Why in the News?
Researchers in Assam have discovered a new tree species, Garcinia kusumae, locally called thoikora, adding to the Garcinia genus in a notable botanical find.
About Garcinia kusumae:
- Species Identity: Garcinia kusumae is a newly discovered evergreen tree species that is endemic to Assam, India.
- Genus and Local Name: It belongs to the Garcinia genus, locally called thoikora in Assamese.
- Discovery: It was discovered in 2024 by Jatindra Sarma, during a field survey in Bamunbari, Baksa district.
- Botanical Traits: It is dioecious, grows up to 18 metres, flowers between February and April, and fruits between May and June.
- Distinct Features: It differs from similar species by having up to 15 staminate flowers per fascicle, fewer stamens, and blackish resinous berries.
- Ethnobotanical Uses: Its fruit is used in sherbet, fish curries, and for diabetes and dysentery remedies; the seed aril is eaten raw with condiments.
What is the Garcinia Genus?
- Taxonomy: Garcinia is the largest genus in the Clusiaceae family, comprising trees and shrubs.
- Geographical Spread: It is found in tropical regions of Africa, Southeast Asia, and Australasia, especially in rainforests.
- Notable Characteristics: The genus is known for floral diversity, medicinal value, and culinary applications.
- Presence in India: India hosts 33 species and 7 varieties of Garcinia, with Assam having 12 species and 3 varieties.
- Famous Species: Commonly known species include Garcinia indica (kokum), Garcinia cowa, and Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen).
- Utility and Significance: It is important for ethnobotanical uses, rural livelihoods, and climate-resilient forestry.
- Traditional Practices: Several species are used in traditional food, medicine, and rituals.
| [UPSC 2016] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured fruit pulp.
In which part of India has it been discovered?
Options: (a) Andaman Islands* (b) Anaimalai Forests (c) Maikala Hills (d) Tropical rain forests of northeast |
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Why in the News?
IISc Bengaluru has launched BHARAT (Biomarkers of Healthy Aging, Resilience, Adversity, and Transitions), a pioneering study exploring the biology, lifestyle, and environment behind Aging.
About the BHARAT Project:
- Scientific Launch: It is a nationwide research initiative by the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru.
- Primary Goal: It aims to build India’s first scientific baseline on how Indians age—biologically, environmentally, and socially.
- Project Leadership: The project is led by Professor DK Saini from IISc’s Department of Development Biology and Genetics.
- Addressing Global Gaps: It fills a major research void by offering Indian-specific data, unlike most global ageing studies based on Western populations.
- Redefining Normal: It will challenge international health standards (e.g., for cholesterol, vitamin D) that may misclassify Indian health parameters.
- Biological Age Focus: Instead of using chronological age, the project will study biomarkers of biological ageing for early disease risk detection.
Key Features of the Project:
- India-Centric Baseline: The database will offer reference biomarker cut-offs tailored to Indian genetics, diet, and lifestyle.
- Wide Biomarker Range: It will include genomic, metabolic, and environmental indicators to detect organ ageing and resilience early.
- AI-Driven Analysis: Machine learning tools will be used to find ageing patterns, simulate health interventions, and forecast risks.
- Holistic Ageing Model: The study will include nutrition, pollution, infections, and social factors that influence how Indians age.
- Equity for Global South: It corrects global biases that misdiagnose Indians as deficient by using locally validated health data.
- Healthspan Focus: The emphasis is on quality of life—living healthier for longer—rather than just extending life years.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following countries: 1. Italy 2. Japan 3. Nigeria 4. South Korea 5. South Africa
Which of the above countries are frequently mentioned in the media for their low birth rates, or ageing population or declining population?
Options: (a) 1,2 and 4 * (b) 1,3 and 5 (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 3 and 5 only |
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Why in the News?
Microplastics and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are infiltrating the human body, affecting everything from reproduction to cancer risk, metabolism, and child development.
About Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals:
- What They Are: Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals interfere with the body’s hormone system, affecting growth, reproduction, mood, and metabolism.
- How They Work: They mimic or block natural hormones like estrogen, testosterone, thyroid hormones, and cortisol, leading to disrupted hormonal signals.
- Why They’re Dangerous: Even low-level exposure during pregnancy or puberty can cause lasting harm.
- How We’re Exposed: Through eating contaminated food, inhaling polluted air, or skin contact with certain plastics or cosmetics.
- Where They’re Found: In plastic bottles (Bisphenol A), toys and cosmetics (phthalates like Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate), food wrappers (Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances), and pesticides (dioxins, Polychlorinated Biphenyls).
- Hidden Harm: They act silently, with long-term effects such as fertility loss, hormonal disruption, or cancer.
Impact on Human Health:
- Reproductive Harm: Reduced sperm quality disrupted menstrual cycles, and increased miscarriage risk. Found in semen, placenta, and breast milk.
- Hormonal Disruption: Chemicals like Bisphenol A trigger early puberty, thyroid issues, and hormonal imbalances.
- Cancer Risk: Linked to cancers of the breast, uterus, testicles, and prostate. Several are labeled probable carcinogens by global health agencies.
- Metabolic Effects: Interfere with insulin, promote obesity and type 2 diabetes. PFAS chemicals are linked to liver and heart disease.
- Brain and Behavior: Associated with ADHD, learning issues, and lower IQ in children, especially when exposure happens early in life.
- Across Generations: May cause gene expression changes that affect health in future generations—even without direct exposure.
| [UPSC 2020] Why is there a great concern about the ‘microbeads’ that are released into environment?
Options: (a) They are considered harmful to marine ecosystems * (b) They are considered to cause skin cancer in children (c) They are small enough to be absorbed by crop plants in irrigated fields. (d) They are often found to be used as food adulterants. |
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Why in the News?
Turning 90 on July 6, 2025, the 14th Dalai Lama gave his clearest message yet that the Dalai Lama lineage will continue, challenging China’s stance.
Who is the Dalai Lama?
- Spiritual Head: The Dalai Lama leads the Gelug (Yellow Hat) school, the most influential tradition in Tibetan Buddhism.
- Meaning: The title “Dalai Lama” means “Ocean of Wisdom”, first conferred in the 16th century by Mongol ruler Altan Khan.Role: He is considered the reincarnation of Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion, in human form.
Tenzin Gyatso: the 14th Dalai Lama:
- Early Life: The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, was born in 1935 in Taktser, Tibet, and enthroned in 1940 after recognition in 1939.
- Exile to India: Following China’s occupation of Tibet, he took asylum in India in 1959 and established the Tibetan Government-in-Exile in Dharamsala.
- Political Transition: In 2011, he relinquished political authority, handing it over to an elected leader of the Tibetan Parliament-in-Exile (TPiE) but retained his spiritual role.
- Global Peace Advocate: He received the 1989 Nobel Peace Prize for non-violent advocacy and is a prominent promoter of interfaith harmony and secular ethics.
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Key Notes on Tibetan Buddhism:
- Theology: Tibetan Buddhism blends Mahayana philosophy, Tantric (Vajrayana) rituals, and Bon traditions.
- Major Schools: It includes four schools—Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, and Gelug—with the Gelug school founded by Je Tsongkhapa in the 14th century.
- Reincarnation System: Leaders like the Panchen Lama and Karmapa are part of the Tulku system, believed to be reincarnated teachers.
- Textual Foundation: Core texts include the Kangyur (Buddha’s teachings) and Tengyur (commentaries by scholars).
- Meditation Traditions: Practices like Dzogchen and Mahamudra focus on realizing the true nature of mind.
- Institutional Legacy: Monasteries such as Drepung, Ganden, and Tashi Lhunpo are vital centers for learning and ritual.
- Global Influence: Tibetan Buddhism thrives across the Himalayas and is expanding globally, especially in Western countries.
| [UPSC 2018] With reference to Indian history, who among the following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the world?
Options: (a) Avalokiteshvara (b) Lokesvara (c) Maitreya* (d) Padmapani |
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Why in the News?
With focus shifting to COP30, climate finance is in the spotlight as the Fourth International Financing for Development Conference (FfD4) works to finalise the New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) — a more ambitious target to replace the unmet $100 billion annual pledge.
About New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG):
- Overview: It is a new global climate finance target under negotiation to replace the unmet $100 billion pledge made by developed countries in 2009.
- Basis: It is being framed through the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA).
- Minimum Starting Point: The goal will begin at a minimum of $100 billion per year, with future revisions based on real needs of developing nations.
- Areas to be Covered: NCQG supports mitigation, adaptation, and resilience, with an explicit focus on the needs of developing countries.
How it differs from earlier Pledge?
- From Political to Need-Based: The earlier $100 billion was a political promise, while NCQG is a data-driven, needs-based goal.
- Backed by National Priorities: Funding estimates will use developing countries’ own assessments and climate plans.
- Greater Transparency and Trust: NCQG seeks to rebuild trust by addressing the trust deficit from past failures and improving accountability.
True Scale of Climate Finance Needs:
- Requirement: As per UNFCCC (2021), developing countries may need $6 trillion/year by 2030 to meet their climate goals.
- Global Energy Transition Costs: A low-carbon global transition could need $4–6 trillion annually until 2050.
- Renewable Energy Goals: Tripling renewables by 2030, agreed at COP28, may cost $30 trillion (IRENA).
- India’s Stand: India has proposed an NCQG of $1 trillion/year, with a focus on grants and concessional finance, avoiding debt-heavy solutions.
| [UPSC 2024] Which one of the following launched the ‘Nature Solutions Finance Hub for Asia and the Pacific’?
Options: (a) The Asian Development Bank (ADB) (b) The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) (c) The New Development Bank (NDB) (d) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) |
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Why in the News?
The Tamil Nadu government, with World Bank support, has launched a ₹50 crore restoration project for the sinking Kariyachalli Island.
About Kariyachalli Island:
- Overview: Kariyachalli Island is one of the 21 uninhabited islands in the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park.
- Geographic Location: It lies 4 km south of Sippikulam and 20 km northeast of Thoothukudi, between Rameswaram and Thoothukudi.
- Made of Reef Sediments: The island is a low-lying landform made of reef debris, sand dunes, spits, and sandy plains.
- Biodiversity Hotspot: Located in India’s coral reef zone, it supports 4,300+ marine species, including 132 coral types and the endangered dugong.
- Ecological Importance: It has seagrass beds and coral reefs that provide food and shelter for marine life.
- Natural Coastal Shield: Kariyachalli acts as a barrier against cyclones and tsunamis, helping protect the Tamil Nadu coast.
- Historical Significance: It played a role in mitigating the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami impact.
Why is it sinking?
- Rapid Land Loss: The island has shrunk by over 70%, from 20.85 ha in 1969 to under 6 ha in 2024.
- High Tide Erosion: At high tide, only 3.14 ha remains, per an IIT Madras (2025) study.
- Wave and Sediment Pressure: Wave action, sediment loss, and lack of natural shoreline defense are accelerating erosion.
- Climate Change Impact: Rising sea levels and coral bleaching have weakened the island’s natural protection.
- Seagrass Depletion: Loss of seagrass beds has reduced the island’s ability to hold sediments and resist erosion.
- Extreme Weather Events: Frequent cyclones and storms are making the island more vulnerable.
- Future Risk: If the current trend continues, Kariyachalli may vanish by 2036.
| [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following is the best example of repeated falls in sea level, giving rise to present-day extensive marshland?
Options: (a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves (b) Marakkanam Salt Pans (c) Naupada Swamp (d) Rann of Kutch* |
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Why in the News?
India’s tiger population is undergoing a major eastward expansion, as young male tigers from central India’s source reserves (like Kanha and Bandhavgarh) disperse into eastern forests (Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal) in search of territory and mates.
Recent Incidents of Tiger Migration:
- Bandhavgarh (MP) → Palamu (Jharkhand) → Purulia (WB) → Rescued and sent back to Palamu
- Simlipal (Odisha) → Jharkhand → Lalgarh (WB) → Tiger killed by villagers
- Tadoba (Maharashtra) → Simlipal (Odisha) → West Bengal → Zeenat the tigress translocated and dispersed
Back2Basics: Royal Bengal Tiger
- Declared National Animal of India in 1972 by the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL).
- Largest population in India; also found in Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Myanmar. India harbours 75% of the world’s wild tigers.
- Occupies habitats such as high mountains, mangrove swamps, grasslands, deciduous forests, evergreen, and shola forests.
- Ecological Significance:
- Flagship species: Essential for conservation efforts since it’s the topmost predator in food chain.
- Umbrella species: Protecting tigers helps conserve other species (through food chain regulation).
- Protection Status:
- Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I.
- IUCN Red List: Endangered.
- CITES: Listed in Appendix I.
- Project Tiger is a wildlife conservation initiative in India that was launched in 1973.
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Behavioural Traits of Tigers Influencing Dispersal:
- Territorial Independence: Upon maturity, male tigers must leave their natal territory to find exclusive prey-rich zones and mates, triggering long-distance dispersal.
- Gendered Dispersal:
- Males are wanderers – they cover vast areas and often cross multiple states.
- Females are philopatric – they stay close to their birthplace and are usually accepted by nearby relatives.
- Source-Sink Dynamics:
- Source forests (e.g. Kanha, Bandhavgarh) produce surplus tigers due to good prey and protection.
- Sink forests (e.g. Palamu, Dalma) cannot sustain tiger populations without new immigrants.
- Adaptive but Risk-Prone: Tigers are biologically wired to explore new habitats, even degraded ones, but often face food scarcity, isolation, and human conflict.
- Prey Dependence and Conflict: In prey-deficient forests, floater tigers’ resort to livestock hunting, increasing the risk of human-tiger conflict.
- Resilience and Colonisation Instinct: Despite setbacks, tigers attempt to colonise new areas, offering hope for species expansion if supported by proper conservation.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.
2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.
3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Scientists from Bengaluru, in collaboration with Aligarh Muslim University, have developed an advanced material that significantly improves supercapacitor performance.
What are Supercapacitors?
- Fast-Charging Energy Devices: Supercapacitors are special tools that store and release energy very quickly, much faster than regular batteries.
- Used in Modern Technology: They are found in phones, electric vehicles, and solar systems where fast energy delivery is needed.
- Trade-Off in Storage: While they charge faster, they generally hold less energy than traditional batteries.
- Ongoing Scientific Efforts: Researchers are trying to increase energy capacity without sacrificing their quick-charging abilities.
About Lanthanum-Doped Silver Niobate:
- New Material from Indian Scientists: A research team from Bengaluru and Aligarh Muslim University created a better material for supercapacitors.
- Silver Niobate as Base: They used silver niobate, which is non-toxic and eco-friendly, as the base material.
- Improved by Lanthanum Doping: They added lanthanum, a rare metal, to help enhance electrical performance — a method called doping.
- Smaller Particles, Bigger Surface: The particles became smaller, increasing the surface area for energy storage.
What makes this material special?
- Better with Use: The material retained 118% of its capacity after repeated use, showing it improved over time.
- 100% Energy Efficiency: It wasted no energy during charge or discharge, making it highly efficient.
- Quick and Smooth Performance: It delivered energy faster and more steadily than previous materials.
- Proven in Real-World Test: A test device using this material could power an LCD screen, proving practical use.
- Eco-Friendly Choice: It is lead-free and safe for the environment.
- Future Potential: Scientists hope to apply this method to other materials and scale up for commercial use in electronics, EVs, and solar tech.
| [UPSC 2022] With reference to India, consider the following statements:
1. Monazite is a source of rare
earths. 2. Monazite contains thorium. 3. Monazite occurs naturally in the entire Indian coastal sands in India. 4. In India, Government bodies only can process or export monazite.
Which of the statements given above are correct ?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only* (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
India has advanced its indigenous naval capabilities with the induction of INS Udaygiri, the second stealth frigate built under Project 17A.
About INS Udaygiri:
- Overview: It is the second stealth frigate delivered under Project 17A, marking a major milestone in India’s indigenous naval capabilities.
- Legacy Name: Named after the decommissioned INS Udaygiri (F35), a Leander-class frigate that served from 1976 to 2007.
- Construction: Delivered on July 1, 2025, by Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Ltd (MDL) just 37 months after its launch, making it one of the fastest deliveries in the project.
- Indigenous Technology: Contains homegrown sensors and combat systems, showcasing domestic defence manufacturing.
- MSME Contribution: Over 200 Indian MSMEs participated in construction, aligning with the Aatmanirbhar Bharat mission.
- Combat Features:
- Blue-Water Capable: Designed for long-range operations, it can counter conventional and asymmetric threats, projecting Indian power in distant seas.
- Stealth Features: Incorporates radar-absorbent materials and a low-infrared signature, making it hard to detect.
- Arsenal: Equipped with supersonic surface-to-surface missiles, medium-range SAMs, a 76 mm main gun, and CIWS (30 mm and 12.7 mm).
- Efficient Propulsion: Uses a combined diesel and gas (CODAG) propulsion system for both speed and efficiency.
What is Project 17A?
- Overview: It is the Indian Navy’s initiative to build seven stealth guided-missile frigates, launched in 2019 as a successor to Project 17 (Shivalik-class).
- Shipbuilders Involved: Construction is shared between MDL (Mumbai) and GRSE (Kolkata) under Navy’s Warship Design Bureau (WDB).
- Modern Design Features: Ships feature stealth hulls, reduced infrared signatures, and modular weapon systems.
- Timeline and Launches: The first frigate, INS Nilgiri, was launched in 2019, with all ships targeted for delivery by 2026.
- Technology Upgrades: Includes advanced radar, electronic warfare systems, and higher automation and survivability.
- Indigenous Content: Project 17A emphasizes domestic components, supporting the Make in India defence policy.
- Multi-Role Capabilities: Designed for anti-air, anti-surface, and anti-submarine warfare, suitable for high-threat scenarios.
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| [UPSC 2016] Which one of the following is the best description of ‘INS Astradharini’, that was in the news recently?
Options: (a) Amphibious warfare ship (b) Nuclear-powered submarine (c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel* (d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier |
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Why in the News?
Researchers at S N Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences (SNBNCBS) have discovered a novel transport behaviour in chromium antimonide (CrSb), a member of the emerging class of magnetic materials called altermagnets.
What are Altermagnets?
- Definition: Altermagnets are a new class of magnetic materials that combine properties of ferromagnets (which show external magnetism) and antiferromagnets (which don’t).
- Unique Feature: They don’t attract metals like fridge magnets but still have active internal magnetic behavior, useful in advanced technology.
- Use in Spintronics: These materials are ideal for spintronics, a technology that uses electron spin (not just charge) to make faster and energy-efficient devices.
- No Magnetic Interference: Altermagnets do not create external magnetic fields, so they are stable and safe for nearby electronics.
- Energy Efficient: Their structure helps reduce heat and energy loss, which is perfect for modern low-power gadgets.
- Scientific Rarity: Very few altermagnets are known, making each discovery important for materials science.
- Potential Applications: They could help build smaller memory chips, faster processors, and even support quantum computing.
- Internal Action: Think of them as “quiet magnets” — they work inside devices without magnetic noise.
Recent Discovery- Chromium Antimonide (CrSb):
- Indian Breakthrough: Indian scientists found CrSb, a new altermagnet, showing rare direction-dependent conduction.
- Directional Behavior: CrSb acts as an n-type material when current flows along its layers, and as a p-type when current flows across them.
- First of its Kind: This is the first time an altermagnet has shown such dual conduction behavior in different directions.
- Device Simplification: Since CrSb can behave as both p-type and n-type, it can reduce circuit size and eliminate the need for doping.
- Eco-friendly Material: CrSb is made from non-toxic, common elements, making it ideal for sustainable electronics.
- Potential Applications:
- Future Potential: CrSb could be used in solar cells, batteries, and processors to make them greener and more efficient.
- Environment-Friendly Tech: CrSb enables low-cost and eco-friendly electronics without sacrificing performance.
| [UPSC 2021] Magnetite particles, suspected to cause neurodegenerative problems, are generated as environmental pollutants from which of the following? 1. Brakes of motor vehicles 2. Engines of motor vehicles 3. Microwave stoves within homes 4. Power plants 5. Telephone lines Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only* (c) 3, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 |
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Why in the News?
The Union Ministry of Power announced the formation of a task force to design the India Energy Stack (IES) — a new Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) for the energy sector.
About India Energy Stack (IES):
- Overview: IES is a Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) initiative by the Ministry of Power.
- Objective: It aims to create a unified, secure, and interoperable digital backbone for India’s entire energy ecosystem, including producers, grid operators, discoms, consumers, regulators, and markets.
- Task Force: It is led by a 17-member task force with Nandan Nilekani as Chief Mentor, and RS Sharma as Chairperson, supported by REC Ltd as the nodal agency.
- Implementation: A 12-month proof of concept (PoC) will pilot key components like the Utility Intelligence Platform (UIP) in states like Delhi, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
- Larger Impact: It is expected to support India’s transition to Net Zero, manage increasing renewable energy share, and enable consumer participation in energy trading.
Key Features of India Energy Stack:
- Scalability and Integration: It supports the integration of smart meters, real-time analytics, and battery storage systems, aligning with India’s energy digitisation goals.
- Unique IDs: Provides digital identification for consumers, assets, and energy transactions, enabling seamless tracking and verification.
- Real-Time Data Sharing: Consent-based, standardised data exchange mechanisms between stakeholders improve efficiency and transparency.
- Open APIs: Allows integration of third-party solutions, encouraging innovation and energy fintech ecosystems.
- Interoperability: Facilitates communication between currently fragmented digital platforms used by different state utilities and regulators.
- Utility Intelligence Platform (UIP): A modular analytics layer to enable grid monitoring, load forecasting, demand-response, and consumer insights.
- Peer-to-Peer Energy Trading: Empowers prosumers (producers + consumers) to buy, sell, or store energy using a digital marketplace.
- Carbon Offset Tracking: Supports environmental compliance through transparent and verifiable emission reduction accounting.
- Decentralised Energy Management: Enables small-scale producers and communities to participate in energy markets via smart contracts and virtual power plants.
| [UPSC 2016] Which one of the following is a purpose of ‘UDAY’, a scheme of the Government?
(a) Providing technical and financial assistance to start-up entrepreneurs in the field of renewable sources of energy
(b) Providing electricity to every household in the countries by 2018
(c) Replacing the coal-based power plants with natural gas, nuclear, solar, wind and tidal power plants over a period of time
(d) Providing for financial turnaround and revival of power distribution companies* |
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Why in the News?
In most modern office environments, internal and external communication is managed through a technology known as EPABX — Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchange.
About EPABX:
- What is it: It is a system used by offices to manage internal and external phone calls efficiently.
- Internal and External Communication: It enables intercom communication within the organisation and provides access to external telephone lines through a unified network.
- Call Handling Features: EPABX can route, transfer, forward, or hold calls, reducing the need for multiple phone lines and improving overall communication.
- Modern Features: Advanced EPABX systems offer voicemail, call recording, automated attendants, and digital tool integration for business productivity.
How EPABX Works?
- Starting a Call: When the phone is picked up, an off-hook signal goes to the EPABX, which responds with a dial tone.
- Making Internal Calls: Users dial an extension number (like 104), and the EPABX connects them through its internal switching system.
- Making External Calls: To reach outside numbers, users dial an access code (usually 0) followed by the number; EPABX connects via the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
- Handling Incoming Calls: Calls from outside are routed to the right extension using either a receptionist or an automated system (IVR) in newer setups.
- Switching Logic: The EPABX system works like a railway yard, directing signals along the correct path between the caller and the recipient.
Advancements in EPABX Technology:
- Early Systems: Older EPABX systems used electromechanical switches like crossbars for call routing.
- Digital Transition: Since the 1980s, systems adopted Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) to digitise and share voice signals over fewer lines.
- VoIP Technology: Modern EPABX uses Voice over IP (VoIP) to transmit calls over the internet, similar to email routing using IP addresses.
| [UPSC 2019] With reference to communication technologies, what is/are the difference / differences between LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and VoLTE (Voice over Long-Term Evolution)?
1. LTE ‘is commonly marketed as 3G and VoLTE is commonly marketed as advanced 3G.
2. LTE is data-only technology and VoLTE is voice-only technology.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2* |
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Why in the News?
A new species of flowering plant, Begonia nyishiorum, has been discovered in the East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh.
About Begonia nyishiorum:
- Overview: Begonia nyishiorum is a recently identified flowering plant found in East Kameng, Arunachal Pradesh, and is endemic to this region.
- Scientific Recognition: It was officially described in June 2025 in Novon, a peer-reviewed journal published by the Missouri Botanical Garden.
- Feature: The species is notable for its crimson, fringed scales (indumentum) on light green petioles, a distinct trait among Asian begonias.
- Habitat and Range: It thrives on moist, shaded mountain slopes between 1,500 and 3,000 metres in altitude.
- Ecological Sensitivity: Known from only two forest locations, the plant is potentially vulnerable and warrants conservation attention.
- Name Origin: The species name nyishiorum honours the Nyishi tribe, known for their traditional ecological stewardship of local forests.
About the Nyishi Tribe:
- Overview: The Nyishi are the largest ethnic group in Arunachal Pradesh, with a population of about 300,000.
- Name Meaning: The word “Nyishi” combines “Nyi” (man) and “Shi” (being), signifying a civilised human in their language.
- Linguistic Identity: Their language belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family, although its origins remain debated among scholars.
- Geographic Spread: They live in eight districts of Arunachal Pradesh (like East Kameng, Papum Pare, and Kurung Kumey) and parts of Assam.
- Livelihood Practices: Their economy includes slash-and-burn farming, hunting, fishing, and handicrafts such as bamboo work and weaving.
- Key Festivals: They celebrate Boori-Boot (Feb) for unity, Nyokum (Feb) for prosperity, and Longte (Apr) for protection from evil.
- Social Structure: Nyishi society is patrilineal and clan-based, with no caste system or rigid social hierarchy.
- Role of Women: Women are seen as symbols of peace and prosperity, and marriages involve reciprocal family exchanges that build community ties.
| [UPSC 2016] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured fruit pulp.
In which part of India has it been discovered?
Options: (a) Andaman Islands* (b) Anaimalai Forests (c) Maikala Hills (d) Tropical rain forests of northeast |
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Why in the News?
The Department of Land Resources (DoLR) under the Ministry of Rural Development is set to launch the second phase of capacity building for the NAKSHA programme (NAtional geospatial Knowledge-based land Survey of urban HAbitations).
About NAKSHA Program:
- Overview: It was launched on 18th February 2025. It is a geospatial land survey initiative launched by the Department of Land Resources (DoLR), Ministry of Rural Development, under the Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme (DILRMP).
- Objective: The programme aims to modernise urban land records, make property ownership more transparent, and streamline urban governance.
- Funding: It is 100% centrally funded, with an estimated cost of ₹194 crore.
- Significance: The programme was launched in response to India’s rapidly growing urban population, which is expected to exceed 600 million by 2031.
Key Features:
- Pilot Coverage: Implemented in 157 ULBs covering an area of 4,142.63 sq km, focusing on towns with an area of <35 sq km and a population of <2 lakh.
- Drone-Based Survey: Uses drones equipped with LiDAR sensors and 5 cm resolution cameras to conduct aerial surveys.
- Three-Stage Survey Process:
- Drone Survey & Data Collection
- Field Verification & Draft Mapping
- Public Review & Finalisation
- Integration with Legal Records: Field surveys validate and update property tax, ownership, and registration data.
| [UPSC 2024] With reference to the Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme, consider the following statements:
1. To implement the scheme, the Central Government provides 100% funding.
2. Under the Scheme, Cadastral Maps are digitised.
3. An initiative has been undertaken to transliterate the Records of Rights from local language to any of the languages recognized by the Constitution of India.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
The Prada incident, involving footwear resembling India’s GI-tagged Kolhapuri chappals, has reignited debates on cultural respect, equitable benefit sharing, and the need for stronger global enforcement of GI rights.
About the Kolhapuri Chappal Controversy:
- Cultural Origin: They originated in Kolhapur and nearby districts in Maharashtra and Karnataka, dating back to the 12th–13th century, once worn by royals.
- Craftsmanship and Features: These chappals are handmade from vegetable-tanned leather, use no nails or synthetic parts, and feature a T-strap design in natural tones.
- GI Tag Recognition: They received a GI tag in 2019, covering eight districts across the two states.
- Allegations Against Prada: Italian luxury brand Prada was accused of unauthorised cultural appropriation for selling similar sandals without acknowledging the traditional origin.
- Global Enforcement Gap: The controversy highlights the limited international protection for GI-tagged goods and the need for stronger legal safeguards abroad.
Earlier Cultural Misappropriation Cases:
- Basmati Rice (1997): The US Patent and Trademark Office granted a patent to Ricetec Inc., claiming new “lines and grains” of basmati rice. After diplomatic and legal pressure, Ricetec was barred from using the term “Basmati.”
- Turmeric (1995): A U.S. patent was granted for turmeric’s wound-healing properties, a use long documented in Ayurveda. CSIR successfully challenged and had the patent revoked.
- Neem (2000): The European Patent Office revoked a patent granted to the USDA and W.R. Grace for neem-based antifungal formulations, citing that such usage existed in Indian traditional knowledge.
Back2Basics: Geographical Indication (GI) Tags
- Purpose: A GI tag is a form of intellectual property that certifies a product’s origin from a specific place where its quality or reputation is uniquely linked to that location.
- Significance: GI tags help preserve cultural heritage, promote rural livelihoods, and enable market access for indigenous communities.
- Legal Framework in India: In India, GI registration is governed by the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999, in force since 2003, and managed by the DPIIT, Ministry of Commerce.
- Ownership and Validity: A GI tag is collectively owned by local producers, valid for 10 years, and renewable indefinitely, unlike private trademarks.
- Examples of GI Goods: India has 658 GI goods, including Darjeeling tea, Madhubani paintings, Pashmina shawls, Chanderi sarees, and Kancheepuram silk.
- Jurisdiction of Protection: GI protection is territorial, meaning legal misuse can only be challenged within the registered country, unless separately protected abroad.
- Global Legal Backing: GI rights are supported by international treaties like the Paris Convention (1883) and the TRIPS Agreement (1995).
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Why in the News?
A landmark study published in the ‘Cell’ journal has sequenced the genomes of 2,762 Indians from 23 states and union territories, creating the most comprehensive genomic map of India to date.
About the Genomic Atlas:
- Overview: The Genomic Atlas is the most comprehensive genetic mapping of Indian populations, covering caste, tribe, language, geography, and urban-rural distinctions.
- Collaboration: It was conducted by Indian and international institutions, aiming to understand how ancient migrations and social structures shaped Indian genomes.
- Use of Molecular Clocks: Researchers used genetic mutations as molecular clocks to trace human ancestry and map the evolutionary history of diverse groups in India.
- Focus on Disease and Ancestry: The study explores recessive disorders, disease-linked mutations, and interbreeding with archaic humans like Neanderthals and Denisovans.
- Scope: Plans include expanding coverage to more isolated communities and building tools to track disease origins within genetically distinct Indian groups.
- Impact on Precision Medicine: It aims to improve personalised healthcare by incorporating Indian genetic diversity into global medical research.
Key Highlights of the Study:
- Discovery of New Gene Variants: Over 2.6 crore previously undocumented genetic variants were discovered, many of which are absent from international gene databases.
- Single-origin migration: Indians descend primarily from a single out-of-Africa migration ~50,000 years ago, not earlier human groups.
- Three major ancestral components:
- Ancient Ancestral South Indians (AASI) – early hunter-gatherers.
- Iranian-related Neolithic farmers – from Sarazm (~4th millennium BCE).
- Eurasian Steppe pastoralists – arrived around 2000 BCE, tied to Indo-European languages.
- Additional East Asian ancestry: Found in East, Northeast, and some Central Indian populations (e.g., 5% in West Bengal), likely post-Gupta or rice cultivation-related (~520 CE).
- Caste endogamy impacts: Long-term inbreeding within castes has led to high homozygosity, raising the risk of recessive genetic diseases.
- Archaic DNA: Indian genomes show rich Neanderthal and Denisovan segments, especially in immune-related genes like MHC, TRIM, and BTNL2.
- Unique health risks: A BCHE variant linked to anaesthetic reaction is enriched in Telangana; 7% of discovered protein-altering variants relate to serious genetic disorders.
- Every individual had at least one genetic relative in the sample—revealing extreme interrelatedness and strong founder effects, particularly in South India.
- Unmatched Neanderthal diversity: India harbours the widest variety of Neanderthal-derived genetic fragments among global populations.
| [UPSC 2021] In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements:
1. Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by mitochondrial replacement therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of the egg.
2. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from the mother and not from the father.
Options: Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
A recent study by the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) highlights that secondary pollutants, particularly ammonium sulphate, are responsible for nearly one-third of India’s PM2.5 pollution.
What are Primary Air Pollutants?
- Definition: Primary air pollutants are directly released into the atmosphere from specific sources like vehicles, coal plants, industries, and biomass burning.
- Natural and Man-made Origins: They arise from both natural events, such as dust storms, and human activities like fuel combustion.
- Key Examples:
- Carbon monoxide (CO) – from incomplete fuel combustion in vehicles and stoves.
- Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) – from burning sulphur-rich coal, especially in power plants.
- Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) – from high-temperature fuel combustion in vehicles and factories.
- Particulate Matter (PM) – includes soot, dust, smoke, and other visible particles.
- Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) – released from fuel fumes and industrial solvents.
- Impact: These pollutants are immediately harmful to health and easier to trace to their sources.
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About Secondary Air Pollutants:
- Definition: Secondary pollutants form in the atmosphere through chemical reactions involving primary pollutants and environmental agents like sunlight and water vapour.
- Formation Factors: Their creation depends on weather, sunlight, and existing pollutants, making them more complex.
- Key Examples:
- Ammonium sulphate and nitrate – from SO₂ and NH₃ reacting in the air.
- Ground-level ozone (O₃) – formed when NOₓ and VOCs react under sunlight.
- Acid rain components – such as sulfuric and nitric acids.
- Photochemical smog – a mix of toxic secondary pollutants in urban air.
- Impact: They contribute heavily to PM2.5 pollution and have long-lasting, widespread effects.
Highlights from CREA’s Study:
- Ammonium Sulphate Share: This secondary pollutant accounts for 34% of India’s PM2.5, averaging 11.9 μg/m³ nationwide.
- Source Link: It forms from SO₂ (mainly from coal plants) reacting with ammonia from fertilisers and waste.
- FGD Compliance: Only 8% of India’s coal plants have installed flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) units, despite regulations.
- High Exposure Zones: Within 10 km of coal plants, ammonium sulphate levels are 2.5 times higher than in distant areas.
- NCAP City Impact: In 130 cities, it contributes 20–43% of PM2.5; in 114 cities, the share exceeds 30%.
- Other Contributors: Ammonium nitrate and similar secondary compounds form up to 50% of PM2.5 in many places.
- Policy Suggestions: The study urges rapid FGD rollout, fertiliser reform, and strict pollution control enforcement.
| [UPSC 2013] Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction among-
Options: (a) NO 2 , O 3 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of sunlight * (b) CO 2 , O 2 , and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of sunlight (c) CO, CO 2 , and NO 2 at low temperature (d) high concentration of NO 2 , O 3 and CO in the evening |
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Why in the News?
Scientists have found that Botrytis cinerea, the fungus used in high-end sweet wines, cannot be cloned because none of its nuclei carry a full set of chromosomes, a rare genetic trait among fungi.
About Botrytis Fungus:
- Overview: Botrytis cinerea, also called noble rot, is a fungus that infects ripe grapes and causes them to shrivel while concentrating sugar and flavour.
- Fungal Classification: It belongs to the ascomycetes group and produces spores in sac-like structures known as asci, each containing eight ascospores.
- Role in Winemaking: Under controlled vineyard conditions, Botrytis infection is desirable, as it enhances the sweetness and aroma of wine.
- How is Wine Made Using It?
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- Effect on Grapes: The fungus dehydrates the grapes, which increases the sugar content and concentrates flavours naturally.
- Harvesting Method: Grapes affected by Botrytis are hand-harvested, making the process labour-intensive and expensive.
- Wine Varieties Produced: It is used to produce premium dessert wines such as Sauternes (France), Tokaji Aszú (Hungary), and Trockenbeerenauslese (Germany), known for their complex flavours and high value.
Significance of Recent Findings:
- Cloning Discovery: A recent study in Science found that Botrytis cannot be cloned, as no single nucleus contains a full set of chromosomes.
- Unique Genome Structure: The chromosomes are distributed across multiple nuclei, which is unprecedented in any known fungus, animal, or plant.
- Scientific Impact: This challenges conventional genetics and may lead to new insights in genome organisation and fungal evolution.
- Dual Importance: Botrytis is now seen not only as a key player in winemaking but also as a genetic curiosity in modern science.
| [UPSC 2009] In the context of alternative sources of energy, ethanol as a viable bio-fuel can be obtained from:
(a) Potato (b) Rice (c) Sugarcane* (d) Wheat |
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Why in the News?
June 29 is observed annually as National Statistics Day in India to commemorate the birth anniversary of Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, hailed as the Father of Indian Statistics.
About National Statistics Day:
- Purpose: National Statistics Day is observed on June 29 each year to commemorate the birth anniversary of P.C. Mahalanobis and highlight the value of statistics in national development.
- First Observance: It was first celebrated in 2007, following a government resolution to raise awareness about the role of statistics in socio-economic planning.
- Objectives: It aims to emphasise the use of statistical tools in governance, policy-making, and development planning.
- Organizers: Events are led by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) and the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI).
- Annual Themes: Each year features a dedicated theme focusing on a statistical challenge or development goal.
- Events and Outreach: Celebrations include seminars, exhibitions, competitions, and lectures across institutions.
- Commemorative Status: Though not a public holiday, it is a nationally recognized observance.
Who was P.C. Mahalanobis?
- Background: He was born on June 29, 1893, in Kolkata, into a Brahmo Samaj family.
- Education: He studied at Presidency College and later at King’s College, Cambridge.
- Legacy Title: He is hailed as the Father of Modern Statistics in India and was known as “The Professor”.
- Institution Builder: He founded the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) and helped set up India’s Planning Commission.
- His Major Contributions:
- National Sample Survey (NSS): Launched in 1950, it enabled the systematic collection of household data for policymaking.
- Mahalanobis Distance: Introduced in 1936, it remains a widely used statistical tool for identifying outliers in data.
- Applied Statistics: He applied statistical methods to flood control in Bengal and Odisha, offering cost-effective solutions.
- Planning Vision: Mahalanobis played a key role in drafting the Second Five-Year Plan, focusing on industrialisation and state-led growth.
- Academic Promotion: He started the journal Sankhya, modeled on Biometrika, to foster statistical research in India.
- Infrastructure Vision: His early proposal led to the Hirakud Dam project, completed in 1957.
- Balanced Approach: Though viewed as pro-Soviet during the Cold War, he was admired for his intellectual integrity.
| [UPSC 2016] A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of:
(a) S. Ramanujan (b) S. Chandhrashekhar (c) S. N. Bose (d) C. V. Raman |
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Why in the News?
India is preparing to reassess and renegotiate the Ganges Water Sharing Treaty with Bangladesh, which is set to expire in 2026, completing its 30-year term.
About the Ganga Water Agreement (1996):
- Signing: It was signed on December 12, 1996, by PM H. D. Deve Gowda (India) and PM Sheikh Hasina (Bangladesh) to share the Ganga’s dry season flow.
- Purpose: It aimed to ensure water availability for irrigation, ecology, and navigation in both countries, especially at the Farakka Barrage, which diverts water to sustain the Kolkata Port.
- Duration: It replaced earlier short-term deals and set a 30-year framework (1996–2026), with a renewal clause by mutual consent.
Key Terms of the Agreement:
- Lean Season Period: The treaty applies from January 1 to May 31, with water sharing calculated in 10-day intervals.
- Sharing Formula at Farakka:
- ≤ 70,000 cusecs: 50% each
- 70,000–75,000 cusecs: India gets the remainder after Bangladesh gets 35,000
- ≥ 75,000 cusecs: India gets 40,000; Bangladesh gets the balance
- Alternate Sharing: From March 11 to May 10, both countries receive 35,000 cusecs alternately every three 10-day blocks.
- No Minimum Guarantee: If flow falls below 50,000 cusecs, Article II allows for consultations and emergency adjustments.
- Monitoring Mechanism: The Joint Rivers Commission (JRC) ensures implementation and dispute resolution.
- Project Provisions: Both countries may construct water projects for irrigation and navigation.
Why must India reconsider it?
- Treaty Expiry: The treaty ends in 2026, and India wants a revised pact to reflect current demands.
- Rising Needs: India seeks an additional 30,000–35,000 cusecs due to:
- Increased irrigation in West Bengal and other states
- Siltation issues at Kolkata Port
- Urban and industrial growth
- Flexibility Concerns: Officials argue the treaty lacks provisions for climate variability and seasonal shortages.
- State Support: West Bengal supports changes, citing inadequate current allocations.
- Proposed Change: India may pursue a shorter, more flexible treaty, like its move on the Indus Waters Treaty with Pakistan.
Implications for Bangladesh:
- Downstream Vulnerability: Bangladesh faces greater risk from reduced water flow.
- Historical Shortfalls: Between 1997 and 2016, Bangladesh received less than its share 65% of the time.
- Potential Consequences:
- Increased salinity in rivers and farmland
- Reduced water for fisheries, irrigation, and drinking
- Navigation issues in the delta
- Political Sensitivity: Many in Bangladesh already view the treaty as unfair, and further reduction may trigger domestic backlash.
- Diplomatic Impact: A poorly negotiated outcome could strain India-Bangladesh ties, especially in water diplomacy and cross-border trust.
| [UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:
1. The Baglihar Power Project had been constructed within the parameters of the Indus Water Treaty.
2. The project was completely built by the Union Government with loans from Japan and the World Bank. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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