Why in the News?
A new study warns that HKU5 bat coronaviruses, closely related to Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), are just one mutation away from infecting humans.
Back2Basics: Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)
- Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) is a viral respiratory disease caused by Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS‐CoV) that was first identified in Saudi Arabia in 2012.
- It is a species of coronavirus which infects humans, bats, and camels.
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About HKU5 Virus and Its Characteristics:
- Classification: HKU5 is a bat coronavirus that belongs to the merbecovirus subgenus, which also includes the MERS-CoV (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus).
- Origin: It was first identified in the Japanese pipistrelle bat in Hong Kong. “HKU” in the name refers to the University of Hong Kong, where the virus was identified.
- Virology: HKU5 is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus, structurally similar to other high-risk coronaviruses.
- Spread: The virus has been detected in bats across Asia, Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, indicating widespread natural reservoirs.
- Cell Entry Mechanism: Like SARS-CoV-2, HKU5 uses the ACE2 receptor to infect cells, but current strains bind effectively only to bat ACE2, not human ACE2.
- Recent Developments: In 2025, a new variant called HKU5-CoV-2 was isolated in China, and lab studies show it can infect human airway and gut cells, though less efficiently than SARS-CoV-2.
- Genetic Similarity: HKU5 is genetically close to both MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, though it has not yet been detected in humans.
Threats and Risks Associated with HKU5 Virus:
- Near-Human Infectivity: HKU5 is considered just one mutation away from gaining the ability to infect humans via the ACE2 receptor.
- Cross-Species Transmission: Certain HKU5 strains have already jumped into minks, demonstrating its capacity to cross species barriers.
- Pandemic Potential: If HKU5 acquires mutations allowing efficient use of human ACE2, it could pose a significant zoonotic pandemic threat.
- Relation to Deadly Viruses: Its structural similarity to MERS-CoV, which has a 34% fatality rate, places HKU5 in a high-risk category if human infection occurs.
| [UPSC 2015] H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news concerning which one of the following diseases?
Options: (a) AIDS (b) Bird flu (c) Dengue (d) Swine flu* |
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Why in the News?
Researchers at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST) have successfully created India’s first gene-edited sheep—a Kashmir Merino breed.
About Kashmir Merino Sheep:
- Overview: Kashmir Merino is a high-quality domestic sheep breed known for its fine wool and ability to thrive in cold climates.
- Genetics: It was developed by crossbreeding exotic Merino rams with local sheep breeds in Jammu and Kashmir.
- Characteristics: The breed produces soft, dense wool with high fibre quality, making it valuable for the textile industry.
- Resilience: It is well-adapted to high-altitude Himalayan conditions, including extreme cold and low oxygen levels.
- Significance: It plays a key role in regional livestock economies, contributing significantly to wool and mutton production in Jammu and Kashmir.
Gene-Editing Breakthrough in Kashmir Merino:
- Gene Targeted: Researchers used CRISPR-Cas9 technology to edit the myostatin gene, which normally inhibits muscle growth.
- Impact: Disabling this gene led to a 30% increase in muscle mass, resulting in higher meat yield and improved economic returns for farmers.
- Lab-to-Field Success: The edited embryo was developed in a laboratory and then successfully implanted into a surrogate mother, marking a full-cycle gene-editing achievement.
- Biotech Significance: This success represents a major advancement in India’s livestock biotechnology, opening new paths for research in disease resistance, wool quality enhancement, and production of transgenic proteins.
| [UPSC 2017] What is the application of somatic cell nuclear transfer technology?
Options: (a) Production of biolarvicides (b) Manufacture of biodegradable plastics (c) Reproductive cloning of animals* (d) Production of organisms free of diseases |
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Why in the News?
NASA’s Mars Odyssey orbiter has captured a spectacular image of Arsia Mons, one of Mars’ largest volcanoes.
About Arsia Mons Volcano:
- Location: Arsia Mons is a massive shield volcano on Mars, located in the Tharsis region near the planet’s equator.
- Volcanic Chain: It is part of the Tharsis Montes trio, which includes Pavonis Mons and Ascraeus Mons.
- Size and Structure: The volcano rises about 20 km (12 miles) in height and spans 450 kilometres in diameter, making it one of the largest in the Solar System.
- Summit Caldera: Arsia Mons has an enormous caldera, or summit crater, measuring 120 kilometres across, which is much wider than most Earth volcanoes.
- Volcano Type: It is a shield volcano, characterised by gentle slopes formed through successive lava flows.
- Surface Features: Signs of lava channels, landslides, and possible ancient glaciers have been observed on its flanks.
- Cloud Activity: Known as the cloudiest volcano on Mars, Arsia Mons regularly develops water-ice clouds near its summit, especially at sunrise and during aphelion, when Mars is farthest from the Sun.
Its Significance:
- Recent Imaging: A new image released by NASA shows Arsia Mons piercing through morning haze, offering scientists a horizon-level view of Martian terrain.
- Scientific Importance: Observations help researchers analyse Martian weather, seasonal climate patterns, and atmospheric behaviour.
- Mission Relevance: Arsia Mons plays a key role in understanding Mars’ volcanic history, dust storm formation, and identifying future landing zones.
- Exploration Support: Data from this region improve planetary weather models and assist in safe mission planning for upcoming robotic and human missions.
Back2Basics: NASA’s Mars Odyssey Orbiter
- Launch: Mars Odyssey was launched in 2001, making it NASA’s longest-operating spacecraft at Mars.
- Technology: The orbiter captured the Arsia Mons image using the THEMIS (Thermal Emission Imaging System) camera.
- Capabilities: This instrument detects both visible and infrared light, allowing scientists to study surface temperatures, mineral compositions, and atmospheric properties.
- Unique Technique: To photograph Arsia Mons against the Martian horizon, the orbiter rotated its camera 90 degrees, deviating from its usual ground-facing orientation.
- Contributions: It continues to monitor climate changes, study volcanoes and dust storms, and assist with landing site selection.
- Support Role: It also serves as a communication relay for other active Mars missions, enabling data transfer and navigation for landers and rovers.
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| [UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:
The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO 1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission 2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA 3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Axiom-4 Mission
Why in the News?
The launch of Axiom-4 (Ax-4), a private mission to the International Space Station (ISS), has been postponed to June 11 due to weather conditions.
About Axiom-4 Mission
- Axiom Mission 4 (Ax-4) is a private spaceflight organized by Axiom Space.
- It aims to transport a crew to the International Space Station (ISS) for a 14-day mission.
- This will be Axiom Space’s fourth mission to the ISS, following their previous missions (Ax-1, Ax-2, and Ax-3).
- The mission will launch from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida using SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket.
- The spacecraft for this mission is a SpaceX Crew Dragon, known for its advanced technology and safety features.
- This mission is organised in collaboration with NASA, highlighting a strong partnership between private space companies and government space agencies to further space exploration and research.
- Crew:
- Peggy Whitson: A veteran astronaut with extensive experience, having completed multiple missions to the ISS.
- Sławosz Uznanski: A Polish astronaut joining the mission, marking a significant milestone for Poland in space exploration.
- Tibor Kapu: A Hungarian astronaut, adding to the diversity of the mission crew.
- Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla: An Indian astronaut, making headlines as part of this international crew.
Significance of Ax-4 Mission for India
- The mission is a collaborative effort resulting from an agreement between ISRO and NASA.
- It provides ISRO with an early opportunity to test experiments in space, originally planned for Gaganyaan.
- Key Indian Experiments on Axiom-4:
- Microgravity’s impact on muscle dysfunction.
- Use of computer screens in zero gravity and their effects on human cognition and vision.
- Growth of six varieties of crop seeds in space conditions.
- Tardigrade survival study—these microscopic creatures can endure extreme environments and may provide insight into life support systems in space.
Back2Basics: International Space Station (ISS)
- The ISS, orbiting 430 kilometres above Earth, completes 16 orbits daily, witnessing 16 sunrises and sunsets.
- The ISS orbits Earth every 90 minutes at 8 km per second.
- Spanning 109 meters, it’s almost as long as an American football field.
- The ISS includes 6 sleeping areas, 2 bathrooms, a gym, and a panoramic view bay window.
- Its solar array wingspan is 109 meters, and the station houses about 13 km of electrical wiring.
- The ISS’s journey began on November 20, 1998, with Russia’s Zarya Control Module.
- The US added the Unity Node 1 module on December 4, 1998, marking the start of a functional space lab.
- The station evolved into its current form after 42 assembly flights.
|
PYQ:
[2019] What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme? |
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Why in the News?
Despite the imposition of President’s Rule in Manipur, the situation on the ground remains volatile, with fresh instances of violence being reported.
What is President’s Rule?
- About: It is the situation where the central government takes over a state’s administration due to the failure of constitutional machinery, as per Article 356 of the Indian Constitution.
- Historical Origins:
- Article 356 draws from Section 93 of the Government of India Act, 1935, where the British Governor could take over provincial governance.
- First used in 1951 in Punjab and later in 1959 to dismiss Kerala’s elected communist government under Jawaharlal Nehru.
- Indira Gandhi’s tenure saw frequent imposition of President’s Rule, often to topple opposition-ruled states, raising concerns over political misuse.
- Constitutional Articles involved:
- Article 355 mandates the Union to protect states against external aggression and internal disturbance.
- Article 356 empowers the President to impose President’s Rule when a state’s constitutional machinery fails.
- Article 357 allows Parliament to make laws on behalf of the state during President’s Rule.
- Article 365 provides that if a state fails to follow Union directions, it can be deemed as having a breakdown of constitutional governance.
- Grounds for Imposition:
- Under Article 356, if the President is satisfied, based on the Governor’s report or otherwise, that the state cannot function according to constitutional provisions.
- Under Article 365, if a state does not comply with Union directives, it can trigger the presumption of constitutional breakdown.
- Approval and Duration:
- The proclamation must be approved by both Houses of Parliament within 2 months.
- Once approved, it remains in force for 6 months and can be extended in 6-month intervals for up to 3 years.
- Revocation of Rule:
- President’s Rule can be revoked at any time by a new proclamation by the President.
- No parliamentary approval is required for revocation.
Consequences of President’s Rule:
- Effect on State Executive:
- The CM and the Council of Ministers are dismissed immediately.
- The Governor administers the state, often with the help of civil servants or advisors appointed by the President.
- Effect on State Legislature:
- The state assembly may be dissolved or suspended.
- The Parliament assumes the power to legislate on state subjects and to pass the state’s budget.
- During recess, the President can authorize expenditure from the state’s Consolidated Fund.
- All laws passed under President’s Rule remain valid until explicitly repealed by the newly elected assembly.
- Effect on State Judiciary:
- The High Court’s powers and jurisdiction remain unaffected.
- The President cannot assume judicial functions or alter the constitutional status of the judiciary.
- Misuse and Political Abuse:
- Over the decades, Article 356 was used as a political tool by successive central governments to undermine state autonomy.
- It became a controversial provision, criticized for damaging federalism and violating democratic norms.
Judicial Safeguard against arbitrary President’s Rule: S.R. Bommai Case (1994):
- The Supreme Court laid down strict guidelines to prevent the arbitrary use of Article 356.
- The Court ruled that President’s Rule must be based on objective material, not merely the Governor’s report.
- The majority of a state government must be tested on the floor of the assembly, not through the Governor’s personal opinion.
- Importantly, the Court stated that the President’s decision is subject to judicial review, reinforcing constitutional accountability.
- The judgment emphasized that Article 356 should only be used as a last resort, and not as a political weapon.
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| [UPSC 2018] If the President of India exercises his power as provided under Article 356 of the Constitution in respect of a particular State, then-
Options: (a) the Assembly of the State is automatically dissolved (b) the powers of the Legislature of that State shall be exercisable by or under the authority of the Parliament* (c) Article 19 is suspended in that State (d) the President can make laws relating to that State |
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Why in the News?
IIT Gandhinagar researchers have found evidence that humans lived in the Great Rann of Kutch 5,000 years before the Harappans, likely as coastal hunter-gatherers.
About the Khadir Island Sites:
- Location: Khadir Island (Khadir Beyt) is in the Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, near the well-known Harappan site of Dholavira.
- Geographic Context: The island is one of 6 that were surrounded by water 5,000–6,000 years ago, due to higher sea levels.
- Discovery Site: In 2016, researchers discovered archaeological remains near Bambhanka, about 1 km from Dholavira.
- Site Features: Findings include house complexes, broken potsherds, marine shells, carnelian and agate flakes, and wall remnants made from random rubble masonry.
- Shell Deposits: A 30–40 cm thick shell deposit was found on a hillock’s western edge, exposed by a pipeline trench. Similar shells were first reported in 1872 by geologist Arthur Beavor Wynne.
- Shell Species: The Terebralia palustris shell species indicates a mangrove ecosystem once existed here.
- Other Sites: Additional shell midden sites were discovered at Laungwali, Kunduwari, Ganeshpar, and Janan, mostly located 2–2.5 km from the coast.
Key Findings:
- Archaeological Significance:
- Evidence suggests prehistoric hunter-gatherers lived here 7,000–7,500 years ago, before the Harappans.
- Carbon dating of 15 shell samples shows they are 5,000–5,500 years older than Harappan remains.
- A 400–500 year time lag may exist due to shellfish diets, meaning actual dates could be older.
- Diet and Food Practices:
- Broken shell middens and discoloured shells suggest people cooked and ate shellfish.
- The diet likely included plants, fruits, tubers, and nuts, though no plant remains have yet been found.
- Lifestyle and Settlement:
- These were mobile hunter-gatherers, not permanent agriculturalists.
- They likely moved seasonally, occupying each site for part of the year.
- Tool Use:
- Stone tools (flakes and cores) made of chert, jasper, chalcedony, basalt, limestone, and quartzite were found.
- Smaller fragments may have served as arrow tips.
- Agate, found locally, and other materials suggest trade or resource mobility.
- Trade and Cultural Links:
- Non-local tool stones indicate exchange networks.
- Similarities with tools from Las Bela (Pakistan) and coastal Oman point to long-distance prehistoric connections across the northern Arabian Sea.
| [UPSC 2021] Consider the following pairs:
Historical place : Well known for
1. Burzahom : Rock cut shrines
2. Chandraketugarh :Terracotta art
3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
IIT Kharagpur has made a web app called Dynamic Route Planning for Urban Green Mobility (DRUM) to help people choose travel routes that are not just fast but also have cleaner air and better energy use.
About DRUM:
- Purpose: It is a navigation tool that prioritises air quality and energy efficiency, offering a greener alternative to traditional mapping apps.
- Data Usage: DRUM uses real-time data on air pollution and traffic conditions to recommend optimal routes.
- Sources: Pollution information is collected from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the World Air Quality Index.
Important Features:
- Routing Logic: DRUM applies a rank-based elimination method that prioritizes time, followed by distance, pollution exposure, and energy use.
- Technical Tools: The app uses GraphHopper for route generation and Mapbox for live traffic updates.
- Route Options: Users can choose from 5 routes — shortest, fastest, least pollution (LEAP), least energy use (LECR), and a balanced suggested route.
- Live Updates: It retrieves real-time route data when a query is entered, not through scheduled updates.
- Performance: In Delhi trials, the LEAP route cut pollution exposure by over 50%, and the LECR route reduced energy use by up to 28%.
- Non-Motorized Inclusion: DRUM will expand to serve cyclists, pedestrians, and other non-motorized users.
- Predictive Upgrade: DRUM 2.0, currently in development, will use machine learning to forecast pollution and traffic and recommend best routes and departure times.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following types of vehicles:
I. Full battery electric vehicles II. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles III. Fuel cell electric hybrid vehicles How many of the above are considered as alternative (powertrain) vehicles?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three* (d) None |
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Why in the News?
In a groundbreaking discovery, an international team of nuclear physicists from Finland has measured the proton emission and half-life of 188Astatine (188At)—the heaviest proton-emitting isotope ever observed.
What is Proton Emission?
- Atomic Structure: Atoms are made up of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.
- Radioactive Decay: When atoms are unstable, they become stable by emitting particles through a process called radioactive decay.
- Common Emissions: Most atoms emit alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays during decay.
- Rare Emission: In very rare cases, an atom can emit a proton, a process known as proton emission.
- Conditions for Emission: Proton emission occurs only in proton-rich nuclei that lie on the extreme edge of nuclear stability.
- Detection Difficulty: These atoms are extremely hard to create in laboratories and usually exist for less than a second, making them hard to study.
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Discovery of Proton Emission in 188-Astatine:
- What is Astatine: Astatine (At) is a radioactive, halogenous element with atomic number 85, belonging to the halogen family (Group 17) on the periodic table. It’s a rarest natural element on Earth, not naturally occurring in significant quantities due to its short half-life.
- Research Breakthrough: Scientists from Finland, India, and Portugal jointly studied a rare isotope called 188-Astatine.
- Method: The atom was made by bombarding a silver target with strontium ions in a high-powered accelerator.
- Observed Event: After its formation, 188-Astatine emitted a proton and transformed into polonium within 190 microseconds.
- Role of Indian Scientists: Experts from IIT Roorkee used computer simulations to confirm the event and revealed that the atom’s shape resembled a watermelon, elongated and stretched.
Significance of the Discovery:
- Scientific First: This was the first recorded instance of proton emission from astatine, a rare and heavy element.
- Understanding Atomic Limits: The discovery helps scientists learn how unstable atoms behave and where the proton-holding limits of atomic nuclei lie.
- Contribution to Nuclear Science: It enhances our understanding of element formation in extreme environments like stars and nuclear reactors.
- Future Implications: Such discoveries can contribute to medical advances, especially in developing radioactive materials for cancer treatment.
| [UPSC 2024] With reference to radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), consider the following statements:
1. RTGs are miniature fission reactors. 2. RTGs are used for powering the onboard systems of spacecrafts. 3. RTGs can use Plutonium-238, which is a by-product of weapons development.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Centre has launched DIGIPIN, a geo-coded digital address system that aims to bring precision and efficiency to address identification across the country.
Tap to read more about PIN Codes in India.
What is DIGIPIN?
- About: DIGIPIN is a digital address system introduced by the Government of India to improve location identification across the country.
- Development Team: The system was developed by the Department of Posts, in collaboration with IIT Hyderabad and the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) under ISRO.
- Technology Base: It uses GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) data to geo-code each physical location with high accuracy.
- Key Features:
- Accessibility: Users can access their DIGIPIN through the India Post’s online portal, and it works seamlessly on any GPS-enabled device.
- Nature of the System: It is open source, interoperable, and privacy-focused, meaning it is publicly accessible, works across platforms, and does not store personal data.
- Code Format: Each location is assigned a unique 10-character alphanumeric code (e.g., 39J-53M-TJF9) that corresponds to an area of approximately 4×4 square meters.
- Coverage Area: DIGIPIN works across urban, rural, forest, and oceanic regions throughout India, even where no formal addresses exist.
Significance of DIGIPIN:
- Precision Mapping: DIGIPIN enables highly accurate geolocation, even in places without traditional street addresses or house numbers.
- E-Commerce Enhancement: The system boosts last-mile delivery efficiency for platforms like Amazon, Flipkart, and other logistics providers.
- Emergency Response: DIGIPIN supports police, ambulance, and fire services in reaching destinations quickly, especially in dense or unmapped areas.
- Public Service Delivery: It improves government outreach by making it easier to deliver welfare schemes, notices, and essential services in remote areas.
- Inclusion of Remote Regions: The system brings digital address visibility to forests, tribal regions, and maritime zones, aiding national mapping efforts.
| [UPSC 2022] Consider the following:
1. Aarogya Setu
2. CoWIN
3. DigiLocker
4. DIKSHA
Which of the above are built on top of open-source digital platforms?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4* |
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Why in the News?
Prime Minister inaugurated the world’s highest railway bridge over the Chenab River in Jammu and Kashmir.
About the Chenab Rail Bridge:
- Location: The Chenab Rail Bridge is the world’s highest railway bridge, situated over the Chenab River in Reasi district, Jammu and Kashmir. It is part of the Udhampur–Srinagar–Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL).
- Height: The bridge rises to a height of 359 metres, which is 35 metres taller than the Eiffel Tower.
- Structure and Length: It has a total length of 1,315 metres, comprising a 530-metre approach bridge and a 785-metre steel arch bridge.
- Project Execution: Constructed by Konkan Railway Corporation, with contributions from Afcons Infrastructure, Ultra Construction & Engineering (South Korea), and VSL India.
- Design and Engineering:
- IISc Bengaluru designed the foundation.
- IIT Delhi and IIT Roorkee conducted seismic analysis.
- DRDO ensured it is blast-proof.
- Durability and Safety: The bridge can withstand magnitude 8 earthquakes, blasts up to 40 tonnes of TNT, temperatures as low as -20°C, and wind speeds of 266 km/h.
- Speed and Lifespan: It supports train speeds up to 100 km/h and has a lifespan of 120 years.
- Key Milestones: The arch closure was completed in April 2021, and the Golden Joint Ceremony was held on August 13, 2022.
PM also inaugurated Anji Bridge:
- About: The Anji Bridge is India’s first cable-stayed railway bridge, built over the Anji River, a tributary of the Chenab.
- Ranking: It is the second-highest railway bridge in India, after the Chenab Bridge.
- Design: Originally planned as an arch bridge, the design was changed to cable-stayed due to geological challenges.
- Structure Details: The total length is 725 metres, comprising an ancillary viaduct, approach bridge, and central embankment.
- Features: It is supported by 96 cables ranging from 82 to 295 metres, with a deck width of 15 metres.
- Resilience: The bridge is engineered to withstand seismic activity, unstable terrain, strong winds, heavy storms, and explosions.
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| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. Indian Railways have prepared a National Rail Plan (NRP) to create a future ready railway system by 2028. II. ‘Kavach’ is an Automatic Train Protection system developed in collaboration with Germany. III. ‘Kavach’ system consists of RFID tags fitted on track in station section.
Which of the statements given above are not correct?
Options: (a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only (d) I, II and III* |
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Why in the News?
The RBI, in its Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) meeting, cut the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) by 1% to release ₹2.5 lakh crore into the banking system by November 2025.
Key Changes Announced:
- Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) reduced by 1% in four tranches, bringing it down to 3% by November 29, 2025.
- This CRR cut will release ₹2.5 lakh crore liquidity into the banking system by December 2025.
- Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) remains unchanged at 18% of Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL).
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Key terms related to the MPC instruments:
|
Explanation |
| Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) |
- CRR is the percentage of a bank’s total deposits that must be maintained as liquid cash with the RBI.
- Banks cannot use this amount for lending or investment. No interest is earned on CRR.
- It is used to control liquidity and inflation in the economy.
- Increasing CRR reduces bank lending capacity; decreasing it increases liquidity.
- Current CRR is 4.5% of Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL).
|
| Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) |
- SLR is the minimum percentage of NDTL that banks must maintain in liquid form.
- It includes cash, gold, or approved government securities, kept with the bank itself.
- It helps ensure bank solvency and restricts excessive credit growth.
- Raising SLR reduces funds available for lending; lowering it boosts credit and growth.
- It also helps the government ensure demand for its securities.
|
| Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL) |
- It includes public deposits and balances held with other banks.
- It excludes deposits the bank itself has with other banks.
- Demand liabilities include current accounts and demand drafts.
- Time liabilities include fixed deposits and recurring deposits.
- CRR and SLR are calculated as a percentage of NDTL.
|
| Repo Rate |
- The repo rate is the rate at which the RBI lends short-term funds to commercial banks against government securities.
- Banks sell securities to RBI with an agreement to repurchase them later.
- Lower repo rate makes borrowing cheaper and boosts liquidity.
- Higher repo rate makes borrowing costlier, reducing liquidity.
- It is a key monetary policy tool to regulate inflation and money supply.
|
| Variable Rate Repo (VRR) Auction |
- VRR auction is a method where RBI conducts repo operations at variable interest rates.
- Interest rate is determined through competitive bidding by banks.
- It reflects real-time demand and supply of liquidity.
- Enables more flexible and efficient liquidity management by RBI.
|
| Standing Deposit Facility (SDF) |
- SDF allows banks to deposit surplus funds with the RBI without providing any collateral.
- Banks earn interest at a rate set by the RBI.
- It is used to absorb excess liquidity from the system.
- Part of RBI’s liquidity management framework.
|
| Weighted Average Call Rate (WACR) |
- WACR is the weighted average interest rate at which banks borrow and lend overnight funds in the interbank call money market.
- It is an important indicator of short-term liquidity conditions.
- RBI monitors WACR to guide monetary policy decisions.
|
| [UPSC 2020] If the RBI decides to adopt an expansionist monetary policy, which of the following would it not do?
1. Cut and optimise the Statutory Liquidity Ratio.
2. Increase the Marginal Standing Facility Rate.
3. Cut the Bank Rate and Repo Rate.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Union Minister for Minority Affairs has launched the Unified Waqf Management, Empowerment, Efficiency and Development (UMEED) portal—a centralised digital platform to manage Waqf properties across India.
Tap to read more about the Waqf and the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025.
About the UMEED Portal
- Launch: It was launched by the Ministry of Minority Affairs on June 6, 2025.
- Core Purpose: It ensures real-time registration, verification, and monitoring of Waqf properties across India.
- Legal Alignment: The portal is aligned with the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025, which received presidential assent in April 2025.
- Governance Shift: UMEED aims to promote transparency, accountability, and public participation by making Waqf data digitally traceable.
Key Features:
- Centralized Registration: All Waqf properties must be registered on a single digital platform.
- Documentation: Each property receives a 17-digit ID and must include ownership papers, exact measurements, and geotagged location data.
- User-Friendly Design: Features include dropdown-based input, GIS mapping, and a grievance redressal system.
- 3-Tier Verification:
- Maker: Mutawalli enters the property data.
- Checker: District official verifies the entry.
- Approver: CEO or authorised Waqf Board officer grants approval.
- Transparency and Privacy: Public access to basic property details is allowed, while data privacy is ensured.
- Eligibility Rule: Properties registered in women’s names are not eligible as Waqf properties, though women and vulnerable groups remain priority beneficiaries.
- Support System: A toll-free helpline is available for technical assistance.
Registration Process:
- Responsible Authority: State Waqf Boards are in charge of registering properties.
- Deadline: All registrations must be completed within 6 months of the portal’s launch.
- Required Data: Includes property size, ownership documents, geotagging, and whether the land is government-owned.
- Extension Policy: A 1–2 month extension may be granted upon valid request.
- Non-Compliance: Unregistered properties will be marked as “disputed” and referred to the Waqf Tribunal.
- Missing Documents: In such cases, the mutawalli must approach the Tribunal for validation.
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Why in the News?
China will lead global energy investments in 2025, making up over a quarter of total spending, says the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) 10th edition Global Energy Investment Report, 2025.
Back2Basics: International Energy Agency (IEA)
- Establishment: The IEA was formed in 1974 under the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in response to the 1973 oil crisis, with headquarters in Paris, France.
- Membership: It has 31 member countries (e.g., US, UK, France, Japan) and 11 association countries like India, China, and Brazil.
- India’s Role: India joined as an Association Country in 2017, gaining access to data-sharing, policy support, and technical cooperation.
- Expanded Mission: The IEA now supports energy security, clean energy transitions, emissions tracking, and policy development.
- Global Influence: Its major reports—World Energy Outlook, Net Zero by 2050, and Energy Technology Perspectives—guide governments and investors worldwide.
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About the Global Energy Investment Report:
- Origin and Purpose: Officially titled World Energy Investment Report, is the IEA’s flagship annual publication.
- Published since 2016: To assess investment flows across the global energy system.
- Scope of Coverage: It tracks investments in fossil fuels, renewables, electricity supply, critical minerals, energy efficiency, R&D, and innovation financing.
- Strategic Value: The report helps determine if current investments support climate goals and universal energy access.
Key Highlights from the 2025 Report:
- China’s Role: China will account for over 25% of global energy investment, with over $625 billion in clean energy, though it also approved 100 GW of new coal plants in 2024.
- Global Trends: Clean energy investment will hit $2.2 trillion, over twice the amount spent on fossil fuels, yet still falls short of COP28 targets.
- Africa’s Investment Gap: Africa’s fossil fuel investment dropped from $125 billion to $54 billion, and it still receives only 2% of global clean energy funds, mainly due to debt burdens.
- India’s Position: India’s renewables investment rose from $13 billion (2015) to $37 billion (2025), while fossil fuel investment also increased. However, grid and storage spending declined to $25 billion.
- Financing Barriers: India’s high cost of capital—80% above advanced economies—limits clean energy growth. The “Baku to Belem Roadmap” seeks to mobilize $1.3 trillion by 2035 for such regions.
- Global Mismatch: While $1 trillion is spent annually on power generation, only $400 billion goes to grid infrastructure, affecting distribution capacity.
| [UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements:
1. The Climate Group” is an international non-profit organisation that drives climate action by building large networks and runs them.
2. The International Energy Agency in partnership with The Climate Group launched a global initiative “EP100”.
3. EP100 brings together leading companies committed to driving innovation in energy efficiency and increasing competitiveness while delivering on emission reduction goals.
4.Some Indian companies are members of EP100.
5. The International Energy Agency is the Secretariat to the “Under2 Coalition”.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1,2,4 and 5 (b) 1,3 and 4 only* (c) 2,3 and 5 only (d) 1,2,3,4 and 5 |
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has released the 8th edition of EnviStats India: Environment Statistics Report.
About EnviStats India Report:
- Launch: It is an annual report released by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), first launched in 2018.
- Global Framework: It follows the UN’s Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES) 2013.
- Data Compilation: The report consolidates environmental data from multiple ministries and departments of the Indian government.
- Policymaking Support: It helps in evidence-based policymaking by identifying environmental challenges, resource needs, and trends.
Key Highlights of EnviStats India, 2025:
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- Thermal power generation rose from 7.92 lakh GWh (2013–14) to 13.26 lakh GWh (2023–24).
- Renewable energy generation increased from 65,520 GWh to 2.26 lakh GWh over the same period.
- Inland fish production jumped from 61.36 lakh tonnes to 139.07 lakh tonnes.
- Marine fish production grew from 34.43 lakh tonnes to 44.95 lakh tonnes.
- Climate and Weather Trends:
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- Annual mean temperature increased from 25.05°C (2001) to 25.74°C (2024).
- Minimum temperature rose from 19.32°C to 20.24°C; maximum temperature from 30.78°C to 31.25°C.
- Rainfall patterns showed year-to-year variability, but no clear long-term trend.
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- India’s faunal diversity includes 1,04,561 species, contributing to the global count of 16,73,627 species.
- It includes 20,613 marine, 9,436 freshwater, and 22,404 soil species.
- Mangrove and estuarine ecosystems show high biodiversity richness.
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- The Environment Sustainability sector had the highest allocation: ₹2,433.24 crore in 2021–22.
- Spending on Conservation of Natural Resources showed a rising trend.
- Agro-forestry received the lowest funding among the three major environmental sectors.
| [UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:
1. 36% of India’s districts are classified as “overexploited” or “critical” by the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA).
2. CGWA was’ formed under the Environment (Protection) Act.
3. India has the largest area under groundwater irrigation in the world
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only * (c) 2 only (d) 1 and 3 only |
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Why in the News?
For the first time, India has conducted a detailed assessment of ungulate species (mammals with hoofs on their foot, like deer, pigs, antelopes, and bison), which are vital prey for tigers and important for forest ecosystems.
About Status of Tiger Prey in India:
- The report titled “Status of Ungulates in Tiger Habitats of India” was released by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), using data from the 2022 All-India Tiger Estimation.
- This is the first national-level assessment of ungulates, the hoofed mammals like chital, sambar, gaur, wild pig, nilgai, which form the core prey base of tigers.
- Ungulates are essential not only for tiger survival but also for maintaining healthy forest ecosystems, supporting biodiversity, and promoting soil and vegetation health.
- The study stresses that tiger numbers alone are not enough; prey density and habitat quality must also be monitored to assess ecosystem health.
- It establishes that 30 ungulates per sq km are needed to support 4 tigers per 100 sq km, but growth is constrained by territoriality, interspecies competition, and habitat fragmentation.
Key Highlights:
- Prey Decline in East-Central India: Significant decline in Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh due to habitat loss, deforestation, urbanization, mining, subsistence hunting, civil unrest, and Left Wing Extremism.
- Thriving Regions: Healthier prey populations in the Shivalik-Gangetic Plains (Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar), Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, the Western Ghats, and Northeast India.
- Species Trends:
- Chital is the most widespread and adaptable species.
- Sambar and gaur remain stable in central and southern forests.
- Hog deer and barasingha show sharp decline due to wetland degradation and habitat isolation.
- Human-Wildlife Conflict:
- In low-prey areas like Tadoba and Ratapani, tigers prey on livestock, increasing conflict.
- Wild pigs and nilgai damage crops, leading to retaliatory killings and local resentment.
- Conservation Measures:
- On-site prey breeding in predator-proof enclosures
- Forest restoration and better habitat connectivity
- Focused protection of sanctuaries and buffer zones
- Reducing habitat fragmentation caused by roads, railways, and power lines
About Tiger Conservation in India
- Declared National Animal of India in 1972 by the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL).
- Largest population in India; also found in Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Myanmar. India harbours 75% of the world’s wild tigers.
- Occupies habitats such as high mountains, mangrove swamps, grasslands, deciduous forests, evergreen, and shola forests.
- Ecological Significance:
- Flagship species: Essential for conservation efforts.
- Umbrella species: Protecting tigers helps conserve other species.
- Key driver of ecotourism and related industries.
- Cultural & Spiritual Significance: Symbolizes power and strength.
- Protection Status:
- Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I.
- IUCN Red List: Endangered.
- CITES: Listed in Appendix I.
- Project Tiger is a wildlife conservation initiative in India that was launched in 1973.
- Tigers are also flagship species listed among the 7 big cats under the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA).
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| [UPSC 2001] A pesticide which is a chlorinated hydrocarbon is sprayed on a food crop. The food chain is: Food crop – Rat -Snake – Hawk.
In this food chain, the highest concentration of the pesticide would accumulate in which one of the following?
Options: (a) Food crop (b) Rat (c) Snake (d) Hawk* |
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Why in the News?
Mount Etna, Europe’s largest active volcano, has erupted sending ash, smoke, and rock fragments several kilometres into the sky.
Why do Volcanoes Erupt?
- Magma Formation: Deep within Earth, high temperature and pressure melt rocks into magma.
- Gas Expansion: Magma contains gases like water vapor, CO₂, and SO₂. As magma rises, the pressure drops, allowing these gases to form bubbles, increasing internal pressure.
- Crustal Weaknesses: At tectonic boundaries or mantle plumes, cracks and faults in Earth’s crust provide pathways for magma to escape.
- Eruption Mechanism:
- As pressure builds, magma is pushed upwards.
- If blocked, the gas expansion can explode through the crust, ejecting lava, ash, and gases.
- Signals: If magma flow is suddenly stopped by solid rock, it may create low-frequency seismic waves (pre-eruption tremors).
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About Mount Etna:
- Location: Situated on the east coast of Sicily, Italy, near the city of Catania.
- Type: Mount Etna is a stratovolcano (also called a composite volcano), which is formed from layers of hardened lava, volcanic ash, and rocks.
- Height: It stands at approximately 3,300 meters, making it the tallest volcano in Europe south of the Alps.
- Recognition: Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013, with documented volcanic activity for at least 2,700 years.
- Eruption Record: Etna is almost constantly active. Notable eruptions have occurred in 1400 B.C., 1669, 2001, 2018, 2021, 2024, and 2025.
- Volcanic Activity Style: Known for Strombolian and effusive eruptions, with occasional Plinian eruptions (rare and more explosive).
Reasons Behind the June 2025 Eruption:
- Nature of Eruption: The eruption is classified as either Strombolian or possibly Plinian, depending on interpretation:
- Strombolian Eruption: Characterized by moderate explosive bursts, caused by gas bubbles in magma suddenly bursting at the surface.
- Plinian Eruption: Some volcanologists suggest this classification due to the large ash column that may have reached the stratosphere.
- Eruption Trigger: The eruption likely began due to pressure buildup from gas within the magma chamber, leading to collapse of the southeast crater and lava flows.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following:
1. Pyroclastic debris
2. Ash and dust
3. Nitrogen compounds
4. Sulphur compounds
How many of the above are products of volcanic eruptions?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) Only four* |
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Why in the News?
A recent study by the think-tank Climate Trends has revealed that levels of black carbon in the Himalayas have been rising steadily over the past two decades.
About Black Carbon (BC):
- What is it: Black carbon is a fine particulate pollutant formed from the incomplete combustion of biomass and fossil fuels.
- Impact: It is a short-lived climate pollutant and the second-largest contributor to global warming after carbon dioxide.
- Lifespan: Unlike CO₂, black carbon stays in the atmosphere for short periods and can be quickly reduced if emissions stop.
- Warming Mechanism: As an aerosol, it absorbs sunlight, heats the atmosphere, and reduces albedo when deposited on snow and ice, leading to faster melting.
- Health Effects: Exposure increases the risk of heart disease, birth complications, and premature death.
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- Residential Biomass Burning: Accounts for 47% of BC emissions, including cow dung and straw burning.
- Industries and Vehicles: Industries contribute 22%, while diesel vehicles add 17%.
- Other Sources: Open burning contributes 12%, and other minor sources 2%.
- High-Emission States: Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are major emitters due to agricultural and forest fires.
- Biofuel Usage: Alone contributes nearly 42% of India’s total BC emissions.
Key Findings from the Study (2000–2023):
- Snow Temperature Rise: Himalayan snow surface temperature rose from -11.27°C to -7.13°C over two decades.
- Regional Trends: The Eastern Himalayas were warmest, followed by the Central and Western regions.
- BC Influence: Deposits of black carbon lower snow reflectivity, increase heat absorption, and accelerate glacier melt.
- Population Risk: Glacier loss threatens the freshwater supply for nearly 2 billion people downstream.
- Increase in Snow Depth: Despite warming, average snow depth rose from 0.059 m to 0.117 m.
- Reasons: This is due to more snowfall, changing precipitation, and wind redistribution.
- Regional Comparison: The Western Himalayas showed highest snow depth, linked to elevation and winter storms, while the Eastern and Central Himalayas had less snow due to proximity to BC sources.
| [UPSC 2017] Consider the following statements:
1. Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants is a unique initiative of G20 group of countries;
2. The CCAC focuses on methane, black carbon and hydrofluorocarbons.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
India has strongly objected to the Asian Development Bank’s (ADB) decision to provide an $800 million loan to Pakistan under its Resource Mobilisation Reform Programme.
About the Asian Development Bank (ADB):
- Established: 1966, following a UN-led conference on Asian Economic Cooperation.
- Headquarters: Manila, Philippines
- Status: Official Observer at the United Nations
- Objectives:
- To reduce poverty in Asia and the Pacific.
- To promote inclusive and environmentally sustainable growth and regional economic integration.
- Functions:
- Provides loans (hard and soft), grants, and technical assistance.
- Offers direct funding to private sector projects with social benefits.
- Supports countries through policy dialogues, co-financing, and advisory services.
- Funding Sources:
- Issues bonds on global capital markets.
- Receives member contributions, loan repayments, and retained earnings.
- Membership and Shareholding:
- 67 members: 48 from Asia-Pacific.
- Major shareholders: Japan and USA (each 15.607%), China (6.444%), India (6.331%), Australia (5.786%).
- Climate Goals:
- Aims to mobilize $100 billion for climate finance between 2019 and 2030.
- Promotes sustainable development initiatives such as green fuel projects, including one in Pakistan funded partly by ADB.
India’s concerns over ADB Funding:
- India emphasized that Pakistan’s defense spending has risen significantly even as its tax-to-GDP ratio fell from 13% in 2017-18 to 9.2% in 2022-23.
- This tax ratio is significantly below the Asia-Pacific average of 19%, suggesting poor revenue collection and financial mismanagement.
- India stressed to ADB that it expects strict oversight mechanisms to be implemented to avoid diversion of funds.
- India has previously opposed financial aid to Pakistan at other fora like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and is reportedly preparing a dossier to request Pakistan’s re-entry into the FATF grey list.
| [UPSC 2024] Which one of the following launched the ‘Nature Solutions Finance Hub for Asia and the Pacific’?
(a) The Asian Development Bank (ADB) * (b) The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) (c) The New Development Bank (NDB) (d) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) |
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Why in the News?
The Government of India will conduct its next population census by March 1, 2027, after an unprecedented 16-year gap.
About the Census of India:
- Definition: The Census of India is a nationwide decadal exercise that gathers demographic, social, economic, and cultural data from every resident, regardless of citizenship.
- Authority: It is conducted by the Office of the Registrar General (Ministry of Home Affairs) and Census Commissioner under the Census Act, 1948.
- Utility: Data from the census is used to formulate policies, redraw electoral boundaries, and implement welfare schemes.
Significance of the Upcoming Census:
- Reference Dates: Most of India will use March 1, 2027, while Ladakh, J&K, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand will use October 1, 2026.
- Two-Phase Format: It will be conducted in two stages — House Listing and Housing Schedule, followed by Population Enumeration, which will include caste data.
- Digital Firsts: This will be India’s first digital census, using a mobile app and offering self-enumeration via an online portal (for NPR-updated households).
- Preparation: The 24 lakh enumeration blocks identified for the 2021 census will be reused.
- Delimitation Link: The 84th Constitutional Amendment (2001) mandates that delimitation of constituencies be based on the first census after 2026.
- Women’s Reservation: The 33% women’s reservation law (128th Amendment) also depends on data from this census.
- New Inclusion: The upcoming census will include caste enumeration, likely as a plain list, without grouping under OBC.
- NPR Update: No official announcement has been made regarding an update to the National Population Register (NPR), though it holds data for 119 crore residents.
History of Census in India:
- Ancient Mentions: Rig Veda (800–600 BCE) and Arthashastra (321–296 BCE) mentioned population counting for taxation and governance.
- Early Colonial Efforts:
- Partial censuses conducted in Allahabad (1824), Banaras (1827–28), and Dacca (1830).
- Fort St. George conducted returns in 1836–37; quinquennial returns started in Madras (1851–67).
- First Attempted Pan-India Census:
- 1872: Non-synchronous census; not all British territories covered.
- 17 questions were asked via a house register.
- First Modern Census:
- 1881: Conducted under W.C. Plowden; considered the first synchronous and scientific census of India.
- Covered most of British India except Kashmir, French & Portuguese territories.
- Subsequent Censuses (1891–1941):
- Held every 10 years: 1891, 1901, 1911, 1921, 1931, and 1941.
- Introduced and refined questions on caste, religion, language, literacy, occupation, disability, etc.
- 1941 Census:
- Conducted during World War II under difficult conditions.
- Introduced sampling, and used individual slips for detailed data.
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Caste Enumeration to Begin:
- Caste data was last collected in 1931, excluding SC/ST information.
- Post-1951 Trend: From 1951 to 2011, only Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes data were recorded.
- SECC 2011: The 2011 Socio-Economic and Caste Census included caste data, but it was never released.
- Data Entry Field: A new drop box for caste will be added beside the existing SC/ST section.
| [UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:
1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times.
2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 * |
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Why in the News?
A mainstream political party is celebrating 60 years of Integral Humanism (Ekatm Manav-vad), a political philosophy introduced by Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya.
About Deendayal Upadhyaya and His Contributions:
- Birth and Legacy: Born on September 25, 1916, in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; his birth anniversary is marked as Antyodaya Diwas since 2014.
- RSS and BJS Roles: He was a pracharak of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and co-founded the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS).
- Leadership: Served as President of BJS, laying its ideological foundation.
- Antyodaya Concept: Coined “Antyodaya”, meaning upliftment of the last person, central to several welfare schemes.
- Advocated Ideas: Promoted Swadeshi (self-reliance) and decentralization of power for inclusive development.
- Inspired Schemes:
- Mysterious Death: Found dead on February 11, 1968, near Mughalsarai railway station, now renamed Deendayal Nagar. The case remains unresolved.
His Philosophy of Integral Humanism:
- Introduction: Proposed in 1965 through four lectures in Mumbai, promoting Indian values over foreign ideologies.
- Core Idea: Aims for holistic development — body, mind, intellect, and soul — grounded in cultural and spiritual ethics.
- Chiti and Dharma: Defined ‘Chiti’ as the soul of the nation and ‘Dharma’ as the ethical base of national integrity.
- Six Economic Objectives:
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- Minimum living standard for all citizens.
- Global welfare through Indian values.
- Employment for all able-bodied individuals.
- No wastage of natural resources.
- Promotion of indigenous technology.
- Flexible industrial ownership based on practicality.
- Further Influence: Expanded by Dattopant Thengdi, founder of Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS).
- Intellectual Roots: Drew inspiration from Daishik Shastra (1923), a text respected by Gandhi and Tilak; studied during a visit to Almora in 1958–59.
| [UPSC 2020] One common agreement between Gandhism and Marxism is:
Options: (a) the final goal of a stateless society * (b) class struggle. (c) abolition of private property. (d) economic determinism. |
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