Why in the News?
A recent report by the Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) revealed that over half of registered unrecognised political parties (RUPPs) linked to Bihar have failed to comply with mandatory financial disclosure norms for FY 2023–24.
Key Findings of ADR Report:
- Non-Compliance: Over 59% of registered unrecognised political parties (RUPPs) linked to Bihar failed to file either their audit reports or donation statements for FY 2023–24, violating Election Commission of India (ECI) norms.
- Scope: Of 275 RUPPs reviewed, 184 were from Bihar and 91 from other states. Only 67 parties (24.36%) disclosed both audit and contribution reports.
|
Political Funding in India:
- Overview: Political funding refers to financial resources raised by political parties or candidates to sustain organisational operations and election campaigns.
- Purpose: Ensures participation in democratic processes, electoral competitiveness, and mass outreach.
- Sources of Funding:
- Individuals: Citizens contribute voluntarily; deductions under Section 80GGB (Income Tax Act).
- Corporates: Donations governed by Section 182 (Companies Act, 2013).
- State Support: Indirect subsidies (media access, tax exemption) allowed; direct funding prohibited.
- Electoral Trusts (2013): Channel corporate contributions transparently.
- Electoral Bonds (2018): Introduced donor anonymity; struck down by Supreme Court (2024) for violating transparency and citizens’ right to information.
Legal Framework for Political Funding:
- Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RPA): Governs election conduct, contributions, and maintenance of accounts.
- Income Tax Act, 1961:
- Section 13A: Exempts tax only for parties maintaining audited accounts and disclosing donations.
- Section 80GGB/GGC: Offers tax benefits to individual and corporate donors.
- Companies Act, 2013:
- Section 182: Limits corporate donations to 7.5% of average net profits of the last three years.
- Mandates annual disclosure of political contributions.
- Election Commission Guidelines: Mandate submission of audited accounts and contribution reports above ₹20,000.
Mechanisms Governing Political Funding Disclosure:
- Disclosure Requirements:
- Under Section 29C (RPA, 1951): Political parties must disclose donations above ₹20,000 to the ECI annually.
- Under Sections 77–78 (RPA, 1951): Candidates must submit true election expenditure accounts within 90 days (Lok Sabha) or 75 days (Assembly).
- Violations invite disqualification up to three years (Section 10A).
- Transparency Gaps:
- Over 60% of party income from “unknown sources”, mainly due to inadequate enforcement and loopholes.
- Frequent delays, incomplete disclosures, and absence of independent audits persist.
- Judicial Oversight:
- Supreme Court judgments (e.g., PUCL v. Union, 2003) and 2024 ruling on Electoral Bonds strengthened citizens’ right to know funding sources.
- Reform Recommendations:
- Bring political parties under the Right to Information (RTI) Act.
- Lower disclosure threshold from ₹20,000 to ₹2,000.
- Establish National Election Fund for equitable, state-audited funding.
- Ensure real-time digital reporting and independent third-party audits.
| [UPSC 2021] Which one of the following effects of the creation of black money in India has been the main cause of worry to the Government of India?
Options: (a) Diversion of resources to the purchase of real estate and investment in luxury housing
(b) Investment in unproductive activities and purchase of precious stones, jewelry, gold, etc.
(c) Large donations to political parties and the growth of regionalism
(d) Loss of revenue to the State Exchequer due to tax evasion* |
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Why in the News?
In 2025, Bangladesh became the first South Asian nation to join the UN Water Convention (Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes).
About UN Water Convention:
- Overview: Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, adopted in Helsinki (1992) and enforced in 1996 under the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).
- Globalisation: Originally regional (Europe, Central Asia); opened to all UN Member States in 2016 after a 2013 amendment, becoming a global treaty for transboundary water governance.
- Objective: Promotes sustainable management of shared water resources and conflict prevention through cooperative mechanisms.
- Key Goals: Implements SDG-6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG-16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions) via equitable water sharing and joint management.
- Obligations for Parties:
- Prevent and reduce transboundary pollution and unsustainable extraction.
- Use shared waters equitably and reasonably.
- Coordinate national and transboundary water management policies.
- Establish joint bodies or commissions for shared basins.
- Institutional Mechanism: Managed by the UNECE Secretariat, which organises meetings, facilitates implementation, and promotes basin-level cooperation among signatories.
- Legal Character: Functions as a framework convention, complementing rather than replacing bilateral treaties (e.g., Indus Waters Treaty, Ganga Treaty).
- Significance: Serves as a legal and institutional mechanism for Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM), regional peacebuilding, and climate-resilient governance.
- Related Instruments: Inspired the UN Watercourses Convention (1997); both operate in complementary scopes within international water law.
Why did Bangladesh join (2025):
- First in South Asia: Became the first South Asian nation to ratify the Convention amid escalating water stress and climate vulnerability.
- Hydrological Dependence: Over 90% of river inflows come from outside Bangladesh, mainly India and China, making Dhaka highly vulnerable to upstream interventions.
- Upstream Projects: Concerns over China’s Motuo Hydropower Project (Yarlung Tsangpo/Brahmaputra) and India’s unresolved Teesta water-sharing dispute drove the decision.
- Environmental Risks: 60% of population exposed to floods; half live in drought-prone areas, heightening need for cooperative governance.
- Legal Context: Bangladesh’s 2019 High Court ruling granting rivers legal personhood reinforced its institutional focus on water rights.
- Strategic Motivation: Seeks global legal recourse, access to data-sharing mechanisms, and international funding for climate adaptation and water security.
Implications for India:
- Shift from Bilateralism: India prefers bilateral river treaties (e.g., Indus, Ganga). Bangladesh’s multilateral engagement introduces scope for third-party mediation, contrary to India’s stance.
- Ganga Treaty Renewal (2026): Bangladesh may invoke “equitable utilisation” to seek a higher share of Ganga waters under Convention norms.
- Teesta River Pressure: The stalled Teesta agreement could face renewed international pressure, citing fairness and sustainability principles.
- Regional Domino Effect: Likely to motivate Nepal and Bhutan to join, potentially transforming South Asia’s hydro-diplomatic architecture.
- Strategic Concerns: Bangladesh’s simultaneous trilateral cooperation with China and Pakistan raises apprehensions of a Beijing-influenced hydro-bloc.
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court has ordered all States and Union Territories to remove stray dogs from public areas and relocate them to shelters after sterilisation and vaccination under the Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023.
About Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program:
- Purpose: Humane, scientifically proven method to control stray dog populations and reduce rabies.
- Legal Basis: First under Animal Birth Control (Dogs) Rules, 2001 (under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960); updated as Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023.
- Development: Created with support from the World Health Organization (WHO).
- Core Method: “Catch–sterilise–vaccinate–release” model; prohibits relocation or culling.
- Implementation: Managed by municipalities, municipal corporations, and panchayats.
- Authorisation: Only organisations recognised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) can conduct programs.
- Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023:
- Implemented to comply with Supreme Court guidelines in Writ Petition No. 691 of 2009.
- Assigns responsibility to local bodies (municipalities, corporations, panchayats) to conduct ABC programs for sterilisation and immunisation of stray dogs.
- Prohibits relocation of stray dogs as a means of population control; instead, they must be sterilised and returned to the same area.
- Only organisations recognised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) can conduct ABC programs.
Key Features:
- Sterilisation Target: Minimum 70% of stray dogs in an area within one reproductive cycle (~6 months).
- Focus: Female sterilisation at a 70:30 female-to-male ratio.
- Rabies Control: Mandatory rabies vaccination (ABC–ARV) for every sterilised dog.
- Infrastructure: Kennels, veterinary facilities, vehicles, and hygienic shelters required.
- Recordkeeping: Detailed records for catching, surgery, vaccination, and release.
- Monitoring: State and local committees ensure compliance and handle complaints.
- Legal Protection: Mass relocation or killing prohibited under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PCA) Act, 1960.
| [UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:
1. Every individual in the population is equally susceptible host for Swine Flu.
2. Antibiotics have no role in the primary treatment of Swine Flu
3.To prevent the future spread of Swine Flu in the epidemic area, the swine (pigs) must all be culled.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Comptroller and Auditor General of India approved two new Indian Audit and Accounts Department (IA&AD) cadres, the Central Revenue Audit and Central Expenditure Audit, effective from 1 January 2026.
About the New Cadres:
- Objective: Designed to build deeper professional expertise in auditing Central receipts and expenditures, streamline manpower management, and reduce dependence on regional deployments.
-
- Central Revenue Audit (CRA): Focuses on auditing Central Government revenues, including direct taxes, indirect taxes, customs, excise, and non-tax receipts. It ensures compliance, accuracy, and transparency in revenue administration.
- Central Expenditure Audit (CEA): Concentrates on auditing Central Government expenditures, assessing legality, efficiency, and prudence in public spending across ministries and departments.
- Impact: The reform consolidates around 4,000 audit professionals (out of a total CAG strength of ~42,000), improving manpower flexibility, domain expertise, and data-driven audit capabilities.
- Significance: Marks a major shift toward centralised auditing, ensuring a uniform approach to the examination of national finances and reinforcing accountability in public administration.
About the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India:
- Overview: Established under Article 148, the CAG heads the Indian Audit and Accounts Department (IA&AD) and acts as guardian of public finance.
- Legal Framework: Functions under the CAG (Duties, Powers and Conditions of Service) Act, 1971, amended in 1976, 1984, and 1987.
- Appointment & Tenure:
- Appointed by the President under warrant and seal.
- Tenure – Six years or until age 65, whichever earlier.
- Removal – Same as a Supreme Court judge, requiring special majority in Parliament.
- Independence Safeguards:
- Salary and expenses charged on the Consolidated Fund of India.
- No reappointment to government posts after retirement.
- No minister can defend the CAG in Parliament.
- Duties & Powers:
- Audits Consolidated Funds of the Union, States, and UTs.
- Examines PSUs, autonomous bodies, and grant-in-aid institutions.
- Submits reports to the President, later examined by the Public Accounts Committee (PAC).
- Role & Importance: Serves as the watchdog of public finance, conducting regulatory and propriety audits to ensure legality and efficiency in expenditure.
- International Role: Currently the External Auditor for IAEA (2022–2027) and FAO (2020–2025), enhancing India’s global audit leadership.
| [UPSC 2012] In India, other than ensuring that public funds are used efficiently and for intended purpose, what is the importance of the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)?
1. CAG exercises exchequer control on behalf of the Parliament when the President of India declares national emergency/financial emergency
2. CAG reports on the execution of projects or programmes by the ministries are discussed by the Public Accounts Committee.
3. Information from CAG reports can be used by investigating agencies to press charges against those who have violated the law while managing public finances.
4. While dealing with the audit and accounting of government companies, CAG has certain judicial powers for prosecuting those who violate the law.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
An inquiry has been ordered into a Pune land deal over alleged irregularities and undervaluation of 40 acres of a Watandari land.
What is the Watan / Watandari System?
- Overview: A hereditary land tenure and revenue-rights system once prevalent in Maharashtra and the Deccan, granting Watan lands to individuals or families for performing state or village services.
- Historical Origin: Evolved under the Rashtrakutas, Deccan Sultanates, and Mughals to institutionalise local governance through hereditary offices.
- Purpose: Created to compensate local officials and functionaries (like village heads, accountants, or priests) through land revenue rights rather than direct salaries.
- Administrative Role: Integrated local elite families into the state’s fiscal system, ensuring continuity of governance and tax collection.
- Socio-Economic Character: Reflected the fusion of land, caste, and service, forming a semi-feudal agrarian order at the village level.
Key Features of the Watan System:
- Hereditary Tenure: Watan rights and duties passed from one generation to another, often within the same lineage.
- Service-Based Grant: Land given as compensation for hereditary duties– administrative, military, or religious, performed for the state.
- Watandars: Holders included Patils, Kulkarnis, Deshmukhs, Josis, and Purohits, each tied to specific village roles.
- Non-Transferability: Watan lands were non-saleable and non-alienable, as tenure depended on continued public service.
- Revenue Rights: Watandars retained a share of village revenue in lieu of fixed payment, ensuring local autonomy.
- Caste-Linked Hierarchy: Reinforced hereditary privilege and caste dominance within village administration.
- Decline and Inefficiency: Over time, hereditary claims caused disputes, mismanagement, and reduced accountability.
[UPSC 2024] With reference to revenue collection by Cornwallis, consider the following statements:
1. Under the Ryotwari Settlement of revenue collection, the peasants were exempted from revenue payment in case of bad harvests or natural calamities.
2. Under the Permanent Settlement in Bengal, if the Zamindar failed to pay his revenues to the state on or before the fixed date, he would be removed from his Zamindari.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
A new study published in Nature Ecology & Evolution highlights how species mobility, measured as biomass movement, shapes ecosystems and reflects human ecological dominance.
About the Concept of Biomass Movement:
- Overview: Biomass movement is the product of a species’ total biomass and the distance it travels annually, representing the mass of living matter displaced across ecosystems each year.
- Biomass movement = (Total biomass of a species) × (Distance it travels annually).
- Purpose: Quantifies how living organisms contribute to nutrient transport, seed dispersal, and energy flow through movement.
- Comparative Metric: Enables cross-species comparison of ecological influence via mobility, bridging animal ecology and global biogeography.
- Analytical Value: Provides a standardised ecological indicator to study both natural migrations and human-induced mobility patterns.
- Anthropocene Context: Serves as a unified measure of ecological and energetic impact in a human-dominated epoch.
- Scientific Basis: Concept explored in Nature Ecology & Evolution (2025) to assess species-level and anthropogenic movement on a global scale.
Key Highlights with Example:
- Arctic Tern: Weighing ~100 g, travels ~90,000 km annually (Arctic–Antarctica circuit), the longest animal migration known.
- Collective Biomass Movement: Two million terns contribute only 0.016 gt/km/yr, due to low body mass despite vast distances.
- Grey Wolf: Records 0.03 gt/km/yr, higher due to larger body size and wider terrestrial range.
- Serengeti Migration: Over a million wildebeests, gazelles, and zebras generate biomass movement 20× greater than wolves.
- Human Parallel: The total biomass moved in the FIFA World Cup equals that of major animal migrations, highlighting scale disparity between species.
Human Biomass Movement and Its Consequences:
- Magnitude: Humans move an estimated ~4,000 gt/km/yr, the largest on Earth, 40× greater than all wild land mammals combined.
- Mobility Patterns: Average human travels 30 km/day, mostly motorised, 65% by cars/motorcycles, 10% by air, 5% by rail.
- Economic Disparity: Two-thirds of total human mobility occurs in high- and upper-middle-income countries, reflecting global inequality.
- Ecological Effects: Drives carbon emissions, urban sprawl, resource depletion, and land fragmentation.
- Marine Decline: Marine animal mobility has halved since 1850 due to industrial fishing and whaling.
- Livestock Factor: Domesticated cattle show biomass movement comparable to humans, indicating the ecological weight of livestock farming.
- Wildlife Contrast: Combined biomass movement of all wild land mammals (excluding bats) is only 30 gt/km/yr, underscoring human dominance.
- Anthropocene Insight: Demonstrates that human and domesticated animal mobility now defines Earth’s biogeochemical and ecological motion.
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Why in the News?
Zohran Mamdani of Indian-origin has been elected as the mayor of New York City.
Mayor in India:
- Overview: The Mayor serves as the head of a Municipal Corporation, responsible for urban governance, civic infrastructure, and local service delivery in large cities.
- Basis: Institutionalised under the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, which gave constitutional status to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and transferred 18 functional subjects to them.
- Administrative Framework: Municipal corporations function under state municipal laws, operating under the supervision of state urban development departments.
- Historical Context: The first municipal corporation was created in Madras (1688), followed by Bombay and Calcutta (1762) under British rule.
- Evolution of the office: The idea of an elected municipal President was first introduced through Lord Mayo’s Resolution (1870). The present form of local self-government was shaped by Lord Ripon’s Resolution (1882), earning him the title “Father of Local Self-Government in India.”
- Election and Tenure:
- Direct Election: Citizens directly elect the Mayor in cities like Bhopal, Indore, and Jaipur.
- Indirect Election: Elected councillors choose the Mayor in cities like Mumbai, Delhi, and Bengaluru.
- Tenure: Varies from 1 to 5 years, depending on state-specific legislation.
- Powers and Functions:
-
- Ceremonial Role: Acts as the first citizen of the city, representing it in official and public functions.
- Presiding Officer: Chairs meetings of the Municipal Corporation and ensures smooth deliberations.
- Limited Executive Power: Administrative authority lies with the Municipal Commissioner (IAS officer) appointed by the state government.
- Policy and Representation: Serves as a political leader and civic advocate, voicing urban development concerns.
How a Mayor in India differ from a Mayor in the U.S.?
|
India |
U.S. |
| System Type |
Parliamentary model under state supervision |
Executive or presidential city model |
| Election |
Usually indirectly elected by councillors |
Directly elected by citizens |
| Tenure |
1–5 years, varies by state |
Fixed 4-year term, renewable once |
| Administrative Power |
Ceremonial, executive power with Commissioner |
Full executive control over departments and budget |
| Financial Authority |
Dependent on state approval |
Autonomous budgetary power (e.g., NYC manages $120+ bn) |
| Legislative Role |
Chairs council meetings |
Can veto bills and issue executive orders |
| Autonomy |
Subordinate to state |
Semi-autonomous, independent within city jurisdiction |
| Nature of Office |
Symbolic and representational |
Powerful executive, city-level head of government |
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
1. Powers of the Municipalities are given in Part IX A of the Constitution.
2. Emergency provisions are given in Part XVIII of the Constitution.
3. Provisions related to the amendment of the Constitution are given in Part XX of the Constitution.
Select the answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
The Indian Navy has commissioned INS Ikshak, the third Survey Vessel (Large) (SVL) and the first to be based at the Southern Naval Command, at Naval Base Kochi.
About INS Ikshak:
- Overview: It is the third vessel of the Survey Vessel (Large) [SVL] class and the first to be based at the Southern Naval Command.
- Series Lineage: Third ship in the SVL series, following INS Sandhayak and INS Nirdeshak, replacing older Sandhayak-class vessels.
- Builder & Origin: Constructed by Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE) Ltd., Kolkata, under Aatmanirbhar Bharat, with over 80% indigenous content sourced from Indian MSMEs.
- Name Meaning: Means ‘Guide’ in Sanskrit – symbolising its role in charting unexplored waters and strengthening maritime safety in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
- Mission Role: Designed primarily for hydrographic surveys but also configured for Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) operations and can serve as a hospital ship during crises.
Key Features:
- Dimensions & Displacement: 110 m long, 16 m wide, 3,400-ton displacement, with crew capacity of ~231 personnel.
- Propulsion & Speed: Powered by twin main engines and twin-shaft configuration; achieves 14 knots cruising speed, 18 knots maximum.
- Survey Systems: Equipped with multi-beam echo sounder, Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV), Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV), four Survey Motor Boats (SMBs), and advanced oceanographic sensors for coastal and deep-water mapping.
- Aviation Facility: Features a helicopter deck, extending its range, reconnaissance, and operational versatility.
- Dual Role Capability: Convertible for HADR and medical missions, enhancing naval disaster-response capability.
- Gender-Inclusive Design: India’s first survey vessel with dedicated accommodation for women officers and sailors.
[UPSC 2016] Which one of the following is the best description of ‘INS Astradharini’, that was in the news recently?
Options: (a) Amphibious warfare ship
(b) Nuclear-powered submarine
(c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel *
(d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier |
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Why in the News?
Researchers have detected the clearest gravitational wave signal, GW250114, from merging black holes, confirming Stephen Hawking’s 1971 Black Hole Area Theorem.
About GW250114:
- Overview: GW250114 is the clearest gravitational wave signal ever detected, observed on January 14, 2025, by LIGO (US), Virgo (Italy), and KAGRA (Japan).
- What Happened: It came from the collision of two black holes, each about 30 times the Sun’s mass, located 1.3 billion light-years away.
- Importance: Published in Physical Review Letters (Sept 2025), it gave the strongest proof of Stephen Hawking’s Black Hole Area Theorem (1971) and confirmed Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity.
Back2Bascis: Black Holes
- Overview: A black hole is a region in space where gravity is so strong that even light cannot escape.
- Formation: Created when a massive star collapses after using up its fuel.
- Types:
- Stellar Black Holes – formed from dead stars.
- Supermassive Black Holes – at the centre of galaxies.
- Intermediate or Primordial – smaller or early-universe types.
- Properties: Defined by mass, spin, and charge; grow by absorbing matter or merging with other black holes.
What is a Black Hole Merger?
- Process: Two black holes orbit each other, come closer, and finally collide to form a bigger black hole.
- Phases:
- Inspiral – they lose energy and move inward.
- Merger – they collide, sending out gravitational waves.
- Ringdown – the new black hole settles down.
- Observation: These mergers create powerful ripples in spacetime called gravitational waves, first detected by LIGO in 2015.
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What is the Hawking’s Black Hole Area Theorem (1971)?
- Idea: The total surface area of black holes never decreases — it can only stay the same or increase.
- Analogy: Similar to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, where disorder (entropy) always increases.
- Meaning: When two black holes merge, the new black hole’s surface area is greater than or equal to the combined areas of the originals.
- Proof: The GW250114 event (2025) confirmed this by showing that the total area increased, just as Hawking predicted.
| [UPSC 2019] Recently, scientists observed the merger of giant ‘blackholes’ billions of light-years away from the Earth. What is the significance of this observation?
Options: (a) Higgs boson particles’ were detected.
(b) Gravitational waves’ were detected. *
(c) Possibility of inter-galactic space travel through ‘wormhole’ was confirmed.
(d) It enabled the scientists to understand ‘singularity’. |
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Why in the News?
A government panel comprising officials from the Commerce and Industry Ministry, NITI Aayog, and exporters is drafting new Special Economic Zone (SEZ) norms to revive manufacturing and support exporters hit by steep U.S. tariffs in 2025.
Back2Basics: Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in India
- Overview: Duty-free enclaves treated as foreign territory for trade, designed to boost exports, investment, and employment.
- Legal Framework: Governed by the SEZ Act, 2005 and SEZ Rules, 2006 with single-window clearances and liberal FDI norms.
- Policy Evolution: Introduced in 2000, replacing Export Processing Zones (EPZs) to strengthen export-led industrialization.
- Objectives: Promote export growth, foreign and domestic investment, and infrastructure creation.
- Incentives: Include duty-free imports, tax holidays, zero-rated GST, and ECB up to $500 million annually.
- Scale: As of 2025, India has 276 operational SEZs– notably GIFT City (Gujarat), SEEPZ (Mumbai), and Noida SEZ.
- Reform Outlook: The Development of Enterprise and Service Hubs (DESH) Bill 2022 aims to evolve SEZs into flexible, multi-use economic hubs linking domestic and global value chains.
|
Need for SEZ Norms Revision:
- U.S. Tariff Impact: Recent U.S. tariff hikes on gems, jewellery, and textiles have reduced price competitiveness of India’s SEZ-based exporters, leading to production losses.
- Export Decline: SEZ exports dropped to $172 billion (FY25), with domestic sales stagnating at 2%, exposing overdependence on foreign markets.
- Idle Capacity & Job Losses: Fluctuating export demand left labour and machinery underutilised; reforms aim to let SEZs meet domestic orders during downturns.
- Global Benchmarking: Indian SEZs lag China and Vietnam in scale, policy stability, and productivity, prompting structural reform for competitiveness.
- Revenue Balance: The government seeks industry relief while safeguarding tax revenues, given SEZs’ extensive tax exemptions.
Proposed SEZ Reforms under Review:
- Reverse Job Work Permission: SEZs may be allowed to accept domestic processing contracts to use idle capacity during off-peak seasons.
- DTA Sales Flexibility: Partial permission for direct domestic sales, with duty adjustments to protect local manufacturers.
- Simplified De-notification Rules: Faster conversion of non-performing SEZs into industrial parks or enterprise hubs.
- Sectoral Support: Gems and jewellery exporters seek moratoriums, longer export obligations, and interest relief.
- Integration with DESH Bill (2022): Adoption of hybrid zone model for both exports and domestic production under the Development of Enterprise and Service Hubs framework.
[UPSC 2010] The SEZ Act, 2005 which came into effect in February 2006 has certain objectives. In this context, consider the following:
1. Development of infrastructure facilities. 2. Promotion of investment from foreign sources. 3. Promotion of exports of services only.
Which of the above are the objectives of this Act?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3
[UPSC 2016] Recently, India’s first ‘National Investment and Manufacturing Zone’ was proposed to be set up in-
Options: (a) Andhra Pradesh* (b) Gujarat (c) Maharashtra (d) Uttar Pradesh |
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Why in the News?
Gogabeel Lake, located in Katihar district, Bihar, has been officially designated as India’s 94th Ramsar Site and sixth from Bihar.
About Gogabeel Lake:
- Overview: An oxbow lake situated in Katihar district, Bihar, within the Trans-Gangetic Plains, formed between the Ganga and Mahananda rivers.
- Hydrological Nature: Connects to both rivers during monsoon floods, functioning as a dynamic floodplain wetland.
- Legal Status: Declared Bihar’s first community reserve, co-managed by local communities and forest authorities.
- Ecological Significance: Serves as a key habitat for migratory birds and a breeding site for vulnerable species such as the Lesser Adjutant Stork, Black-necked Stork, and Smooth-coated Otter.
- Biodiversity: Hosts 90+ bird species (including 30 migratory), wetland flora, and fish species like Helicopter Catfish (Wallago attu).
- Ecosystem Services: Provides flood mitigation, groundwater recharge, carbon storage, and climate regulation, contributing to the Gangetic ecosystem’s stability.
- Cultural Linkages: Integral to local festivals like Sirva, Adra, and Chhath, symbolising people–nature harmony in rural Bihar.
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Why in the News?
A recent theoretical study (accepted in Nuclear Physics B, August 2025) introduces the idea of “black hole morsels”, tiny, asteroid-mass micro-black holes possibly formed during black hole mergers.
What are Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs)?
- Overview: They are extremely energetic cosmic explosions that emit intense bursts of gamma radiation, the highest-energy form of electromagnetic waves.
- Discovery: First detected in the late 1960s by U.S. Vela satellites, initially built to monitor nuclear tests.
- Duration-Based Classification:
- Short GRBs: Lasting <2 seconds, typically formed by merging neutron stars or neutron stars–black hole collisions.
- Long GRBs: Lasting 2–1000 seconds, arising from supernova collapses of massive stars (collapsars).
- Energy Output: A single GRB can release as much energy in seconds as the Sun emits over its entire lifetime (~10⁵¹–10⁵⁴ ergs).
- Afterglow: Follows the main burst in X-ray, optical, and radio wavelengths, allowing astronomers to study host galaxies and distances.
|
Hypothesis about Black Hole ‘Morsels’:
- Study Context: Research proposes the existence of “black hole morsels”, tiny remnants formed during black hole mergers.
- Formation Mechanism: During merger, spacetime “pinches off” into ultra-dense pockets, creating micro-black holes or morsels that may later evaporate.
- Emissions: These morsels are predicted to release gamma rays and high-energy particles via Hawking radiation, providing a possible observational signature of quantum gravity.
- Scientific Goal: The hypothesis aims to bridge general relativity and quantum mechanics, offering a natural test case for quantum spacetime dynamics.
What are Black Hole Morsels?
- Overview: Hypothetical micro–black holes formed as fragments during black hole mergers under extreme gravitational stress.
- Origin: Result from pinched-off regions of spacetime during coalescence of two black holes.
- Mass & Size: Much smaller than parent black holes, roughly asteroid-scale mass but with extreme density.
- Temperature & Radiation: Extremely hot, emitting intense Hawking radiation– photons, neutrinos, and high-energy particles.
- Lifetime: Short-lived — ranging from milliseconds to years, depending on initial mass.
- Detectability: Expected to produce isotropic gamma-ray bursts, unlike directional jets of typical GRBs.
- Observation Instruments: Potential detection via HESS (Namibia), HAWC (Mexico), LHAASO (China), and Fermi Space Telescope (USA).
Scientific Significance:
- Quantum Gravity Evidence: Detection would confirm that gravity behaves quantum mechanically at microscopic scales.
- Spacetime Structure: Provides direct insight into the quantum texture of spacetime near black hole singularities.
- Cosmic Accelerator Analogy: Morsels could probe energy scales far beyond the LHC, acting as natural high-energy laboratories.
- Current Status: None observed yet, but existing gamma-ray data are being analysed to set upper mass limits and refine the model.
| [UPSC 2019] Recently, scientists observed the merger of giant ‘Blackholes’ billions of light-years away from the Earth. What is the significance of this observation?
Options: (a) Higgs boson particles were detected.
(b) Gravitational waves were detected.*
(c) Possibility of inter-galactic space travel through ‘wormhole’ was confirmed.
(d) It enabled the scientists to understand ‘singularity’. |
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Why in the News?
The Umngot River, celebrated for its crystal-clear waters and tourist appeal at Dawki and Shnongpdeng, has turned murky and opaque.
About Umngot River:
- Location: Flows through West Jaintia Hills district, Meghalaya, close to the India–Bangladesh border.
- Origin: Arises from the Jaintia Hills, traversing limestone-rich terrain that naturally filters impurities and maintains clarity.
- Distinct Appearance: Known for its crystal-clear waters that create the illusion of boats floating on air, earning it global recognition.
- Length & Course: Flows southward to Dawki town, where it merges with Bangladesh’s Piyain River.
- Ecological Features: Possesses high dissolved oxygen levels, preventing algal growth and supporting diverse aquatic biodiversity.
- Tourism Hub: Popular at Dawki and Shnongpdeng for boating, fishing, camping, and eco-tourism, drawing thousands of visitors annually.
- Infrastructure Landmark: The Dawki Suspension Bridge (1932) is a heritage structure spanning the river and serving as a trade route link.
- Economic Role: Sustains cross-border trade, local fishing, and tourism-driven livelihoods vital to Meghalaya’s rural economy.
- Cultural Boundary: Serves as a natural divider between Ri Pnar (Jaintia Hills) and Hima Khyrim (Khasi Hills).
Cause of Discoloration:
- Primary Cause: Linked to Shillong–Dawki road-widening project upgrading it to a two-lane highway with a 400 m bridge at Dawki.
- Pollution Source: Hill-cutting, excavation, and soil dumping along sites near Umtyngar and Dawki caused heavy sediment runoff.
- Inspection Findings: The Meghalaya State Pollution Control Board (MSPCB) detected uncontained debris and sliding soil entering the river, reducing water transparency.
| [UPSC 2021] Consider the following rivers:
1. Brahmani 2. Nagavali 3. Subarnarekha 4. Vamsadhara
Which of the above rise from the Eastern Ghats?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4* (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
For the first time since its 1962 revival (except during COVID-19), Delhi’s interfaith festival Phool Walon Ki Sair will not be held this year.
About ‘Phool Walon Ki Sair’ Festival:
- Timing: Held annually post-monsoon (September–November), attracting large participation from artisans, locals, and cultural groups.
- Meaning: Literally translates to “Procession of the Florists,” celebrated annually in Mehrauli, Delhi.
- Origin: Began in 1811 under Mughal Emperor Akbar Shah II when Begum Mumtaz Mahal offered floral chadars at both the Yogmaya Temple and the dargah of Khwaja Bakhtiar Kaki.
- Symbolism: Represents Hindu–Muslim unity, interfaith respect, and religious harmony in Delhi’s cultural fabric.
- Historical Timeline:
- Banned by the British (1942) during the freedom movement.
- Revived in 1962 by then Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as a symbol of secular revivalism.
- Celebrations: Include floral processions, decorative pankhas (fans), qawwali, folk dances, and traditional fairs.
Cultural Significance:
- Ganga–Jamuni Tehzeeb: Embodies Delhi’s composite Indo-Islamic culture, celebrating shared heritage and pluralism.
- Interfaith Harmony: Promotes unity, peace, and mutual respect between communities.
- Secular Ethos: Serves as a living symbol of Indian secularism, transcending religious and social boundaries.
| [UPSC 2017] Consider the following pairs:
Traditions: Communities
1. Chaliha Sahib Festival- Sindhis 2. Nanda Raj Jaat Yatra- Gonds 3. Wari-Warkari- Santhals
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) None of the above |
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Why in the News?
In 2025, foreign investors have invested only about ₹69,000 crore ($7.8 billion) nearly half than expected, into Indian government bonds, even though the rules were made simpler and more flexible under the Fully Accessible Route (FAR) to attract more investment.
What is Fully Accessible Route (FAR)?
- Overview: A special investment framework launched by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in March 2020 to attract foreign investment in Indian government securities (G-secs).
- Purpose: Aims to liberalise India’s debt market, enhance foreign participation, and integrate it with global financial systems.
- Eligible Investors: Open to Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs), Non-Resident Indians (NRIs), and Overseas Citizens of India (OCIs) without investment caps.
- Key Feature: Permits unlimited foreign investment in designated government bonds with free buy–sell access and no quantitative ceiling.
- Liquidity & Integration: Designed to improve bond market depth, diversify funding sources, and boost India’s visibility in global debt indices.
- Repatriation Freedom: Allows investors to repatriate capital and profits freely to their home countries.
- Global Milestone: In June 2024, JP Morgan included 29 Indian G-secs under FAR in its Emerging Market Bond Index (EMBI), marking India’s debut in major global bond benchmarks.
Comparison with Other Routes:
- Medium Term Framework (MTF): Allows foreign investment in G-secs but with limits and conditions on exposure and tenure.
- Voluntary Retention Route (VRR): Permits FPIs to invest in G-secs provided they retain investments for a minimum period, ensuring stable long-term inflows.
Complementary Function: FAR, MTF, and VRR operate together, providing flexibility in investment terms and balancing market stability with foreign access. |
Why were higher inflows expected?
- Projected Inflows: Index inclusion in 2024–25 was expected to attract $20–25 billion from global institutional and index-tracking investors.
- Attractiveness Factors: India’s 7% stable yields, macroeconomic strength, and favourable risk–return ratio made it a promising destination for long-term capital.
- Actual Outcome: Only $10.7 billion flowed in during 2024-25: well below expectations.
- Key Reasons:
- Global monetary uncertainty: investors awaited clarity on the US Federal Reserve’s rate policy.
- Domestic caution: RBI removed 14- and 30-year bonds from FAR in 2024 to reduce volatility.
- Geopolitical tensions and FPI withdrawals from equities reduced investor appetite.
- Significance: Despite lower inflows, FAR remains a structural reform strengthening India’s position as a globally accessible and competitive bond market.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
1. In India, Non-Banking Financial Companies can access the Liquidity Adjustment Facility window of the Reserve Bank of India.
2. In India, Foreign Institutional Investors can hold the Government Securities (G-Secs).
3. In India, Stock Exchanges can offer separate trading platforms for debts.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 3 only* |
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Why in the News?
Researchers from Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, reported alarming levels of heavy metal pollution in the Cauvery River and its fish species, warning against excessive consumption.
Key Findings of the Study:
- Scope & Period: Conducted August 2023–February 2024, covering 18 sediment and 10 fish-sampling sites, analysing chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn).
- Contamination Levels: Several rivers stretches showed cadmium and lead concentrations exceeding international safety limits in both sediments and fish tissues.
- Pollution Hotspots: The Erode stretch emerged as the most polluted, influenced by textile dyeing, electroplating, tannery effluents, urban sewage, and agricultural runoff.
- Bioaccumulation Pattern: Metal concentration followed the trend, liver > gills > muscle, reflecting tissue-specific accumulation in aquatic species.
- Toxic Metal Dominance: Cadmium and lead were identified as the most toxic, persistent, and bioaccumulative, posing long-term ecological and health hazards.
Risks Associated:
- Ecological Impact:
- Heavy metals disrupt fish reproduction, growth, and survival, destabilising aquatic food webs.
- Sediment toxicity alters microbial and plankton communities, reducing biodiversity and ecosystem resilience.
- Human Health Risks:
- Consumption of contaminated fish can cause carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects, particularly from cadmium and lead.
- Cadmium affects kidneys and bones, while lead impairs nervous and cognitive functions, especially in children.
- Chronic exposure linked to liver dysfunction, hypertension, and cancer.
- Safe Consumption Limit:
- Researchers recommend ≤2 fish servings/week (250 g each) to minimise health risk.
- Continuous intake leads to cumulative toxicity and higher disease risk.
Back2Basics: Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
What is Bioaccumulation?
- Overview: It is the gradual buildup of toxic substances, such as heavy metals or pesticides, in the tissues of living organisms over time.
- Mechanism: When uptake (from food, water, or sediment) exceeds the rate of excretion, contaminants accumulate within the organism’s body.
- Example: Fish in the Cauvery absorb cadmium and lead from contaminated sediments and water faster than they can eliminate them, leading to higher internal concentrations than in their environment.
What is Biomagnification?
- Overview: It refers to the progressive increase in the concentration of toxins as they move up the food chain.
- Process: Smaller aquatic organisms ingest pollutants → fish eat these organisms → humans consume contaminated fish, resulting in magnified exposure.
- Consequence: Top predators, including humans, end up with the highest toxin concentrations, making biomagnification a significant public health hazard in contaminated ecosystems.
|
| [UPSC 2024] With reference to perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) that are used in making many consumer products, consider the following statements:
1. PFAS are found to be widespread in drinking water, food, and food packaging materials.
2. PFAS are not easily degraded in the environment.
3. Persistent exposure to PFAS can lead to bioaccumulation in animal bodies.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
The National Beekeeping and Honey Mission (2020–21 to 2025–26) is set to conclude this fiscal year.
About National Beekeeping & Honey Mission (NBHM):
- Overview: A Central Sector Scheme (2020) under Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan, promoting scientific beekeeping and driving a “Sweet Revolution” for rural income enhancement.
- Implementing Agency: Executed by the National Bee Board (NBB) under the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare.
- Financial Outlay: ₹500 crore for FY 2020–21 to 2025–26.
- Core Aim: Boost honey production, pollination-based crop productivity, and farmers’ income through structured beekeeping and processing infrastructure.
- Technology & Quality Focus: Promotes traceability, quality assurance, and digital registration via the Madhukranti Portal.
- Implementation Structure:
-
- Mini Mission–I: Enhances honey and hive product production through scientific beekeeping and pollination.
- Mini Mission–II: Focuses on post-harvest management, collection, processing, storage, marketing, and value addition.
- Mini Mission–III: Supports research, innovation, and capacity building for technology-driven solutions.
- Institutional Network: Coordinated by NBB, involving NDDB, NAFED, TRIFED, ICAR, KVIC, SRLM/NRLM, and MSME bodies at national and state levels.
Achievements & Progress:
- Production & Exports: India produced 1.4 lakh MT honey (2024); exported 1.07 lakh MT worth USD 177.55 million (FY 2023–24), rising to 2nd globally from 9th in 2020.
- Infrastructure Development: Established 6 world-class labs, 47 mini labs, 6 diagnostic labs, 8 hiring centres, 26 processing units, 18 branding units, and 10 cold storages.
- Research Hub: National Centre of Excellence in Beekeeping set up at IIT Roorkee for innovation and training.
- Empowerment Initiatives: 167 SHG projects, 97 FPOs, 424 ha demonstrations, and 288 ha bee-friendly plantations sanctioned for livelihood diversification.
- Digital Integration: Madhukranti Portal hosts 14,859 beekeepers, 269 societies, 206 companies, with blockchain-based traceability for export-grade quality.
- Policy Support: Minimum Export Price (MEP) of USD 2,000/MT (till Dec 2024) set to curb dumping of inferior honey and safeguard domestic producers.
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Why in the News?
India will host the International Fleet Review, Exercise MILAN- 2026, and the Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS) Conclave of Chiefs together in Visakhapatnam from February 15–25, 2026.
About Exercise MILAN:
- Overview: Biennial multilateral naval exercise hosted by the Indian Navy to promote interoperability, maritime cooperation, and goodwill among friendly navies.
- Origin: First conducted in 1995 under the Andaman and Nicobar Command with participation from Indonesia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
- Growth: Expanded over the years to include 40–55 participating nations, reflecting India’s growing maritime diplomacy under Act East Policy and SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) initiative.
- Participation: The 2026 edition will see participation from over 50 navies, including the U.S., Russia, Japan, Australia, and ASEAN countries.
- Venue: The 2026 edition will be hosted at Visakhapatnam under the Eastern Naval Command, marking the largest MILAN to date.
- Structure: Conducted in two phases, a Harbour Phase (seminars, workshops, cultural exchanges, planning conferences) and a Sea Phase (joint operational exercises).
- Sea Phase Activities: Includes anti-submarine warfare (ASW), air defence, maritime domain awareness (MDA), search and rescue (SAR), and complex fleet manoeuvres.
- Strategic Significance: Strengthens regional maritime security, demonstrates India’s indigenous naval capabilities, and reinforces its role as a net security provider in the Indo-Pacific.
Back2Basics: Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS)
- Overview: A voluntary, multilateral maritime cooperation initiative launched by the Indian Navy in 2008 to enhance regional maritime security and dialogue among littoral nations of the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
- Membership: Comprises 25 member states and 9 observer countries, spanning Africa, West Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Australia.
- Objective: To promote maritime safety, security, capacity building, information sharing, and cooperation in Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) operations.
- Chairmanship: The chairmanship rotates biennially among member nations; India will assume the chair for 2025–2027.
- Key Areas of Focus:
- Enhancing maritime domain awareness (MDA) and information exchange.
- Combating piracy, illegal fishing, human trafficking, and terrorism at sea.
- Strengthening maritime connectivity and blue economy cooperation.
- Coordinating disaster relief and search-and-rescue operations.
|
| [UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?
1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.
Select the answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4* |
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Why in the News?
Around 500 Indian nationals who escaped the KK Park cybercrime compound in Myawaddy township, southeastern Myanmar, are being rescued by the Government of India.
About KK Park Cyber Scam Hub:
- Location & Setting: Situated in Myawaddy township, Karen State, Myanmar, near the Thailand border; originally built (2019–2021) as a border trade zone, later transformed into a cybercrime and human trafficking hub.
- Control & Operations: Managed by the Border Guard Force (BGF) under Saw Chit Thu, a junta-allied militia leader sanctioned by the U.S. Treasury.
- Nature of Activities: Functions as a “scam city” employing thousands of trafficked workers for online fraud, crypto scams, and romance-investment schemes.
- Human Trafficking: Victims are recruited via fake overseas job offers, then imprisoned, tortured, and forced to commit cybercrimes after passport confiscation.
- Scale: At its peak, housed over 20,000 trafficked workers, generating billions annually through global online fraud networks.
- Structure: Operated like a self-contained enclave with dormitories, shops, and armed security — preventing worker escape.
Global Concern and UN Findings:
- UN Reports: Identified by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime (GI-TOC) as part of a network of cyber-scam compounds spanning Myanmar, Cambodia, and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Laos).
- Economic Scale: The cyber-scam economy earns over USD 10 billion annually, victimising users in 110 countries.
- Myanmar’s 2025 Raid: Seizure of 30 Starlink terminals was seen as a cosmetic crackdown, as ringleaders escaped beforehand.
- UN Appeal: Calls for cross-border enforcement, crypto tracking, and victim rehabilitation, viewing scam hubs as a fusion of trafficking and transnational organised crime.
How does it impact Indians?
- Victimisation: India serves as both a source and target of such scams; hundreds trafficked to Myanmar and Cambodia under fake IT job offers.
- Rescue Operations: Since 2022, over 1,600 Indians repatriated, including 500 from KK Park (2025); IAF rescued 283 stranded in Thailand earlier.
- Cyber Threats: Rising crypto frauds, impersonation scams, and digital extortion targeting Indian citizens.
- Government Response: EAM S. Jaishankar confirmed coordination for repatriation and stronger cyber-diplomacy engagement.
- Policy Imperative: Highlights India’s need for international law enforcement cooperation, cybersecurity awareness, and anti-trafficking vigilance across Southeast Asia.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
Statement-I: There is instability and worsening security situation in the Sahel region.
Statement-II: There have been military takeovers/coups d’état in several countries of the Sahel region in the recent past.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I *
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I
(c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect
(d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct |
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Why in the News?
Environmentalists in Assam have proposed the Rowmari–Donduwa Wetland Complex for designation as a Ramsar Site, citing its exceptional biodiversity and ecological services.
Assam’s Wetland Context:
- Current Scenario: Assam has 3,500+ wetlands (≈1.01 lakh ha), but only Deepor Beel (2002) is a Ramsar Site.
- Conservation Importance: Designating Rowmari–Donduwa would fill a 20-year conservation gap and enhance Assam’s global wetland profile.
- Regional Context: North-East India’s Ramsar Sites- Deepor Beel (Assam), Loktak (Manipur), Rudrasagar (Tripura), Pala (Mizoram).
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About Rowmari–Donduwa Wetland Complex:
- Overview: Situated within the Laokhowa–Burhachapori Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagaon district, Assam, forming part of the Kaziranga–Orang landscape.
- Ecological Role: An interconnected floodplain–marsh system acting as an ecological corridor between Kaziranga and Orang National Parks, supporting wildlife movement and genetic diversity.
- Biodiversity Significance: The 6th Kaziranga Wetland Bird Census (2025) recorded 47,000+ birds of 120 species, exceeding counts from Deepor Beel and Loktak Lake.
- Key Species: Hosts globally threatened birds, Knob-billed Duck, Lesser Adjutant Stork, Black-necked Stork, Ferruginous Pochard, and Common Pochard.
- Ecosystem Services: Provides flood control, groundwater recharge, carbon storage, and supports fisheries and ecotourism-based livelihoods.
- Ramsar Eligibility: Fulfils 8 of 9 Ramsar criteria, qualifying as a Wetland of International Importance.
Back2Basics: Ramsar Convention
- Establishment: Signed on 2 February 1971 in Ramsar, Iran.
- Objective: Provide a framework for conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
- Functions:
- Identify and designate wetlands of international importance.
- Promote effective management of wetlands.
- Foster international cooperation for conservation.
- Members: 173 countries (as of 2025).
- India and Ramsar:
- India joined in 1982.
- First Ramsar site: Chilika Lake, Odisha (1981).
- Current total: 93 sites (Sept 2025), covering 13,60,718 hectares.
- Growth: From 26 sites in 2012 to 93 in 2025 (51 added since 2020).
- State-wise: Tamil Nadu has the highest (20), followed by Uttar Pradesh (10).
- About 10% of India’s total wetland area is under Ramsar listing.
- Montreux Record: List of Ramsar sites under threat of ecological change.
- 48 sites globally (2025).
- 2 Indian sites included: Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur).
- World Wetlands Day: Celebrated on February 2nd every year.
- 2025 Theme: “Protecting Wetlands for Our Common Future”.
Criteria for Declaration (9 Criteria):
A wetland can be declared a Ramsar site if it meets at least one of these:
- Has unique, rare, or representative wetland types.
- Supports vulnerable, endangered, or endemic species.
- Provides critical habitat for waterfowl, especially during migration.
- Contains significant ecological, botanical, zoological, limnological, or hydrological features.
- Supports biodiversity conservation and scientific research.
- Provides ecosystem services like flood control, groundwater recharge, and water purification.
- Has cultural, spiritual, or recreational importance.
- Ensures sustainable livelihoods for local communities.
- Faces threats requiring international cooperation for conservation.
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| [UPSC 2022] Consider the following pairs:
Wetland/Lake Location
1. Hokera Wetland- Punjab
2. Renuka Wetland- Himachal Pradesh
3. Rudrasagar Lake- Tripura
4. Sasthamkotta Lake- Tamil Nadu
How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
Options: (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs* (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs |
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