Why in the News?
Brazil, the host of COP30, has proposed the Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF) to finance conservation of standing forests.
What is Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF)?
- Nature: A global blended finance fund that pays Tropical Forest Countries (TFCs) per hectare of forest conserved.
- Adjustments: Deductions made for deforestation or degradation.
- Equity Provision: At least 20% of payments reserved for Indigenous Peoples & Local Communities (IPLCs).
- Monitoring: Payments tracked via satellite systems and managed by a TFFF Secretariat.
- Relation to REDD+: Complements but does not replace REDD+; no carbon credits or project-based offsets.
Financial Mechanism:
- Core Instrument: Tropical Forest Investment Fund (TFIF) under a Multilateral Development Bank (likely World Bank).
- Funding Sources:
- Sponsors (20%): High-income countries and philanthropies, via concessional loans/grants.
- Market Investors (80%): Institutional investors, sovereign wealth funds, university endowments.
- Investment Strategy: Invests in liquid public bonds (US Treasuries), corporate bonds (Apple), green/blue bonds; excludes fossil fuels.
- Returns & Payments: Earnings from investments fund result-based payments to TFCs, with 2% annual increase for inflation.
Key Hurdles:
- Financing Burden: Global South may indirectly finance its own conservation as TFIF invests in their markets with higher borrowing costs.
- Credit Rating Dependence: Returns hinge on ratings by Fitch, S&P, Moody’s.
- Geopolitical Risk: Reliance on World Bank (US dominance) may skew control.
- IPLC Gap: Despite pledges, historically Indigenous Peoples & Local Communities (IPLCs) receive <1% of climate aid.
- Forest Definitions: Disputes over canopy thresholds (20–30%) may disadvantage sparser forest nations.
Back2Basics: REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation plus)
- Launch: 2008 as a UN collaborative initiative (FAO, UNDP, UNEP); now >65 partner countries.
- Framework: Under UNFCCC; incentivizes developing nations to cut emissions and improve forest carbon stocks.
- ‘+’ Component: Adds conservation, sustainable management, and carbon stock enhancement.
- Objectives: Financial incentives for verified actions in (1) reducing deforestation, (2) reducing degradation, (3) conservation, (4) sustainable management, (5) carbon enhancement.
- Mechanism: Countries prepare national strategies, monitor/report, and get results-based payments for verified emission reductions.
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| [UPSC 2025] Which one of the following launched the ‘Nature Solutions Finance Hub for Asia and the Pacific’?
(a) The Asian Development Bank (ADB)*
(b) The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)
(c) The New Development Bank (NDB)
(d) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) |
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court has issued guidelines in the Kattavellai @ Devakar v. State of Tamil Nadu Judgement to standardise DNA handling in criminal cases to prevent contamination and delays after evidence lapses in a major case.
Key Highlights of the Supreme Court Guidelines:
- Case Context: It involved rape, murder, and robbery. Court flagged delays in Forensic Science Laboratory (FSL) submission, lack of chain of custody, and risk of contamination.
- Need: Lack of uniform procedures across states despite scattered rules. Since Police and Public Order are in the State List, Supreme Court intervened for national uniformity.
- Guidelines Issued:
- Collection and Documentation: Samples must be packaged properly, labelled with FIR details, and signed by medical officer, Investigating Officer, and witnesses.
- Transportation: Investigating Officer (IO) must deliver samples to FSL within 48 hours. Reasons for any delay must be recorded.
- Storage Pending Trial: Packages cannot be opened or resealed without trial court approval.
- Chain of Custody Register: Maintained until conviction or acquittal. IO responsible for explaining lapses.
Previous SC Observations on DNA Evidence:
- Anil v. Maharashtra (2014): DNA reliable only if laboratory procedures are maintained.
- Manoj v. Madhya Pradesh (2022): DNA rejected as recovery was from open area with contamination risk.
- Rahul v. Delhi (2022): DNA held inadmissible after being kept in police custody for two months.
- Pattu Rajan v. Tamil Nadu (2019): DNA value depends on corroborating evidence; absence not fatal.
- Sharda v. Dharmpal (2003): DNA test orders valid; no violation of Article 21.
- Das @ Anu v. Kerala (2022): DNA not self-incrimination under Article 20(3). Section 53A CrPC permits collection in rape cases.
Back2Basics: DNA Profiling
- Overview: DNA profiling, also called DNA fingerprinting, is a forensic technique to identify individuals by analysing unique DNA regions, mainly Short Tandem Repeats (STRs).
- How it works: Human DNA is 99.9% identical; the 0.1% variability forms the basis of personal identification.
- Sources: DNA can be extracted from blood, semen, saliva, hair, bone, skin, or even “touch DNA.”
- Processes: The process includes isolation, purification, amplification, visualization, and statistical comparison of DNA markers.
- Methods: miniSTRs and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) help in degraded or limited samples.
- Legal Status: Treated as expert opinion under Indian Evidence Act Section 45 (now BSA 2023 Section 39). DNA is corroborative, not substantive evidence.
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Why in the News?
INS Nistar, the Navy’s new indigenous Diving Support Vessel, made its maiden port call at Singapore to join the multinational Exercise Pacific Reach 2025.
About Exercise Pacific Reach:
- Overview: A biennial, multinational submarine rescue exercise initiated in 1996 (Asia-Pacific).
- Objective: Enhances cooperation, interoperability, and readiness in submarine rescue.
- Pacific Reach 2025 (XPR-25): 9th edition, hosted by Singapore.
- Phases:
- Harbour Phase: Seminars, Subject Matter Expert Exchanges (SMEE), medical symposium, cross-deck visits.
- Sea Phase: Live submarine rescue drills, intervention ops, deep-water simulated emergencies, and Mass Evacuation Exercises (MASSEVEX).
- Participation: 40+ countries (participants + observers).
India’s Participation:
- INS Nistar: India’s indigenous Diving Support Vessel (DSV), mothership for Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV).
- Submarine Rescue Unit (East): Taking part in live rescue drills.
- Significance: Showcases 80% indigenous capability (built by Hindustan Shipyard Ltd), and positions India as a regional leader in humanitarian submarine rescue.
Back2Basics: INS Nistar
- Commissioning: First indigenous DSV, commissioned July 2025 at Visakhapatnam.
- Design: Built with 80% indigenous content, in line with Aatmanirbhar Bharat.
- Capability: Supports DSRV rescue ops up to 300 m; equipped with ROVs, hyperbaric lifeboats, subsea cranes, helipad, and medical facilities.
- Role: Provides endurance for long missions, reinforcing India’s deep-sea rescue & maritime safety architecture.
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Why in the News?
On the Cauvery dispute, Karnataka CM has said that water will be released to Tamil Nadu since the rainfall is adequate, while stressing the Mekedatu Dam’s role in water balance and clean energy.
Back2Basics: Cauvery River
- Origin & Course: Rises at Talakaveri, Brahmagiri range (Kodagu, Karnataka); flows ~800 km through Karnataka & Tamil Nadu into the Bay of Bengal.
- Catchment: Spreads across Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry.
- Tributaries: Harangi, Hemavati, Kabini, Suvarnavathi, Bhavani.
- Nature: Perennial river, sustained by both advancing & retreating monsoons.
- Protected Areas: Cauvery WLS, Biligirirangan Hills, Pushpagiri, Muthathi, Ranganathittu, Bhimeshwari, Nagarhole, Bandipur.
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About Cauvery Water Sharing Dispute:
- Colonial Origins: Began in 1892 (Madras Presidency vs Mysore); 1924 Agreement (50 years, expired 1974).
- Post-Independence: Disputes arose with dam projects by Karnataka (1960s–80s); Supreme Court referred to Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT).
- Interim Phase: Cauvery River Authority (CRA, 1998) issued temporary orders.
- CWDT Final Award (2013): Tamil Nadu 419 TMC, Karnataka 270, Kerala 30, Puducherry 7.
- Karnataka’s Obligation: In normal years, release 177.25 TMC to TN, including 123.14 TMC in SW monsoon.
- Challenges: Disputes sharpen in weak monsoons, triggering use of a “distress formula”.
- Legal Basis: Governed by Article 262, Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956; Seventh Schedule entries 17 (State List) & 56 (Union List).
About Mekedatu Dam Project:
- Location: Deep gorge at Cauvery–Arkavathi confluence near Kanakapura, Karnataka.
- Design: Balancing reservoir of ~66 TMC capacity.
- Objectives: Provide Bengaluru drinking water, generate 400 MW hydropower, regulate flows to TN in drought years.
- Importance: Karnataka argues it benefits both states by ensuring regulated water release.
- Opposition: Tamil Nadu objects, fearing reduced downstream availability.
- Current Status: Karnataka insists on moving ahead, requiring Centre & TN’s clearance.
| [UPSC 2022] Gandikota canyon of South India was created by which one of the following rivers?
Options: (a) Cauvery (b) Manjira (c) Pennar* (d) Tungabhadra |
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Why in the News?
This newscard is an excerpt from a photo published in ‘The Hindu’.
About Erra Matti Dibbalu:
- Location: Found between Visakhapatnam and Bheemunipatnam in Andhra Pradesh, stretching 5 km along the coast, with widths ranging from 200 m to 2 km.
- Meaning: In Telugu, “Erra Matti” means red soil and “Dibbalu” means mounds, describing the reddish sand dunes.
- Geological Heritage: Listed among the 34 National Geological Heritage Monument Sites of India by the Geological Survey of India (GSI).
- Formation: Created around 12,000–18,500 years ago through the combined effect of tectonic activity (2.5 million–11,000 years ago), sea-level changes, monsoonal variability, and global climatic shifts.
- Composition: Derived mainly from Khondalite rocks of the Eastern Ghats hinterland, with the red colour due to oxidation of iron-rich sediments.
Significance:
- Geological Value: Acts as a paleo-environment indicator, providing evidence of climate change, sea-level fluctuations, and coastal evolution during the late Quaternary period.
- Archaeological Importance: Artefacts from Mesolithic and Neolithic periods and sediment layers dating back to the Late Pleistocene epoch have been found here.
- Conservation Status: Declared a National Geo-heritage Monument (2016) and included in UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites (2025) for global recognition and protection.
- Unique Landscape: Features badland topography with sand dunes, buried channels, gullies, and dendritic drainage patterns.
- Rare Formation: Only two other similar red sand dune systems exist globally—the Teri dunes in Tamil Nadu and one site in Sri Lanka.
| [UPSC 2014] When you travel in Himalayas, you will see the following:
1. Deep gorges 2. U-turn river courses 3. Parallel mountain ranges 4. Steep gradients causing land sliding
Which of the above can be said to be the evidence for Himalayas being young fold mountains?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4* |
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Why in the News?
PM has inaugurated the world’s first bamboo-based ethanol plant in Golaghat district, Assam, marking a significant step in India’s green energy journey.
| Note: Ethanol is prepared from bamboo using a multi-step biochemical conversion process that transforms its rich cellulose content into fermentable sugars, which are then fermented and distilled into ethanol. |
About Assam Bioethanol Plant:
- Overview: World’s first 2G bamboo-based bioethanol facility, developed jointly by Numaligarh Refinery Limited (NRL), Fortum (Finland), and Chempolis OY.
- Feedstock: Uses 5 lakh tonnes of green bamboo annually, sourced from Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and other NE states.
- Production Capacity: Generates 48,900 MT ethanol, 11,000 MT acetic acid, 19,000 MT furfural, and 31,000 MT food-grade CO₂ per year.
- Benefits: Adds ~₹200 crore annually to Assam’s rural economy; supports farmers and tribal communities with assured markets.
- Policy Enabler: Reclassification of bamboo (no longer a tree) allowed free cultivation and harvesting, unlocking industrial potential.
Back2Basics: Regulation of Bamboo in India
- Earlier Status: The Indian Forest Act, 1927 classified bamboo as a “tree”, though botanically it is a grass.
- Regulatory Impact: Even in non-forest areas, felling, cutting, and transport of bamboo required permits like timber, discouraging farmers and traders.
- 2017 Amendment: The Act was amended to remove “bamboos” from the definition of “tree” under Section 2(7), but only for non-forest areas.
- Policy Goal: Intended to ease regulatory burdens, promote bamboo cultivation and trade, and strengthen agroforestry.
- Current Rule: Bamboo on private/agricultural land can now be freely grown, cut, and transported without permits; bamboo in forest areas remains regulated.
- Scientific Alignment: Recognises bamboo correctly as a grass (Poaceae family).
- Significance: Supports rural farmers, artisans, and tribal communities by making bamboo a viable cash crop.
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| [UPSC 2023] According to India’s National Policy on Biofuels, which of the following can be used as raw materials for the production of biofuels?
1. Cassava 2. Damaged wheat grains 3. Groundnut seeds 4. Horse gram 5. Rotten potatoes 6. Sugar beet
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2, 5 and 6 only * (b) 1, 3, 4 and 6 only (c) 2, 3, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 |
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Why in the News?
Members of the Ho tribe in Jharkhand’s West Singhbhum district staged a protest for alleged interference in their traditional Manki-Munda governance system by removing village heads (Mundas).
About Ho Tribes:
- Location: Major community of Jharkhand (Kolhan, West Singhbhum), with presence in Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
- Language: Speak Ho language (Munda branch, Austroasiatic family), traditionally written in Warang Citi script.
- Livelihoods: Primarily agriculturalists, with farming, hunting, and forest produce as traditional occupations.
- Festivals: Mage Parab, Ba Parab, Sohrai, tied to agriculture, celebrated with dance, music, rituals.
- Resistance: Historically fought outsiders; staged Ho Revolt (1821–22) and Kol Revolt (1831) against British.
- Social Fabric: Clan-based, community-oriented, guided by customary law and collective decision-making.
What is the Manki-Munda System?
- Structure:
- Munda: Village head (hereditary), resolves disputes, represents village.
- Manki: Head of pidh (cluster of 8–15 villages), adjudicates inter-village disputes.
- Pre-British: Purely internal self-rule, no taxation or external sovereign authority.
- British Codification:
- Wilkinson’s Rules (1833–37) codified system into 31 rules, formally recognising Mankis/Mundas as British agents.
- Introduced private property; Ho became raiyats (tenants) instead of communal landholders.
- Led to demographic influx of dikkus (outsiders), rising from ~1,500 (1867) to ~15,700 (1897).
- Post-Independence: Kolhan Government Estate dissolved (1947) but Wilkinson’s Rules still operative; Kolhan largely exempt from civil laws.
- Judicial View: In Mora Ho vs State of Bihar (2000), Patna HC treated Wilkinson’s Rules as customs, not law, but upheld their continuance.
- Current Practice: System governs village disputes; ~200 vacant posts filled by Gram Sabhas.
- Criticism: Hereditary leadership limits efficiency; many leaders lack education for modern administration.
- Reform Debate: Youth demand limiting hereditary succession and inclusion of non-tribal raiyats.
- Contemporary Role: Remains a symbol of tribal autonomy yet requires modernisation for democratic governance.
| [UPSC 2010] Which one of the following pairs of primitive tribes and places of their inhabitation is not correctly matched?
(a) Buksa : Pauri-Garhwal
(b) Kol : Jabalpur
(c) Munda : Chhotanagpur
(d) Korba : Kodagu* |
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Why in the News?
The Karnataka government declared 8.6 acres of green cover at Cantonment Railway Colony in Bengaluru as a Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS), the second such site in the city after Gandhi Krishi Vigyan Kendra (GKVK).
About Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS):
- Legal Basis: Recognized under Section 37(1) of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 as ecologically sensitive areas of high biodiversity.
- Notifying Authority: The State Government, in consultation with local bodies, can declare an area as a BHS.
- Objective: Conserves wild and domesticated species, including rare, threatened, and keystone species, vital for ecological balance.
- Significance: Marked as ecologically fragile zones, essential for sustaining local ecosystems and long-term sustainability.
- Community Role: Local communities and institutions are actively involved in management and protection.
- Restrictions Put: Declaration does NOT restrict customary uses; aims to enhance quality of life through conservation.
- Institutional Support: State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) assist in proposing, managing, and monitoring BHS.
- First BHS in India: Nallur Tamarind Grove, Bengaluru, Karnataka, notified in 2007.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
1. In India, the Biodiversity Management Committees are key to the realization of the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol.
2. The Biodiversity Management Committees have important functions in determining access and benefit sharing, including the power to levy collection fees on the access of biological resources within its jurisdiction.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
On September 13, a countrywide National Lok Adalat was held with a special focus on clearing pending traffic e-challans for minor offences.
What is National Lok Adalat?
- Overview: Lok Adalats held 4 times a year, on a single day, across all courts from the Supreme Court to Taluk Courts.
- Scope: Settles both pending cases and pre-litigation disputes suitable for compromise.
- Organisation: Dates fixed in the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) calendar; sessions conducted nationwide.
- Method: Focuses on amicable settlement rather than judicial imposition.
- Common Cases: Matrimonial/family disputes, compoundable criminal cases, land acquisition, labour disputes, compensation claims, bank recoveries, and accident claims.
- Exclusions: Non-compoundable or sensitive offences are outside its scope.
About Lok Adalats:
- Legal Status: Statutory body under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987; amended in 2002 for Permanent Lok Adalats (public utility services).
- Composition: Includes a judicial officer (Chairman), a lawyer, and a social worker.
- History: First Lok Adalat held in Gujarat, 1982, as a voluntary conciliatory forum.
- Award/Decision: Final, binding, and equivalent to a civil court decree; no appeal permitted.
- Jurisdiction: Can settle pending cases, matters within court jurisdiction (even pre-litigation), on mutual consent, referral, or court satisfaction.
- Organisation: Conducted by NALSA and State/District/High Court/Taluk Legal Services Authorities. NALSA operational since 9 November 1995.
- Powers: Enjoy powers of a civil court; proceedings treated as judicial proceedings.
- Benefits: No court fee, speedy disposal, procedural flexibility, direct party–judge interaction, and finality of settlement.
| [UPSC 2009] With reference to Lok Adalats, consider the following statements:
1. An award made by a Lok Adalat is deemed to be a degree of a civil court and no appeal lies against thereto before any court.
2. Matrimonial/Family disputes are not covered under Lok Adalat.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
Decentralised Finance (DeFi) is rapidly expanding as a global financial innovation, enabling direct peer-to-peer transactions without intermediaries such as banks.
What is DeFi?
- It is a financial system that runs on blockchains like Ethereum.
- It allows people to send, borrow, lend, invest, and trade money directly without banks.
- All transactions happen using smart contracts (computer programs) and apps called dApps.
- Anyone with a phone + internet can use it; no bank account or KYC needed.
Features of DeFi:
- No middlemen: Works without banks or brokers.
- Smart contracts: Deals happen automatically once rules are met.
- Open access: Anyone in the world can join with just a digital wallet.
- Transparency: Every transaction is recorded on a blockchain for all to see.
- Cross-border: Can be used internationally, without currency or banking restrictions.
- Low cost & fast: Cheaper and quicker than traditional banking.
- Anonymous: Many platforms don’t ask for ID, making it open but risky.
DeFi in India:
- Adoption: India ranks third globally in DeFi value (Chainalysis Global Crypto Adoption Index 2024).
- Growth Drivers:
- Large youth population and widespread smartphone use.
- Strong digital payments ecosystem (UPI, JAM trinity).
- Increasing retail investor interest in crypto-assets.
- Uses: Indian users engage in lending, trading, yield farming, and staking via DeFi platforms like Aave, Compound, and SushiSwap.
- Market Size: Projected to reach USD 1.7 billion by 2025.
- Challenges: Regulatory uncertainty, risks of money laundering and terror financing, cyber vulnerabilities, and lack of investor protection.
| [UPSC 2025] With reference to the Government of India, consider the following information:
Organization: Some of its functions: It works under
I.Directorate of Enforcement: Enforcement of the Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 : Internal Security Division- I, Ministry of Home Affairs
II.Directorate of Revenue Intelligence: Enforces the Provisions of the Customs Act, 1962 : Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance
III.Directorate General of Systems and Data Management: Carrying out big data analytics to assist tax officers for better policy and nabbing tax evaders: Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance
In how many of the above rows is the information correctly matched?
(a) Only one* (b) Only two (c) All the three (d) None |
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Why in the News?
To align India’s automobile sector with global standards, the government is planning to introduce BS VII emission norms by 2026-27.
About BS7 Norms:
- Overview: India’s equivalent of Euro 7 emission standards, aimed at reducing vehicular pollution and aligning with global benchmarks.
- Coverage: Applies uniformly to cars, vans, buses, trucks, petrol, diesel, hybrid, and electric vehicles.
- On-Board Monitoring (OBM): New system to monitor tailpipe emissions in real time, covering NOx, ammonia, PM, engine gases.
- Non-Exhaust Regulation: First-time regulation of brake dust (PM) and tyre microplastics.
- EV Standards: Introduces battery safety, durability, and longevity index to lower raw material use and build consumer confidence.
- Digital Safeguards: Ensures vehicles are not tampered with and remain within emission limits.
- Testing Scope: Expands checks to real driving conditions beyond lab-based cycles.
Key Differences: BS6 vs BS7
- OBD vs OBM: BS6 used On-Board Diagnostics (OBD); BS7 brings OBM for direct emission monitoring.
- NOx Standards: BS6 allowed 60 mg/km petrol, 80 mg/km diesel; BS7 sets uniform 60 mg/km.
- Coverage: BS6 regulated exhaust only; BS7 adds non-exhaust (brakes, tyres).
- EV Inclusion: BS6 ignored EVs; BS7 regulates battery life, safety, and replacement cycles.
- Testing: BS6 relied on defined test cycles; BS7 uses broader real-world conditions.
- Technology Push: BS7 compels automakers towards advanced emission-control systems and turbo, direct-injection engines.
- Cost Factor: BS7 compliance raises vehicle costs; some older models may be discontinued.
History of Emission Norms in India:
| Year / Period |
Key Development |
| 1991 |
Mass emission norms introduced for petrol vehicles. |
| 1992 |
Mass emission norms introduced for diesel vehicles. |
| April 1995 |
Mandatory catalytic converters in new petrol cars in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai; unleaded petrol (ULP) introduced. |
| 2000 |
Introduction of Euro I equivalent “India 2000” norms for passenger and commercial vehicles; stricter norms for two-wheelers. |
| 2001 |
Euro II equivalent Bharat Stage II (BS II) norms introduced in Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata. |
| August 2002 |
First Auto Fuel Policy announced, outlining emission and fuel roadmap up to 2010. |
| April 2005 |
Bharat Stage III (BS III) norms implemented in 13 metro cities; rest of India continued with BS II. |
| April 2010 |
Bharat Stage IV (BS IV) implemented in 13 metro cities; rest of India adopted BS III. |
| October 2014 |
BS IV extended to 20 more cities. |
| 2013 |
Auto Fuel Policy 2025 submitted to MoPNG (Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas), outlining roadmap up to 2025. |
| April 2017 |
Nationwide implementation of BS IV. |
| April 2020 |
Direct leap to BS VI (skipping BS V) due to severe pollution in Delhi NCR. |
| Upcoming (BS VII) |
To be aligned with Euro 7 standards: stricter norms, On-Board Monitoring (OBM), coverage of brake & tyre emissions, and EV battery standards. |
| [UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements:
1. The Oil Pool Account of Government of India was dismantled with effect from 1-4-2002.
2. Subsidies on PDS kerosene and domestic LPG are borne by Consolidated Fund of India.
3. An expert committee headed by Dr. R.A. Mashelkar to formulate a national auto fuel policy recommended that Bharat Stage-II Emission Norms should be applied throughout the country by 1 April, 2004.
Which of these statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
Defence Minister flagged off Samudra Pradakshina, the world’s first tri-service all-women circumnavigation sailing mission, from the Gateway of India, Mumbai.
About Expedition ‘Samudra Pradakshina’:
- Overview: First-ever all-women tri-service circumnavigation sailing expedition in the world.
- Crew: Ten women officers from the Army, Navy, and Air Force, led by Lt. Col. Anuja Varudkar.
- Vessel: IASV Triveni, a 50-foot yacht built indigenously in Puducherry.
- Duration & Route: Nine months, covering 26,000 nautical miles, crossing the Equator twice, and rounding Capes Leeuwin, Horn, and Good Hope.
- Port Calls: Fremantle (Australia), Lyttelton (New Zealand), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Cape Town (South Africa).
- Mission Objectives: Showcase Nari Shakti, promote joint military cooperation, advance Atmanirbhar Bharat, strengthen maritime diplomacy, and conduct ocean research with the National Institute of Oceanography.
Historic Precursors:
- Sir Robin Knox-Johnston (UK): First solo non-stop circumnavigation (1969).
- Captain Dilip Donde (2009–10): First Indian solo circumnavigation. Commander Abhilash Tomy (2012–13) — first Indian solo non-stop circumnavigation.
- Women-led Expeditions: Navika Sagar Parikrama (2017–18)– first all-women Indian Navy circumnavigation on INSV Tarini. Navika Sagar Parikrama-II (2024–25) – second successful all-women naval circumnavigation on INSV Tarini.
| [UPSC 2025] Operations undertaken by the Army towards upliftment of the local population in remote areas to include addressing of their basic needs is called:
Options:
(a) Operation Sankalp (b) Operation Maitri (c) Operation Sadbhavana* (d) Operation Madad |
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Why in the News?
On the 132nd anniversary of his 1893 Chicago address, Swami Vivekananda was remembered for introducing Indian spirituality and Vedanta to the world with a message of tolerance and unity.
About Swami Vivekananda:
- Early life: Born Narendranath Datta in 1863, Kolkata; Chief disciple of Sri Ramakrishna.
- Role: Monk, reformer, and founder of the Ramakrishna Mission (1897).
- Chicago Speech: Rose to global fame with his 1893 Parliament of Religions address in Chicago, calling for religious tolerance and universal brotherhood.
- Teachings: Advocated social service, education, and spiritual sovereignty as means of national regeneration.
- Legacy: Inspired the rise of Vedanta Societies worldwide, spread yoga and meditation in the West, and became a key figure in the Indian renaissance and freedom movement.
What is Vedanta Philosophy?
- Roots: Derived from the Upanishads, especially Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism).
- Oneness of Existence: The universe is one absolute Brahman; all souls are divine.
- Religious Pluralism: All religions are valid paths to the same truth; promotes harmony, not division.
- Self-Realization: The aim of life is to realize and manifest one’s innate divinity.
- Karma Yoga: Selfless service is a spiritual practice — “Jiva is Shiva” (service to man is service to God).
- Practical Vedanta: Application of spiritual wisdom to daily life and social reform, bridging tradition and modernity.
Back2Basics: Indian Classical Philosophy
There are 6 classical schools of Indian philosophy in the orthodox (Astika) tradition, which accept the authority of the Vedas:
- Nyaya: School of logic and reasoning
- Vaisesika: Atomism and categories of reality
- Sankhya: Dualism of consciousness (purusha) and matter (prakriti)
- Yoga: Practical discipline based on Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras
- Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa): Ritual action and dharma
- Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa): Philosophy of the Upanishads
Apart from these, there are also heterodox (Nastika) schools, which do not accept Vedic authority, such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka (materialism). |
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has launched the beta version of “Adi Sanskriti”, a pioneering digital learning platform.
About Adi Sanskriti:
- What is it: A digital learning platform launched by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
- Objective: To preserve tribal art forms, create livelihoods, and connect tribal communities with the world; scale into a Tribal Digital University with certifications, research opportunities, and transformative learning pathways.
- Significance: Envisioned as the world’s first Digital University dedicated to tribal culture and traditional knowledge.
- Developed by: MoTA collaboration with State Tribal Research Institutes (TRIs) to ensure authentic documentation and grassroots participation.
- Integration with TRIs: Contributions from TRIs of 14 states including Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh.
Key Components of Adi Sanskriti:
- Adi Vishwavidyalaya (Digital Tribal Art Academy): Currently offering 45 immersive courses on tribal dance, painting, crafts, music, and folklore.
- Adi Sampada (Socio-Cultural Repository): Houses over 5,000 curated documents covering paintings, dance, clothing and textiles, artefacts, and livelihood practices.
- Adi Haat (Online Marketplace): Linked with TRIFED, designed to evolve into a dedicated e-marketplace for tribal artisans, ensuring sustainable livelihoods and direct consumer access.
| [UPSC 2016] SWAYAM’, an initiative of the Government of India, aims at:
Options: (a) promoting the Self Help Groups in rural areas
(b) providing financial and technical assistance to young start-up entrepreneurs
(c) promoting the education and health of adolescent girls
(d) providing affordable and quality education to the citizens for free* |
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Why in the News?
Himachal Pradesh was recently declared a ‘fully literate’ state, becoming the 5th State/UT after Goa, Ladakh, Mizoram, and Tripura.
Various Definitions of Literacy / Full Literacy:
- Ministry of Education (MoE) Definition: Literacy is the ability to read, write, and compute with comprehension, along with digital literacy and financial literacy as critical life skills.
- Full Literacy (MoE): A State/Union Territory (UT) is considered fully literate at 95% literacy rate.
- Census of India (2011): Any person aged 7 years or above who can read and write with understanding in any language is considered literate. Ability to read without writing is NOT counted as literacy.
- ULLAS Programme: Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society launched in 2022. Literacy here means acquiring foundational skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic plus functional knowledge like time, currency, and digital use.
- NILP: New India Literacy Programme (centrally sponsored, aligned with NEP 2020). Defines full literacy as achieving ≥95% literacy rate certified via assessments.
How is Literacy attained under ULLAS / NILP?
- Target Group: Adults (15+) who missed formal schooling are identified through door-to-door surveys or other state data.
- Basic Training: Learners are taught reading, writing, and arithmetic (up to Class 3 level), along with practical skills like using calendars, reading time, handling currency/cheques, and making safe digital transactions.
- Delivery Mechanism: Training delivered through the ULLAS mobile app or offline by student volunteers and community workers.
- Assessment: Learners appear for FLNAT (Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test), a 150-mark test available in regional languages.
- Certification: On passing FLNAT, learners are certified by the NIOS (National Institute of Open Schooling) as literate.
- Outcome: States/UTs are declared ‘fully literate’ when identified non-literates clear FLNAT and the literacy rate crosses the 95% threshold.
| [UPSC 2017] What is the aim of the programme ‘Unnat Bharat Abhiyan’ ?
Options:
(a) Achieving 100% literacy by promoting collaboration between voluntary organizations and government’s education system and local communities.
(b) Connecting institutions of higher education with local communities to address development challenges through appropriate technologies. *
(c) Strengthening India’s scientific research institutions to make India a scientific and technological Power.
(d) Developing human capital by allocating special funds for health-care and education of rural and urban poor, and organizing skill development programmes and vocational training for them. |
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Why in the News?
Russia has announced a “legally binding” memorandum with China to build the Power of Siberia 2 pipeline, highlighting closer Russia–China ties amid Western sanctions.
What are Power of Siberia Pipelines?
- Power of Siberia 1: Operational pipeline from eastern Siberia to northern China; commercial exports since Dec 2019.
- Specifications: Length over 5,100 km (3,968 km in Russia), diameter 1,420 mm, capacity 61 bcm/year (38 bcm contracted to China). Built to withstand –62°C, using 2.25 million tonnes of steel.
- Gas Source & Route: Supplies from Chayanda field (Yakutia) and later Kovykta field; passes via Amur Gas Processing Plant; two tunnels cross under the Amur River into China, linking to Heihe–Shanghai pipeline.
- Timeline: Construction began 2014, completed 2019, full 38 bcm deliveries by 2025.
- Power of Siberia 2: Planned 2,600 km pipeline exporting 50 bcm/year from Yamal & western Siberia fields to China, via Mongolia (Soyuz Vostok segment).
- Status: Gazprom–CNPC signed a binding memorandum. Pricing, financing, and timelines remain unsettled; deliveries may start by 2030.
Geopolitical Significance:
- Political Symbolism: Project showcases Russia–China partnership, snubs Western LNG, and reflects defiance of sanctions.
- Strategic Showcase: Analysts call it political theatre — Russia grows more dependent on China, while China gains strategic leverage.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
Statement-I: Sumed pipeline is a strategic route for Persian Gulf oil and natural gas shipments to Europe.
Statement-II: Sumed pipeline connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?”
Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I* (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct |
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Why in the News?
Indore, already recognized as the cleanest city in India, has topped the list of million-plus population cities in the Swachh Vayu Survekshan 2025.
About Swachh Vayu Survekshan (SVS), 2025:
- Overview: Annual survey by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) under the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).
- Objective: Promotes healthy competition among cities and accelerates implementation of air quality measures.
- Coverage: Includes 130 cities, grouped into 3 categories: million-plus population, 3–10 lakh population, and under 3 lakh population.
- Parameters: Cities assessed on 8 factors such as road dust mitigation, solid waste management, vehicular emission control, industrial emission control, construction and demolition waste handling, public awareness, and particulate matter (PM10/PM2.5) reduction.
- Methodology: Uses a multi-tier evaluation focusing on both on-ground actions and measurable outcomes.
Key Findings of SVS, 2025:
- Top Performer: Indore ranked 1st among million-plus cities, regaining its position after slipping to 6th in 2024. It had also topped in 2023, while Lucknow topped the inaugural edition in 2022.
- Other Million-Plus Rankings: Jabalpur 2nd, Agra and Surat 3rd, Navi Mumbai 4th, Kanpur 5th, Bhopal 6th, Allahabad 7th, Chandigarh 8th, Ahmedabad–Pune–Nagpur 10th, Varanasi and Raipur 11th, Lucknow 15th, Hyderabad 22nd, Mumbai 25th, Jaipur 26th, Delhi 32nd, Bengaluru 36th, Kolkata 38th, Chennai 41st.
- 3–10 Lakh Cities: Amravati 1st, Jhansi and Moradabad joint 2nd, Alwar 3rd.
- Under-3 Lakh Cities: Dewas 1st, Parwanoo 2nd, Angul 3rd.
- Air Quality Data: Indore recorded PM10 at 83 μg/m³ in 2024–25, slightly higher than 82 μg/m³ in 2017–18. Cities like Chennai (58 μg/m³), Varanasi (59 μg/m³), Bengaluru (68 μg/m³), and Hyderabad (81 μg/m³) showed lower PM10 levels than Indore.
- Overall Trends: 103 of 130 cities reduced PM10 since 2017–18. 64 cities achieved a 20% reduction, while 25 cities achieved a 40% reduction. Only 22 cities met the national standard of ≤60 μg/m³, with Chennai the only metro (58 μg/m³). Among metros, Mumbai recorded the highest decline (44%), followed by Kolkata (37%), Hyderabad (26%), Bengaluru (26%), Delhi (15%), and Chennai (12%).
| [UPSC 2022] In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements:
1. The 24-hour mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m3 and annual mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m3.
2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.
3. PM 10 can penetrate the long barrier and enter the bloodstream.
4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 only* (c) 2,3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 only |
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Why in the News?
India now has a comprehensive regulatory framework for biostimulants, placing it among the few countries with such dedicated oversight.
What are Biostimulants?
- Definition: Under Fertilizer Control Order (FCO), 1985, Clause 20C, biostimulants are substances or micro-organisms that stimulate plant processes to improve nutrient uptake, growth, yield, crop quality, efficiency, and stress tolerance.
- Exclusion: They are not pesticides or plant growth regulators, which fall under the Insecticides Act, 1968.
- Categories (Schedule VI, FCO): Botanical extracts (including seaweed), protein hydrolysates and amino acids, vitamins, biochemicals, antioxidants, anti-transpirants, humic and fulvic acids, cell-free microbial products, and live micro-organisms (excluding biofertilizers/biopesticides).
Regulation Timeline:
- Before 2021: Nearly 30,000 unregulated products in Indian markets.
- Feb 2021: Included under FCO; provisional registration system (G3 certificates) introduced; about 8,000 products approved temporarily.
- Current Status: Only 146 products formally notified in Schedule VI.
Key Amendments (2021–2025):
- 2021: Biostimulants legally recognised under FCO.
- 2023–24: Provisional validity extended to avoid disruption.
- 2025:
- Live micro-organisms (excluding biofertilizers/biopesticides) added as a category.
- Pesticide residue limit raised from 0.01 ppm to 1 ppm.
- Stricter quality testing, labelling, and safety standards enforced.
- Provisional system discontinued.
Significance:
- Protects farmers from spurious/unproven products.
- Encourages validated indigenous products under Atmanirbhar Bharat.
- Establishes quality, safety, and labelling standards through Gazette notifications.
- Makes India one of the few countries with a dedicated Biostimulant law, balancing farmer welfare, environmental safety, innovation, and regulation.
| [UPSC 2013] Consider the following organisms:
1.Agaricus 2.Nostoc 3.Spirogyra
Which of the above is/are used as biofertilizer/biofertilizers?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only |
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Why in the News?
An Indian Armed Forces contingent has departed for Mulino Training Ground, Nizhniy, Russia, to participate in Exercise ZAPAD 2025.
About Exercise ZAPAD:
- Meaning: “ZAPAD” means West in Russian; a series of large-scale joint strategic military drills led by Russia and Belarus.
- Origins: Started during the Soviet era with Zapad-77, Zapad-81, Zapad-84, reflecting Cold War dynamics.
- Post-Soviet Revival: Resumed with Zapad-99 (1999), partly as a response to NATO’s Yugoslavia operations.
- Frequency: Held about once every 4 years, with major editions in 2009, 2013, 2017, 2021, and 2025.
- Series Context: Forms part of Russia’s rotating operational drills along with Vostok (East), Tsentr (Central), and Kavkaz (Caucasus).
- Scale: Zapad-2021 involved ~200,000 personnel from 17 countries, one of the largest recent drills.
Geopolitical Significance:
- Deterrence: Sends a strategic message to NATO about Russian readiness.
- Allied Assurance: Reassures Russia’s partners and allies of its military strength.
| [UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?
1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.
Select the answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4* |
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Why in the News?
The Union Culture Ministry has invited experts to present their research on deciphering the Indus Valley script, also known as the Harappan script.
Recent Efforts and Theories on the Harappan Script:
- Taxation & Commerce Theory: Bahata Ansumali Mukhopadhyay argues the script encodes rules of trade and taxation, not phonetic spellings.
- Religious Hypothesis: Karuna Shankar Shukla claims Indus seals carried Rig Vedic mantras and Puranic references, used mainly for rituals.
- Proto-Dravidian Claims:
- Prakash N. Salame (Nagpur engineer) says 90% of symbols represent Proto-Dravidian Gondi, building on Dr. M. C. Kangali.
- Asko Parpola (Finnish Indologist) supports the Dravidian hypothesis, suggesting a logo-syllabic system of pictograms and rebuses.
- Bryan K. Wells also backs Proto-Dravidian links.
- Santali Link: Prabhunath Hembrom connects the script to the Santali language, citing parallels with Parpola’s work.
- Scholarly Caveats: H. P. Ray stresses need for bilingual objects, contextual clarity, and warns against assuming a single language for the entire civilization.
Back2Basics: Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)
- Timeline: Flourished 2600–1900 BCE, with roots back to Mehrgarh (7000 BCE).
- Extent: Covered 1.5 million sq. km across modern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan.
- Discovery: Excavations at Harappa (1921–22, Daya Ram Sahni) and Mohenjo-daro (1922, R. D. Banerji) confirmed as one civilization by John Marshall.
- Urban Features: Grid-planned cities, fortified towns, granaries, warehouses, dockyards, drainage systems, advanced water management (wells, reservoirs, Great Bath).
- Seals & Script: Steatite seals with animal motifs and undeciphered script point to complex administration.
- Crafts & Finds: Pottery, bead-making, weaving, metallurgy, toys, ornaments, figurines; iconic Dancing Girl, Priest-King, Mother Goddess statues.
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| [UPSC 2001] Which one of the following animals was NOT represented on the seals and terracotta art of the Harappan culture?
Options: (a) Cow* (b) Elephant (c) Rhinoceros (d) Tiger |
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