respondents felt the overall economic situation had improved, the lowest share in over a year, indicating dissatisfaction with the broader economic outlook. Eg: An office worker might retain their job but face higher living costs (such as rent, utilities, and groceries), contributing to the sense of financial strain and a decline in positive economic sentiment, despite job availability.
Way forward:
- Focus on Wage Growth and Inflation-Linked Salary Adjustments: To address stagnant incomes, policies should ensure that wage growth keeps up with inflation, potentially through salary adjustments linked to cost-of-living indices, reducing financial strain for urban consumers.
- Boost Rural Economic Diversification and Job Creation: Improve access to diverse, high-paying jobs in rural areas through skill development programs, infrastructure improvements, and incentives for non-agricultural industries, fostering economic resilience and reducing income pessimism.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] Economic growth in the recent past has been led by an increase in labour productivity.” Explain this statement. Suggest the growth pattern that will lead to the creation of more jobs without compromising labour productivity.
Linkage: If people in cities are worried that their incomes are not growing even though jobs are available, it shows a gap between growth driven by higher worker productivity and actual rise in people’s earnings. This is an important point discussed in this previous year’s question.
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Why in the news?
The National Education Policy aims to transform India’s separate higher education system by creating large institutions that offer education across multiple fields.
What distinguishes multidisciplinary, cross-disciplinary, and interdisciplinary approaches in higher education?
| Approach |
Description |
Example (Eg) |
| Multidisciplinary |
Involves multiple disciplines working together, but each maintains its own methods and boundaries. |
Eg: A team of economists, biologists, and engineers working on a project about climate change, but each discipline works separately within their own domain. |
| Cross-disciplinary |
Encourages collaboration between disciplines but without integrating their knowledge. |
Eg: An educationist and an economist working together on a project, but they maintain their individual disciplinary perspectives without merging them. |
| Interdisciplinary |
Integrates concepts, methods, and frameworks from different disciplines to create a unified approach. |
Eg: A course titled “Environmental Economics” combining economics, environmental science, and sociology to address climate change through an integrated perspective. |
Why must single-stream institutions be phased out under the National Education Policy?
- Encouraging Cross-Disciplinary Collaboration: Single-stream institutions focus only on one discipline, limiting students’ exposure to other fields. Phasing them out encourages the integration of various disciplines, fostering collaboration. Eg: A single-stream commerce college could partner with a neighboring arts college, allowing students to explore subjects like economics and sociology alongside their commerce studies.
- Expanding Knowledge and Skill Sets: Multidisciplinary institutions allow students to develop a broader skill set by learning from multiple disciplines, enhancing their adaptability and problem-solving abilities. Eg: A student in a multidisciplinary university could take courses in both computer science and environmental studies, enabling them to work on tech-driven solutions for environmental issues.
- Meeting Global Educational Standards: Single-stream institutions limit the scope of education, whereas multidisciplinary campuses are more aligned with global trends in higher education that emphasize holistic, well-rounded learning. Eg: In top global universities, students often have the flexibility to take courses from diverse fields, making them more versatile and better prepared for complex, real-world challenges.
How can Indian universities promote cross-disciplinary learning and collaboration?
- Encouraging Joint Courses and Programs: Indian universities can create joint courses and programs that combine subjects from different disciplines, allowing students to explore connections between fields and work on collaborative projects. Eg: A course titled “Sustainability in Urban Planning” could combine inputs from urban studies, environmental science, and economics, encouraging students to approach problems from multiple perspectives.
- Fostering Collaborative Research Projects: Universities should establish research centers and projects that bring together faculty and students from different disciplines to work on solving real-world challenges, promoting cross-disciplinary collaboration. Eg: A research project focused on public health could involve faculty from medicine, economics, sociology, and environmental science to address issues like the spread of infectious diseases in urban areas.
Who plays a crucial role in fostering interdisciplinary thinking?
- Faculty Members: Professors and researchers play a crucial role in fostering interdisciplinary thinking by encouraging students to approach problems from multiple disciplinary angles and by designing courses and projects that integrate knowledge from different fields. Eg: A professor from the economics department might collaborate with faculty from environmental science and sociology to create a course on “Environmental Economics,” encouraging students to consider both economic policies and environmental impacts in solving global challenges.
- University Administration: University leaders and administrators can support interdisciplinary thinking by creating structures that promote cross-department collaboration, offering funding for interdisciplinary research, and ensuring that the curriculum encourages interaction across disciplines. Eg: A university may establish an “Interdisciplinary Research Fund” to support projects that involve multiple departments.
What challenges do they face in current academic structures?
- Rigid Departmental Boundaries: Traditional departments often have defined areas of focus, making collaboration difficult across disciplines. Eg: A physics department may not easily partner with a social sciences department on a project related to climate change impacts.
- Lack of Incentives for Interdisciplinary Work: Faculty members are primarily rewarded for publishing in their specific discipline, not for interdisciplinary research. Eg: A researcher in environmental science might find it hard to get recognition for a joint paper with a computer science expert on climate modeling.
- Limited Interdisciplinary Training for Faculty: Many professors are trained and specialize in a single discipline, which hinders their ability to teach or engage in interdisciplinary approaches. Eg: An economics professor may not have the skills to incorporate concepts from sociology or political science into their curriculum.
Way forward:
- Integrating Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Universities should design flexible curricula that allow students and faculty to take courses and engage in research across disciplines, breaking traditional academic silos.
- Incentivizing Interdisciplinary Research and Collaboration: Establish funding programs and academic recognition for interdisciplinary research to motivate faculty and students to work across departmental boundaries.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2020] National Education Policy 2020 is in conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement.
Linkage: Multidisciplinary universities need to be established to reach the goal by 2030, aligning with the timeframe of SDG-4. This question directly talk about the NEP 2020’s intent to restructure and reorient the education system, which is central to the idea of shaping the university of the future.
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Why in the news?
Colossal Biosciences is an American company that combines genetics and conservation in a unique way by bringing back species that have been extinct for thousands of years.
What is the primary goal of Colossal Biosciences’ de-extinction project?
Colossal Biosciences is a biotechnology company specializing in de-extinction projects, aiming to revive extinct species through advanced genetic engineering.
- Woolly Mammoth De-Extinction: Colossal is working to resurrect the woolly mammoth by integrating mammoth genes into the Asian elephant genome using CRISPR technology. The goal is to create a cold-resistant elephant with traits characteristic of the woolly mammoth, such as a thick layer of fat and shaggy hair, to inhabit Arctic tundra regions and potentially combat climate change.
- Dire Wolf Revival: In a groundbreaking achievement, Colossal announced the birth of three pups—Romulus, Remus, and Khaleesi—genetically engineered to resemble the extinct dire wolf. Using DNA from ancient dire wolf remains, scientists edited the genes of modern gray wolves, resulting in animals that exhibit traits such as larger size and distinctive fur color.
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Why do critics question the credibility of reviving extinct species for conservation purposes?
- Lack of Scientific Proof: The actual success of reviving extinct species like the woolly mammoth has not yet been proven through rigorous peer review or established results.
- Limited Genetic Editing: The extent of genetic editing in revived species often involves only a small number of genes, leading to incomplete or flawed replicas of the original species. Eg: In the case of the dire wolf, only 20 genes were edited, resulting in what critics describe as just a “strange-looking gray wolf” rather than a true de-extinct species.
- Ethical Concerns: There are ethical debates over the potential consequences of creating species that may not thrive in the modern environment or might cause unforeseen ecological imbalances. Eg: The introduction of revived species like the woolly mammoth could disrupt current ecosystems in ways that may not be beneficial.
How can bringing back the woolly mammoth help stop global warming?
- Restoring Grasslands: The woolly mammoth can help restore Arctic grasslands by grazing on shrubs and plants, which would create open grasslands where permafrost can remain intact. Eg: By grazing, mammoths would prevent the growth of shrubs that trap heat, promoting the return of grasslands that are cooler and better at reflecting sunlight.
- Slowing Permafrost Melt: Grasslands absorb less heat than shrub forests, helping to keep the permafrost cool. The return of woolly mammoths could help prevent the thawing of permafrost, which releases methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Eg: Mammoth grazing can keep the ground cooler and slow the thawing of permafrost, thus reducing the release of methane into the atmosphere.
- Preventing Methane Emissions: As the permafrost melts, it releases large amounts of methane into the atmosphere. Woolly mammoths could help mitigate this by maintaining ecosystems that slow down the permafrost’s thaw. Eg: With mammoths grazing, the tundra could remain cooler and less prone to releasing methane.
- Enhancing Carbon Sequestration: Grasslands are more effective at absorbing carbon than shrubbery or forested areas. By converting tundra back into grasslands, woolly mammoths could enhance carbon sequestration and help store more carbon in the soil. Eg: Woolly mammoths could help re-establish healthy grasslands, which would act as carbon sinks, absorbing more CO2 from the atmosphere.
What is India’s situation in advanced genetic engineering?
- Advancements in Agricultural Biotechnology: India has developed a structured regulatory framework for genetically modified organisms (GMOs) under the Environment (Protection) Act, of 1986. Eg: Recently, India initiated trials of CRISPR/Cas9-modified rice varieties in test fields, reflecting a surge in scientific research and innovation in plant genome editing.
- Pioneering Genomic Research and Precision Medicine: India’s Genome India Project aims to sequence at least 10,000 Indian genomes to develop predictive diagnostic indicators for various diseases. Eg: Institutions like the Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB) have been instrumental in understanding genetic epidemiology, including the development of the FELUDA COVID-19 test based on CRISPR technology.
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Way forward:
- Strengthen Ethical and Regulatory Frameworks: India should establish robust regulations and ethical guidelines for genetic engineering, particularly for gene-editing technologies like CRISPR, to ensure safety and sustainability in areas such as agriculture and medicine.
- Promote Collaborative Research and Innovation: Encouraging partnerships between academic institutions, the private sector, and the government will help accelerate research and application of advanced genetic technologies, positioning India as a global leader in biotechnology innovation.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] What strategies have been developed to prevent such a catastrophe [mass extinction of life]?
Linkage: The article says we should focus more on saving the species that are alive today, rather than trying to bring back extinct ones. The debate about de-extinction raises the question of whether it’s better to spend resources on protecting current species instead.
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Why in the News?
The recently held Budget session of Parliament became historic, as both the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha continued working all night and ended only around sunrise.
What made the recently concluded Budget session of Parliament historically significant?
- All-night Sitting: Both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha continued debates through the night until early morning, which is extremely rare. For example, the Rajya Sabha was still debating at 8:30 p.m., with 22 speakers left, and the Waqf Bill was passed only around 2:30 a.m.
- Record High Productivity: The session saw exceptionally high legislative productivity — 118% in Lok Sabha and 119% in Rajya Sabha. Eg: This indicates that the Houses worked more hours than scheduled, completing more business than expected.
- Rich Parliamentary Debate and Public Engagement: Despite the late hours, MPs spoke passionately, aiming for impactful speeches that could go viral or make headlines. Eg: A woman MP quoted Victor Hugo (mistakenly calling him British), showing both the depth and drama of the debate.
Who played a critical role in capturing the nuances of the all-night parliamentary session for the public?
- Parliamentary Reporters: They stayed overnight in the House, observing debates and documenting proceedings for the media. Eg: The author of the editorial, a parliamentary reporter, described the urgency and drama of speeches during the night.
- News Desks and Editors: They coordinated under pressure to ensure reports met tight print deadlines while maintaining accuracy. Eg: The reporter received frantic messages from the desk urging for a timely copy to meet the morning paper’s schedule.
- Media as a Democratic Bridge: Reporters help the public understand what’s happening inside Parliament, especially during rare sittings. Eg: Despite physical restrictions in the new Parliament building, reporters continue to attend sessions to provide detailed coverage.
Where are reporters restricted from going within the new Indian Parliament building, despite having official access?
- Glass Enclosure for Media Personnel: Reporters, especially from electronic media, are confined to a glass enclosure within the Parliament premises. This limits their ability to move freely and interact with Members of Parliament (MPs). Eg: On July 29, 2024, journalists were restricted to this enclosure and prevented from accessing areas like the ‘Makar Dwar’, where they traditionally gathered sound bites from MPs.
- Restricted Access to ‘Makar Dwar’: The ‘Makar Dwar’, a main entrance used by MPs, has been cordoned off, preventing journalists from approaching MPs for interviews. Eg: Journalists were removed from this area, which was previously a common spot for media interactions with MPs.
- Limited Entry to Press Galleries: Access to the press galleries has been significantly reduced, with only a limited number of journalists allowed entry, often through a non-transparent selection process. Eg: The Editors’ Guild of India noted that only a fraction of the approximately 1,000 accredited journalists are granted access, without a clear procedure.
- Separate Entry Points and Increased Security Checks: Journalists now have designated entry points separate from MPs and officials, coupled with multiple security checks, making access more cumbersome. Eg: Reporters are frisked multiple times and must navigate a windowless corridor with security cameras to reach the press gallery.
- Restrictions Around Key Offices: Areas surrounding the Prime Minister’s Office, the Speaker’s office, and the Rajya Sabha Chairman’s office are off-limits to journalists, limiting their coverage scope. Eg: These zones have been cordoned off, preventing media personnel from accessing them.
Why do reporters persist in covering parliamentary debates despite challenges?
- Democratic Responsibility: Reporters feel a duty to keep the public informed about how their representatives function, especially during important debates. Eg: Even during the late-night Budget session, reporters stayed to capture each speaker’s arguments, helping citizens understand crucial legislative developments.
- Fear of Missing Crucial Details: Journalists worry they might miss significant moments or policy announcements if they leave early or tune out. Eg: During a midnight speech on the Waqf Bill, a Member of Parliament misattributed Victor Hugo as British — a detail that adds color and context to the reporting.
- Drama and Insight: Parliamentary sessions offer intense debates, humor, emotional appeals, and unfiltered views — making them compelling for storytelling. Eg: The sight of an actor-turned-politician struggling through an angry speech added drama and human interest to the reporter’s coverage.
Way forward:
- Ensure Transparent and Inclusive Media Access: Parliament should adopt a fair, transparent system for press gallery access and allow broader journalist participation, ensuring diverse media voices are represented. Eg: Revoking arbitrary restrictions and restoring access to areas like ‘Makar Dwar’ can enhance real-time, on-ground reporting.
- Leverage Technology for Better Public Engagement: Install live-streaming infrastructure, media briefing zones, and provide official transcripts quickly to support timely, accurate reporting. Eg: Designated digital zones can help journalists report swiftly without compromising security or disrupting proceedings.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2019] Individual Parliamentarian’s role as the national law maker is on a decline, which in turn, has adversely impacted the quality of debates and their outcome. Discuss.
Linkage: Role of Parliamentary discussion and debate for the public. This also examines the role and effectiveness of individual Members of Parliament during parliamentary sessions.
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Why in the News?
Over 16 years after the 26/11 Mumbai terror attacks, Tahawwur Rana, a key planner, was finally brought back to India from the US to face trial.
Who is Tahawwur Rana?
Tahawwur Hussain Rana is a Pakistani-Canadian terrorist, businessman and former military doctor, who is known for his involvement in terrorism-related activities. |
What role did he play in the 26/11 Mumbai terror attacks?
- Cover Identity: Tahawwur Rana provided a false business cover to David Headley, enabling him to enter India multiple times without raising suspicion. Eg: Rana’s immigration company, First World Immigration Services, was used to justify Headley’s visits to India as “business trips” while he was actually surveying 26/11 attack targets like the Taj Mahal Hotel and Chabad House.
- Operational Support: Rana helped facilitate key documentation and communication links between Headley and terrorist organizations. Eg: He assisted Headley in obtaining a new passport with a false identity and supported contacts with Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) operatives, maintaining secrecy for the attack planning.
- Logistical and Financial Assistance: Rana’s actions indirectly enabled the planning and execution of the attacks through financial backing and logistical coordination. Eg: He supported Headley’s multiple reconnaissance trips to Mumbai and funded arrangements that helped terrorists carry out the coordinated assault which killed 166 people and injured over 238.
| Note: David Headley is a Pakistani-American terrorist who conducted reconnaissance for the 26/11 Mumbai attacks on behalf of Lashkar-e-Taiba. |
What is the extradition treaty between India and the USA?
- Bilateral Legal Framework: It is a formal agreement signed in 1997 that allows both countries to request and surrender individuals accused or convicted of serious crimes. Eg: India requested the extradition of Tahawwur Rana under this treaty for his role in the 26/11 Mumbai terror attacks.
- Dual Criminality Principle: A person can be extradited only if the offense is a crime in both India and the United States. Eg: Conspiracy to commit terrorism is punishable in both countries, fulfilling the condition for Rana’s extradition.
- Judicial and Diplomatic Process: The extradition process involves legal scrutiny by courts and coordination between diplomatic and law enforcement agencies of both nations. Eg: US courts reviewed Rana’s case and, after rejecting multiple appeals, extradited him with cooperation from the US Department of Justice.
What legal processes did Tahawwur Rana undergo in the US before being extradited to India?
- Extradition Hearing: A US District Court evaluated India’s request to determine if the charges met the treaty’s conditions and legal standards. Eg: In May 2023, the District Court for the Central District of California approved Rana’s extradition after reviewing evidence and charges.
- Appeals and Legal Challenges: Rana filed multiple appeals to delay extradition, including petitions in higher courts and emergency applications. Eg: He moved the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals and later the US Supreme Court with habeas corpus petitions, all of which were denied.
- Final Clearance and Custody Transfer: After exhausting all legal options, US authorities coordinated with Indian officials to hand over Rana formally. Eg: The US Department of Justice and US Sky Marshal teams worked with Indian NIA and MEA for his secure transfer to Delhi.
What is the role of the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA)?
- Legal Designation of Terrorist Organizations: UAPA provides the legal framework to declare organizations as terrorist outfits and take action against their members and supporters. Eg: Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Harkat-ul-Jihadi Islami (HUJI), associated with Rana and Headley, are banned under UAPA.
- Prosecution of Conspirators and Supporters: UAPA enables prosecution not only of terrorists but also of individuals who aid, abet, or conspire in terrorist acts. Eg: Tahawwur Rana is being charged under UAPA for facilitating logistics and shelter to Headley, who conducted reconnaissance for the 26/11 attacks.
- Empowering NIA to Investigate: UAPA empowers the National Investigation Agency (NIA) to investigate and prosecute terrorism cases across India. Eg: The NIA formally arrested Rana under UAPA after his extradition, and is now interrogating him to expose the full conspiracy.
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Way forward:
- Strengthen International Counter-Terror Cooperation: Enhance collaboration on intelligence sharing, joint operations, and faster legal coordination under extradition treaties. Eg: Streamlined communication between NIA and FBI can prevent delays in apprehending fugitives and tracking transnational terror networks.
- Fast-Track Trial and Victim Justice: Ensure expedited judicial proceedings to bring long-pending terrorism cases like 26/11 to closure and deliver justice to victims. Eg: A special fast-track court under the NIA Act can help conclude Rana’s trial swiftly, reinforcing public trust and legal deterrence.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] Analyse the complexity and intensity of terrorism, its causes, linkages and obnoxious nexus. Also, suggest measures required to be taken to eradicate the menace of terrorism.
Linkage: The issue of terrorism, its multifaceted nature, and the measures needed to combat it, which aligns with the context of the 26/11 attacks.
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Why in the News?
Last month, in March, it was five years since the COVID-19 pandemic began around the world.
What did COVID-19 reveal about trust in healthcare and public health interventions?
- Fragility of Public Trust: Public trust in healthcare systems is delicate and can quickly deteriorate during a crisis. Eg: In countries like the U.S. and Brazil, misinformation and politicization of health measures led to public skepticism about mask mandates and vaccines.
- Trust Influences Compliance: Low trust in healthcare institutions led to reduced compliance with health measures like vaccination, social distancing, and testing. Eg: In India, varying levels of trust in different states resulted in underreporting of COVID-19 deaths, as later highlighted in Science.
- Communication is Crucial: Clear and consistent communication from governments and health agencies helped in building public trust. Eg: New Zealand’s early success was due in part to science-based communication from the Prime Minister and health officials.
- Trust Shapes Health Behavior: People’s willingness to seek medical help or follow guidelines depended on their trust in healthcare providers. Eg: In Nigeria, fear and mistrust led many to avoid hospitals, fearing infection or poor treatment.
- Erosion of Trust Undermines Future Preparedness: Damaged trust affects the public’s response to future health threats and reduces the uptake of new interventions.Eg: The inconsistent global response to monkeypox was partly due to lingering distrust from the COVID-19 experience.
How did technology both aid and challenge digital health and education during the pandemic?
- Enabled Remote Health Services (Telemedicine): Technology allowed continuation of healthcare through teleconsultations when in-person visits were restricted. Eg: In India, platforms like eSanjeevani facilitated over 100 million teleconsultations, especially in rural areas.
- Accelerated Use of AI in Pharma and Diagnostics: Artificial Intelligence helped speed up drug discovery, vaccine research, and diagnostic tools. Eg: Tools developed by DeepMind (UK) predicted protein structures, aiding faster vaccine development and earning its creators the Nobel Prize.
- Exposed the Digital Divide: Access to digital tools remained unequal, affecting remote education and healthcare access for underprivileged groups. Eg: In India, many rural students lacked smartphones or internet, disrupting schooling during lockdowns.
- Boosted Digital Learning Platforms: Educational apps and platforms saw a massive surge, enabling continuity in learning. Eg: Platforms like Byju’s and Google Classroom were widely adopted in India and globally for virtual classes.
- Data Privacy and Cybersecurity Concerns: Increased reliance on tech led to concerns over data breaches, surveillance, and lack of digital ethics. Eg: Contact-tracing apps like Aarogya Setu raised privacy concerns due to unclear data protection protocols.
Why were vulnerable groups, especially women and the poor, hit hardest by the pandemic?
- Loss of Livelihood and Informal Jobs: The poor, especially those in informal sectors, lost income due to lockdowns and lack of social protection. Eg: In India, millions of migrant workers lost jobs overnight and walked back to their villages without government support.
- Increased Burden on Women: Women faced a double burden of unpaid care work (childcare, household chores) and job losses in female-dominated sectors. Eg: During school closures, women in urban slums often had to quit jobs to care for children, worsening gender inequality.
- Limited Access to Health Services: Vulnerable groups faced disruptions in essential health services, including maternal care and mental health support. Eg: In many low-income countries, access to reproductive health services declined, increasing risks for pregnant women.
When and why did universal health coverage and hybrid solutions gain urgency?
- Exposure of Weak Health Infrastructure:The pandemic exposed gaps in health systems, especially in developing countries, creating urgency for universal health coverage to ensure no one is left behind. Eg: In India, shortages of hospital beds and oxygen highlighted the need for strong public health systems accessible to all.
- Need for Remote Healthcare: Lockdowns limited physical access to hospitals, leading to a surge in telemedicine and hybrid care models that combine digital tools with on-ground services. Eg: Teleconsultations increased in both urban and rural areas to provide care without physical contact during peak COVID-19 waves.
- Cost-Effective and Scalable Solutions: Governments began to focus on sustainable and scalable healthcare strategies that balance cost, access, and efficiency through hybrid models. Eg: Countries like Brazil and Bangladesh started integrating AI-powered diagnostics with community healthcare workers to reach underserved populations.
Which IP-related debates during COVID-19 exposed tensions between innovation and access?
- TRIPS Waiver Proposal: The proposal to waive certain intellectual property rights under the TRIPS Agreement sparked global debate. It aimed to let countries produce COVID-19 vaccines, tests, and treatments without legal barriers. Eg: India and South Africa led the push at the WTO in 2020; many developed nations opposed it, fearing harm to innovation.
- Opposition from Pharmaceutical Companies: Pharmaceutical companies resisted IP waivers, arguing it would discourage future research investments. They emphasized the role of patents in incentivizing innovation and funding advanced research. Eg: Pfizer and Moderna opposed sharing mRNA technology, despite global demand.
- Vaccine Nationalism and Access Inequality: IP protections contributed to unequal global vaccine distribution, especially in low-income countries. Wealthier nations secured large vaccine stocks early, while poorer countries struggled due to production limits. Eg: Africa faced major delays in vaccine access due to limited manufacturing and patent restrictions.
Way forward:
- Promote Flexible IP Frameworks During Health Crises: Encourage temporary waivers or compulsory licensing for life-saving technologies to ensure global equity in access.
- Strengthen Global South Collaboration: Build regional manufacturing and research partnerships to reduce dependency on patent-holding nations and improve pandemic preparedness.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2020] “COVID-19 pandemic accelerated class inequalities and poverty in India. Comment.
Linkage: The COVID-19 pandemic exposed weaknesses in India’s health sector and taught important lessons on how to better prepare for and manage similar health crises in the future. This impacted the vulnerable groups, especially women and the poor, hit hardest by the pandemic.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: India-China relation;
Why in the News?
Today’s China is clearly very different from the time of Deng Xiaoping. Since Xi Jinping took power in 2013, China has changed even more, and there’s little sign that it plans to go back to its earlier approach.
Why is China’s reference to its past and civilisational wrongs worrying for neighbours like India?
- Revival of Imperial Borders: China increasingly invokes the idea of restoring historical boundaries, particularly from the Qing Dynasty era, as part of its national rejuvenation narrative. This fuels aggressive territorial claims along its borders, including the Himalayas. Eg: Galwan Valley clash (2020) and Doklam standoff (2017) stemmed from China’s assertion of areas it considers historically part of its territory.
- Narrative of Victimhood and Justification for Aggression: By portraying itself as a wronged civilisation that suffered during the “Century of Humiliation,” China seeks to justify its assertive and sometimes aggressive policies. This historical grievance can be weaponised to rationalise border incursions or political pressure. Eg: China’s repeated provocations in Ladakh are often accompanied by narratives about safeguarding sovereignty and correcting past “injustices”.
- Undermining Trust and Stability in the Region: Civilisational rhetoric makes China appear unpredictable and ideologically rigid, reducing the room for compromise or pragmatic dialogue. Diplomatic efforts may be overshadowed by a deep-seated belief in historical entitlement, affecting long-term peace and confidence-building. Eg: Despite de-escalation talks, China maintains over a lakh soldiers with heavy weaponry in Ladakh, showing the mismatch between words and actions.
What do incidents reveal about China’s border ambitions?
- Assertion of Historical Claims: China seeks to enforce its version of historical borders, often disregarding settled agreements or established boundaries. Eg: In Doklam (2017), China attempted to build a road near the India-Bhutan-China tri-junction, claiming it as part of “historical Chinese territory”.
- Testing India’s Military and Diplomatic Response: Provocations are used to gauge India’s preparedness, resolve, and red lines in high-altitude and remote border regions. Eg: The Galwan clash (2020) tested India’s military presence in Eastern Ladakh, where both sides suffered casualties.
- Salami Slicing Strategy: China advances its territorial ambitions incrementally—occupying small patches of disputed land to gradually shift the Line of Actual Control (LAC). Eg: Reports of Chinese infrastructure buildup in Depsang Plains and Demchok indicate creeping occupation tactics.
How does China’s military and tech build-up affect India’s defence readiness?
- Late 2024 – Signs of De-escalation: A thaw began in late 2024, marked by steps to ease tensions at border friction points. Eg: De-escalation started just before the BRICS Summit in Kazan, Russia (October 2024).
- Border Patrolling Agreement Announced: An India-China Border Patrolling Agreement was informally referenced as a framework to manage patrolling in the Himalayas. Eg: Though details remained sketchy, the agreement was viewed as a tentative breakthrough in restoring order along the LAC.
- Chinese Defence Ministry’s Statement (November 2024): China officially acknowledged progress in implementing the disengagement and patrolling settlement. Eg: A Chinese Defence Ministry spokesperson stated the hope for a “harmonious dance between the Chinese Dragon and the Indian Elephant.”
- India’s PM Statement in the U.S. (February 2025): Indian PM, during a visit to the U.S., declared that normalcy had returned to the border. Eg: He emphasized cooperation with China as essential for global peace and prosperity.
Which regional moves call for a foreign policy rethink by India?
- China’s Outreach to Bangladesh: After the political transition in Bangladesh, China deepened ties with the new leadership. Eg: Visit of Bangladesh’s Chief Adviser Mohammed Yunus to China in March 2025, after Sheikh Hasina’s eclipse.
- China’s Inroads in India’s Neighbourhood: China actively seeks new alliances in South Asia, undermining India’s traditional influence. Eg: Countries like Nepal, Sri Lanka, and now Bangladesh are being courted by China with investments and diplomatic engagement.
- Neglect of West Asia and North Africa: India’s recent foreign focus has tilted towards the U.S., while West Asia and North Africa have seen less engagement. Example: China’s growing presence in energy partnerships and infrastructure in the Middle East and Africa poses strategic challenges.
- China’s Advance in African Nuclear Sector: China is gaining access to nuclear energy resources in Africa, positioning itself as a key energy partner.Eg: China’s strategic energy investments in Africa give it leverage over future global energy security, where India lags behind.
- Great Power Competition and China’s Strategic Penetration: China’s rapid expansion through initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) creates a web of influence around India. Eg: Strategic infrastructure in Myanmar, Maldives, and the Indian Ocean region reshapes regional geopolitics in China’s favour.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- Act East Policy Revamp: Strengthening ties with Southeast Asian nations like Vietnam, Philippines, and Indonesia. Eg: India’s maritime cooperation and defence agreements with ASEAN countries.
- Neighbourhood First Policy: Renewed focus on diplomatic and developmental engagement with South Asian neighbours.Eg: Infrastructure and energy projects in Nepal, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, including India-funded railways and power grids.
- Deepening Quad and Indo-Pacific Strategy: Enhanced coordination with USA, Japan, and Australia under the Quad framework. Eg: Joint naval exercises like Malabar, and focus on free and open Indo-Pacific.
- Strategic Infrastructure Development: Accelerated development of border infrastructure in sensitive regions to counter Chinese encroachments. Eg: Fast-tracking roads, tunnels, and airstrips in Arunachal Pradesh, Ladakh, and Sikkim.
- Enhanced Defence Diplomacy: Upgrading military-to-military engagements and arms exports to friendly nations. Eg: Supplying Tejas fighter jets to Argentina and BrahMos missiles to the Philippines.
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Way forward:
- Build a Multi-Domain Deterrence Framework: India must develop coordinated military, cyber, space, and maritime capabilities to counter China’s growing influence across all strategic domains. Eg: Strengthening the Defence Cyber Agency, expanding India’s space surveillance, and enhancing undersea monitoring in the Indian Ocean to deter any surprise escalation.
- Expand Strategic Partnerships Beyond the Quad: India should diversify its strategic alignments by engaging European powers (like France and Germany), Middle East partners (like UAE, Israel), and Africa through trade, defence, and technological cooperation. Eg: India-France Indo-Pacific cooperation and India-UAE-France trilateral initiatives can counterbalance China’s BRI-led influence.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2020] What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region.
Linkage: India’s strategic partnerships play an important role in maintaining peace in the region, especially as China grows stronger militarily, acts aggressively like in Galwan, and expands its influence in the Indo-Pacific.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to the Governor;
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court criticised Tamil Nadu Governor R.N. Ravi, calling his actions “unconstitutional.” The court said he did nothing for months about 10 important Bills, and then suddenly sent them to the President only after the State Assembly passed them again and the matter reached the court.
What did the SC rule on the TN Governor’s reservation of Bills for the President in Nov 2024?
- Action declared illegal: The Court ruled that the Governor’s act of reserving 10 Bills for the President after they were already reconsidered and passed again by the Tamil Nadu Assembly was unconstitutional. Eg: If a state legislature passes a Bill, and the Governor returns it, but the legislature passes it again, the Governor must either give assent or withhold it—he cannot send it to the President at that stage.
- Violation of Article 200: According to Article 200, a Bill can be reserved for the President only when it is first presented to the Governor—not after it is passed again following reconsideration. Eg: The Governor had no authority to reserve the 10 Bills in November 2024 because they had already been returned, reconsidered, and passed again.
- Presidential action also invalid: The Court held that since the Governor’s action was unconstitutional, any decision taken by the President based on that action is also invalid. Eg: Even if the President had accepted or rejected those Bills, it would not be valid because the referral itself was flawed.
Why did the SC invoke Article 142 to grant assent to the 10 Bills?
- Undue delay by the Governor: The Bills were kept pending for an excessively long time without any decision by the Governor, causing a constitutional deadlock. Eg: Some Bills were pending since January 2020, which hindered the functioning of the state legislature and governance.
- Violation of constitutional spirit and conventions: The Governor showed disregard for established constitutional conventions and the Supreme Court’s earlier rulings by not acting in a timely or respectful manner. Eg: The Court said the Governor displayed “scant respect” for constitutional procedures by withholding assent without valid reason.
- To ensure justice and restore balance: The Court used Article 142 (which allows it to do complete justice in any matter) to directly grant assent to the 10 Bills to break the impasse and uphold democratic functioning. Eg: Since the Governor failed in his duty, the Court stepped in to protect the will of the people as expressed through their elected legislature.
| Note: Article 142 of the Indian Constitution grants the Supreme Court the power to pass any decree or order necessary to do “complete justice” in any case or matter pending before it, allowing it to transcend the limitations of existing laws and statutes. |
When can a Governor constitutionally reserve a Bill for the President’s consideration?
- Only at the first instance of presentation (Article 200): Under Article 200 of the Constitution, the Governor may reserve a Bill for the President only when it is presented to him for the first time. Eg: If a state Assembly passes a Bill and the Governor receives it for the first time, he can reserve it for the President instead of giving or withholding assent.
- Not after Assembly reconsideration (Article 200 – First Proviso): If the Governor returns a Bill to the Assembly and it is re-passed (with or without changes), the Governor must act—either grant or withhold assent—and cannot reserve it again unless it is substantially changed. Eg: In the Tamil Nadu case, the Governor reserved the Bills after they were reconsidered by the Assembly, which the Supreme Court ruled was unconstitutional.
- Exception – If the Bill is materially different (Article 200 – Judicial Interpretation): If the Bill, after being reconsidered by the legislature, is substantially or materially different from the original, reservation may be allowed. Eg: If new provisions are added that affect national interest or conflict with Union laws, reservation might be justified, even after reconsideration.
How did the SC define the Governor’s expected role and conduct under the Constitution?
- Respect for Parliamentary Democracy and the Will of the Legislature: The Governor must act in accordance with the democratic spirit and not undermine the decisions of the elected legislature. Eg: Shamsher Singh v. State of Punjab (1974) — The SC ruled that the Governor is a constitutional head and must act on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers, except in specific situations.
- Facilitator, Not an Obstructionist: The Governor should enable smooth functioning of governance and not stall legislative processes. Eg: Samsher Singh case (1974) and reaffirmed in the 2024 SC ruling on Tamil Nadu Bills — The Court held that the Governor’s prolonged inaction amounted to a constitutional failure and disruption of state functioning.
- Bound by Constitutional Oath and Values:The Governor is duty-bound to uphold the Constitution and work for the welfare of the people. Eg: Nabam Rebia v. Deputy Speaker (2016) — The SC observed that the Governor must act within the “four corners” of the Constitution and not misuse discretionary powers.
Way forward:
- Time-bound Action Framework for Governors: A clear timeline should be laid down—either by Parliament or through judicial interpretation—for the Governor to act on Bills (assent, withhold, or reserve). Eg: A fixed period (like 4–6 weeks) can ensure that legislative processes are not indefinitely delayed, maintaining the balance between constitutional roles and democratic governance.
- Institutional Clarity and Accountability: The role and powers of the Governor should be revisited to reduce ambiguity and misuse of discretion. Regular communication protocols between the Governor’s office and the elected government can also be institutionalized. Eg: Like in the case of money Bills where the Governor has limited scope, similar clarity must be applied to regular Bills to avoid conflict or misuse.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] Whether the Supreme Court Judgement (July 2018) can settle the political tussle between the Lt. Governor and elected government of Delhi? Examine.
Linkage: The broader theme of the relationship between an unelected head of state (or administrator) and an elected government in a democratic setup.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: BIMSTEC; Regional Issues;
Why in the news?
The sixth BIMSTEC summit was held last week in Bangkok, where leaders from seven neighbouring countries came together. At a time when the world is facing many challenges, the summit gave a chance to restart and strengthen the BIMSTEC group, which had been inactive for a long time.
What is the BIMSTEC?
- BIMSTEC was established in the year 1997. It is a group of 7 countries around the Bay of Bengal that work together to boost regional cooperation in areas like trade, transport, energy, security, and disaster management.
- It connects South Asia (like India, Bangladesh, Nepal) with Southeast Asia (like Myanmar, Thailand), helping in regional development and integration, especially where SAARC has been inactive.
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What was the significance of the sixth BIMSTEC summit held in Bangkok amidst global turbulence?
- Revitalisation of BIMSTEC Platform: The summit marked a renewed push to activate BIMSTEC after years of stagnation. Eg: Despite challenges like the Myanmar-Thailand earthquake, the summit was successfully held.
- Advancement in Connectivity Projects: It accelerated infrastructure and connectivity plans across the region. Eg: The India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway was highlighted as a key BIMSTEC initiative.
- Strengthening Economic Cooperation: Economic integration was prioritised through trade and commerce mechanisms. Eg: A BIMSTEC Chamber of Commerce and plans for a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) were discussed.
- Focus on Disaster Management: The region’s vulnerability to natural disasters was acknowledged with steps toward collective preparedness. Eg: The summit called for a joint disaster management mechanism for BIMSTEC countries.
- Platform for Crucial Bilateral Engagements: It provided leaders a forum to address bilateral tensions diplomatically. Eg: PM of India met Bangladesh and Nepal leaders to discuss border issues and political concerns.
Why has BIMSTEC gained importance over SAARC and other regional groupings in recent years?
- Exclusion of Pakistan: BIMSTEC avoids the India-Pakistan rivalry that has long paralyzed SAARC. Eg: The 19th SAARC summit (2016) was cancelled after India pulled out due to the Uri attack; BIMSTEC continues to function without such deadlocks.
- Regional Connectivity: BIMSTEC focuses on tangible infrastructure and economic integration projects across member states. Eg: The India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway enhances trade and links India’s Northeast with Southeast Asia.
- Act East Policy Alignment: BIMSTEC aligns with India’s strategic aim of connecting South Asia with Southeast Asia. Eg: Inclusion of Thailand and Myanmar allows India to implement its Act East Policy, which SAARC cannot facilitate.
- Multi-sectoral Functional Cooperation: BIMSTEC has a broader and more practical agenda covering trade, security, energy, and disaster management. Eg: The 2024 BIMSTEC summit advanced plans for a joint disaster management mechanism and free trade agreements.
- India’s Strategic Diplomatic Shift: India has redirected its focus from SAARC to BIMSTEC as a preferred platform for regional cooperation. Eg: India hosted the BIMSTEC outreach summit during BRICS 2016, signaling its priority shift away from SAARC.
What is the importance of the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway?
- Enhances Regional Connectivity: The highway links India’s North-East with Southeast Asia, boosting physical and economic integration. Eg: It connects Moreh (India) to Mae Sot (Thailand) via Myanmar.
- Promotes Trade and Commerce: It facilitates smoother movement of goods and services, reducing transport costs and time. Eg: Indian exporters can access new markets in Thailand and beyond with greater ease.
- Boosts Tourism and Cultural Exchange: Improved road connectivity encourages people-to-people contact and tourism flows. Eg: Tourists from India can travel by road to explore Myanmar and Thailand’s heritage sites.
- Strategic and Geopolitical Value: Strengthens India’s Act East Policy and counters the influence of China in the region. Eg: The highway gives India a direct land route to ASEAN, reducing dependence on maritime routes.
- Development of India’s North-East: Integrates the North-Eastern states into regional value chains and boosts local economies. Eg: States like Manipur and Assam benefit from increased trade and infrastructure development.
What was outlined in the ‘Vision 2030’ document?
- Negotiation of a Free Trade Agreement (FTA): Plans to push forward a comprehensive BIMSTEC Free Trade Agreement to enhance regional economic integration and trade cooperation.
- Customs Cooperation: Emphasis on Customs agreements to facilitate smoother and faster movement of goods across borders within the region.
- Disaster Management Mechanism: Given the region’s vulnerability to natural disasters, the document stresses the importance of building a joint disaster management system.
- Connectivity Infrastructure: Support for ongoing projects like the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway, aimed at improving physical connectivity, particularly with India’s North-East as a BIMSTEC “hub”.
- Institutional Strengthening: Proposals to establish a BIMSTEC Chamber of Commerce to enhance business-to-business ties and private sector collaboration across the member states.
What are the challenges of all regional groups with India?
- Political Tensions: Regional groupings often get stalled due to bilateral political disputes involving India. Eg: SAARC remains non-functional due to India-Pakistan tensions, especially post-Uri attack (2016).
- Asymmetry in Size and Power: India’s economic and geopolitical dominance leads to perceptions of hegemony by smaller neighbours. Eg: In BBIN, Bhutan’s Parliament rejected the Motor Vehicles Agreement over concerns of being overwhelmed by Indian traffic and influence.
- Slow Implementation of Projects: Despite grand plans, execution of connectivity and trade projects is slow due to bureaucratic delays and lack of coordination. Eg: The India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway has faced repeated delays due to funding and infrastructure gaps.
- Security and Border Issues: Unresolved border disputes and cross-border issues hinder trust-building and cooperation. Eg: India-Nepal tensions over the Kalapani-Limpiyadhura border issue affected ties and stalled broader regional engagement.
- Divergent National Interests: Different domestic priorities and political transitions often reduce commitment to collective goals. Eg: In BIMSTEC, Myanmar’s internal conflict and military rule have made coordination on democratic and humanitarian issues more complex.
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Way forward:
- Institutional Strengthening and Timely Implementation: Regional groupings must develop stronger institutional frameworks to ensure accountability, faster execution of projects, and reduced dependence on political goodwill. Eg: Establishing a BIMSTEC Secretariat with enhanced powers and resources can streamline coordination, monitor progress, and push for timely completion of initiatives like the Trilateral Highway and FTA.
- Mutual Trust and Inclusive Diplomacy: India should promote inclusive dialogue, address concerns of smaller neighbours, and adopt a consultative rather than prescriptive approach to regional leadership Eg: Reviving BBIN talks with Bhutan through confidence-building measures or sustained bilateral dialogues with Nepal and Bangladesh can reduce friction and enhance collaboration.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] Do you think that BIMSTEC is a parallel organisation like the SAARC? What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the two? How are Indian foreign policy objectives realized by forming this new organisation?
Linkage: BIMSTEC and its relationship with SAARC, which is central to the context of article about BIMSTEC being conceived as a bridge and gaining importance due to SAARC’s inactivity.
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Why in the News?
India’s cotton production has dropped by 25% over the last 10 years because of the pink bollworm. Some seed companies have created new genetically modified cotton varieties that can resist this pest, but government rules are delaying their approval and use.
Why has cotton output fallen despite Bt cotton’s earlier success?
- Resistance Development in Pests: The pink bollworm (PBW), a monophagous pest, developed resistance to Bt cotton toxins (cry1Ac and cry2Ab) over time. Eg: A study published in Nature showed PBW resistance by 2014, just 12 years after Bt cotton’s introduction.
- Pest Adaptability and Short Life Cycle: PBW’s short life cycle (25–35 days) allows multiple generations in one crop season, accelerating resistance buildup. Eg: In central India, PBW reached economic threshold levels by 2014, impacting yields.
- Yield Stagnation and Decline: The national average lint yield rose to 566 kg/ha in 2013–14 but has fallen to around 436–437 kg/ha in recent years. Eg: This drop mirrors increased pest pressure and reduced effectiveness of Bt technology.
- Increased Import Dependence: Falling domestic production has led to India importing more cotton than it exports. Eg: In 2024–25, imports are projected at 30 lakh bales vs exports of 17 lakh bales.
- Lack of New GM Approvals: Regulatory and political hurdles have stalled the approval of next-gen GM cotton hybrids resistant to PBW. Eg: No new GM cotton hybrid has been commercialised since Bollgard-II in 2006.
How has the pink bollworm turned India into a net cotton importer?
- Destruction of Cotton Bolls and Lint Quality: PBW larvae bore into cotton bolls, feeding on seeds and lint, reducing both yield and fibre quality. Eg: This led to a production drop from 398 lakh bales (2013–14) to just 294 lakh bales (2024–25 projected) — the lowest since 2008–09.
- Resistance to Bt Cotton: PBW developed resistance to the Bt toxins (cry1Ac and cry2Ab) used in GM cotton, making current hybrids ineffective. Eg: Resistance was first noted in central India around 2014, eventually spreading to southern and northern zones.
- Decline in Exports, Rise in Imports: As production fell and quality declined, exports dropped and imports surged. Eg: In 2024–25, India is expected to import 30 lakh bales but export only 17 lakh bales, reversing its earlier status as a net exporter.
Which new genetic technologies are Indian seed companies using to combat PBW resistance in cotton crops?
- Introduction of Novel Bt Genes: Companies are using Bt genes not previously deployed in India to overcome existing PBW resistance. Eg: Bioseed Research India is conducting trials with its ‘cry8Ea1’ gene-based hybrid under the proprietary BioCotX24A1 event.
- Use of Synthetic Bt Genes: Synthetic versions of Bt genes are engineered to enhance toxicity and overcome pest resistance. Eg: Rasi Seeds has developed hybrids expressing a synthetic cry1c gene for improved resistance to PBW.
- Deployment of Chimeric Bt Genes: Chimeric genes combine segments of multiple Bt genes to create a novel protein with broader insecticidal action.Eg: Ankur Seeds, in collaboration with NBRI, is trialing cotton hybrids using a chimeric Bt protein from Event 519.
When did the pink bollworm start crossing the economic threshold level in various cotton-growing zones of India?
- Central Zone (Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh): PBW crossed the ETL around 2014, marking the beginning of widespread yield loss in the heartland of cotton production. Eg: Farmers in Maharashtra began reporting severe PBW damage post-2014 despite using Bt cotton.
- Southern Zone (Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu): The pest breached the ETL by 2017, affecting the second major cotton belt in the country. Eg: Telangana experienced major crop losses during the 2017–18 season due to PBW infestation.
- Northern Zone (Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan): PBW reached ETL in the northern states by 2021, completing its spread across all major cotton-growing regions. Eg: In 2021, Haryana reported pink bollworm infestation even in previously unaffected areas.
How are regulatory hurdles affecting the commercialisation of new GM cotton hybrids in India?
- Lengthy Approval Process: Multi-stage field trials (event selection, BRL-1, BRL-2) take years before commercial approval is granted. Eg: Bioseed’s ‘cry8Ea1’ GM cotton is still in BRL-1 trial phase, needing further years of testing before release.
- Lack of New GM Approvals Since 2006: No new GM cotton hybrid has been approved for commercial cultivation since Monsanto’s Bollgard-II in 2006. Eg: Despite several companies developing PBW-resistant varieties, commercialisation remains stalled.
- Opposition from States and Activist Groups: State-level permissions and activist resistance delay or block field trials, affecting research and rollout. Eg: Rasi Seeds and Ankur Seeds await approvals for first-year trials amid regulatory scrutiny and local objections.
What advantages does India have in cotton production and trade?
- Favorable Climate and Large Cotton-Growing Area: India has a vast area suitable for cotton cultivation, with diverse agro-climatic zones supporting long growing seasons. Eg: India is the world’s largest cotton producer, with major states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Telangana contributing significantly.
- Low Export Duties Compared to Other Countries: India faces lower tariffs on its textile exports in key markets like the US, making its products more competitive. Eg: Under the US’s “reciprocal tariff” policy, Indian textile exports face only 27% duty, while China’s face 54% and Bangladesh’s 37%.
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Way forward:
- Accelerate Regulatory Approvals for Next-Gen GM Cotton: The government should streamline and fast-track the approval process for new GM hybrids with novel, synthetic, or chimeric Bt genes to restore cotton productivity and pest control efficacy. Eg: Timely clearance of Bioseed’s cry8Ea1 and Rasi’s synthetic cry1c cotton hybrids can help tackle PBW resistance.
- Promote Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Farmer Awareness: Combine genetic solutions with IPM strategies—crop rotation, pheromone traps, and timely pesticide use—to delay resistance buildup. Launch nationwide farmer education programs on early detection and field hygiene. Eg: Maharashtra’s IPM pilot schemes have shown promise in reducing PBW infestations when practiced consistently.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] What are the present challenges before crop diversification? How do emerging technologies provide an opportunity for crop diversification?
Linkage: Vulnerability of a monoculture system relying heavily on Bt cotton, crop diversification could be a strategy to reduce dependence on a single crop and potentially break pest cycles, although the article focuses on technological solutions within cotton itself.
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