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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

On Birsa Munda’s birth anniversary, let’s celebrate his fight for dignity

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Introduction

Birsa Munda and the larger Janjatiya movement occupy a central position in India’s social-political evolution. From colonial-era uprisings to modern state-led empowerment measures, tribal struggles reveal a continuous assertion of identity, land rights, cultural autonomy, and equitable development. The government’s recent initiatives, including the celebration of Janjatiya Gaurav Divas, PM-Janman Mission, tribal-focused infrastructure schemes, and protection of cultural heritage, highlight a renewed emphasis on integrating tribal communities into mainstream governance without erasing their distinctiveness.

Why in the news?

Birsa Munda’s birth anniversary gains special significance as India concludes the 150th birth anniversary celebrations of Janjatiya icons during Janjatiya Gaurav Varsh (2021-2024), a landmark recognition of tribal heritage at a national scale. For the first time, tribal leaders and movements are commemorated through a dedicated national day (Janjatiya Gaurav Divas), signalling a major shift from historical marginalisation to mainstream acknowledgment. This comes at a moment when tribal communities, once isolated, are transitioning toward empowered participation through new missions, infrastructure investments, and cultural revival measures highlighted in the article.

How has the tribal freedom movement shaped India’s socio-political fabric?

  1. Historical Resistance: Tribal communities led sustained struggles against British colonial rule, moneylenders, and local landlords. Example: Movements led by Tilka Manjhi, Rani Gaidinliu, Sidhu-Kanhu, Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh, Tantia Bhil.
  2. Collective Assertion: Demonstrated that tribal revolts were not isolated incidents but powerful collective responses to exploitation.
  3. Cultural Protection: Defended land, culture, and dignity from systemic oppression, shaping India’s early political consciousness.

Why is Birsa Munda a central figure in Janjatiya consciousness?

  1. Symbol of Dignity: Led the Ulgulan movement, highlighting tribal rights, cultural identity, and fight against colonial injustice.
  2. National Recognition: 2021 decision by the Prime Minister to commemorate his birth anniversary as Janjatiya Gaurav Divas.
    1. Significance: First national-level day dedicated to tribal heritage.
  3. Political Legacy: Birsa Munda’s region later inspired the creation of separate states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Uttarakhand, strengthening administrative representation for tribal communities.

How have recent government initiatives enhanced tribal empowerment?

  1. PM-JANMAN Mission:
    1. Holistic Development: Transforms marginalised tribal communities from welfare-oriented to empowerment-oriented.
    2. Targeted Delivery: Implemented across 75 Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).
    3. Infrastructure: Houses, roads, electricity, drinking water, health, and education.
  2. Dhani Aaba Janjatiya Gaurav Ashram Abhiyan:
    1. Community Spaces: Creates structured social and economic development hubs.
    2. Outcome: Strengthens village-level institutions.
  3. EMRS Expansion:
    1. Educational Access: 728 Eklavya Model Residential Schools sanctioned; 479 operational.
    2. Impact: Bridges educational inequities for tribal children.
  4. Tribal Business Conclave:
    1. Market Linkages: Enhances geotagging of tribal products and economic inclusion.

How has political leadership supported Janjatiya reforms?

  1. Representation in Governance: Continuous policy focus on tribal welfare
  2. Heritage Recognition:
    • Museums: Ten freedom fighter museums sanctioned; four inaugurated. These recognise tribal contributions to the freedom struggle.
  3. Prime Minister’s Visit to Ulihatu: First Prime Minister to visit Birsa Munda’s birthplace, underscoring symbolic national acknowledgment.

How are tribal communities moving from isolation to mainstream participation?

  1. Governance Inclusion: Tribal affairs institutionalised via a separate Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
  2. Economic Upliftment: PM-JANMAN and other schemes ensure roads, schools, livelihood support, and market integration.
  3. Cultural Revival: Celebration of Janjatiya Gaurav Varsh fosters awareness of tribal culture across generations.

Conclusion

Birsa Munda’s legacy is not confined to the past; it continues to shape India’s pursuit of justice, dignity, and equitable development for tribal communities. As the nation celebrates Janjatiya Gaurav Varsh and strengthens missions like PM-JANMAN, the shift from historic marginalisation to institutional empowerment marks a significant transformation in India’s democratic evolution.

Value Addition

Who was Birsa Munda?

Birsa Munda (1875-1900) was a revolutionary tribal leader, spiritual reformer, and social mobiliser belonging to the Munda tribe of the Chotanagpur plateau. Revered as Dharti Aba (Father of the Earth), he transformed scattered tribal discontent into a structured political uprising.

Which Rebellion Was He Part Of?

Ulgulan (The Great Tumult), 1899-1900

The Ulgulan was the Munda Rebellion led by Birsa Munda against British colonial rule, zamindari oppression, and missionary cultural domination.

Area of the Movement

  • Entire Chotanagpur region covering
    • Ranchi
    • Singhbhum
    • Gumla
    • Khunti
    • Tamar
    • Sarwada
  • Present-day Jharkhand

This area was historically inhabited by the Munda, Oraon, Ho, and Santhal tribes, but Birsa’s core following was from the Munda tribe.

Why did the Ulgulan Revolt Erupt? (Major Reasons)

  1. Land Alienation
    1. Zamindars, moneylenders, and British policies dispossessed Mundas from their traditional khuntkatti lands.
    2. Outsiders (dikus) seized land through taxation, debt, and fraudulent contracts.
  2. Exploitative Agrarian System
    1. Beth-begari (forced labour) imposed by landlords.
    2. High rent, illegal levies, and bonded labour.
  3. Colonial Forest Policies
    1. British restrictions on shifting cultivation, forest access, forest produce, and grazing rights.
  4. Cultural Domination
    1. Missionary influence attempted to alter tribal culture and traditional faith.
    2. Birsa’s movement demanded revival of tribal dharma.
  5. Social Reform and Purification
    1. Birsa preached reform against alcohol, superstition, and internal divisions.
  6. Political Awakening
    1. The community believed Birsa would restore a Golden Age (Sat-Yug) by driving away dikus.
    2. This turned Ulgulan into a millenarian and political movement

Nature and Features of Ulgulan

  1. Millenarian Movement: Promised liberation and restoration of Munda rule.
  2. Cultural Revival: Emphasised indigenous identity and autonomy.
  3. Armed Resistance: Attacked police stations, zamindars, and Christian mission institutions.
  4. Political Assertion: First organised tribal movement with a coherent ideology.
  5. Mass Mobilisation: Unified thousands of tribal households across Chotanagpur.

Demands of the Munda Rebellion

  1. Restoration of traditional khuntkatti land rights.
  2. End to forced labour and exploitative tenancy.
  3. Freedom from missionary domination.
  4. Recognition of tribal self-rule.
  5. Expulsion of dikus from tribal land.

Immediate Result of the Movement

  1. Birsa was arrested in March 1900, imprisoned, and died in Ranchi jail (June 1900).
  2. The rebellion was militarily suppressed by the British.

Long-Term Outcomes & Legacy

  1. CNT Act, 1908
    1. Chotanagpur Tenancy Act (1908) restricted transfer of tribal land to non-tribals.
    2. Institutionalised protection of tribal land rights.
  2. Rise of Tribal Political Consciousness: Ulgulan transformed tribal resistance from sporadic revolts to a structured political assertion.
  3. Cultural Assertion: Revived pride in tribal identity, customs, and autonomy.
  4. Administrative Reforms: Better regulation of zamindari and recognition of tribal customary laws.
  5. Modern Legacy:
    1. Birsa Munda remains a symbol of indigenous rights.
    2. His legacy contributed to the demand for Jharkhand statehood (2000).
    3. Celebrated annually as Janjatiya Gaurav Divas since 2021.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] How did colonial rule affect the tribals in India and what was the tribal response to colonial oppression?

Linkage: The PYQ is relevant as colonial exploitation of land, forests, and culture sparked major tribal revolts like Ulgulan. The article links directly by showing Birsa Munda’s movement as a prime example of tribal resistance to colonial oppression.

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

Study on Lithium-Rich Red Giant Stars and Helium Abundance

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

A recent study conducted by Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) has discovered a link between Lithium-rich red giant stars and their enhanced helium abundance.

What are Red Giant Stars?

  • Overview: Evolved stars that have exhausted core hydrogen, causing the core to contract and the outer layers to expand into a large, cool, reddish envelope.
  • Formation Process: Core contraction increases temperature while the outer shell expands and cools, triggering hydrogen shell burning.
  • Temperature and Luminosity: Surface temperature drops to 2,000–5,000 K, but luminosity rises sharply due to vastly increased radius.
  • Internal Fusion: Helium fusion begins in the core, producing heavier elements like carbon and oxygen.
  • Evolutionary Stage: Represents the late life cycle of medium-mass stars; the Sun will enter this phase in about 5 billion years.
  • End Stage: Outer layers are shed into a planetary nebula, leaving a white dwarf remnant that cools over time.

Key Findings of the Study:

  • New Discovery: IIA established the first spectroscopic link between helium enhancement and lithium enrichment in red giant stars.
  • Data Source: Based on Himalayan Chandra Telescope observations and archival global spectroscopic datasets.
  • Sample Profile: 20 cool giants studied- 18 red giants and 2 supergiants.
  • Helium-Enriched Stars: Six stars showed high helium-to-hydrogen ratios (He/H > 0.1).
  • Distribution: Five were red giants and one a supergiant, showing a trend toward helium enhancement in lithium-rich giants.
  • Scientific Insight: Offers direct evidence of deep internal mixing and nucleosynthesis shaping surface chemical composition.

What is the correlation between Lithium and Helium?

  • Coupled Enrichment: All helium-enhanced giants were lithium-rich, suggesting a shared internal mixing mechanism.
  • Asymmetry: Not all lithium-rich giants showed helium enhancement, implying lithium can rise without parallel helium increase.
  • Internal Mixing Role: Deep convection likely dredges up newly formed helium and lithium from the interior to the photosphere.
  • Photospheric Evidence: Confirms mixing-driven changes detectable on the stellar surface during the red giant stage.

Significance of the Findings:

  • First Measurement: Provides the first direct spectroscopic photospheric helium estimates for normal and lithium-rich red giants.
  • Astrophysical Value: Refines understanding of mixing, nucleosynthesis, and energy transport inside red giant branch (RGB) stars.
  • Galactic Evolution: Improves models of how stars contribute heavier elements to the interstellar medium.
  • Methodological Advance: Strengthens indirect helium-measurement techniques for cool stars where helium lines are not visible.
  • Evolutionary Insight: Shows helium enrichment is integral to changes in luminosity, temperature evolution, and mass-loss pathways.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following pairs:

Objects in space: Description

1. Cepheids : Giant clouds of dust and gas in space

2. Nebulae : Stars which brighten and dim periodically

3. Pulsars : Neutron stars that are formed when massive stars run out of fuel and collapse

How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?

Options: (a) Only one* (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

 

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GI(Geographical Indicator) Tags

Recently awarded GI Tags

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Intellectual Property Rights

Why in the News?

The Geographical Indications (GI) Registry under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry granted GI recognition to multiple traditional products across India, including Ambaji Marble (Gujarat), Panna Diamond (Madhya Pradesh), and Lepcha Instruments (Sikkim).

GI Tag/Product

Details
Ambaji White Marble (Gujarat)

 • Known for pure white color, high calcium content, and durability
• Sourced from Ambaji Shaktipeeth, Banaskantha
• Used in Dilwara Temples and Ayodhya Ram Temple
• Applied by Ambaji Marbles Quarry and Factory Association
• Contains calcium oxide and silicon oxide, enhancing strength
• Exported for temple use in USA, New Zealand, and UK
Panna Diamond (Madhya Pradesh)

 • Application by Collectorate (Diamond Branch), Panna
• Features a light green tint and weak carbon line
• Managed by NMDC’s Diamond Mining Project
• Supported by Padma Shri Rajni Kant (GI Man of India)
• Enhances traceability, authenticity, and export potential
Sikkim Lepcha Tungbuk

 • Traditional three-string musical instrument of Lepcha tribe
• Holds cultural and spiritual importance in Lepcha music
• GI granted on Nov 5, 2025 under Musical Instrument category
Sikkim Lepcha Pumtong Pulit

 • Bamboo flute central to Lepcha folk traditions
• Symbol of Lepcha cultural identity and heritage
• Preserves traditional instrument-making and youth cultural continuity
Kannadippaya (Kerala)

 • Traditional bamboo mat crafted by Kerala artisans
• Recognized for eco-friendly material and handwoven design
• Boosts rural cooperative income and craft heritage branding
Apatani Textile (Arunachal Pradesh)

 • Handwoven by Apatani tribe of Ziro Valley
• Features geometric motifs and natural dye usage
• Represents sustainable tribal textile craftsmanship
Marthandam Honey (Tamil Nadu)

 

 • Produced in Kanyakumari district
• Known for unique floral aroma, high medicinal value
• Supports local beekeeping and biodiversity-based livelihoods
Bodo Aronai (Assam)

 • Traditional handwoven scarf of the Bodo community
• Symbol of honor, identity, and ceremonial respect
• Made using handspun cotton/silk with tribal patterns
Bedu & Badri Cow Ghee (Uttarakhand)

 • Produced from indigenous hill cow breeds
• Known for nutritional richness and purity from high-altitude regions
• Promotes mountain organic economy and heritage dairy products

 

[UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs:
Craft. Heritage of
1. Puthukkuli shawls Tamil Nadu
2. Sujni embroidery Maharashtra
3. Uppada Jamdani saris Karnataka
Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3*

 

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

NASA’s ESCAPADE Mission to Mars

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

NASA launched the ESCAPADE mission aboard the New Glenn rocket developed by Blue Origin.

About ESCAPADE Mission:

  • Mission Overview: ESCAPADE is a NASA Mars mission consisting of two identical orbiters (Blue and Gold) designed to study how the solar wind interacts with the Martian atmosphere and magnetosphere.
  • Launch: Launched aboard Blue Origin’s New Glenn rocket, marking a major step for commercial heavy-lift launches.
  • Programme: Part of NASA’s SIMPLEx programme, which focuses on low-cost, small planetary missions using compact spacecraft.
  • Science Goal: To understand how Mars lost its ancient thick atmosphere by measuring plasma, magnetic fields, and ion escape processes driven by the solar wind.
  • Trajectory: Uses an innovative path via the Earth–Sun L2 point, loitering for nearly a year before heading to Mars due to an imperfect launch-window alignment; arrival expected in 2027.

Key Features of ESCAPADE:

  • Twin–Spacecraft Design: Two orbiters operate together to take simultaneous measurements, allowing scientists to separate time-varying vs space-varying phenomena around Mars.
  • Hybrid Magnetosphere Focus: Mars lacks a global magnetic field but has patchy crustal magnetisation; ESCAPADE will map how these regions interact with solar-wind plasma and how ions escape into space.
  • Low-Cost Architecture: Built on Rocket Lab’s Photon spacecraft bus, making ESCAPADE a model for frequent, affordable interplanetary missions (~200–500 kg class).
  • Advanced Instruments:
    1. EMAG (magnetometer) to measure magnetic fields.
    2. EESA (electrostatic analyzer) to analyse ions and electrons.
    3. ELP (Langmuir probe) to study plasma density and temperature.
  • Innovative Mission Timeline:
    • One year at Earth–Sun L2.
    • Transfer to Mars in 2027.
    • Science operations begin after Mars-orbit insertion.
  • Science Operations:
    • String-of-pearls formation: both orbiters on the same orbit, separated by minutes.
    • Divergent orbits: spacecraft split to sample different regions of Mars’s space environment.
  • Commercial Enabling: Demonstrates the role of commercial heavy rockets like New Glenn in future deep-space missions.
[UPSC 2018] What is the purpose of the US Space Agency’s Themis Mission, which was recently in the news?

Options: (a) To study the possibility of life on Mars

(b) To study the satellites of Saturn

(c) To study the colorful display of high latitude skies*

(d) To build a space laboratory to study stellar explosions

 

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Holding up GLASS to India: securing stewardship to tackle AMR

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

INTRODUCTION

AMR in India is now labelled a “serious and escalating threat”, with the latest WHO GLASS report (2025) confirming extraordinarily high resistance levels across commonly used antibiotics. Nearly one in five severe infections in India mirrored or exceeded South and East Asian trends, and one in six confirmed infections was resistant. India’s high infectious disease burden, misuse of antibiotics, weak surveillance, and gaps in healthcare infrastructure continue to aggravate the problem. The article highlights incomplete data, insufficient funding, fragmented stewardship, and the urgent need for rational antibiotic use, surveillance strengthening, and affordable new-generation antibiotics.

WHY IN THE NEWS? 

India features prominently in the WHO’s October 2025 GLASS report, which confirms that the country now records some of the highest antibiotic resistance rates globally, particularly for gram-negative pathogens. For the first time, GLASS shows significant data gaps, reflected in India uploading surveillance results from only tertiary hospitals, leaving rural and peripheral areas undocumented. The report highlights a sharp contrast with global progress, exposing India’s limited surveillance expansion, weak stewardship, and slow adoption of newer effective antibiotics, despite AMR being among the country’s gravest public-health threats.

Understanding the Scale of AMR in India

  1. High Resistance Rates: India shows disproportionately high resistance to commonly used antibiotics, especially in infections caused by E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, and pathogens causing sepsis in ICUs.
  2. Escalating Threat Category: WHO labels AMR in India as a “serious and escalating threat,” placing India among the highest global burden countries.
  3. Gram-Negative Pathogens: Severe risks emanate from resistance trends in gram-negative bacteria which limit treatment options in hospitals.
  4. Community-Hospital Gap: Surveillance primarily reflects tertiary hospital data, leaving a large rural and primary-care void, producing incomplete national estimates.

Why Current Surveillance is Insufficient

  1. Incomplete Data Representation: GLASS data reflects only a segment of India’s population; peripheral, rural, and primary-care levels remain unrepresented, leading to erroneous conclusions.
  2. Fragmented Networks: Laboratories under NCDC’s AMR and AMRRSN networks provide data, but coverage is inadequate for a country of India’s scale.
  3. Operational Challenges: Shortage of trained microbiologists, inconsistent reporting, and infrastructure deficits weaken surveillance reliability.
  4. Underestimation of Burden: Without wider surveillance, actual AMR spread across different geographies or demographic groups remains unknown.

Kerala’s State-Led Model of AMR Management

  1. State Action Plan Success: Kerala’s progress stems from early adoption of the State Action Plan aligned with India’s National Action Plan (NAP-AMR).
  2. Whole-of-System Approach: Kerala integrates veterinary, human health, and environmental data, demonstrating One Health operationalisation.
  3. Institutional Leadership: Dedicated stewardship committees and infection-control protocols ensure sustained monitoring and policy continuity.

Antibiotic Stewardship and Public Awareness Challenges

  1. Unregulated Antibiotic Use: Easy over-the-counter access, self-medication, and incomplete courses contribute to rising resistance.
  2. Hospital Overuse: Lack of stewardship committees and infection-control practices deepen resistance in ICUs and emergency departments.
  3. Limited Community Awareness: Behavioural change campaigns remain inadequate, leading to misconceptions about antibiotic effectiveness.
  4. Inappropriate Prescriptions: Physicians often prescribe broad-spectrum antibiotics without culture sensitivity results due to delays or lack of labs.

Innovation, R&D Pipelines and the Crisis of New Antibiotics

  1. Weak Domestic Innovation: Only 2 of the 32 antibiotics under global development meet WHO innovation criteria.
  2. Positive Trend: India’s CDSCO approved two new antibiotic candidates recently, while six others received global approval.
  3. Global Gap: Out of 97 candidates in preclinical pipelines (2022), few target WHO’s priority pathogens.
  4. High Barriers: Costly R&D, limited incentives, and delayed regulatory approvals weaken India’s innovation environment.

Global and National Funding Gaps

  1. Insufficient Domestic Funding: India’s AMR response suffers from limited financial allocations, affecting surveillance expansion and lab capacity building.
  2. Gaps in Multilateral Support: Despite WHO’s Global AMR Challenge, LMICs like India lack sustained funding for new antibiotics and diagnostics.
  3. Need for Collaborative Platforms: Strengthened partnerships with bodies like the AMR Industry Alliance and CARB-X can accelerate innovation pipelines.

Why Solutions Must Prioritise Stewardship, Surveillance, and Affordability

  1. Urgency of Behaviour Change: Stewardship requires both medical and community engagement to reduce irresponsible antibiotic use.
  2. Strengthening Peripheral Health Systems: Decentralised surveillance networks are essential to capture India’s actual AMR burden.
  3. Making New Antibiotics Accessible: India must prioritise affordability and availability given rising MDR (multi-drug resistant) infections in LMICs.
  4. Integrating One Health: Coordinated animal-human-environmental monitoring is indispensable for durable AMR containment.

CONCLUSION

India stands at a critical juncture where AMR has outpaced existing stewardship, surveillance, and innovation capabilities. The GLASS 2025 report acts as a mirror reflecting the country’s systemic gaps, from incomplete data and misuse of antibiotics to insufficient funding and slow R&D advancement. A robust national response must integrate strong stewardship, affordable innovation, decentralised surveillance, and a One Health framework to prevent AMR from becoming an unmanageable public-health catastrophe.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without Doctor’s prescription be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.

Linkage: Because AMR is a recurring public-health crisis with direct links to governance, regulation, and science-tech, making it a favourite UPSC theme. The article shows rampant antibiotic misuse and OTC access driving India’s high resistance rates. This exactly reflects the PYQ’s focus on irrational use, weak monitoring, and stewardship gaps.

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Mother and Child Health – Immunization Program, BPBB, PMJSY, PMMSY, etc.

Why Hepatitis A deserves a place in India’s Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP)?

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Health authorities are debating whether Hepatitis A vaccine should have higher priority for inclusion in Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP) compared to Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine (TCV).

About Hepatitis A:

  • Overview: Viral infection caused by Hepatitis A Virus (HAV), spreading through contaminated food, water, or close contact with an infected person.
  • Nature of Disease: Leads to acute liver inflammation with fever, jaundice, nausea, abdominal pain, and fatigue.
  • Treatment: No antiviral therapy; illness is self-limiting and recovery occurs within six months with supportive care.
  • Vaccine: Highly effective (90 to 95 percent), long-lasting immunity for 15 to 20 years or lifelong; prevents symptomatic infection.
  • Current Trend: Improved sanitation lowers childhood exposure, but adult susceptibility is rising, increasing disease severity.

What is Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP)?

  • Launch and Evolution: Started in 1985; later integrated with Child Survival and Safe Motherhood Programme (1992) and National Rural Health Mission (2005).
  • Coverage: Provides free vaccines against 12 diseases–  9 nationally (Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus, Polio, Measles, Rubella, Tuberculosis, Hepatitis B, Hib) and 3 in selected states (Rotavirus, Pneumococcal Pneumonia, Japanese Encephalitis).
  • Achievements: Played a central role in polio eradication, reducing measles deaths, and improving child survival indicators.

Why Hepatitis A deserves priority?

  • Greater Adult Severity: Shift from childhood to adult infections results in higher rates of acute liver failure.
  • Recent Outbreaks: Reported surges in Kerala, Maharashtra, Delhi, and Uttar Pradesh signal a widening public-health risk.
  • Falling Immunity: Seroprevalence has declined from around 90 percent to under 60 percent in many cities, leaving millions unprotected.
  • Indigenous Vaccine: Biovac-A (Biological E Ltd.) is safe, affordable, and effective, with single-dose protection simplifying rollout.
  • No Resistance Concerns: Viral disease with no antibiotic use eliminates resistance challenges.
  • Cost Advantage: More economical and operationally easier than multi-dose vaccines like typhoid conjugate vaccine.
  • Policy Relevance: Inclusion in the national programme could curb outbreaks and reduce adult liver-failure cases.

Back2Basics: Hepatitis

  • What is it: Liver inflammation from viruses, alcohol, toxins, drugs, autoimmune disorders, or metabolic issues.
  • Viral Types:
    • A – Fecal-oral; acute; vaccine available.
    • B – Blood/body fluids; chronic risk; vaccine available.
    • C – Blood-to-blood; often chronic; no vaccine; treatable with antivirals.
    • D – Discussed above.
    • E – Fecal-oral; usually acute.
  • Chronic B, C, D: Major drivers of cirrhosis and liver cancer.
  • Prevention: Vaccination (A, B), safe injections, screened blood, safe sex, good hygiene.

 

[UPSC 2019] Which one of the following statements is not correct?

(a) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV.

(b) Hepatitis B, unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a vaccine. *

(c) Globally, the number of people infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses are several times more than those infected with HIV.

(d) Some of those infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses do not show the symptoms for many years.

 

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Air Pollution

India’s CO₂ Emission Trends as per Global Carbon Budget, 2025

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

​Why in the News?

The Global Carbon Budget 2025 shows India’s fossil fuel emissions barely rising (3.19 to 3.22 billion tonnes) with growth slowing to 1.4 per cent, hinting at early stabilisation.

India’s CO₂ Emission Trends:

  • Annual Growth: Fossil fuel CO₂ emissions rose from 3.19 billion tonnes (2024) to 3.22 billion tonnes (2025) a 1.4% increase, significantly slower than the 4% rise seen in 2024.
  • Decadal Trend: Average annual growth fell to 3.6% (2015–2024) from 6.4% (2005–2014), indicating efficiency gains and rapid renewable energy deployment.
  • Sectoral Profile: Roughly 90% of emissions originate from power generation, transport, industry, and buildings; 10% from land-use factors like deforestation.
  • Drivers of 2025 Slowdown: An early monsoon in 2024 reduced electricity demand for cooling; renewable energy growth reduced reliance on coal.
  • Electricity Sector Shift: CREA reported that India’s power-sector CO₂ emissions declined in early 2025 for the first time, due to strong solar and wind generation.
  • Global Context: India is the third-largest CO₂ emitter, yet its per capita emissions (~2.3 tonnes) remain far below the global average and major emitters like the U.S. (14.4 t) and China (8.7 t).
  • Outlook: Global fossil CO₂ emissions expected to rise 1.1% to 38.1 Gt, with total emissions (including land use) stabilising near 42 Gt.

India’s CO₂ Emission Trends as per Global Carbon Budget, 2025

What is the Global Carbon Budget?

  • Overview: It is an annual scientific assessment by Global Carbon Project (GCP) that quantifies global CO₂ sources and sinks across fossil fuels, land use, and oceans, forming the most authoritative dataset on global carbon trends.
  • GCP Origins: Established in 2001 under Future Earth and the World Climate Research Programme as a global consortium of climate scientists.
  • Mandate: To measure, monitor, and explain the global carbon cycle and its influence on the climate system.
  • Purpose of the Global Carbon Budget:
    • Quantifies CO₂ sources and sinks globally.
    • Tracks emission trends, carbon sequestration, and atmospheric CO₂ levels.
    • Provides authoritative data for COP negotiations and national climate assessments.
  • Scope and Methodology
    • Covers CO₂, methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) using global datasets.
    • Combines national inventories, satellite data, and earth system models.
    • Uses the Global Carbon Atlas to visualise national and sector-wise emissions.
  • Significance:
    • Produces transparent, peer-reviewed carbon accounting.
    • Helps evaluate national performance under Paris Agreement targets.
    • Supports policy design on energy transition, carbon removal, and land use.
  • Key Collaborations: Works with major climate bodies including: IPCC, UNFCCC, WMO.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

I. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in India are less than 0.5 t CO2/capita.

II. In terms of CO2 emissions from fuel combustion, India ranks second in Asia-Pacific region.

III. Electricity and heat producers are the largest sources of CO2 emissions in India.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) I and III only (b) II only (c) II and III only * (d) I, II and III

 

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Govt to begin year-long National Migration Survey from July 2026

Prelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Population & Associated Issues

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), through the National Statistics Office (NSO), will conduct the National Migration Survey 2026–27 from July 2026 to June 2027.

About the National Migration Survey (2026–27):

  • Overview: A nationwide MoSPI–NSO survey conducted from July 2026 to June 2027 to measure India’s migration rates, patterns, and impacts.
  • Scope: Covers rural–urban and inter-state migration, including short-term, long-term, and return migration.
  • Coverage: Includes all states and UTs except inaccessible parts of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
  • Focus Area: Captures individual migration, which forms the bulk of movements in India.
  • Data Collected: Records income changes, employment status, health, education, housing, and remittance patterns.
  • Technology Use: Relies on digital handheld devices for accurate, real-time data entry.
  • Return Migration: Examines pandemic-driven and cyclical return flows as a separate category.
  • Policy Use: Enables evidence-based planning for jobs, welfare delivery, and urban development.
  • Historical Context:
    • Earlier Rounds: Dedicated migration surveys conducted in 1955, 1963–64, and 2007–08.
    • Data Gap: After 2007–08, migration information came only partially through PLFS 2020–21.
    • Gender Trend: Female migration mainly due to marriage; male migration largely employment-driven.
    • Need for Survey: First comprehensive national migration study in 17 years.

Revised Definitions and Methodological Updates:

  • Short-Term Migrant: Updated to include stays of 15 days to less than 6 months for work or job search.
  • Broader Causes: Includes employment, education, marriage, displacement, climate stress, and economic distress.
  • Well-Being Indicators: Adds measures on post-migration stability, access to services, and living conditions.
  • Digital Verification: Uses GPS-enabled handheld devices for real-time validation.
  • Return Migration Category: Formalised to assess cyclical and post-pandemic movements.
[UPSC 2024] Which one of the following statements is correct as per the Constitution of India?

(a) Inter-State trade and commerce is a State subject under the State List.

(b) Inter-State migration is a State subject under the State List.

(c) Inter-State quarantine is a Union subject under the Union List.

(d) Corporation tax is a State subject under the State List.

 

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

‘DRISHTI’ System for AI Freight Wagon Safety

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Indian Railways is deploying an AI system called DRISHTI (AI-Based Freight Wagon Locking Monitoring System) to spot unlocked or tampered freight wagon doors in motion, developed with IIT Guwahati to improve freight safety.

About the DRISHTI System:

  • Overview: It is an Artificial Intelligence system developed by the Northeast Frontier Railway with IIT Guwahati TIDF to monitor wagon door-locking integrity.
  • Primary Objective: Detects unlocked, tampered, or improperly sealed wagon doors automatically during train movement to improve freight security.
  • Technology Framework: Uses AI-enabled cameras, computer vision, and machine-learning algorithms to analyse door-locking mechanisms in real time.
  • Operational Value: Ensures cargo safety without halting trains, addressing pilferage, tampering, and human-error-based sealing failures.
  • Current Status: Undergoing successful trials for nearly ten months on selected freight rakes, with high anomaly-detection accuracy.

Key Features:

  • Real-Time Monitoring: Continuously tracks door position and locking condition using AI-powered imaging units.
  • Anomaly Detection: Flags tampering, loose locks, or improper sealing; sends immediate alerts to control rooms.
  • Non-Intrusive Operation: Functions during full-speed train movement, avoiding delays or stoppages.
  • Automated Alerts: Provides instant notifications for rapid operator response and incident verification.
  • Reduced Manual Checks: Minimises reliance on manual sealing inspections, improving safety and resource efficiency.
  • Data Integration: Compatible with freight-management platforms for audit trails, analytics, and tracking transparency.
  • Scalable Architecture: Designed for phased expansion across national freight routes after successful field validation.
  • Indigenous Innovation: Fully developed in India, supporting the Atmanirbhar Bharat goal in transport and logistics technology.
  • Safety and Efficiency Gains: Enhances wagon security, reduces theft, supports predictive maintenance, and improves overall freight reliability.
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

I. Indian Railways have prepared a National Rail Plan (NRP) to create a future-ready railway system by 2028.

II. ‘Kavach’ is an Automatic Train Protection system developed in collaboration with Germany.

III. ‘Kavach’ system consists of RFID tags fitted on track in station section.

Which of the statements given above are not correct?

(a) I and II only * (b) II and III only (c) I and III only (d) I, II and III

 

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Tuberculosis Elimination Strategy

Tuberculosis incidence falling in India by 21% a year: WHO report

Prelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Why in the News?

The World Health Organization’s Global TB Report 2025 says India’s TB incidence dropped 21% from 237 to 187 per lakh between 2015 and 2024, almost twice the global decline rate of 12%.

Tuberculosis incidence falling in India by 21% a year: WHO report

About Global TB Report 2025:

  • Publisher: Released by the World Health Organization (WHO) in November 2025.
  • India’s TB Incidence Decline: Fell 21 percent from 237 to 187 cases per lakh (2015–2024), nearly double the global decline of 12 percent.
  • Treatment Coverage: Reached 92 percent, with 26 lakh cases diagnosed in 2024.
  • Mortality Reduction: Dropped from 28 to 21 deaths per lakh between 2015–2024.
  • Key Drivers: Community-based screening, molecular diagnostics (CBNAAT / Truenat), Ni-kshay digital tracking, and TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan.

About Tuberculosis (TB):

  • What is it: Bacterial disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis mainly affecting the lungs; spreads through air via coughing/sneezing.
  • Types of TB:
    • Pulmonary TB: Affects lungs, highly contagious.
    • Extrapulmonary TB: Affects organs like spine, kidneys, brain, or lymph nodes.
    • Latent TB: Dormant infection, asymptomatic but may reactivate.
    • Active TB: Symptomatic and infectious stage.
    • Drug-resistant TB (DR-TB): Resistant to standard drugs due to incomplete or improper treatment.
  • Medicine Regimens:
    • Drug-sensitive TB: 6-month course- 2 months of HRZE (Isoniazid, Rifampicin, Pyrazinamide, Ethambutol) + 4 months of HR.
    • MDR-TB: Resistant to Isoniazid and Rifampicin; treated with 18–24-month regimen using Bedaquiline, Linezolid, Levofloxacin, Clofazimine, and Cycloserine.
    • Preventive Therapy: Isoniazid Preventive Therapy (IPT) for HIV-positive persons and close contacts of TB patients.

Various Government Interventions for TB Prevention:

  • National TB Programme (NTP), 1962: India’s first structured TB-control effort; introduced BCG vaccination and district-level treatment services.
  • Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP), 1993: Adopted the DOTS strategy; achieved nationwide coverage by 2006, improving standardized treatment and cure rates.
  • Ni-kshay Portal, 2012: Launched as a national digital platform for TB case notification, tracking, and treatment monitoring across public and private sectors.
  • Ni-kshay Poshan Yojana, 2018: Introduced nutritional support of ₹500 per month to all notified TB patients through Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT).
  • National Strategic Plan for TB Elimination (2017–2025): Implemented in phased manner; structured around Detect, Treat, Prevent, Build, promoting CBNAAT/Truenat and decentralised care.
  • National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP), 2020: Renamed and upgraded from RNTCP; targets TB elimination by 2025 with universal free diagnostics, treatment, and surveillance.
  • Ni-kshay Sampark Helpline, 2023: Launched as a nationwide toll-free platform for patient counselling, treatment support, and follow-up.
  • Ni-kshay Mitra Initiative, 2022: Enabled individuals, NGOs, corporates to adopt TB patients for nutritional and diagnostic support under the Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan framework.
  • TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan, 2024: Large-scale screening campaign covering 19 crore individuals; detected 24.5 lakh TB cases, including asymptomatic infections.

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Ricin: the new Bio-Weapon

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Recent investigations after the Delhi Bomb Blast revealed a plot to use ricin, a deadly biological toxin, for large-scale terror attacks.

About Ricin:

  • Origin: Ricin is a highly toxic protein derived from the mash left after processing castor beans (Ricinus communis) for castor oil.
  • Discovery: First isolated in 1888 by German scientist Peter Hermann Stillmark, who documented its lethal, cell-destroying properties.
  • Mechanism of Action: Ricin enters human cells and blocks protein synthesis, causing rapid cell death, tissue damage, and multi-organ failure. Even a few micrograms can be fatal.
  • Routes of Exposure: Can cause poisoning through inhalation, ingestion, or injection, each producing sudden symptoms like respiratory collapse, gastrointestinal bleeding, seizures, and circulatory failure.
  • Treatment: No antidote exists; medical management involves supportive care such as oxygen therapy, IV fluids, activated charcoal (if ingested early), and mechanical ventilation.
  • Weaponisation Risk: Due to easy availability from an agricultural by-product and high lethality, ricin is classified globally as a potential bioterrorism agent.

Legal Classification and Security Implications:

  • International Status: Listed under Schedule 1 of the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) and controlled under the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC).
  • Indian Legal Framework: Criminalised under the Chemical Weapons Convention Act, 2000, and the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), with offences being non-bailable.
  • Penalties: Violations involving ricin can result in life imprisonment under Indian law.
  • WMD Classification: Covered under the Weapons of Mass Destruction and Delivery Systems Act, 2005, placing it within the legal category of weapons of mass destruction.
  • Dual-Use Concern: Castor is an industrial crop, making ricin a dual-use substance requiring strict monitoring of castor by-products.

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

Row over National Anthem

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Why in the News?

A Karnataka MP has claimed that Rabindranath Tagore composed ‘Jana Gana Mana’ as a welcome song for British officials, reigniting an old debate about its intent.

About the National Anthem ‘Jana Gana Mana’:

  • Composition: Written by Rabindranath Tagore on December 11, 1911, in Sanskritised Bengali, as part of the five-stanza hymn Bharoto Bhagyo Bidhata.
  • First Performance: Sung on December 27, 1911, at the Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress, led by Sarala Devi Chowdhurani and Brahmo Samaj students.
  • Controversy: Misinterpreted as a tribute to King George V at the Delhi Durbar (1911).
  • Tagore’s Clarification: In a 1937 letter to Pulin Behari Sen, Tagore stated the song praised the “Dispenser of India’s destiny”, not any monarch.
  • Freedom Movement Role: Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose adopted it as the anthem of the Free India Centre (Berlin, 1941); it was performed with an orchestra in Hamburg (1942).
  • Official Adoption: Declared National Anthem by the Constituent Assembly on January 24, 1950, alongside Vande Mataram as National Song.
  • Duration & Language: Full version lasts 52 seconds; a 20-second short version is also authorized; the Hindi rendering preserves Tagore’s poetic rhythm.

Legal and Constitutional Framework:

  • Constitutional Basis: Protected under Article 51A(a) and the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971.
  • Penalties: Intentional disrespect punishable with up to 3 years’ imprisonment, fine, or both.
  • Protocol: Must be sung unaltered, with standing at attention during performance; use for commercial or satirical purposes is banned.
  • Judicial Rulings:
    • Bijoe Emmanuel v. State of Kerala (1986) – Students refusing to sing for religious reasons but standing respectfully are protected under Article 25.
    • Shyam Narayan Chouksey v. Union of India (2016–2018) – Court made anthem in cinemas optional, emphasizing voluntary respect.
  • Occasions: Played at official, educational, and diplomatic events, maintaining decorum and unity.

Comparison with the National Song ‘Vande Mataram’:

  • Authorship: Written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in 1870, featured in Anandamath (1882).
  • First Sung: At the 1896 INC session, also by Rabindranath Tagore.
  • Adoption: On January 24, 1950, the Constituent Assembly gave equal honour to Vande Mataram and Jana Gana Mana.
  • Meaning: Vande Mataram glorifies Mother India; Jana Gana Mana praises the divine ruler of destiny, uniting diverse communities.
  • Symbolism: Together, they embody India’s patriotic spirit and spiritual harmony, Vande Mataram as the voice of reverence and revolution, Jana Gana Mana as the hymn of collective peace and identity.
  • Presidential Declaration: Dr. Rajendra Prasad (1950) affirmed both songs have equal status and honour, representing India’s composite national soul.
[UPSC 2003] Which one of the following statements is NOT correct? 

Options: (a) The National Song Vande Mataram was composed by Bankimchandra Chatterji originally in Bengali *

(b) The National Calendar of India based on Saka era has its 1st Chaitra on 22nd March normally and 21st March in a leap year 

(c) The design of the National Flag of India was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 22nd July, 1947 

(d) The song ‘Jana-gana-mana’, composed originally in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore was adopted in its Hindi version by the Constituent Assembly on 24th January, 1950 as the national anthem of India

 

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Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

Supreme Court reserves verdict on defining Aravalli Hills and Ranges

Prelims OnlySC Judgements | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Supreme Court has reserved its verdict on the definition of the Aravalli Hills and Ranges, a critical environmental issue impacting Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.

About the Aravallis:

  • Geology: The Aravalli Range is one of the oldest fold mountain ranges in the world, formed during the Proterozoic era.
  • Spread: It stretches for about 692 km, from Gujarat to Delhi, passing through Rajasthan and Haryana.
  • State-Wise Coverage: Around 80% of the range lies in Rajasthan, with the rest spread across Haryana, Delhi, and Gujarat.
  • Highest Peak: The tallest point is Guru Shikhar in Mount Abu, Rajasthan, with an elevation of 1,722 meters.
  • Natural Barrier Function: Acts as a green wall, preventing the spread of the Thar Desert into eastern Rajasthan and the Gangetic plains.
  • River Origins: Important rivers such as the Banas, Sahibi and Luni originate from the Aravallis.
  • Minerals: Rich in minerals like copper, zinc, lead, and marble.
  • Biodiversity: Home to 300+ bird species and key wildlife such as leopards, hyenas, jackals, wolves, civets, and Nilgai.
  • Prehistoric Significance: Contains cave art and tools from the Lower Palaeolithic period.

About the Aravalli Case: Quick Backgrounder

  • Supreme Court Review: The Court is deciding on a uniform, legally enforceable definition of the Aravalli Hills and Ranges across Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
  • Case Origin: Stems from the long-running M.C. Mehta vs Union of India (2008) matter on illegal mining, encroachment, and ecological degradation in the Aravallis.
  • Judgment: The Court held Aravalli lands to be forest areas under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, restricting non-forest activities.
  • Existing Legal Protection: Notifications under the Punjab Land Preservation Act, 1900 were upheld for safeguarding ecologically sensitive land.
  • Expert Committee (2024): SC directed MoEF&CC to set up a panel to develop a scientific definition for consistent protection across states.

Proposed Legal Definitions of Aravalli Hills and Ranges

Continue reading Supreme Court reserves verdict on defining Aravalli Hills and Ranges

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Coal and Mining Sector

New Royalty Rates of Critical Minerals

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Union Cabinet approved the rationalisation of royalty rates for graphite, caesium, rubidium, and zirconium to strengthen India’s domestic mineral base and reduce import dependency.

About the New Royalty Rates:

  • The Union Cabinet has approved revised ad valorem royalty rates (percentage of average sale price) for four key minerals- graphite, caesium, rubidium, and zirconium, under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957.
  1. Graphite:
    1. 4% of ASP (average sale price) for graphite with <80% fixed carbon content.
    2. 2% of ASP for graphite with ≥80% fixed carbon content.
  2. Caesium and Rubidium: 2% of ASP based on metal content in the ore produced.
  3. Zirconium: 1% of ASP.
  • Earlier, graphite alone was taxed on a per-tonne basis; now, all four follow a price-linked structure.
  • The new rates aim to reduce import dependency, stimulate exploration, and encourage fair bidding in critical mineral block auctions.

What is Royalty?

  • Definition: It is a payment made by a mining company to the government, the sovereign owner of natural resources, for the right to extract and sell minerals.
  • Legal Basis in India: The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act) is the principal statute regulating mineral development, licensing, and royalty payments in India.
  • Types of Royalty Systems:
    • Unit-based (per tonne): Fixed payment per quantity extracted.
    • Ad valorem: A fixed percentage of the sale value of the mineral (now used for most critical minerals).
    • Profit-based: A share of net revenue or profits after deductions.
  • Purpose: Ensures the state earns equitable returns from resource extraction while maintaining regulatory control and public ownership of mineral wealth.

Royalty Governance: Legal and Administrative Framework

  • Authority:
    • The Central Government, through the Ministry of Mines, determines and revises royalty rates.
    • The Union Cabinet approves new rates; these are later notified by the Ministry.
  • Legal Basis: The Second Schedule of the MMDR Act lists royalty rates for each mineral.
  • Collection:
    • Royalty is paid by leaseholders or miners to the state government under central law.
    • Rates are periodically revised to align with market fluctuations and strategic priorities.
  • Calculation Example: Royalty = IBM-published Sale Price × Royalty Rate (%) × Quantity Produced.

Default Royalty Rates in India:

  • For minerals not listed separately in the Second Schedule, a default royalty rate of 12% of the average sale price (ASP) applies under the MMDR Act.
  • However, for critical and strategic minerals, the government has rationalised rates downward (1–4%) to:
    • Attract private investment in exploration.
    • Ensure competitive auctions.
    • Promote domestic production of minerals vital to EVs, semiconductors, and renewable energy.
  • The shift from uniform high rates to graded, mineral-specific rates reflects a move toward a market-responsive and technology-driven resource policy.
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. India has joined the Minerals Security Partnership as a member.
II. India is a resource-rich country in all the 30 critical minerals that it has identified.
III. The Parliament in 2023 has amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 empowering the Central Government to exclusively auction mining lease and composite license for certain critical minerals.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only * (d) I, II and III

 

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Climate Risk Index (CRI) 2026

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

A new German watch report, ‘Climate Risk Index 2026’, reveals worldwide extreme weather claimed over 8lakh lives between 1995-2024.

About the Climate Risk Index (CRI), 2026:

  • Publisher: Released annually by Germanwatch to rank countries based on the real, observed human and economic impacts of extreme weather events.
  • Focus: Measures actual climate impacts, not projections- making it a grounded vulnerability assessment.
  • Data Sources: Uses EM-DAT disaster database along with World Bank and IMF datasets.
  • Hazards Covered: Includes hydrological, meteorological, and climatological events.
  • 6 Indicators under 3 metrics: Fatalities (absolute and per 100,000 population), number of people affected (absolute and relative), economic losses in US$ (absolute and relative).
  • Objective: Highlights climate vulnerability, informs adaptation priorities, and supports global climate finance and policy debates.

India’s Position in CRI 2026:

  • Long-term Rank: 9th most affected globally (1995–2024).
  • Annual Rank 2024: 15th, showing continued high exposure.
  • Event Frequency: Faced ~430 extreme weather events in three decades.
  • Impact: Over 80,000 deaths, 1.3 billion people affected, and USD 170 billion in economic losses.
  • Risk Profile: Classified as a “continuous threat” country due to repeated floods, cyclones, and heatwaves.
  • Global Negotiations: Bolsters India’s demand for Loss & Damage finance under UNFCCC processes.

Global Findings: CRI 2026

  • Coverage: Assesses trends for 1995–2024 plus a separate deep-dive for 2024.
  • Overall Impact: More than 832,000 deaths and USD 4.5 trillion in losses from over 9,700 extreme events since 1995.
  • Event Trends:
    • Heatwaves and storms caused the highest deaths.
    • Floods affected the most people.
    • Storms led to the largest economic losses.
  • Worst-affected (1995–2024): Dominica, Myanmar, Honduras.
  • Worst-affected in 2024: St. Vincent & the Grenadines, Grenada, Chad.
  • Pattern: Disproportionate burden on Global South, especially SIDS and low-income countries.
  • Risk Types Identified:
    • States hit by one major catastrophic event.
    • States facing multiple recurring shocks without recovery time.
  • Takeaway: Underscores urgent need for adaptation, resilience, and Loss & Damage mechanisms.

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Electoral Reforms In India

What are Exit Polls and How are they Conducted?

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People's Act

Why in the News?

As Bihar Assembly Election 2025 concludes, media houses released the exit poll results after 6:30 pm, following Election Commission of India (ECI) restrictions.

What are Exit Polls?

  • Overview: Exit polls are post-voting surveys conducted immediately after voters leave polling stations to find out how they voted and what influenced their choice.
  • Objective: To give an early indication of election outcomes and study voter behaviour, issues, and demographics before official results.
  • Origin in India: First conducted in 1957 by the Indian Institute of Public Opinion during the 2nd Lok Sabha elections.
  • Methodology: Randomly selected voters are interviewed anonymously after casting their vote; responses are aggregated and analysed statistically to predict seat shares and trends.

How are Exit Polls conducted?

  • Sampling: Based on random or stratified sampling to reflect gender, caste, religion, and regional representation.
  • Questionnaires: Ask voters which party or candidate they chose and gather demographic or opinion data.
  • Data Collection: Conducted by trained field agents under strict non-interference rules at polling stations.
  • Data Analysis: Responses are weighted and adjusted for turnout and demographics before generating projections.
  • Confidentiality: All answers remain anonymous to preserve voting secrecy.

Regulation of Exit Polls:

  • Constitutional Basis: Governed by Article 324, empowering the Election Commission of India (ECI) to ensure free and fair elections.
  • Statutory Law: Section 126A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 bans conducting or publishing exit polls from start of the first phase till 30 minutes after last phase ends.
  • Penalties: Violation may lead to two years imprisonment, a fine, or both.
  • Media Rules: Must disclose sample size, method, and margin of error when publishing results.
  • Registration: Polling agencies must be registered with the ECI and follow official publication guidelines.

Recent Amendments and Practices:

  • Monitoring: The ECI now closely monitors media and digital platforms to prevent early leaks of exit poll data.
  • Digital Coverage: Restrictions apply to social media and online news during multi-phase elections.
  • Publication Control: No state-wise or partial results can be released until polling ends nationwide.
  • Transparency: Media houses must submit methodology and get ECI clearance before publishing exit poll results.
  • Purpose: To prevent misinformation and voter influence during ongoing polling.

Back2Basics: Difference Between Exit Polls and Opinion Polls

  • Timing: Exit polls are done after voting; opinion polls before voting.
  • Purpose: Opinion polls measure intentions; exit polls reflect actual behaviour.
  • Respondents: Opinion polls survey likely voters; exit polls survey actual voters.
  • Influence: Opinion polls can affect undecided voters; exit polls occur after voting, posing no influence risk.
  • Accuracy: Exit polls are generally more accurate as they are based on real votes.
  • Regulation: Opinion polls are advisory-guided; exit polls are strictly regulated under Section 126A of the RPA, 1951.

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

New book reinterprets origins of the Indian National Army (INA)

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Why in the News?

A recently launched book claims that the Indian National Army (INA) was not founded by Subhas Chandra Bose or Captain Mohan Singh.

New Claims and the Caveats:

  • Author’s Proposition:
    • The INA was not originally founded by Subhas Chandra Bose, but by Japanese Army Intelligence in collaboration with Indian nationalists abroad before his arrival.
    • A pre-war agreement between Major Fujiwara Iwaichi (Japan) and Giani Pritam Singh (Bangkok, 1941) laid the INA’s groundwork, India’s liberation in exchange for aid to Japan’s campaign.
    • Captain Mohan Singh, not Bose, served as first commander, but his role was later overshadowed.
    • Bose took over in 1943, providing global visibility, structure, and leadership to the existing army.
  • Caution for students:
    • INA’s history is already complex and contested; this new interpretation adds another layer but does not necessarily overturn all accepted facts (e.g., Bose’s later leadership as per our standard references, the INA’s role in Indian nationalist memory).
    • Some aspects (e.g., precise agreements between Japanese intelligence and Indian nationalists) may remain debated or partially documented.

About the Indian National Army (INA):

  • Origins: Formed during World War II to fight British rule, the INA emerged from collaboration between Japanese intelligence and Indian nationalists before Subhas Chandra Bose took command.
  • Initial Formation: Conceived in a 1938 Tokyo meeting between Rash Behari Bose; using Indian POWs in Southeast Asia to aid Japan’s war and India’s liberation.
  • Early Leadership: Captain Mohan Singh of the 14 Punjab Regiment became its first commander, recruiting about 40,000 POWs with Japanese support. Internal disputes led to his removal, after which Rash Behari Bose sustained the movement via the Indian Independence League (Tokyo, 1942).
  • Rise of Subhas Chandra Bose: Bose escaped British custody in 1941, travelled through Berlin and Japan, and reached Singapore in July 1943, where Rash Behari Bose handed him INA leadership.
  • Reorganization Under Netaji: On August 25, 1943, Bose became Supreme Commander and established the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind) on October 21, 1943, recognized by nine countries including Japan and Germany. Under the “Chalo Delhi” campaign, INA forces entered Manipur, raising their flag at Moirang, but progress halted after Japan’s 1945 defeat.
  • Collapse and Trials: Following Japan’s surrender (August 15, 1945), the INA disbanded. Bose reportedly died in a plane crash (August 18, 1945). Captured INA officers were tried at the Red Fort (1945–46), the Sehgal–Dhillon–Khan trial became a symbol of unity, with Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, and Asaf Ali defending them.

Nationalist Uprisings and Impact:

  • Symbol of Unity: The INA represented armed nationalism and secular unity, transcending caste, region, and religion; the slogan “Jai Hind” became a national salute.
  • Mass Protests: The INA trials sparked nationwide agitation, uniting students, soldiers, and civilians in solidarity.
  • Key Confrontations:
    • Nov 21, 1945 – Calcutta police firing on INA protestors.
    • Feb 11, 1946 – Demonstrations against Rashid Ali’s sentencing.
    • Feb 18, 1946 – Royal Indian Navy (RIN) mutiny, with 20,000 sailors revolting in Bombay.
  • Impact on British Rule: The INA’s defiance shattered British confidence in Indian troops’ loyalty. Even Clement Attlee (1956) admitted the INA and postwar unrest accelerated British withdrawal.
  • Legacy: Unified militant and mass politics; inspired future Indian defense ethos; remains a symbol of courage and secular nationalism under Netaji’s leadership.
[UPSC 2021] In the context of Colonial India, Shah Nawaz Khan, Prem Kumar Sehgal, and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon are remembered as officers of the Indian National Army.

Options: (a) Leaders of the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement

(b) Members of the Interim Government in 1946

(c) Members of the Drafting Committee in the Constituent Assembly

(d) Officers of the Indian National Army*

 

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What is the Rare Earth Hypothesis?

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Salient Features Of World'S Physical Geography

Why in the News?

This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.

What is the Rare Earth Hypothesis?

  • About: Proposed by Peter Ward (palaeontologist) and Donald Brownlee (astronomer) in 2000, it suggests that simple life (like microbes) may be common, but complex life (like plants and animals) is extremely rare in the universe.
  • Core Idea: Earth supports advanced life because of a unique mix of conditions such as a stable orbit, a protective magnetic field, active plate tectonics, and giant planets like Jupiter that shield it from asteroids.
  • Meaning: The Earth is not an ordinary planet; it is a special case where everything aligned perfectly to allow complex life to evolve.

How does it differ from other Theories?

  • Drake Equation / Mediocrity Principle: Say that life should be common since there are billions of stars; the Rare Earth Hypothesis says complex life is rare even if basic life is not.
  • Fermi Paradox: Asks “Where is everybody?” The Rare Earth answer is that complex intelligent life is rare, so we don’t see others.
  • Copernican Principle: Claims Earth is ordinary; the Rare Earth Hypothesis argues Earth is extraordinary and rare in its conditions.

Evidence supporting the Hypothesis:

  • Exoplanet Studies (Kepler Mission): Thousands of Earth-sized planets found, but few have stable climates or protective atmospheres like Earth.
  • M-dwarf Planets: Many orbit small stars and lose their atmospheres due to strong radiation.
  • No Alien Signals: Breakthrough Listen and other searches found no technosignatures from intelligent civilizations.
  • Earth’s Uniqueness: Plate tectonics and a carbon cycle help Earth keep a stable climate for billions of years; such conditions have not yet been found elsewhere.

Scientific Outlook and Future Research:

  • Current View: Microbial life might exist on many planets, but stable, complex ecosystems like Earth’s are probably rare.
  • Ongoing Studies:
    • James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) searches for gases like oxygen, methane, and water on distant planets.
    • Planetary models test if other worlds have tectonics or internal heat for climate balance.
    • Technosignature surveys continue for traces of intelligent life.
  • Future Missions: Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) and Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO) will study exoplanet atmospheres more closely.
  • Significance: The Rare Earth Hypothesis remains plausible but unproven, showing that life may be widespread, but Earth-like complexity could be one of the universe’s rarest achievements.
[UPSC 2018] Which of the following phenomena might have influenced the evolution of organisms?

1. Continental drift

2. Glacial cycles

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

[pib] India’s First MWh-Scale Vanadium Redox Flow Battery at NTPC NETRA 

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

The Union Ministry of Power has inaugurated India’s largest and first MWh-scale Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRFB) of 3 MWh capacity at NETRA, NTPC’s R&D Centre in Greater Noida.

About the Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRFB):

  • Overview: A rechargeable flow battery that stores energy in liquid electrolytes containing vanadium ions in different oxidation states.
  • Core Principle: Uses the same element vanadium for both electrolytes, preventing cross-contamination and extending operational life.
  • Working Mechanism: Energy is stored through oxidation and reduction reactions of vanadium ions, where electrons are exchanged between two electrolyte tanks.
  • Cell Design: Electrolytes circulate through a cell stack separated by an ion-selective membrane that enables ion movement while stopping mixing.
  • Scalability: Energy capacity depends on electrolyte volume, while power output depends on cell stack size, allowing flexible scaling.
  • Application Focus: Ideal for stationary, grid-scale energy storage, renewable energy integration, and backup power systems.

Benefits over Conventional Batteries:

  • Independent Scalability: Energy and power can be scaled separately, perfect for large utility storage and renewable grids.
  • Extended Lifespan: Can endure thousands of cycles since vanadium electrolytes don’t degrade or mix.
  • Full Discharge Safety: Can be fully discharged (100%) without damaging capacity, unlike lithium-ion batteries.
  • High Safety Level: Uses non-flammable, water-based electrolytes, eliminating risk of fire or explosion.
  • Eco-Friendly: Recyclable and non-toxic electrolytes reduce environmental impact and support circular use.
  • Long-Duration Storage: Provides 6–10+ hours of continuous energy, ideal for stabilizing solar and wind supply.
  • Low Maintenance: Fewer mechanical parts and no thermal runaway risk ensure long-term durability.
  • Fast Response: Reacts quickly to grid fluctuations, improving power quality and reliability.

Limitations:

  • High Initial Cost: Requires expensive vanadium electrolyte and specialized components, leading to higher upfront installation costs than lithium-ion systems.
  • Low Energy Density: Stores less energy per unit volume, making it unsuitable for mobile or space-constrained applications like electric vehicles.
  • Complex Infrastructure: Needs large storage tanks, pumps, and control systems, which increase operational complexity and land requirements.
[UPSC 2025] In the context of electric vehicle batteries, consider the following elements:

I. Cobalt II. Graphite III. Lithium IV. Nickel

How many of the above usually make up battery cathodes?

(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three* (d) All the four

 

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

Integrity Matters Checklist for Net-Zero Alignment

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), in collaboration with the United Nations, has introduced the Integrity Matters Checklist to help companies and investors align their climate disclosures with the UN’s net-zero integrity standards.

About the Integrity Matters Checklist:

  • Overview: Created by the GRI in collaboration with the United Nations.
  • Purpose: Helps companies and investors align their climate disclosures with the UN’s integrity standards for net-zero commitments.
  • Origin: Based on the UN High-Level Expert Group (HLEG) recommendations outlined in the Integrity Matters Report, first released at COP27 (2022) and updated in 2025.
  • Framework Integration: Aligns with the GRI 102: Climate Change 2025 Standard, providing a unified structure for sustainability and climate reporting.
  • Key Focus Areas: Guides disclosure of climate targets, transition plans, greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction pathways, and just transition principles.
  • Operational Aim: Strengthens corporate accountability and ensures commitments are science-based, transparent, and verifiable.
  • Endorsements: Supported by the UN Global Compact and the UN Climate Change Secretariat, affirming its role in implementing credible climate governance.

Key Features:

  • Science-Based Targets: Encourages reporting consistent with Paris Agreement-aligned decarbonisation pathways.
  • Fossil Fuel Phase-Out: Calls for transparent reporting on divestment from fossil fuels and investment in renewables.
  • Just Transition Integration: Embeds social inclusion, equity, and worker protection in corporate climate strategies.
  • Investor-Ready Information: Produces comparable, decision-useful data for financial institutions and regulators.
  • Full GRI Compatibility: Seamlessly integrates with existing GRI standards to avoid duplication in ESG reporting.
  • Global Relevance: Applicable to all sectors and geographies, with focus on pre-COP30 adoption and accountability.

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