Why in the News?
The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs has approved an increase in the Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane for the 2025-26 sugar season, raising it from ₹340 per quintal to ₹355 per quintal.
About Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP):
- The FRP for sugarcane is set under the Sugarcane Control Order, 1966.
- It replaced the Statutory Minimum Price (SMP) in 2009-10 to better align with economic conditions and improve farmers’ welfare.
- It represents the minimum price sugar mills must pay to farmers for sugarcane.
- It is determined by the central government based on Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommendations, with discussions involving state authorities and sugar industry associations.
- Factors Influencing FRP:
-
- Cost of production: ₹173 per quintal for 2025-26.
- Return from alternative crops: Comparison of potential earnings from other crops.
- Consumer sugar prices: Affects sugar production costs.
- Sale price of sugar: Influences the FRP.
- Sugarcane-to-sugar recovery rate: Efficiency of conversion.
- Income from by-products: Including molasses and bagasse.
- Profit margins for farmers: Ensures financial viability.
- State Agreed Price (SAP): States can set SAP, often higher than the FRP, based on local conditions.
- Minimum Selling Price (MSP) for sugar was introduced in 2018 to protect farmers, including FRP and conversion costs.
Sugarcane Cultivation in India:
- Sugarcane is India’s highest production-value crop, key for producing sugar, jaggery, and khan sari.
- Major states: Uttar Pradesh (contributes 50% of total production), Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.
- Sugarcane thrives in a tropical climate (21°C – 27°C), with 75cm-150cm rainfall. It needs well-drained soil and a cool, dry winter for ripening.
- India has the largest global sugarcane cultivation area after Brazil.
- The ratooning method reduces costs by allowing a second crop from the same roots.
| [UPSC 2015] The Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane is approved by the:
Options: (a) Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs* (b) Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (c) Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture (d) Agricultural Produce Market Committee |
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court has ruled that inclusive and meaningful Digital Access to e-governance and welfare systems is a part of the Fundamental Right to Life and Liberty under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.
Key Highlights of the Judgment:
- Inclusive Digital Access: The Court ruled on April 30, 2025, that access to e-governance and welfare systems is a fundamental right under Article 21, requiring inclusive digital ecosystems, especially for marginalised groups.
- Focus on KYC Processes: It issued 20 directions to make digital KYC processes more accessible for acid attack survivors and the visually impaired.
- Digital Divide: It recognised the digital divide as a constitutional issue, emphasising the need for equal access to digital platforms for essential services and opportunities.
About Article 21 of the Indian Constitution and its Scope:
- Article 21 reads: “No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.”
- Initially focused on protecting life from arbitrary state action, it has been expanded to include living with dignity.
- Key Judicial Expansions:
- Maneka Gandhi vs. Union of India (1978): Right to live with dignity, requiring a fair, just, and reasonable procedure.
- Sunil Batra vs. Delhi Administration (1978): Right to live a healthy life and preserve cultural heritage.
- Bandhua Mukti Morcha vs. Union of India (1984): Linking Article 21 with the Directive Principles of State Policy, ensuring abolition of forced labour.
- Subramaniam Swamy vs. Union of India (2016): Recognized right to reputation as part of Article 21.
- Olga Tellis vs. Bombay Municipal Corporation (1985): Recognized right to livelihood as part of Article 21.
- Aruna Shanbaug case (2011): Recognized the right to die with dignity as part of Article 21.
- K.S. Puttaswamy vs. Union of India (2017): Right to privacy recognized as an essential part of Article 21.
Other Judgments Related to Digital Empowerment
- Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978): Laid the foundation for inclusive digital rights, stating that procedures restricting fundamental rights must be fair, just, and reasonable.
- Faheema Shirin RK v. State of Kerala (2019): Recognized right to access the internet as part of Article 21 and Article 21A (Right to Education). Denying students internet access in hostels was held unconstitutional.
- Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India (2020): SC held that Article 19(1)(a) protects the freedom of speech and expression via the internet, and Article 19(1)(g) safeguards the right to trade online. Restrictions on these rights must meet the tests of reasonableness and proportionality.
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| [UPSC 2024] Under which of the following Articles of the Constitution of India, has the Supreme Court of India placed the Right to Privacy?
Options: (a) Article 15 (b) Article 16 (c) Article 19 (d) Article 21* |
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Why in the News?
Scientists working on the world’s largest nuclear fusion project ITER has completed its main magnet system with India playing a key role in building critical infrastructure.
About ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor):
- ITER is the world’s largest nuclear fusion research project, aimed at demonstrating that nuclear fusion can be a safe, carbon-free, and sustainable energy source.
- It involves 35 nations, including the EU, US, China, India, Japan, South Korea, and Russia.
- It uses deuterium and tritium (hydrogen isotopes) to undergo fusion at temperatures over 150 million °C, 10 times hotter than the sun’s core, producing large amounts of energy.
- Its goal is to achieve a fusion gain (Q) of 10, producing 500 megawatts of fusion power from just 50 megawatts of input heating power, a 10x gain.
- Launched in 1985 and officially founded in 2006, the project began construction in 2007 and is expected to start its operations in 2033.
- The tokamak is a doughnut-shaped magnetic fusion device used to contain the hot plasma required for nuclear fusion.
- It uses powerful superconducting magnets to confine plasma and prevent it from touching the reactor walls.
India’s Role in ITER/Tokamak:
- India has been a full partner in ITER since 2005, contributing expertise and technology to key aspects of the project.
- It has designed and manufactured the cryostat, a 30-meter-high, 30-meter-diameter vacuum shell made of stainless steel that houses the ITER tokamak and maintains the ultra-cold environment needed for superconducting magnets.
- It has developed in-wall shielding to protect ITER’s components from heat generated during fusion reactions.
- It provides cryogenic systems to cool the superconducting magnets and RF heating systems to heat the plasma to fusion temperatures.
- It has contributed to developing the superconducting magnets, which are essential for plasma confinement inside the tokamak.
Note:
- India manages ITER-India, a project under the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), overseeing key contributions, including diagnostics, power supplies, and other infrastructure.
- It is also working on the development of a tritium breeding module for future fusion reactors, ensuring self-sufficiency in this critical fuel.
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| [UPSC 2016] India is an important member of the ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor’. If this experiment succeeds, what is the immediate advantage for India?
Options: (a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power generation (b) It attain a global role in satellite-navigation (c) It can drastically improve the efficiency of its fission reactors in power generation (d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation* |
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Why in the News?
A recent survey by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) uncovered eleven inscriptions in Telangana’s Gundaram Reserve Forest, offering key insights into the region’s ancient history, particularly during the Satavahana period.
Key Findings about the Inscriptions:
- One inscription mentions a person from the Haritiputra lineage, indicating a connection between the Satavahanas and Chutu dynasty.
- The site includes religious symbols such as a trident and damaru, marking the first known religious iconography in early inscriptions of South India.
- The inscriptions reinforce findings from Mukkutraopet and Kotilingala, identifying Telangana as part of the Asmaka Mahajanapada.
About the Satavahana Dynasty:
- The Satavahana dynasty emerged after the fall of the Mauryan Empire around 60 BCE, ruling over Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh.
- Simuka, the founding king, reigned from 60 BC to 37 BC and was succeeded by his brother Kanha.
- Notable Rulers:
- Satakarni I (70–60 BC) conquered western Malwa from the Shungas.
- Gautamiputra Satakarni (106–130 AD) expanded the empire and patronized Brahmanism and Buddhism.
- Vashishtaputra Pulamayi (130–154 AD) extended his reign to the mouth of the Krishna River.
- Yajna Sri Satakarni (165–194 AD) was the last great ruler, expanding the empire to Kokan and Malwa.
- Art and Architecture: The Amaravati School of Art flourished during this period, with marble sculptures depicting Buddhist narratives. The Satavahanas promoted rock-cut architecture, including Chaityas and Viharas (e.g., Karle Caves, Ajanta Caves).
- Economic and Administrative Contributions: The Satavahanas fostered trade with the Romans, promoted agriculture, and implemented a mixed revenue system. They also introduced tax-free villages for Brahmins and Buddhist monks.
- Religious and Social Structure: The Satavahanas promoted Brahmanism and Vedic sacrifices and supported Buddhism. The Varna system governed social structure.
- Decline of the Satavahana Dynasty: The empire weakened due to weak rulers after Yajna Sri Satakarni and was eventually fragmented by feudatories and invasions from the Shakas.
- Military Organization: The Satavahanas maintained a large military with 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, and 1,000 elephants.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
1. The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha was assassinated by his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Sunga. 2. The last Sunga king, Devabhuti was assassinated by his Brahmana minister Vasudeva Kanva who usurped the throne. 3. The last ruler of the Kanva dynasty was deposed by the Andhras.
Which of these statements is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 2 (c) Only 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
In a landmark move, the Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs (CCPA) has approved the inclusion of caste enumeration in the 2025 population census for the first time since India’s independence.
What is Caste Census?
- A caste census is the process of recording individuals’ caste identities during a national census.
- It aims to gather data on the distribution and socio-economic status of different caste groups, helping inform policies related to affirmative action, social justice, and welfare programs in India.
- Caste plays a significant role in the country’s social, economic, and political life.
- History of Caste Census:
- British India (1881–1931): Caste enumeration was part of the decennial census under British rule, used for administrative purposes.
- Post-Independence (1951): After independence, the Indian government, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, discontinued caste enumeration to promote national unity and avoid social divisions.
- 1961 Directive: States were allowed to collect their own data on Other Backward Classes (OBCs), leading to fragmented caste data collection at the state level.
- 1980 Mandal Commission: The commission recommended 27% reservation for OBCs in government jobs, fuelling the demand for caste-based data. The lack of national caste data made the implementation of such policies contentious.
- 2011 Socio-Economic Caste Census (SECC): The SECC collected caste data, but it was not officially integrated into the census, and its findings were not fully released, drawing criticism for lack of transparency and application.
Implications of Caste Census:
- Political: It can help improve representation for marginalized groups and ensure better-targeted welfare programs.
- Social: Unveils intersectional disparities, helping identify gaps in services like education, healthcare, and social protection.
- Policy: Aids in shaping reservation policies and resource allocation for poverty alleviation.
- Opposition and Concerns: Some worry it may reinforce caste-based divisions, particularly among upper-caste groups and certain political factions.
- Electoral and Governance: Accurate data influences electoral strategies, helping parties address community-specific needs.
- Legal and Administrative Impact: The 2025 caste enumeration raises issues regarding data collection, classification, and use, ensuring it is applied effectively without reinforcing caste-based disparities.
| [UPSC 2008] Amongst the following States, which one has the highest percentage of rural population (on the basis of the Census, 2001)?
Options: (a) Himachal Pradesh* (b) Bihar (c) Odisha (d) Uttar Pradesh |
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Why in the News?
The Union Government has reconstituted the National Security Advisory Board (NSAB), appointing Alok Joshi, former chief of the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), as its new chairman.
About National Security Advisory Board (NSAB):
- The NSAB is a high-level advisory body to the National Security Council (NSC).
- It plays a crucial role in shaping national security policies and responses to both internal and external threats.
- Composition: The NSAB includes eminent individuals from sectors like the armed forces, IPS, IFS, academia, and civil society, selected for expertise in areas such as defense, foreign affairs, internal security, economic affairs, and science & technology.
- Key Functions:
- Provide expert analysis on long-term security issues to the NSC.
- Recommend solutions and policies on matters referred by the NSC.
- Contribute significantly to India’s Nuclear Doctrine, Strategic Defence Reviews, and other critical policy frameworks.
Back2Basics: National Security Council (NSC)
- The NSC is the apex body advising the Prime Minister on national security and foreign policy matters, coordinating the government’s efforts to ensure the nation’s security.
- It was established on 19 November 1998 by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
- Members: National Security Advisor (NSA), Chief of Defence Staff (CDS), Ministers of Defence, External Affairs, Home, and Finance, Deputy NSA, Additional NSAs, and the Vice Chairman of NITI Aayog.
- Three-Tier Structure:
- Strategic Policy Group (SPG): Highest decision-making body.
- NSAB: Provides advisory support.
- NSCS: Implements NSC decisions.
- In July 2024, the NSCS was revamped to fill the Additional NSA post, delegating internal security management and threat analysis to enhance the NSA’s focus on broader challenges.
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| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
1. According to the Constitution of India, the Central Government has a duty to protect States from internal disturbances. 2. The Constitution of India exempts the States from providing legal counsel to person being held for preventive detention 3. According to the Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002, confession of the accused before the police cannot be used as evidence.
How many of the above statements are correct?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None |
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Why in the News?
New research suggests that understanding the “clumpiness” of matter, measured by Sigma-8 (S8) Tension, could unlock key insights into the universe’s structure and complexity.
What is S8?
- S8 is a measure used by scientists to understand the distribution of matter across the universe, indicating how “clumpy” or evenly spread out the matter (like galaxies, stars, and dark matter) is.
- High S8 tension means matter is clumped together in certain regions, while low S8 means it’s evenly distributed.
- Scientists use S8 to study matter, including dark matter, which is invisible but makes up most of the universe.
- The measurement of S8 helps explain how the universe fits together and has evolved since the Big Bang.
- Recently, conflicting measurements of S8 have caused confusion, raising questions about our understanding of the universe.
Implications for the ΛCDM Model:
- The ΛCDM model (Lambda Cold Dark Matter) is the standard model explaining the universe’s structure, suggesting it’s mainly composed of dark matter and dark energy.
- This model assumes that dark energy is causing the universe’s accelerating expansion.
- S8 discrepancies may challenge the ΛCDM model, indicating a potential gap in our understanding of dark energy or dark matter.
- Possible Implications:
- Revised Theories: Scientists may need to adjust their model of the universe due to conflicting S8 values.
- Re-thinking Dark Energy: If S8 measurements don’t align with predictions, dark energy might not behave as expected.
- New Discoveries: The S8 tension could suggest undiscovered forces or particles influencing matter behavior.
- Better Observations: Improved telescopes and surveys, like the Rubin Legacy Survey, may help clarify why S8 measurements conflict with predictions.
| [UPSC 2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:
(1) It is he world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic km of ice. (2) It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter. (3) It is buried deep in the ice. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
On Earth Day, April 22, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) launched the Accelerating Innovative Monitoring for Nature Restoration (AIM4NatuRe) Initiative aimed at accelerating nature restoration.
About the AIM4NatuRe Initiative:
- AIM4NatuRe is a global initiative launched by the FAO aimed at enhancing countries’ ability to monitor and report ecosystem restoration efforts.
- With £7 million (approximately USD 9.38 million) from the United Kingdom, the initiative will run from 2025 to 2028, focusing on restoring 30% of degraded ecosystems globally by 2030, in alignment with the Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF).
- Key aspects:
- Utilizes advanced technology and data frameworks for ecosystem restoration monitoring.
- Targets restoration across forests, wetlands, grasslands, marine ecosystems, and agricultural landscapes.
- Integrates Indigenous knowledge in restoration efforts.
- Develops tools like the Framework for Ecosystem Restoration Monitoring (FERM) and builds a unified global dataset for transparency.
Key Stakeholders:
- FAO: Leads the initiative, providing tools, data, and frameworks to support restoration.
- UK: Provides financial backing and focuses on helping countries achieve the 30×30 target.
- Indigenous Communities: Contribute traditional knowledge and participate in restoration efforts.
- World Resources Institute (WRI): Supports global restoration initiatives, including the Kham River Restoration Mission in India.
- Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Shapes the biodiversity framework for monitoring progress on 30% ecosystem restoration by 2030.
- World Bank: Provides funding and technical expertise for financing and implementing ecosystem restoration.
| [UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:
1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. 2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. 3. The World Heritage Convention.
Which of the above has/have a bearing on the biodiversity?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 * |
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Why in the News?
A recent study by the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior suggests that locusts do not behave like gas particles but instead make cognitive decisions based on their perception of nearby motion.
About Locust Swarms
- Locusts are large grasshoppers capable of forming massive swarms, consuming up to their body weight in food daily, and traveling 150 km/day with favourable winds.
- They are highly destructive, stripping crops and threatening food security. A single swarm can consume food equivalent to the daily needs of 35,000 people.
- In India, Locust Control and Research (LC&R) oversees locust management.
- The Locust Warning Organisation (LWO), established in 1939, monitors and controls locust activity in states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana.
- The 2019-2022 desert locust outbreak was one of the worst in decades, devastating India, Pakistan, and East Africa, destroying over 200,000 hectares of crops.
- Despite existing control measures, locust outbreaks remain difficult to manage due to their rapid breeding capabilities.
Key Highlights of New Research:
- Traditional models assumed locusts moved collectively by aligning with neighbours.
- However Max Planck Institute reveals that locusts make cognitive decisions based on visual cues.
- The study introduced a new mathematical model using neural ring attractor networks, showing that locusts decide on movement based on multiple visual cues, leading to coordinated swarms through decentralised decision-making.
- This understanding provides a more accurate model for predicting locust swarm behaviour, crucial for early intervention.
| [UPSC 2023] Which of the following organisms perform waggle dance for others of their kin to indicate the direction and the distance to a source of their food?
Options: (a) Butterflies (b) Dragonflies (c) Honeybees* (d) Wasps |
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Why in the News?
Padma Awards 2025 recognised 139 individuals for their exceptional contributions across various fields. Notable awardees include actor S. Ajith Kumar, singer Pankaj Udhas, and cricketer Ravichandran Ashwin.
About Padma Awards:
- The Padma Awards are among India’s most prestigious civilian honors, announced annually on Republic Day’s eve.
- These awards recognize outstanding achievements in various fields, particularly public service.
- The GoI introduced the Bharat Ratna and Padma Vibhushan in 1954, with the three classes (Pahela Varg, Dusra Varg, and Tisra Varg) renamed in 1955 as Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri.
- The awards are not titles and cannot be used as prefixes or suffixes to names.
- The number of awards given annually is capped at 120 (excluding posthumous awards and awards to NRIs/foreigners/OCIs).
Award Categories:
- Padma Vibhushan: For ‘exceptional and distinguished service.’
- Padma Bhushan: For ‘distinguished service of a high order.’
- Padma Shri: For ‘distinguished service.’
Eligibility and Nomination:
- Nominations are reviewed by the Padma Awards Committee, formed annually by the Prime Minister, with final approval from the President.
- Eligibility Criteria:
- Open to all individuals, regardless of race, occupation, position, or gender.
- Government employees, except doctors and scientists, are generally ineligible.
- Awards are generally not given posthumously, with exceptions in extraordinary cases.
- A recipient can be considered for a higher category only after five years since their last Padma award.
| [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements in respect of Bharat Ratna and Padma Awards:
1. Bharat Ratna and Padma Awards are titles under Article 18(1) of the Constitution of India.
2. Padma Awards, which were instituted in the year 1954, were suspended only once.
3. The number of Bharat Ratna Awards is restricted to a maximum of five in a particular year.
Which of the above statements are not correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3* |
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Why in the News?
The Environment Ministry has released the Draft Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensity (GEI) Target Rules, 2025, as part of the government’s efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) from energy-intensive sectors.
About Greenhouse Gases Emissions Intensity (GEI):
- GHGs trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, contributing to global warming.
- Major GHGs include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and synthetic fluorinated gases (CFCs, HCFCs).
- GEI measures the amount of GHGs emitted per unit of output (e.g., per tonne of product like cement or aluminium).
- It uses tCO2e (tonnes of CO2 equivalent) to account for the impact of all GHGs.
- Reducing GEI is vital to mitigate climate change, promoting the use of cleaner technologies in industries to lower environmental footprints.
Key Provisions of Draft GEI Target Rules, 2025:
- Target Setting for Industries: Specific emission intensity reduction targets are set for energy-intensive sectors like aluminium, cement, and pulp and paper, for the periods 2025-26 and 2026-27.
- Baseline Emissions & Gradual Reduction: Baseline GHG emissions for 2023-24 are established, with targets for gradual reduction over time.
- Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS): Industries meeting GEI targets will earn carbon credits that can be traded on India’s carbon market. Those failing to meet targets will need to buy credits or face penalties.
- Sector-Specific Applicability: Targets apply to 13 aluminium plants, 186 cement plants, 53 pulp and paper plants, and 30 chlor-alkali plants.
- Penalties & Incentives: Non-compliant industries must buy carbon credits or face penalties. The rules encourage clean technologies, like using biomass instead of coal in production.
- Alignment with Paris Agreement: The rules support India’s climate commitments, aiming for a 45% reduction in emissions intensity of GDP by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.
- Monitoring & Compliance: The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) will oversee the carbon credit market, ensuring compliance through regular progress reports from industries.
| [UPSC 2022] Climate Action Tracker’ which monitors the emission reduction pledges of different countries is a:
Options: (a) Database is created by coalition of research organisations* (b) Wing of “International Panel of Climate Change” (c) Committee under “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change” (d) Agency promoted and financed by United Nations Environment Programme and World Bank |
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Why in the News?
In 2023-24, India’s listed companies spent Rs 17,967 crore on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), 16% higher than Rs 15,524 crore in 2022-23.
As per the PRIME Database report, this increase was due to an 18% rise in the companies’ net profits.
About Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Obligations Under It
- CSR is a self-regulating business model through which companies become socially accountable to themselves, stakeholders, and the public.
- It includes initiatives that assess and take responsibility for the company’s social and environmental impact.
- India is the first country to mandate CSR spending w.e.f. April 1, 2014, through Section 135 of the Companies Act, 2013.
- It provides a structured framework for CSR activities.
- CSR provisions apply to companies that, in the preceding financial year, have:
- Net worth ≥ ₹500 crore, or
- Turnover ≥ ₹1,000 crore, or
- Net profit ≥ ₹5 crore
- CSR Spending Obligation:
- Companies must spend at least 2% of their average net profits of the last 3 financial years on CSR.
- Newly incorporated companies should calculate it based on profits of previous years.
- Eligible CSR Activities:
-
- Eradicating hunger and poverty
- Promoting education, gender equality
- Combating diseases (e.g., HIV/AIDS)
- Environmental sustainability
- Contributions to relief funds (e.g., PM CARES, PM Relief Fund)
- Welfare of disadvantaged groups
- If CSR spend > ₹50 lakh, companies must constitute a CSR committee with at least three board members, one being independent.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements with reference to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) rules in India:
1. CSR rules specify that expenditures that benefit the company directly or its employees will not be considered as CSR activities.
2. CSR rules do not specify minimum spending on CSR activities.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 or 2 |
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Why in the News?
The National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) has approved an annual master plan for the River Cities Alliance (RCA), aimed at scaling up sustainable urban river rejuvenation.
What is the River Cities Alliance (RCA)?
- The RCA launched in 2021, promotes sustainable urban river management across India.
- It is a joint initiative by the Ministry of Jal Shakti and the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs to integrate river-sensitive urban planning within cities.
- It aims to strengthen institutional capacities, foster collaboration, and support the creation of Urban River Management Plans (URMPs).
- As of 2025, 145 cities are part of the alliance, sharing best practices for river conservation.
- Key activities include promoting river-sensitive planning, peer-to-peer learning, and training for urban local bodies (ULBs).
About National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG):
- The NMCG is a flagship initiative to rejuvenate the Ganga River through pollution abatement, ecological restoration, and community involvement.
- Established in 2011, it implements the Namami Gange Program.
- It was launched with a ₹20,000 crore budget, covering over 288 projects.
- It focuses on pollution abatement and maintaining the ecological flow of the Ganga.
- It operates under a five-tier framework, including the National Ganga Council and state/district committees.
- Key Initiatives: Includes sewage treatment, riverfront development, real-time monitoring, and public awareness campaigns.
- It also addresses floods, droughts, and waterlogging in the Ganga basin.
| [UPSC 2021] Which of the following are the key features of ‘National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA)?
1. River basin is the unit of planning and management.
2. It spearheads the river conservation efforts at the national level.
3. One of the Chief Ministers of the States through which the Ganga flows becomes the Chairman of NGRBA on rotation basis.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The recent Pahalgam terror attack has revived debates on India’s 1966 decision to surrender the Haji Pir Pass to Pakistan during Tashkent Agreement of 1966.
This move is compared to the Soviet Union’s 1954 transfer of Crimea, which created lasting security challenges.
About Haji Pir Pass:
- The Haji Pir Pass is located in the Pir Panjal Range of Jammu and Kashmir, at an altitude of 2,637 meters (8,652 feet).
- It connects Poonch in India to Rawalakot in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).
- Historically, it was a vital route for connecting Jammu to the Kashmir Valley before 1947, making it an essential part of India’s transportation network.
- Post-partition, it became part of PoK and, during the 1965 Indo-Pak War, India recaptured it under Operation Bakshi.
- However, it was returned to Pakistan following the Tashkent Agreement in 1966, a decision criticized by many experts.
How Haji Pir Pass is a Chokepoint?
- Strategic Military Route: The pass provides Pakistan with the ability to control and monitor the Kashmir Valley from a high-altitude position, serving as a key route for military logistics and infiltration.
- Gateway for Infiltration: Historically, it has been used for militant infiltration into India, fuelling insurgency and instability in Kashmir.
- Shortened Military Access: Retaining the pass would have reduced the distance between Poonch and Uri from 282 km to 56 km, improving India’s military logistics and rapid deployment.
- Control over Key Terrain: Controlling the pass enables domination of the surrounding hills, limiting Pakistan’s ability to sustain military pressure and infiltration.
| [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around in the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?
(a) Chang La (b) Jara La (c) Nathu La* (d) Shipki La |
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Why in the News?
To tackle the increasing number of digital payment frauds, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has introduced the exclusive ‘.bank.in’ domain for Indian banks.
About the ‘.bank.in’ Domain
- The ‘.bank.in’ domain was introduced in February 2025 to provide Indian banks with a unique online address, reducing the risk of fraudulent websites mimicking bank domains.
- It will be operationalised by the Institute for Development and Research in Banking Technology (IDRBT), under National Internet Exchange of India (NIXI) oversight.
- The ‘.in’ Code Top-Level Domain (ccTLD) is India’s national identifier on the internet.
- This domain adds an extra layer of trust, distinguishing legitimate banks from fraudulent entities.
- The IDRBT, operating under MeitY, has been authorised as the exclusive registrar for this domain.
- All banks in India must transition to this by October 31, 2025, with both old and new domains likely in use during the transition period.
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements: The Reserve Bank of India’s recent directives relating to ‘Storage of Payment System Data’, popularly known as data diktat, command the payment system providers that
1. they shall ensure that entire data relating to payment systems operated by them are stored in a system only in India
2. they shall ensure that the systems are owned and operated by public sector enterprises
3. they shall submit the consolidated system audit report to the Comptroller and Auditor General of India by the end of the calendar
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
India has recently expanded its claim in the Central Arabian Sea by nearly 10,000 square kilometers as part of its ‘extended continental shelf,’ modifying an earlier claim to resolve a dispute with Pakistan.
About Extended Continental Shelf (ECS):
- ECS refers to the area beyond 200 nautical miles that countries can claim by submitting geological and geophysical evidence to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS).
- These claims allow countries to explore resources like oil, gas, and minerals on and beneath the seabed.
- Coastal states have rights to an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) up to 200 nautical miles from their coastline.
- However, such States can claim additional seabed area beyond this limit if they prove scientifically that the continental shelf extends naturally from their landmass.
Back2Basics: Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS)
- The CLCS estd. In 1997, is a UN body under the UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea) that helps states determine the outer limits of their continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles.
- The CLCS reviews the scientific data provided by states and makes binding recommendations on the extent of the outer shelf limits.
- The commission comprises 21 experts from geology, geophysics, and hydrography, ensuring legal compliance and peaceful boundary resolution.
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India’s Modified Claims and Pakistan:
- India first submitted a claim in 2009 for an extended shelf in the Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean, and Arabian Sea, claiming an additional 1.2 million square kilometers.
- After Pakistan’s objections, India modified its claim, splitting it into two parts to resolve disputes and ensure uncontroversial areas in the Central Arabian Sea.
- India also increased its claim by 10,000 square kilometers using new scientific data.
- The Sir Creek area, a disputed waterway between India and Pakistan, remains a point of contention, but India’s modification aims for peaceful resolution.
- India’s claim overlaps with Oman’s shelf, but the two countries have an agreement to keep the delimitation open without conflict.
| [UPSC 2022] With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements:
1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention.
2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea.
3. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
Recently, a team of scientists from Germany reported a breakthrough in combating the cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) through an innovative RNA-based antiviral agent.
About Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV):
- CMV is one of the most widespread and destructive plant viruses, affecting over 1,200 plant species, including important food crops such as cucumbers, melons, and cereals.
- The virus is transmitted by aphids, tiny insects that spread the virus as they feed on plants, making outbreaks difficult to control.
- In India, CMV causes significant yield losses in crops like bananas, pumpkins, and cucumbers, leading to mosaic discoloration, stunted growth, and unviable fruits.
- The economic impact of CMV includes both direct financial losses from reduced crop yields and the indirect costs of pest management.
RNA Silencing Methods discussed (HIGS vs SIGS):
RNA silencing is a natural defense mechanism that plants use to protect themselves from viral infections.
Two RNA-based technologies, Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS) and Spray-Induced Gene Silencing (SIGS), have been developed to enhance plant immunity against diseases like CMV.
[1] Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS):
- HIGS involves genetically modifying plants to produce dsRNA, which activates the plant’s immune system to fight off the virus.
- This method provides continuous protection and long-term immunity throughout the plant’s lifecycle.
- However, it faces challenges such as regulatory issues, high production costs, and the potential for viruses to evolve resistance over time.
[2] Spray-Induced Gene Silencing (SIGS):
- SIGS, unlike HIGS, does not require genetic modification. Instead, plants are treated with RNA sprays containing dsRNA that targets specific viruses.
- This method is cost-effective, non-GMO, and can be applied to a variety of crops.
- However, SIGS provides short-term protection, may be ineffective due to random RNA mixtures, and its effectiveness can be reduced by environmental factors such as sunlight, rain, and soil microbes.
| [UPSC 2019] RNA interference (RNAi)’ technology has gained popularity in the last few years. Why?
1. It is used in developing gene silencing therapies.
2. It can be used in developing therapies for-the treatment of cancer.
3. It can be used to develop hormone replacement therapies.
4. It can be used to produce crop plants that are resistant to viral pathogens.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 4* (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 and 4 only |
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Why in the News?
A new global initiative called ‘Revive Our Ocean’ was launched with the goal of scaling up effective, community-led marine protected areas (MPAs) to boost marine conservation efforts.
About the Revive Our Ocean Initiative:
- It is a global effort to enhance marine ecosystem protection through community-led Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).
- It was launched by David Attenborough, Dynamic Planet, and National Geographic’s Pristine Seas to scale up MPAs, empowering coastal communities to lead conservation efforts.
- The goal is to protect 30% of the world’s oceans by 2030, aligning with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF).
- Initially focused on 7 countries: UK, Portugal, Greece, Turkey, Philippines, Indonesia, and Mexico, using successful MPA models.
- It emphasizes economic benefits of MPAs, such as generating €16 million annually from diving tourism in Medes Island, Spain.
Back2Basics: Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF)
- KMGBF was adopted in December 2022, the KMGBF aims to halt biodiversity loss by 2030 and ensure human-nature harmony by 2050.
- It replaces the Aichi Biodiversity Targets and is often referred to as the “Paris Agreement for Nature“, with 196 countries adopting it.
- The framework sets a 30×30 target, aiming to protect 30% of global land and marine areas by 2030 and restore ecosystems.
- It focuses on halting species extinction, reducing pollution, and promoting sustainable agriculture, forestry, and fisheries.
- Other targets include reducing pesticide and nutrient pollution, minimising harmful waste, and promoting urban green spaces.
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| [UPSC 2012] The acidification of oceans is increasing. Why is this phenomenon a cause of concern?
1. The growth and survival of calcareous phytoplankton will be adversely affected.
2. The growth and survival of coral reefs will be adversely affected.
3. The survival of some animals that have phytoplanktonic larvae will be adversely affected.
4. The cloud seeding and formation of clouds will be adversely affected.
Which among the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only* (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
The DRDO Laboratory (DRDL), located in Hyderabad, successfully demonstrated long-duration Active Cooled Scramjet Subscale Combustor ground testing for over 1,000 seconds.
About Hypersonic Cruise Missiles:
- Hypersonic cruise missiles are advanced weapons capable of travelling at speeds greater than Mach 5 (approximately 6,100 km/h), making them 5x faster than the speed of sound.
- These missiles use Scramjets (Supersonic Combustion Ramjets) powered by atmospheric oxygen, making them more efficient for long-duration travel compared to traditional missiles that carry their own oxidizers.
- They maintain high speeds and are highly manoeuvrable, making them difficult to intercept by current missile defense systems.
- They can strike targets at long ranges with minimal warning and penetrate advanced defense shields.
DRDO’s Achievement:
- The DRDO successfully conducted long-duration Active Cooled Scramjet Subscale Combustor ground testing for over 1,000 seconds.
- This test advances India’s capability to develop hypersonic cruise missiles, validating the design of the scramjet combustor and the test facility, both crucial for developing air-breathing propulsion systems.
- This paves the way for full-scale flight-worthy combustor testing, bringing India closer to developing functional hypersonic missiles and enhancing its defense capabilities.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.
2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2* |
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Why in the News?
A powerful earthquake with a magnitude of 6.2 struck Istanbul and surrounding areas with its epicenter located beneath the Sea of Marmara.
About the Sea of Marmara
- The Sea of Marmara is a small but significant inland sea in Turkey, acting as a transition zone between the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea.
- It holds geographical, ecological, and cultural importance, separating Asia and Europe within Turkey.
- It spans 11,350 km², it is 280 km long and 80 km wide.
- It is connected to the Black Sea in the northeast via the Bosphorus Strait and to the Aegean Sea in the southwest via the Dardanelles Strait.
- It receives cold, fresh water from the Black Sea and warmer, saltier water from the Mediterranean, creating a unique fresh-to-salty water transition.
- The region experiences a humid subtropical climate with hot summers and cold, wet winters, influencing the marine ecosystem.
- The North Anatolian Fault runs beneath the sea, causing significant earthquake risks, including the recent 6.2 magnitude earthquake near Istanbul.
- It is home to several islands, including Marmara Island (the largest) and Prince Islands.
- The city of Istanbul lies along its coastline.
| [UPSC 2014] Turkey is located between:
Options: (a) Black Sea and Caspian Sea (b) Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea (c) Gulf of Suez and Mediterranean Sea (d) Gulf of Aqaba and Dead Sea |
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