The Indian Army has initiated procurement of ‘Saksham’, an indigenously developed Counter-Unmanned Aerial System (CUAS) Grid, to enhance airspace security and counter emerging aerial threats.
Visual Representation
About Saksham Counter-Unmanned Aerial System (CUAS) Grid:
Overview: Indigenous counter-drone system developed by the Indian Army with BEL, Ghaziabad, to detect, track, identify, and neutralise unmanned aerial threats.
Purpose: Secures the Tactical Battlefield Space (TBS) or Air Littoral—airspace up to 3,000 m (10,000 ft) against low-altitude drones.
Origin: Conceived after Operation Sindoor, which revealed gaps in air defence.
Acronym: SAKSHAM – Situational Awareness for Kinetic Soft & Hard Kill Assets Management; a Command-and-Control (C2) platform integrating sensors, weapons, and AI analytics to create a Recognised UAS Picture (RUASP).
Procurement: Approved under Fast Track Procurement (FTP); aligns with Atmanirbhar Bharat and the Army’s Decade of Transformation (2023–2032).
Key Features:
Detection & Tracking: Continuous surveillance via radar, radio-frequency, and electro-optical/infrared (EO/IR) sensors.
AI-Enabled Prediction: Uses AI to forecast hostile activity and suggest counter-responses.
Sensor–Weapon Fusion: Integrates jammers, directed-energy systems, and kinetic interceptors for unified action.
Automated Command Support: Provides real-time decision aids for threat prioritisation.
3-D Airspace Visualisation: Displays dynamic views of friendly and hostile assets.
Network Integration: Runs on the Army Data Network (ADN) and links with Akashteer Air Defence Control for unified airspace management.
Mobility & Modularity: Compact, scalable, and rapidly deployable across terrains.
Indigenous Focus: Fully designed and produced in India, demonstrating advanced self-reliant defence capability.
[UPSC 2025] With reference to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), consider the following statements:
I. All types of UAVs can do vertical landing. II. All types of UAVs can do automated hovering. III. All types of UAVs can use battery only as a source of power supply.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three (d) None*
India unveiled its National Red List Roadmap and Vision 2025–2030 at the IUCN World Conservation Congress 2025 in Abu Dhabi.
Global Context:
IUCN Red List: Globally, 1,69,420 species have been assessed; about 28% are classified as threatened.
Biodiversity Decline: The Living Planet Report 2024 documented a 73% decline in vertebrate populations (1970–2020), with freshwater species down by 85%.
Extinction Rate: Current extinction rates are 1,000–10,000 times higher than natural background levels due to human pressures such as habitat loss, overexploitation, and climate change.
Global Need: Strengthening regional red lists like India’s provides granular, science-based data to guide conservation financing and global biodiversity monitoring.
About National Red List Roadmap and Vision (2025–2030):
Purpose: Marks India’s first coordinated national effort to scientifically assess the extinction risk of ~11,000 species of plants and animals by 2030 using IUCN Red List methodology, the global benchmark for species assessment.
Aim: To establish a science-based, nationally coordinated red-listing system that strengthens biodiversity planning, conservation policy, and threat mitigation.
Strategic Alignment: Supports India’s commitments under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KM-GBF), reaffirming India’s leadership in global biodiversity governance.
Outcome Goal: To publish National Red Data Books on flora and fauna by 2030, serving as authoritative reference guides for ecological protection and management.
Key Features of the Initiative:
Scientific Alignment: Adopts IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria, ensuring uniformity and comparability with international conservation assessments.
Scope and Coverage: Envisions evaluation of 11,000 terrestrial and marine species, encompassing major ecological regions across India.
Core Outputs:
Peer-reviewed species assessments with global visibility.
Publication of National Red Data Books and creation of a digital public database for species data and risk analysis.
Institutional Framework:
Implemented jointly by the Botanical Survey of India (BSI) and Zoological Survey of India (ZSI).
Partner agencies include IUCN India, Centre for Species Survival: India – Wildlife Trust of India (CSS: India–WTI), and the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC).
Funding and Resources: Total outlay of ₹95 crore, comprising ₹80 crore from BSI and ZSI budgets and ₹15 crore mobilised for training and international collaboration.
Capacity Building: Creation of a cadre of 300 trained species assessors and development of national training modules on biodiversity evaluation.
Policy Integration: The data generated will inform India’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, legislative updates, and species recovery prioritisation through 2030.
Need for such a profile:
India’s Biodiversity Profile: Recognised as one of the 17 megadiverse nations, India hosts four biodiversity hotspots, the Himalayas, Western Ghats, Indo-Burma, and Sundaland (Nicobar Islands).
Ecological Richness: Despite covering only 2.4% of global land area, India shelters 8% of global flora and 7.5% of fauna, with 28% of plants and 30% of animals being endemic.
[UPSC 2011] The “Red Data Books’’ published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) contain lists of:
(a) Endemic plant and animal species present in the biodiversity hotspots.
(b) Threatened plant and animal species. *
(c) Protected sites for conservation of nature and natural resources in various countries.
The 2025 Nobel Prize in Literature has been awarded to Laszlo Krasznahorkai, a Hungarian novelist known for his dense, philosophical narratives and apocalyptic vision of modern existence.
Back2Basics: Nobel Prize in Literature
First awarded in 1901, the Nobel Prize in Literature has been conferred 117 times to 121 laureates.
Prize Details (2025): Each laureate receives 11 million Swedish kronor (~1.2 million USD), an 18-karat gold medal, and a diploma.
Ceremony: Held annually on December 10, marking the death anniversary of Alfred Nobel (1896), Swedish inventor and founder of the prize.
The 2024 laureate was Han Kang of South Korea, recognized for fiction confronting historical trauma and the fragility of life.
About Laszlo Krasznahorkai:
Overview: Hungarian novelist celebrated for his dense, philosophical, and apocalyptic prose that examines the fragility of modern civilization.
Background: Regarded as one of Europe’s leading postmodern writers, noted for long, flowing sentences and hypnotic rhythm.
Themes & Style: His works probe moral collapse, spiritual decay, existential isolation, and the search for meaning amid disorder.
Literary Voice: Combines dark humor with metaphysical reflection; often set in bleak, decaying landscapes where characters struggle between despair and artistic endurance.
Recognition: Known as a “writer’s writer”, his art embodies a belief in the redemptive endurance of literature.
Major Works & Adaptations:
Satantango (1985): Debut novel portraying a collapsing rural community; adapted by Béla Tarr into a seven-hour film, acclaimed for its realism and existential tone.
The Melancholy of Resistance (1989): Allegory of hysteria and conformity in a small town; adapted as Werckmeister Harmonies (2000).
War and War (1999): Follows a Hungarian archivist obsessed with preserving a manuscript symbolising human history; explores madness and transcendence.
Seiobo There Below (2008): Interlinked stories on art and divinity across cultures; won the 2015 Man Booker International Prize.
Baron Wenckheim’s Homecoming (2016): Tragicomic portrait of post-communist moral decay; won the 2019 National Book Award (Translated Literature).
The Centre has recently proposed to open conservation of protected monuments to private participation, ending the Archaeological Survey of India’s (ASI) exclusive control over this domain.
About Archaeological Survey of India (ASI):
Establishment: Formed in 1861 under the Ministry of Culture, ASI is responsible for archaeological research, exploration, and protection of India’s cultural heritage.
Legal Authority: Enforces the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 and the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972.
Scope of Work: Manages about 3,700 centrally protected monuments and archaeological sites of national importance.
Organisational Structure: Operates through 37 regional Circles and specialist wings such as Science Branch (material analysis), Horticulture Branch (site maintenance), Temple Survey Projects (documentation), and Underwater Archaeology Wing (submerged heritage).
What is the new Public–Private Partnership (PPP) Model for Conservation?
Purpose: Supplements ASI’s work by allowing private participation in conservation of heritage monuments.
Participants: Corporates, PSUs, and philanthropic bodies may fund, execute, and monitor restoration projects under ASI supervision.
Funding Mechanism: Routed through the National Culture Fund (NCF); donations qualify as CSR expenditure with 100% tax exemption.
Implementation Framework:
Empanelment of conservation architects via RFP by the Ministry of Culture.
Donors select architects, who jointly engage restoration agencies experienced in structures over 100 years old.
Each project must have a Detailed Project Report (DPR) approved by ASI and comply with the National Policy for Conservation, 2014.
Priority Monuments: 250 sites identified for initial adoption based on region or thematic interest.
Eligibility: Proven heritage conservation experience, financial competence, and technical compliance with ASI standards.
Difference from ‘Adopt a Heritage’ Scheme:
Earlier Model (2017, revised 2023): Focused on tourism amenities cafés, ticketing, signage through “Monument Mitras”; excluded structural restoration.
Current PPP Model: Extends to scientific conservation and architectural restoration under direct ASI oversight.
Regulatory Control: ASI retains authority over authenticity, ethics, and policy compliance; funding channelled via NCF with technical audit.
Policy Evolution: Marks a shift from tourism partnership to heritage stewardship, blending private resources with public accountability for monument preservation.
The 2025 Nobel Prize in Chemistry has been awarded to Richard Robson, Susumu Kitagawa, and Omar Yaghi for pioneering the creation of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs).
What are Metal–Organic Frameworks (MOFs)?
Overview: They are crystalline materials composed of metal ions linked by organic molecules, forming a three-dimensional porous network capable of selectively trapping and storing gases, vapours, or liquids.
Structure: Metal ions serve as nodes or connectors, while organic ligands (carbon-based linkers) create scaffold-like frameworks with very high surface area and controllable pore size.
Porosity: MOFs possess some of the highest porosity among solids, often exceeding 7,000 square metres per gram, enabling the storage of large volumes of gases within minimal material.
Flexibility: Organic linkers can be chemically modified, allowing custom design for specific interactions, such as selective gas capture or catalysis.
Thermal and Chemical Stability: Advanced MOFs remain stable up to 300–400°C and can withstand diverse chemical environments, suitable for industrial and environmental use.
Bonding Principle: Based on coordination chemistry, MOFs combine metal rigidity with organic flexibility, enabling precise control over molecular architecture.
Functionality: Their open channels permit easy adsorption and desorption, making MOFs reusable, durable, and efficient for a range of scientific and industrial applications.
Applications of MOFs:
Water Harvesting: Capture moisture from arid air and release it upon heating — enabling portable water generation in desert regions.
Carbon Capture: Their selective pores allow efficient CO₂ capture and storage, aiding climate change mitigation.
Hydrogen and Methane Storage: Act as solid sponges essential for fuel cells and clean energy systems.
Pollutant Filtration: Remove PFAS (Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances), heavy metals, and organic contaminants from water sources.
Food Preservation: Absorb ethylene gas emitted by fruits, slowing ripening and extending shelf life.
Catalysis and Sensing: Serve as heterogeneous catalysts and chemical sensors for trace-level detection in industrial settings.
Clean Energy Systems: Integrated into batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors for energy storage due to high conductivity and surface area.
Scientific Development:
Richard Robson (University of Melbourne, 1970s): He pioneered the idea of linking metal atoms and ligands into extended frameworks, though early models were fragile.
Susumu Kitagawa (Kyoto University): Built porous coordination polymers, the first to demonstrate that gases could diffuse through molecular cavities—a defining MOF feature.
Omar Yaghi (University of California, Berkeley, 1990s): Created robust, heat-resistant MOFs, standardised synthesis techniques, and coined the term “Metal–Organic Framework” in a 1995 Nature paper.
Breakthrough Achievement: Yaghi’s team designed copper- and cobalt-based MOFs stable up to 350°C, capable of hosting guest molecules without collapse.
[UPSC 2024] With reference to Direct Air Capture, an emerging technology, which of the following statements is/are correct?
I. It can be used as a way of carbon sequestration.
II. It can be a valuable approach for plastic production and in food processing.
III. In aviation, it can be a source of carbon for combining with hydrogen to create synthetic low-carbon fuel.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) I and II only (b) II only (c) I, II, and III* (d) None of the above statements is correct
The Department of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare has expanded the National Agriculture Market (e-NAM) by including 9 additional commodities, raising the total tradable items on the platform to 247.
AboutNational Agriculture Market (e-NAM):
Launch: Introduced in April 2016 by the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare under the Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Marketing (ISAM).
Implementing Agency: Managed by the Small Farmers Agribusiness Consortium (SFAC) under the Department of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare.
Objective: To unify agricultural markets across India by offering farmers and traders a transparent, competitive, and quality-based digital trading platform for real-time price discovery and reduced intermediary dependence.
Legal Framework: Operates within state Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC) Acts, harmonised through inter-state trading licences and digital linkage.
Funding & Governance: Fully centrally funded, providing both digital infrastructure and physical market modernisation to APMCs.
Working Mechanism:
Digital APMC Integration: Each mandi connected to the e-NAM portal for online inter-state trading.
Online Auctions: Produce graded, assayed, and weighed before real-time electronic bidding.
Price Discovery & Payment: Transparent auction ensures quality-linked pricing; proceeds transferred directly to farmers’ bank accounts.
Unified Licensing: A single trading licence enables purchase from multiple mandis nationwide.
Warehouse Trading (e-NAM 2.0): Incorporates warehouses and cold storages for sale of stored produce and extended logistics support.
Coverage (2025):
Mandis Integrated: 1,522 mandis across 23 States & 4 UTs.
Commodities: 247 tradable items including cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fruits, spices, and medicinal plants.
Participants: Around 1.7 crore farmers and 4,500 FPOs registered.
Leading States: Tamil Nadu (213 mandis), followed by Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Data Analytics: Real-time insights on trade volume, prices, and demand trends aid policy decisions.
Key Features & Impact:
Pan-India Integration: Realises “One Nation, One Market” by linking mandis and private markets.
Quality Assurance: Standardised parameters framed by Directorate of Marketing & Inspection (DMI) ensure grade-based pricing.
Digital Efficiency: Electronic weighing, e-payments, and cloud-based architecture cut transaction time from 8–10 hours to 30 minutes.
The Union Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) plans to showcase India’s PM-KUSUM and PM Surya Ghar schemes to several African and island nations through the International Solar Alliance (ISA) platform.
India’s Global Outreach via International Solar Alliance (ISA):
Founded:2015, jointly by India and France, headquartered in Gurugram (Haryana, India).
Membership (2025):98 countries, focused on promoting solar energy deployment in developing and tropical nations.
Mandate: Facilitate affordable solar technology, finance mobilization, and policy support to achieve global energy access and climate goals.
Strategic Focus Areas (2025):
Catalytic Finance Hub: Mobilising global investments in solar infrastructure.
Global Capability Centre: Providing technical training, digital tools, and policy frameworks.
Technology Roadmap: Driving innovation in floating solar, AI-based grid management, green hydrogen, and One Sun, One World, One Grid (OSOWOG) connectivity.
Country Engagement: Strengthening regional partnerships for implementation and capacity-building.
Global Showcasing of Indian Models:
India plans to export the PM-KUSUM and PM Surya Ghar models to Africa and island nations facing low electrification and irrigation coverage.
Only 4% of Africa’s arable land is irrigated, creating a vast opportunity for solar-powered irrigation and energy access.
Significance: ISA serves as the primary vehicle for India’s renewable diplomacy, promoting clean energy cooperation, technology transfer, and South–South collaboration for sustainable development.
Back2Basics:
[1] PM-KUSUM Scheme:
Full Name:Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM) launched in 2019 by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
Objective: To promote solar energy use in agriculture, enabling farmers to generate clean electricity, replace diesel pumps, and earn additional income through sale of surplus solar power.
Targets:
Add 34,800 MW of decentralized solar capacity by March 2026.
Total outlay of ₹34,422 crore in Central financial assistance.
Structure: Three key components –
Component A: 10,000 MW of decentralized grid-connected solar/renewable plants on barren land.
Component B: 14 lakh standalone solar pumps for irrigation.
Limited progress in grid-connected plants (6%) and pump solarization (16–25%).
Scheme likely to be extended beyond 2026 due to delayed infrastructure readiness.
Benefits: Reduces input costs, ensures energy self-reliance, lowers carbon emissions, and generates sustainable farmer income through surplus power sales.
[2] PM Surya Ghar Scheme:
Full Name:PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana launched in 2025 as a flagship rooftop solar initiative for residential households.
Implementing Agency:Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
Objective: To promote rooftop solar installations for one crore households, especially middle-class and economically weaker sections, providing affordable or free electricity.
Budget:₹75,021 crore for implementation till FY 2026–27.
Features:
Subsidy up to 40% of total installation cost.
Annual household savings of up to ₹18,000 through self-generation.
Net metering enables sale of surplus power to the grid.
Simplified application via national portal; eligibility limited to one household per residence.
Impact: Reduces power bills, promotes decentralized renewable energy generation, and contributes to India’s target of 500 GW non-fossil energy capacity by 2030.
[UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:
1. The International Solar Alliance was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in 2015.
2. The Alliance includes all the member countries of the United Nations.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
A new species of wasp, Nesolynx banabitanae, has been discovered in Central Park (Banabitan), Salt Lake, Kolkata.
About ‘Nesolynx banabitanae’:
Taxonomic Family: Belongs to the Eulophidae family — known for parasitic and hyperparasitic wasps.
Type of Species: It is a hyperparasitoid, meaning it parasitises other parasitoid wasps rather than directly preying on host insects.
Host Interaction: Parasitises the ichneumonid parasitoid Charops aditya, which itself attacks caterpillars of the Common Palmfly (Elymnias hypermnestra) and Common Castor (Ariadne merione) butterflies.
Significance: Only the seventh known wasp species discovered in India, adding to the country’s limited record of Nesolynx genus.
Etymology: Named banabitanae after “Banabitan”, the local Bengali name for Central Park, where it was first identified.
Significance:
Ecological Role: Contributes to multitrophic ecological interactions by adding a fourth trophic level influencing population dynamics of butterflies and their parasitoids.
Scientific Relevance: Enhances understanding of hyperparasitoid behaviour, urban insect ecology, and biodiversity conservation in anthropogenic landscapes.
Analytical Importance: The SEM-based structural mapping provides baseline data for future phylogenetic and taxonomic comparisons within Nesolynx.
[UPSC 2024] Regarding Peacock tarantula (Gooty tarantula), consider the following statements:
I. It is an omnivorous crustacean. II. Its natural habitat in India is only limited to some forest areas. III. In its natural habitat, it is an arboreal species.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) I only (b) I and III (c) II only (d) II and III *
The 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to John Clarke, Michel Devoret, and John Martinis for their discovery of macroscopic quantum mechanical tunnelling and energy quantisation in an electric circuit.
Discovery of Macroscopic Quantum Effects:
Essence of the Discovery: John Clarke, Michel Devoret, and John Martinis proved that quantum effects—tunnelling and energy quantisation—can occur in macroscopic electrical circuits, not just in atoms or particles.
Experiments (UC Berkeley, 1984–85): Demonstrated that superconducting circuits, visible to the naked eye, act as quantum systems when isolated from external disturbances.
Observed Phenomena:
Macroscopic Quantum Tunnelling: Electric current “jumps” through an insulating barrier even when classical physics predicts no flow.
Energy Quantisation: The circuit holds only discrete energy levels, behaving like an artificial atom that exchanges energy in fixed quanta.
Scientific Breakthrough: First experimental proof that quantum mechanics governs engineered large-scale systems, forming the foundation of quantum computing.
The Josephson Junction:
Structure: Two superconductors separated by a thin insulating layer, allowing the passage of Cooper pairs paired electrons that move as a single quantum entity.
Mechanism: Though insulators block current in classical systems, Cooper pairs tunnel through the barrier, producing a supercurrent without resistance.
Key Berkeley Findings:
The phase difference across the junction behaved as a quantum variable, showing discrete energy states.
Spontaneous tunnelling of current produced measurable voltage, confirming macroscopic quantum tunnelling.
Outcome: The Josephson junction became the first laboratory model of macroscopic quantum behaviour and the prototype for superconducting qubits used in today’s quantum computers.
Significance:
Redefined Quantum Boundaries: Established that quantum laws are universal, applying from electrons to circuits of billions of atoms when quantum coherence is preserved.
Foundation for Quantum Computing: Provided the conceptual basis for superconducting qubits, now central to Google, IBM, and TIFR quantum processors.
Technological Impact: Enabled innovations in quantum sensors, precision metrology, and quantum communication through microwave-to-optical conversion.
Philosophical Insight: Resolved the scale question of how large a system can remain quantum, proving that superconducting isolation preserves coherence even at macroscopic levels.
Legacy: Bridged the quantum–classical divide, converting a theoretical boundary into experimentally verified reality, launching the modern quantum technology era.
[UPSC 2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?
Options: (a) Cloud Services b) Quantum Computing* (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies (d) Wireless Communication Technologies
The Supreme Court of India has agreed to examine a petition challenging the constitutional validity of the Securities Transaction Tax (STT) imposed under the Finance Act, 2004.
Legal Context of this Case:
Petitioner:Aseem Juneja – contends that STT violates fundamental and economic rights.
Bench: Headed by Justice J.B. Pardiwala; formal notice issued to Union Ministry of Finance.
The plea invokes Article 265 — “No tax shall be levied or collected except by authority of law.”
The Court will assess reasonableness, equity, and proportionality in transaction-based taxation.
A ruling against STT may impact ₹30,000-crore annual revenue and require redesign of securities taxation.
What is the Securities Transaction Tax (STT)?
About: A direct tax levied on purchase and sale of securities through recognised stock exchanges.
Introduction: Under the Finance Act, 2004, to ensure transparency and curb tax evasion in capital markets.
Objective: Replace complex capital-gains tracking with a small, upfront levy to counter under-reporting and increase tax buoyancy.
Administered by:Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT), Ministry of Finance.
Scope: Applies to-
Equityshares of listed companies
Derivatives (futures & options)
Equity-oriented mutual funds and ETFs.
Purpose:
Simplify tax collection from capital market participants.
Create a traceable, automated tax mechanism.
Generate steady revenue while discouraging speculative trading.
Nature: A transaction-based tax (TBT) collected automatically at the time of trade, irrespective of overall profit or loss.
Distinctive features:
Applies even on loss-making trades payable merely for conducting a transaction.
Non-refundable and non-adjustable, unlike TDS.
Raises transaction costs for high-frequency traders.
Imposition of STT:
Mode of collection: Automatically deducted by stock exchanges on every taxable trade and deposited into the government account; Ensures near-universal compliance and minimal evasion.
Rate & coverage: Varies across instruments and between buy/sell transactions; Periodically revised through Union Budgets.
Key Grounds of Challenge:
Violation of Fundamental Rights:
Article 14 (Equality): Unequal treatment; tax imposed irrespective of gain or loss.
Article 19(1)(g) (Right to Trade): Penalises the act of trading itself.
Article 21 (Livelihood & Dignity): Non-refundable levy burdens small traders.
Double Taxation: Traders already pay Capital Gains Tax on profits; STT adds a second layer on the same transaction.
Arbitrariness / Lack of Proportionality: Taxing even unprofitable transactions violates the principle of reasonable classification and fiscal fairness.
No Refund or Adjustment Mechanism: Absence of provision similar to TDS refunds; creates permanent loss even when income is negative.
Changed Circumstances: With digital audit trails, PAN-linked demat accounts, and near-complete transparency, the original rationale (to curb evasion) may no longer hold.
The DRDO is preparing for the maiden test of the “Dhvani” hypersonic missile.
About the Dhvani Missile and Its Features
Overview: The Dhvani hypersonic missile is being developed by India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) as part of its advanced hypersonic weapons programme.
Type: It is designed as a Hypersonic Glide Vehicle (HGV) — a next-generation missile system capable of travelling at hypersonic speeds (beyond Mach 5 or over 7,400 km/h) while performing sharp maneuvers at high altitudes.
Range and Speed:
Expected operational range:6,000–10,000 km, potentially doubling the reach of India’s Agni-V ICBM.
Speed: Exceeds Mach 5, making interception nearly impossible with current missile defence systems.
Flight Mechanism:
Launched to extreme altitudes before entering a glide phase in the atmosphere at hypersonic speeds.
The glide vehicle can change direction mid-course, allowing unpredictable trajectories that evade radar and anti-missile systems.
Design and Engineering:
Length: ~9 metres; Width: ~2.5 metres.
Blended Wing-Body Configuration: Enhances lift and stability while reducing aerodynamic drag.
Thermal Protection System: Uses ultra-high-temperature ceramic composites capable of withstanding 2,000–3,000°C during re-entry.
Stealth Features: Angled surfaces and smooth contours minimise radar cross-section, making it virtually undetectable to enemy radars.
Development Heritage:
Builds upon DRDO’s success with the Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV), which validated India’s scramjet propulsion and heat-resistant materials.
Represents the transition from technology demonstrator to operational weapon system, signalling India’s arrival in the hypersonic era.
Comparison with Global Hypersonic Systems:
System Name
Type
Speed (Mach)
Operational Status
Russia
Avangard
HGV
20+
Deployed
China
DF-ZF
HGV
10
Deployed
United States
Dark Eagle / HACM
Hypersonic Glide / Cruise
8–10
In testing
India
Dhvani (HGV)
Hypersonic Glide Vehicle
5–6+
Pre-test stage (2025)
Strategic Significance for India:
Global Standing: Positions India alongside the U.S., Russia, and China in the exclusive club of hypersonic powers, showcasing its advanced defence R&D capacity.
Regional Deterrence: Creates a technological and strategic edge over Pakistan and provides a credible counterbalance to China’s hypersonic arsenal.
Survivability and Precision: The missile’s speed, stealth, and maneuverability make interception nearly impossible while enabling pinpoint strikes on both land and sea targets.
Indigenous Achievement: Developed entirely through Indian expertise, aligning with the Atmanirbhar Bharat vision in critical defence technologies.
Force Multiplier: Strengthens India’s nuclear deterrent and strategic triad, ensuring readiness for long-range precision and deterrence missions.
[UPSC 2014] Which reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. It is a surface-to-surface missile.
2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only.
3. It can deliver one-tonne nuclear warheads about 7500 km away.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
[UPSC 2022] Economic growth in the recent past has been led by increase in labour productivity. Explain this statement. Suggest the growth pattern that will lead to creation of more jobs without compromising labour productivity
Linkage: The article highlights that India needs consistent, job-oriented growth policies focusing on labour-intensive sectors like textiles, tourism, and MSMEs to ensure “growth with jobs” rather than jobless productivity gains — directly aligning with the UPSC 2022 question’s call for a balanced growth pattern.
Mentor’s Comment
Employment generation is not just an economic issue, it is the moral and strategic foundation of India’s long-term growth story. As India moves toward Viksit Bharat 2047, it must transform its demographic dividend into productive employment. This article explores why employment must be treated as a national mission, the urgent need for an integrated framework, and how inclusive job creation can become the cornerstone of equitable and resilient growth.
Why in the News?
India is standing at a historic demographic crossroads, poised to add 133 million people to its working-age population in the next 25 years, accounting for 18% of the global workforce addition. However, this window is closing fast, with the working population expected to peak by 2043. Despite multiple government schemes, India still lacks a unified national framework for employment and livelihoods. Sanjiv Bajaj, Past President of CII, argues for treating employment as a national priority through a coherent, multi-level policy that integrates growth, skilling, social protection, and mobility. This issue is not merely about job numbers; it’s about ensuring equity, inclusion, and sustainable economic resilience. In a consumption-driven economy like India, employment is both the driver and the outcome of growth.
India’s Employment Challenge: The Demographic Window is Closing
Demographic Dividend – India will add 133 million working-age individuals by 2047, nearly 18% of global addition, creating a unique window for productivity gains.
Limited Timeframe – Worker population expected to peak by 2043, after which the demographic advantage will fade.
Risk of Wasted Potential – Without large-scale, quality employment, India risks a demographic disaster rather than a dividend.
Consumption Linkage – Quality jobs at scale broaden consumption, ensuring equitable and stable growth.
Why a Unified Employment Policy is the Need of the Hour?
Fragmented Efforts – Despite initiatives like Skill India, PMEGP, and social security schemes, India lacks an Integrated National Employment Policy (INEP).
Need for Coordination – Employment generation spans multiple ministries — Labour, Skill Development, Industry, and Education — requiring unified planning and execution.
Institutional Mechanism – Bajaj recommends an Empowered Group of Secretaries for oversight and District Planning Committees for implementation.
Policy Alignment – Trade, industrial, education, and labour policies must be synchronised to ensure job-oriented growth.
Bridging the Demand–Supply Divide in Labour Markets
Demand-Side Drivers – Growth in high-employment-potential sectors like textiles, tourism, healthcare, agro-processing, real estate, and MSMEs.
Supply-Side Gaps – Low employability of graduates, outdated curricula, and poor skilling alignment with emerging technologies (AI, robotics, green tech).
Policy Reform – Curricula revamp, vocational training integration, and targeted skilling to meet industry needs.
Mobility Barriers – Need for Centre–State cooperation on migration policies and worker support systems to promote “One India for Employment”.
Labour Codes, Urban Employment, and MSME Empowerment
Labour Code Implementation – Timely execution of the four Labour Codes is critical, with clear transition and business support guidelines.
MSMEs as Job Engines – Employing over 25 crore people, MSMEs need enhanced access to finance, markets, and technology to drive “growth with jobs.”
Urban Employment Guarantee – Piloting schemes in selected cities can address urban job distress, akin to MGNREGA for urban India.
Regional Focus – Targeted interventions in 100 underdeveloped districts and rural internships for graduates can promote balanced employment.
The Gig Economy Revolution
Current Size – The gig economy currently employs 80 lakh–1.8 crore workers, expected to rise to 9 crore by 2030.
Opportunity for Formalisation – With Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities participating, gig platforms can transform informal work into semi-formal, tech-enabled livelihoods.
National Gig Policy – Should ensure worker protection, financial inclusion, and social security, supported by a centralised worker registry.
Current Gaps – India’s female labour force participation (FLFP) remains among the lowest globally.
Policy Incentives – Employment-Linked Incentive (ELI) schemes, childcare and eldercare infrastructure, and formalising Anganwadi and ASHA roles can improve participation.
Economic Multiplier – A 10% rise in FLFP could add up to $700 billion to India’s GDP by 2025 (McKinsey estimate).
The Missing Link: Reliable Employment Data
Data Gaps – Existing surveys understate informal and rural employment realities.
Need for Real-Time Data – A dedicated task force must improve methodologies and reduce data publication lag.
Policy Relevance – High-frequency data can guide interventions in dynamic sectors like gig work and MSMEs.
Conclusion
India’s demographic dividend offers a fleeting window to achieve inclusive and sustainable growth. Treating employment as a national priority through an integrated policy, labour reforms, skill alignment, and gender inclusion is essential. Generating growth with jobs will ensure equitable prosperity and long-term resilience. Employment, therefore, is not just an economic goal, it is the foundation of nation-building and social justice.
The Philippines is establishing Southeast Asia’s first Coral Larvae Cryobank at the Coral Triangle to preserve and restore coral species using advanced cryogenic techniques.
What is the Coral Triangle?
Extent: A 5.7 million sq km marine zone covering Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Solomon Islands, and Timor-Leste.
Biodiversity: Hosts 76 % of coral species, 33 % of reef fish, 6 of 7 turtle species, and vast mangrove ecosystems.
Human Link: Supports 120 million people via fishing and tourism.
Threats: Facing global warming, coral bleaching, destructive fishing, and pollution; UNEP warns 90 % of reefs may vanish by 2050 if warming exceeds 1.5 °C — underscoring the Cryobank’s urgency.
About Coral Cryobank Initiative:
Overview: A project to freeze and preserve coral larvaeand symbiotic algae at ultra-low temperatures, ensuring long-term survival of coral genetic material.
Launch & Coordination: Initiated by the University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute, supported by Taiwan.
Regional Network: Links institutes across Philippines, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand, forming a network of coral cryobanks within the Coral Triangle.
Cryopreservation Technique: Uses vitrification, where larvae are treated with cryo-protectants and rapidly frozen in liquid nitrogen (–196 °C); laser-assisted thawing revives and regrows them within milliseconds.
Model Species: Initially focuses on Pocillopora (cauliflower coral), later extending to Acropora and Galaxia, key reef-building corals.
Significance:
Genetic Insurance: Serves as a biological seed bank, conserving coral diversity for future reef restoration.
Scientific Breakthrough: Marks a milestone in marine cryobiology by preserving large, lipid-rich coral larvae.
Cooperation: Enhances Southeast Asian collaboration in marine science and conservation.
[UPSC 2022] “Biorock Technology” is talked about in which one of the following situations?
(a) Restoration of damaged coral reefs *
(b) Development of building materials using plant residues
(c) Identification of areas for exploration/extraction of shale gas
(d) Providing salt licks for wild animals in forests.
The India Meteorological Department (IMD) confirmed the formation of Cyclone Shakthi (named by Sri Lanka) over the northeast Arabian Sea.
About Cyclogenesis in the Arabian Sea:
Overview: Cyclogenesis is the formation and intensification of tropical cyclones under favourable oceanic and atmospheric conditions.
Seasonality: Most active during pre-monsoon (Apr–Jun) and post-monsoon (Oct–Dec) periods, when sea surface temperatures (SSTs) exceed 27 °C, moist convection intensifies, and the Coriolis effect induces rotation.
Formation Process: Warm moist air rises forming low pressure; latent heat of condensation deepens the system; upper-level outflow and low vertical wind shear sustain vertical growth, producing a warm eye with spiral rainbands.
Historical Pattern: The Arabian Sea was once less cyclone-prone than the Bay of Bengal due to cooler waters, dry winds, and high wind shear. Limited basin size and monsoon winds restricted cyclone growth.
Recent Change: Ocean warming and climate change have sharply increased cyclonic activity, making the region far more active in the last decade.
Rapid Intensification Trend: Short-term surges in wind speed (< 24 hrs) are now common, linked to warmer SSTs, Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) shifts, and monsoon wind variability.
Oceanic–Climatic Drivers:
Indonesian Throughflow imports warm Pacific waters, raising SSTs.
Southern Ocean inflow brings cooler deep water, stabilising lower layers.
Dual cyclone seasons arise from monsoon wind reversal unique to the region.
Climate Change Impact:
IMD data show a 52 % rise in Arabian Sea cyclones in two decades, while Bay of Bengal activity slightly declined.
The Indian Ocean is among the fastest-warming oceans, increasing heat-moisture availability, altering global weather, and heightening coastal risks to life and infrastructure.
Recent Examples:
Tauktae (2021) – winds > 185 km/h, heavy damage along Gujarat–Konkan.
Biparjoy (2023) – lasted 13 days, fed by SSTs ~31 °C.
Tej (2023) – hit Oman & Yemen, showing cross-basin movement.
India’s only mud volcano at Baratang Island in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands erupted after remaining dormant for over two decades.
Note: The Barren Island has erupted recently.
India’s only active lava volcano, located about 140 km from Port Blair.
Lies at the junction of the Indian and Burmese tectonic plates.
Eruption history: 1787 (first recorded), followed by episodes in 1991, 2005, 2017, November 2022, and September 2025.
About the Baratang Mud Volcano:
Location: Baratang Island, around 100–150 km north of Port Blair, situated in the North and Middle Andaman district.
Uniqueness: It is India’s only collection of mud volcanoes — 11 in total across the archipelago, 8 of which are on Baratang and Middle Andaman.
Eruptions: Significant eruptions were last reported in 2005; the 2025 eruption marks the first major event in 20 years.
Composition & Nature:
Emits cool mud, water, and gases (methane, hydrogen sulfide) rather than lava or fire.
Creates mud cones, bubbling pools, or dried crater-like formations.
Eruptions are low in intensity, involving slow oozing and gas bubbling rather than violent explosions.
Accessibility: A short 160-metre walk from the nearest road; the site lies near the Jarawa Tribal Reserve, where photography is prohibited for ethical and legal reasons.
Geological Formation and Features:
Tectonic Setting: Formed due to subduction of the Indian Plate beneath the Burmese Plate, leading to gas and fluid release from deep layers.
Mechanism:
Decomposition of organic matter underground produces gas pressure that pushes mud upwards.
These gases, along with water and sediments, escape to the surface, creating muddy eruptions and bubbling vents.
Temperature & Composition:
The expelled material is cool, unlike magmatic volcanoes.
Contains saline water, organic sediments, and gases, giving it a distinctive odour and appearance.
Earth Processes: The phenomenon helps scientists study fluid migration, methane emissions, and crustal deformation in active subduction zones.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:
1.The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian territory.
2.Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
3.The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3*
Major Indian private sector corporations expressed formal interest in setting up Small Modular Reactor (SMR)-based nuclear projects as part of the ‘Bharat Small Modular Reactors (BSMR)’ programme.
What is the Bharat Small Modular Reactors (BSMR) Programme?
Overview: India’s flagship nuclear programme, led by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE).
Reactor Models:
BSMR-200 – 200 MWe Pressurized Water Reactor with passive safety.
BSR-220 – PHWR-based small reactor.
SMR-55 – 55 MWe PWR for captive or remote use.
Implementation: NPCIL retains ownership and operational control, while private companies fund and use generated power for captive needs. About 16 potential sites identified across Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh.
Policy & Financing: ₹20,000 crore allocated under the Nuclear Energy Mission for Viksit Bharat (2025-26) to operationalise five SMRs by 2033.
Private sector interest: Includes Reliance Industries, Tata Power, Adani Power, JSW Energy, Hindalco, and Jindal Steel & Power.
Reforms & Impact: Amendments to the Atomic Energy Act (1962) and Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (2010) are proposed to facilitate investment and technology sharing.
About Small Modular Reactors (SMRs):
Concept: SMRs are advanced nuclear reactors generating up to 300 Megawatt electric (MWe) each — about one-third the size of conventional reactors. They are “modular”, meaning major components are factory-fabricated, transported, and assembled on-site, cutting cost and construction time.
Working Principle: Operate on nuclear fission (splitting Uranium-235 atoms) to produce heat that converts water into steam for turbines. Most use the Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) design with passive safety systems that cool the reactor without human intervention.
Distinct Features:
Compact and Scalable – suitable for remote or repurposed sites.
Factory-built – ensures quality and quicker rollout.
[UPSC 2012] To meet its rapidly growing energy demand, some opine that India should pursue research and development on thorium as the future fuel of nuclear energy. In this context, what advantage does thorium hold over uranium?
1. Thorium is far more abundant in nature than uranium. 2. On the basis of per unit mass of mined mineral, thorium can generate more energy compared to natural uranium. 3. Thorium produces less harmful waste compared to uranium.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 *
Arunachal Pradesh has launched its first commercial coal mine at the Namchik-Namphuk coal block in Changlang district.
About the Namchik–Namphuk Coal Mine:
Overview: Located in Changlang district, Arunachal Pradesh, is the state’s first commercial coal mine, situated near the Indo-Myanmar border.
Reserves & Quality: Holds ~15 million tonnes of lignite/sub-bituminous coal, primarily for thermal power and industrial use.
Operator & Allocation: Operated by Coal Pulz Private Limited (CPPL), allotted through a transparent auction in 2022, project first allocated in 2003 but stalled due to environmental and administrative delays.
Production & Revenue: Initial capacity of 0.2 million tonnes per annum, expected to generate ₹100 crore annually for the state government.
National Context: Marks Arunachal Pradesh’s entry into India’s coal-producing map as the country crosses 1 billion tonnes output (FY 2024-25).
Policy Alignment: Supports the EAST Vision (Empower, Act, Strengthen, Transform) for North-Eastern development.
Significance:
Legal Mining: Ends decades of illegal mining through regulated, community-driven extraction.
Sustainable Development: Part of Mission Green Coal Regions, targeting 73,000 ha of land reclamation by 2030, embedding ecological restoration into mining.
[UPSC 2008] In which one of the following states are Namchik-Namphuk Coalfields located?
Funding & Oversight: Through NATO Security Investment Programme (NSIP); managed by NATO Support & Procurement Agency (NSPA) under the NATO Petroleum Committee.
Member Countries: Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Netherlands, UK, Italy, Greece, Portugal, Turkey, Norway and Denmark; Poland will become the 13th member after integration.
Main System: Central Europe Pipeline System (CEPS) – 5,300 km, est. 1958; moves ≈ 12 million m³ fuel/yr.
Other Networks: North European, Turkish, Greek, Portuguese, Italian, Norwegian & Danish systems.
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following countries:
I. Austria II. Bulgaria III. Croatia IV. Serbia V. Sweden VI. North Macedonia.
How many of the above are members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization?
(a) Only three (b) Only four* (c) Only five (d) All the six
Union Defence Minister recently warned Pakistan against misadventure in the Sir Creek region, stressing India’s resolve to defend its territorial integrity.
About Sir Creek:
Location & Geography: Sir Creek is a 96-km-long tidal estuary in the Rann of Kutch, forming part of the border between Gujarat (India) and Sindh (Pakistan).
Physical Features: It flows into the Arabian Sea, with marshy, saline mudflats that provide vital habitat for migratory birds.
Historical Name: Originally known as Ban Ganga, renamed Sir Creek after a British surveyor, Sir Richard Burton (commonly credited).
Economic & Strategic Importance: The area hosts rich fishing grounds and potential oil and gas deposits, while being crucial for maritime boundary delimitation and coastal security.
Historical Background of the Dispute:
1908 Conflict: Disagreement between the Kutch ruler (British India) and Sindh government over fishing rights and territorial limits.
1914 Bombay Government Resolution: Placed the boundary along the eastern bank (favouring Sindh/Pakistan), but also referred to the Thalweg Principle, supporting India’s claim.
This principle defines the border along the line of greatest depth of a river’s main navigable channel
1924–25 Developments: Boundary pillars were erected and Survey of India maps marked the mid-channel as the boundary, strengthening India’s case.
Post-Partition Period: Dispute intensified; following the 1965 India–Pakistan war, the Rann of Kutch issue went to a UN-sponsored Tribunal.
1968 Tribunal Award: Allocated 90% of the Rann to India but excluded Sir Creek, leaving it unresolved.
Post-1982 UNCLOS Impact: With the introduction of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), control over Sir Creek gained renewed importance for maritime claims and resource access.
India’s Position:
Navigability Claim: India asserts that Sir Creek is navigable at high tide, making the Thalweg Principle applicable.
Legal & Historical Basis:
1925 Resolution and Survey of India maps.
Boundary pillars of 1924 marking mid-channel.
1819 Treaty between East India Company and Kutch rulers, showing continued Indian jurisdiction.
Geographical Argument: India maintains the Rann is land, not water, invalidating Pakistan’s demand for median-line division.
Strategic Implication: Acceptance of India’s position ensures larger EEZ access, security leverage, and greater control in the Arabian Sea.
[UPSC 2022] Consider the following countries:
1. Azerbaijan 2. Kyrgyzstan 3. Tajikistan 4. Turkmenistan 5. Uzbekistan
Which of the above have borders with Afghanistan ?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 5 only (b) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 3, 4 and 5 only* (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
