Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tokenization
Mains level: Transaction safety
The RBI’s deadline for tokenization of cards used in online payments passed on 30 September.
What is Tokenization?
- Tokenisation refers to the replacement of credit and debit card details with an alternative code called a âtokenâ.
- This token is unique for a combination of card, token requestor (the entity that accepts a request from the customer for tokenization of a card and passes it on to the card network to issue a token) and the device.
How does it work?
- Tokenizing credit and debit cards is a way to reduce the number of places where your card data can be found.
- For instance, payments on Uber showed a warning that your card data will be saved with payment gateways such as Visa and Mastercard.
- What it is saying is that a merchant like Uber will have to work with payment networks like Visa to convert the card details into a digital token, which is then used to validate transactions.
- As a result, the card details you enter on the Uber app, or any online platform, are not stored on the companyâs cloud servers, and are hence more secure.
What is the digital token being used?
- The digital token is a randomized string, usually alphanumeric. So, a 16-digit card number gets converted to something like 8f9%yf57ljTa.
- It is generated by computer programmes, and the card network tags the token to your actual card details, and relays the token to the merchant.
- When payments are to be requested, the merchant sends this token to the card network, which matches it against the saved details and validates the transaction.
- A third party accessing the token wonât have use for it, since tokens will be unique across combinations of card, token requestor and merchants.
Who can offer tokenization services?
- Tokenisation can be performed only by the authorised card network and recovery of original Primary Account Number (PAN) should be feasible for the authorised card network only.
- Adequate safeguards have to be put in place to ensure that PAN cannot be found out from the token and vice versa, by anyone except the card network.
- RBI has emphasised that the integrity of the token generation process has to be ensured at all times.
Benefits of Tokenization
- Transaction safety: Tokenization reduces the chances of fraud arising from sharing card details.
- Easy payments: The token is used to perform contactless card transactions at point-of-sale (PoS) terminals and QR code payments.
- Data storage: Only card networks and card-issuing banks will have access to and can store any card data.
How were the transactions processed?
- There are many players involved in processing one card transaction today:
- Merchant
- Payment aggregator
- Issuing bank
- Card network
- When a transaction happens on a merchant platform, the data is sent to the payment aggregator (PA).
- The PA next sends the details to either the issuing bank or the card network.
- Then issuing bank sends an OTP and the transaction flows back.
How will tokenization prevent online fraud?
- Card details saved on an app are stored in cloud servers, which if hacked, can give the hacker access to information like card numbers, expiry dates, name of holder etc.
- Though most merchants put special mechanisms to store card details in an obfuscated manner, itâs much more difficult to hack a bank or a Visa than it is to hack websites and apps.
How does it differ from encryption?
- The primary difference is that the token cannot lead one to the card details.
- In encryption, a computer program obfuscates data using an encryption key, and this key can turn the data back to its original form.
- In tokenization, however, there is no way to know what data a token represents unless one has access to the databases of the actual issuer of that token.
- In many cases, laws donât consider tokens as âsensitive data”, and hence, companies donât have to ensure the same compliance to protect them.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Professors of Practice
Mains level: Not Much
University Grants Commission (UGC) has issued new guidelines under which higher education institutes can create a new teaching position called Professor of Practice to hire experts from various sectors, in line with provisions that already exist in the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs).
Professors of Practice
- If one is a distinguished professional in any field but do not have a formal academic qualification such as a PhD, he/she can still be eligible for appointment as faculty in any college or university in India.
- To be eligible for appointment, an individual will have to be a âdistinguished expertâ who has made remarkable contributions in their professions.
- The post is open to the institutions themselves to decide the sector from which they want to rope in professionals.
Streams opened for this post
- A professor of practice can be anyone with a background in a diverse range of areas from technology, science, social sciences, media, literature, armed forces, law, fine arts, etc.
- However, the position is not open for those in the teaching profession â either serving or retired.
Minimum qualifications
- No formal academic qualification is necessary in order to be considered for this position if a person has been an âexemplaryâ professional in their field of work.
- Currently, under the UGCâs minimum qualifications needs a PhD to be recruited as a professor or associate professor, and also needs to have cleared the National Eligibility Test (NET).
Will the professor of practice be a full-time position?
- It can be either a full-time or a part-time engagement for at least four years.
- Initially, the hiring will be for one year.
- Based on performance, extensions may be given.
How will these appointments be made?
- Universities and colleges will carry out appointments on a nomination basis.
- In other words, vice-chancellors or directors have been authorized to invite nominations for filling up posts, which cannot exceed 10 percent of the sanctioned faculty strength of an institute.
- After nominations are invited, those interested can send their applications with detailed biodata and a brief write-up about the ways they can potentially contribute.
- The applications will be considered by a selection committee comprising two senior professors from the respective institute, and one âeminent external memberâ.
- Based on the recommendations of the committee, the academic council and the executive council of the institutes will take the final call on appointment.
What about remuneration?
- The remuneration will be decided at the level of the institutes and the experts being hired.
- In some cases, universities can even approach industries for financial support.
Why such move?
- Indiaâs higher education institutes are understaffed, with thousands of vacancies across central and state universities.
- So the UGC is hoping that recruiting industry experts and professionals will help âaugment faculty resourcesâ in universities and colleges.
- The move is aimed at addressing concerns about the quality of graduates being produced by Indian colleges and universities.
- Around the world, the idea of a professor of practice aims essentially to facilitate and promote the integration of academic scholarship with practical expertise and experience.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PUC Certification
Mains level: Delhi Air Pollution issue
Motorists will not be able to buy fuel in Delhi without a valid Pollution Under Control (PUC) certificate from October 25.
What is PUC Certificate?
- The PUC certificate is a document that any person driving a motor vehicle can be asked to produce by a police officer in uniform authorized by the state government.
- These issue certificates if a vehicle is found complying with the prescribed emission norms.
- Since the Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Act, 2019 came into force, PUC certificate has been made mandatory.
- A PUC certificate contains information such as the vehicleâs license plate number, PUC test reading, date on which the PUC test was conducted and the expiry date.
Compliance rules
- According to Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989, every motor vehicle is required to carry a valid PUC Certificate after the expiry of period of one year from the date of its first registration.
- This includes those conforming to BS-I/ BS-II/ BS-III/BS-IV /BS-VI as well as vehicles plying on CNG/LPG.
- However, the validity of four-wheeled BS-IV compliant vehicles is one year and for other vehicles it is three months.
How is a pollution control check carried out?
- The computerized model for pollution check was developed by the Society of Indian Automobile manufacturers.
- A gas analyzer is connected to a computer, to which a camera and a printer are attached.
- The gas analyzer records the emission value and sends it to the computer directly, while the camera captures the license plate of the vehicle.
- Subsequently, a certificate may be issued if the emission values are within the limits.
Why obtain PUC Certificate?
- Emissions from automobiles are major contributors to air pollution all over the world.
- The smoke emitted from vehicles contains the following pollutants:
- Hydrocarbons (HC)
- Carbon Monoxide (CO)
- Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
- Particulate Matter (PM)
- Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
- Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
- Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MeFSAT
Mains level: Not Much
An analytical study of medicinal fungi using MeFSAT carried out by researchers from Chennai shows that some chemicals they secrete may find use as novel drugs.
What is MeFSAT?
- MeFSAT (Medicinal Fungi Secondary Metabolites and Therapeutics) is a database that compiles information on 184 medicinal fungi, including mushrooms.
- It is a manually curated database that compiles information on secondary metabolites and reported therapeutic uses of medicinal fungi from published research articles and specialized books on the subject.
Why in news?
- Chennai-based researchers analysed the structure of 1,830 secondary metabolites of medicinal fungi.
- Secondary metabolites are chemical compounds that fungi produce when they are stressed.
- They enhance the fungusâ ability to survive.
What are medicinal fungi?
- Medicinal fungi belongs to two taxonomic divisions namely, basidiomycota and ascomycota.
- Mushrooms belong to the basidiomycota division. An example is Agaricus bisporus, the button mushroom, which can be consumed.
- Fungi belonging to the ascomycota division are generally not mushrooms.
Examples of fungi-based medicines
- Cordycepin, a secondary metabolite produced by Cordyceps species of fungus, is known to have anti-tumor properties.
- Not only cordycepin, in general, but several secondary metabolites are also known to be beneficial for humans in terms of both therapy and health.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Forex reserves, BoP
Mains level: Read the attached story
Indiaâs depleted foreign exchange reserves are likely to drop further, falling to their lowest level in more than two years by end-2022.
Forex to dip
- In a battle that has so far failed to staunch the rupeeâs fall to a record low against the greenback, the RBI has drawn down its foreign exchange reserves by close to $100 billion, to $545 billion.
- Those reserves are forecast to fall another $23 billion to $523 billion by the end of this year.
What is Foreign Exchange (Forex) Reserve?
- Foreign exchange reserves are important assets held by the central bank in foreign currencies as reserves.
- They are commonly used to support the exchange rate and set monetary policy.
- In Indiaâs case, foreign reserves include Gold, Dollars, and the IMFâs quota for Special Drawing Rights.
- Most of the reserves are usually held in US dollars, given the currencyâs importance in the international financial and trading system.
- Some central banks keep reserves in Euros, British pounds, Japanese yen, or Chinese yuan, in addition to their US dollar reserves.
Indiaâs forex reserves cover:
- Foreign Currency Assets (FCAs)
- Special Drawing Rights (SDRs)
- Gold Reserves
- Reserve position with the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
Countries with the highest foreign reserves
Currently, China has the largest reserves followed by Japan and Switzerland. India has overtaken Russia to become the fourth largest country with foreign exchange reserves. (Data from August 2022)
- China â $3,349 Billion
- Japan â $1,376 Billion
- Switzerland â $1,074 Billion
- India â $612.73 Billion
- Russia â $597.40 Billion
Why are these reserves so important?
- All international transactions are settled in US dollars and, therefore, required to support Indiaâs imports.
- More importantly, they need to maintain support and confidence for central bank action, whether monetary policy action or any exchange rate intervention to support the domestic currency.
- It also helps to limit any vulnerability due to sudden disturbances in foreign capital flows, which may arise during a crisis.
- Holding liquid foreign currency provides a cushion against such effects and provides confidence that there will still be enough foreign exchange to help the country with crucial imports in case of external shocks.
Initiatives taken by the government to increase forex
- To increase the foreign exchange reserves, the Government of India has taken many initiatives like AatmaNirbhar Bharat, in which India has to be made a self-reliant nation so that India does not have to import things that India can produce.
- Other than AatmaNirbhar Bharat, the government has started schemes like Duty Exemption Scheme, Remission of Duty or Taxes on Export Product (RoDTEP), Nirvik (Niryat Rin Vikas Yojana) scheme, etc.
- Apart from these schemes, India is one of the top countries that attracted the highest amount of Foreign Direct Investment, thereby improving Indiaâs foreign exchange reserves.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Allocation of election symbols
Mains level: Read the attached story
In a blow to one faction, a Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court allowed the Election Commission (EC) to take a decision on the Maharashtra CM claim that his faction represents the ârealâ party.
What is the news?
- The Bench led by Justice D.Y. Chandrachud rejected the plea to stay the EC proceedings under the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order of 1968.
What is the news?
- A party has lost a large number of members in the rebellion that eventually caused the fall of the government in Maharashtra.
- The rebel has claimed to be the only original leader of the party on the basis of the support of more than two-thirds of the partyâs legislators in the Maharashtra Assembly.
Options for ECI
- The ECI in all likelihood can freeze the symbol so that neither of the two sides is able to use it until a final decision is made.
- EC hearings are long and detailed, and may take at least six months.
ECâs powers in Election Symbol Dispute
- The question of a split in a political party outside the legislature is dealt by Para 15 of the Symbols Order, 1968.
- It states that the ECI may take into account all the available facts and circumstances and undertake a test of majority.
- The decision of the ECI shall be binding on all such rival sections or groups emerged after the split.
- This applies to disputes in recognised national and state parties.
- For splits in registered but unrecognized parties, the EC usually advises the warring factions to resolve their differences internally or to approach the court.
How did the EC deal with such matters before the Symbols Order came into effect?
- Before 1968, the EC issued notifications and executive orders under the Conduct of Election Rules, 1961.
- The most high-profile split of a party before 1968 was that of the CPI in 1964.
- A breakaway group approached the ECI in December 1964 urging it to recognise them as CPI(Marxist). They provided a list of MPs and MLAs of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and West Bengal who supported them.
- The ECI recognised the faction as CPI(M) after it found that the votes secured by the MPs and MLAs supporting the breakaway group added up to more than 4% in the 3 states.
What was the first case decided under Para 15 of the 1968 Order?
- It was the first split in the Indian National Congress in 1969.
- Indira Gandhiâs tensions with a rival group within the party came to a head with the death of President Dr Zakir Hussain on May 3, 1969.
Is there a way other than the test of majority to resolve a dispute over election symbols?
- In almost all disputes decided by the EC so far, a clear majority of party delegates/office bearers, MPs and MLAs have supported one of the factions.
- Whenever the EC could not test the strength of rival groups based on support within the party organisation (because of disputes regarding the list of office bearers), it fell back on testing the majority only among elected MPs and MLAs.
What happens to the group that doesnât get the parent partyâs symbol?
- The EC in 1997 did not recognise the new parties as either state or national parties.
- It felt that merely having MPs and MLAs is not enough, as the elected representatives had fought and won polls on tickets of their parent (undivided) parties.
- The EC introduced a new rule under which the splinter group of the party â other than the group that got the party symbol â had to register itself as a separate party.
- It could lay claim to national or state party status only on the basis of its performance in the state or central elections after registration.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ram Setu
Mains level: NA
A movie has once again generated buzz around the chain of shoals off the southeast coast of India that many believe is the Ram Setu or the bridge to Lanka mentioned in the Ramayana.
The Ram Setu
- The Ram Setu, also known as Adamâs Bridge, is a 48-km chain of limestone shoals between Rameswaram on Indiaâs southeast coast and Mannar Island near Sri Lankaâs northwest coast.
- The structure has significance in both Hindu and Muslim mythology â while Hindus believe this is the bridge (Setu) built by Lord Ram and his army to cross to Lanka and fight Ravan.
- As per Islamic legend, Adam used this bridge to reach Adamâs Peak in Sri Lanka, where he stood on one foot for 1,000 years in repentance.
Factual details of the bridge
- Scientists believe Ram Setu is a natural structure formed due to tectonic movements and sand getting trapped in corals.
- However, over the years, evidence has been offered to claim that the bridge is man-made.
- The bridge is not entirely natural, Hindu right wing outfits argue, which proves that it was indeed built by Lord Ram.
When was the structure came into highlights?
- The Ram Setu issue snowballed into a major controversy when the Sethusamudram Project, flagged off during the UPA I government.
- The project aimed to reduce travel time between the eastern and western coasts of India, as ships would no longer have to circle Sri Lanka to travel between the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
- The project was perceived as an attack on Hindu sentiments.
- Various studies have been proposed on the Ram Setu, with the most recent being in 2021, when the government approved an underwater research project to ascertain its origins.
Ecological arguments against the project
- The Sethusamudram project has been opposed on environmental grounds.
- Some claims that it will harm marine life, and that dredging of the line of shoals will make Indiaâs coast more vulnerable to tsunamis.
- In March 2018, the Centre told the Supreme Court that the Ram Setu will not be affected in the execution of the Sethusamudram Shipping Canal project.
NASA images, and other proofs
- Images of the Ram Setu clicked by NASA have been used over and over again to claim that this proves the existence of a man-made bridge.
- NASA has repeatedly clarified that it does not agree with these claims.
- Remote sensing images or photographs from orbit cannot provide direct information about the origin or age of a chain of islands.
- It certainly cannot be determined whether humans were involved in producing any of the patterns seen.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jaldoot App
Mains level: Not Much
With the rapidly declining water table threatening to push many regions into drought, the Union government on has launched a mobile application â Jaldoot.
Jaldoot App
- Jaldoot is jointly developed by the Rural Development and Panchayati Raj Ministries to monitor the groundwater levels across the country.
- The App will enable Gram Rojgar Sahyak to measure the water level of well twice a year pre-monsoon and post-monsoon.
- Jaldoots, that is, officers assigned to measure the water levels, should also upload the geo-tagged photographs through the app on every occasion of measurement.
- This Mobile app will work in both online and offline mode.
- So water level can be captured even without internet connectivity and captured date will be stored in mobile and when mobile comes in the connectivity area, data will synchronize with the central server.
Utility of the App
- The despite promoting watershed development, afforestation, waterbody development and renovation, rainwater harvesting like initiatives, the ground water level in various parts of the country has depleted.
- The regular data to be input by the Jaldoots would be integrated with the database of National Water Informatics Centre (NWIC), which can be utilised for analysis and display.
- The app will facilitate in observing water tables across the country and the resulting data can be utilized for Gram Panchayat Development Plan and Mahatma Gandhi NREGA Plans.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Carl-Gustaf M4
Mains level: Not Much
Swedish defense major SAAB announced plans to manufacture its Carl-Gustaf M4 weapon system in India.
What is the Carl-Gustaf M4?
- The Carl-Gustaf recoilless rifle is a man-portable, multi-role weapon system that allows dismounted soldiers to effectively deal with multiple challenges on the modern battlefield.
- A proven performer in battle, the Carl-Gustaf M4 is said to be adaptable and flexible.
- The Indian Army has been using the iconic Carl-Gustaf since 1976 and currently operates the Mk2 and Mk3 versions.
Key features of Carl-Gustaf M4
- Lightweight, robust, reliable, effective and easy to use
- Tactical flexibility through a wide range of ammunition
- Combat proven system
- Ammunition: Anti-armour, anti-structure, anti-personnel, support
Why in news?
- In recent years, the Indian government has taken several steps to boost the defense manufacturing sector under the âMake in Indiaâ and âAtmanirbhar Bharatâ
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rotterdam convention, PIC
Mains level: Not Much
International trade of two new hazardous pesticides â Iprodione and Terbufos â has been recommended for âprior informed consentâ (PIC) procedure under the Rotterdam convention.
Why in news?
- In India, the use of these chemicals was permitted by the 2015 Anupam Verma committee report. The country is among the largest exporters of Terbufos.
- The chemicals are dangerous for humans and aquatic animals.
Rotterdam Convention
- The Rotterdam Convention is formally known as the Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade.
- It is a multilateral treaty to promote shared responsibilities in relation to importation of hazardous chemicals.
- The convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labelling, include directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans.
- Signatory nations can decide whether to allow or ban the importation of chemicals listed in the treaty, and exporting countries are obliged to make sure that producers within their jurisdiction comply.
- India is a party to the convention, with 161 other parties.
What is the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure?
- The PIC procedure is a mechanism for formally obtaining and disseminating the decisions of importing parties on their willingness to receive future shipments of hazardous chemicals.
- The PIC procedure is a mechanism for formally obtaining and disseminating the decisions of importing Parties as to whether they wish to receive future shipments of those chemicals listed in the Convention.
- For each of the chemicals listed in Annex III and subject to the PIC procedure a decision guidance document (DGD) is prepared and sent to all Parties.
- All Parties are required to take a decision as to whether or not they will allow future import of each of the chemicals in Annex III of the Convention.
- These decisions are known as import responses.
Which are the new chemicals listed?
- Iprodione, a fungicide used on vines, fruits, trees and vegetables, has been classified as carcinogenic and toxic for reproduction.
- Terbufos is a soil insecticide used commonly on sorghum, maize, beet and potatoes. It has also been found to pose risk to aquatic organisms due to its toxicity.
- Both pesticides, which are used in agriculture, are known for their harmful impacts on human health and the environment.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Flags and defence insignia
Mains level: Not Much
The new Naval Ensign (flag), which will be unveiled by PM in Kochi, has brought into focus the flags and ranks adopted by the Indian military after Independence.
Do you know?
The octagonal shape with twin golden borders draws inspiration from the seal of the great Indian emperor, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, whose visionary maritime outlook established a credible naval fleet
Why in news?
- Documents accessed from National Archives of India show that Lord Mountbatten, former Viceroy and Governor General of India, played a major role in suggesting new flags and rank badges.
- This was when India was about to become a Republic on January 26, 1950.
When did India switch from British-era flags and ranks?
- The switch from British-era flags and ranks took place when India became a Republic (26th Jan, 1950).
- Prior to that the flags and badges of ranks of the military were of the British pattern.
- The new, Indian pattern of flags of Army, Navy and Air Force, and also the Regimental Flags of the Army and badges of ranks of all three services were adopted on January 26, 1950.
- The âKings Commissionâ granted to Indian military officers was also changed to âIndian Commissionâ on the same date.
- And at a subsequent date the Kingâs Colours of the various Regiments were laid to rest in Indian Military Academy (IMA), Dehradun.
When did Lord Mountbatten come into the picture?
- The national archives have files, dated 1949, that include a detailed note from Lord Mountbatten regarding names, flags and ranks of the armed forces, and then PM Nehruâs letter to the then Defence Minister Baldev Singh regarding Mountbattenâs suggestions.
- The note, archives reveal, was given to Nehru by Lord Mountbatten when the two met in London.
- The note was forwarded from the PMâs office to the office of then Governor General C Rajagopalachari on May 24, 1949, stating that it is on the issue of âNames and Insignia of Indian Armed Forcesâ after India becomes a Republic.
- The letter also stated that the note should be placed before the Governor General.
What did Lord Mountbatten say in the note?
- The note begins by saying that consequent to becoming a Republic the word âRoyalâ shall be dropped from Indiaâs Army, Navy and Air Force.
- Mountbatten strongly recommended that no other word like âStateâ of âRepublicanâ should replace the word âRoyalâ.
- This was because it would have the effect of separating the forces of India psychologically from the other services in the Commonwealth.
- He further suggested in the letter that the Crown should be replaced from the insignias and replaced by the âthree lions of Ashokaâ.
- Regarding the Naval Ensign, he said that all Commonwealth navies fly the same flag which consists of a large white flag with a red-cross and Union Jack in the upper corner nearer the staff and is known as the âWhite Ensignâ.
- The new Ensign, the note suggested, should continue to have the red-cross but the Indian national flag should replace the Union Jack.
- He suggested this to maintain commonality with the Commonwealth flags.
What changes did Mountbatten suggest for uniforms?
- He strongly urged that existing uniforms should be changed as little as possible.
- He added that the Crown worn on badges of ranks of Majors and above should be replaced by the âthree lions of Ashokaâ.
- The Star of the Order of the Bath should be replaced by Star of India or another form of star.
- He also suggested that the crossed sword and baton on the badges of ranks of Generals should be retained.
- The former Viceroy advocated retaining the stripes of rank in Navy and Air Force saying these were internationally almost the same.
How did the Indian government react to Mountbattenâs suggestions?
- Nehru wrote to the then defence minister in September 1949 saying that he agreed with the suggestions made by the former Governor General that there should be as little change as possible.
- The then PM particularly mentioned the changes suggested by Mountbatten for the Navy.
- Then Governor General C Rajagopalachari also wrote back to Nehru in May 1949 itself agreeing to Mountbattenâs suggestions.
- In the end, Mountbattenâs suggestions were virtually all accepted and implemented with effect from January 26, 1950.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Attorney General
Mains level: Not Much
Attorney General of India (AGI)
- The AGI is the Indian governmentâs chief legal advisor and is a primary lawyer in the Supreme Court of India.
- They can be said to be the advocate from the governmentâs side.
- They are appointed by the President of India on the advice of Union Cabinet under Article 76(1) of the Constitution and holds office during the pleasure of the President.
- They must be a person qualified to be appointed as a Judge of the Supreme Court ( i.e. a judge of some high court for five years or an advocate of some high court for ten years or an eminent jurist, in the opinion of the President and must be a citizen of India.).
Functions and duties
- The AGI is necessary for advising the Government of India on legal matters referred to them.
- They also perform other legal duties assigned to them by the President.
- The AGI has the right of audience in all Courts in India as well as the right to participate in the proceedings of the Parliament, though not to vote.
- The AGI appears on behalf of the Government of India in all cases (including suits, appeals and other proceedings) in the Supreme Court in which GoI is concerned.
- They also represent the Government of India in any reference made by the President to the Supreme Court under Article 143 of the Constitution.
- The AG is assisted by a Solicitor General and four Additional Solicitors General.
Powers of AG
- The AG can accept briefs but cannot appear against the Government.
- They cannot defend an accused in criminal proceedings and accept the directorship of a company without the permission of the Government.
- The AG is to be consulted only in legal matters of real importance and only after the Ministry of Law has been consulted.
- All references to the AG are made by the Law Ministry.
Term of Attorney Generalâs office
- There is no fixed term for the Attorney General of India. The Constitution mentions no specified tenure of Attorney General. Similarly, the Constitution also does not mention the procedure and ground of his removal.
Facts about his office:
- He can be removed by the President at any time.
- He can quit by submitting his resignation only to the President.
- Since he is appointed by the President on the advice of the Council of Ministers, conventionally he is removed when the council is dissolved or replaced.
Limitations to his powers
The AG:
- should not advise or hold a brief against the Government of India
- should not defend accused persons in criminal cases without the permission of the government of India
- should not accept appointment as a director in any company without the permission of the government
Office of AG across the world
- Unlike the Attorney General of the United States, the AGI does not have any executive authority.
- Those functions are performed by the Law Minister of India.
- Also, the AG is not a government servant and is not debarred from private legal practice.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rohini
Mains level: Not Much
In a few weeksâ time, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) hopes to achieve a remarkable feat â the 200th successful launch of the Rohini RH-200 sounding rocket in a row.
Rohini RH-200
- RH-200 is a two-stage rocket capable of climbing to a height of 70 km bearing scientific payloads.
- The first and second stages of RH-200 are powered by solid motors. The â200â in the name denotes the diameter of the rocket in mm.
- Other operational Rohini variants are RH-300 Mk-II and RH-560 Mk-III.
- For years, the RH-200 rocket had used a polyvinyl chloride (PVC)-based propellant.
- The first RH-200 to use a new propellant based on hydroxyl-terminated Polybutadiene (HTPB) was successfully flown from the TERLS in September 2020.
- The first and second stages of RH200 rocket are powered by solid motors.
- Since inception of RH200 rocket, both solid stages are processed using polyvinyl chloride (PVC) based propellant.
- As compared to PVC based propellants, HTPB based propellant is more energetic, higher mechanical & interface properties and has less defects due to lower processing temperature.
What basically is a Sounding Rocket?
- A sounding rocket is an instrument-carrying rocket designed to take measurements and perform scientific experiments during its sub-orbital flight.
- The rockets are used to launch instruments from 48 to 145 km above the surface of the Earth, the altitude generally between weather balloons and satellites.
- The maximum altitude for balloons is about 40 km and the minimum for satellites is approximately 121 km.
History of sounding rockets in India
- Sounding rockets have an important place in the ISRO story.
- The first sounding rocket to be launched from Thumba was the American Nike-Apache â on November 21, 1963.
- After that, two-stage rockets imported from Russia (M-100) and France (Centaure) were flown. The ISRO launched its own version â Rohini RH-75 â in 1967.
- The ISRO has launched more than 1,600 RH-200 rockets so far.
- Currently, the RH200, RH300 MkII and RH560 Mk-III rockets are operational which were developed during the early phase of our journey in rocketry.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PVTGS
Mains level: Not Much
Keeping the rampant child marriages among the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) of Odisha in mind, the State government is providing an incentive of âš20,000 to the couples marrying after the age of 18 years.
Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)
- There are certain tribal communities who have declining or stagnant population, low level of literacy, pre-agricultural level of technology and are economically backward.
- They generally inhabit remote localities having poor infrastructure and administrative support.
- These groups are among the most vulnerable section of our society as they are few in numbers, have not attained any significant level of social and economic development.
- 75 such groups have been identified and categorized as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).
Origin of the concept
- The Dhebar Commission (1960-1961) stated that within Scheduled Tribes there existed an inequality in the rate of development.
- During the fourth Five Year Plan a sub-category was created within Scheduled Tribes to identify groups that considered to be at a lower level of development.
- This was created based on the Dhebar Commission report and other studies.
- This sub-category was named “Primitive tribal group”.
Features of PVTGs
- The features of such a group include a:
- Pre-agricultural system of existence
- Practice of hunting and gathering
- Zero or negative population growth
- Extremely low level of literacy in comparison with other tribal groups
- Groups that satisfied any one of the criterion were considered as PTG.
- In 2006 the government of India proposed to rename “Primitive tribal group” as Particularly vulnerable tribal group”.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India:
- PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory.
- A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.
- There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far.
- Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.
Which of the statements given above are correct? (CSP 2019)
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 4
(d) 1, 3 and 4
Post your answers here.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sittanavasal
Mains level: NA
The Sittanavasal Rock Cave Temple, a major centre of Jain influence for 1,000 years just before the Christian era, is in need of better upkeep.
Sittanavasal
- Sittanavasal is a small hamlet in Pudukkottai district of Tamil Nadu, India.
- It is known for the Sittanavasal Cave, a 2nd-century Jain cave complex. From the 7th to the 9th century A.D., the village flourished as a Jain centre.
- Sittanavasal is the name used synonymously for the hamlet and the hillock that houses the:
- Arivar Kovil (temple of Arihants â Jains who conquered their senses)
- Ezhadipattam (a cavern with 17 polished rock beds), megalithic burial sites and the
- Navachunai tarn (small mountain lake) with a submerged shrine
What makes it special?
- The artwork on the ceiling of the sanctum and the ardha mandapam of Arivar Kovil is an early example of post-Ajanta cave paintings of the fourth to sixth centuries.
- It was also done using the fresco-secco technique (a process that dispenses with preparation of the wall with wet plaster).
Features of the cave paintings
- The ceiling paintings show âbhavyasâ (exalted souls who work to achieve moksha or spiritual liberation) enjoying themselves in a pool, full of lotuses; today much of it is obscured by patchy plastering.
- Faint outlines linger of dancing girls on the âardha mandapamâ pillars.
- The colours are a mixture of plant dyes and mineral elements such as lime, lamp black, and clay pigments such as ochre for yellow and terre verte for the greyish-green tints.
Why in news now?
- Unrestricted public access and general exposure to the elements have led to a gradual fading away of these paintings.
- At the Ezhadipattam, inscriptions have been vandalised beyond recognition.
Also try this PYQ:
Q.There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings?
(a) Bagh caves
(b) Ellora caves
(c) Lomas Rishi cave
(d) Nasik caves
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Post your answers here.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NAFIS
Mains level: Not Much
The Union Home Minister has inaugurated the National Automated Fingerprint Identification System (NAFIS).
What is NAFIS?
- NAFIS is developed by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) at the Central Fingerprint Bureau (CFPB) in New Delhi.
- The project is a country-wide searchable database of crime- and criminal-related fingerprints.
- The web-based application functions as a central information repository by consolidating fingerprint data from all states and Union Territories.
- In April this year, Madhya Pradesh became the first state in the country to identify a deceased person through NAFIS.
Utility of NAFIS
- It enables law enforcement agencies to upload, trace, and retrieve data from the database in real time on a 24Ă7 basis.
- It would help in the quick and easy disposal of cases with the help of a centralised fingerprint database.
How does it work?
- NAFIS assigns a unique 10-digit National Fingerprint Number (NFN) to each person arrested for a crime.
- This unique ID will be used for the personâs lifetime, and different crimes registered under different FIRs will be linked to the same NFN.
- The 2020 report states that the IDâs first two digits will be that of the state code in which the person arrested for a crime is registered, followed by a sequence number.
- By automating the collection, storage, and matching of fingerprints, along with digitizing the records of fingerprint data, NAFIS will provide the much-needed unique identifier for every arrested person.
- It will be included in the CCTNS (Crime and Criminal Tracking Network & Systems) database as both are connected at the backend.
Is this the first time that such an automation project is being attempted?
- Upon the recommendations of the National Police Commission in 1986, the Central Fingerprint Bureau first began to automate the fingerprint database.
- It began with digitizing the existing manual records through Indiaâs first Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFI) in 1992, called Fingerprint Analysis & Criminal Tracing System (FACTS 1.0).
- The latest iteration, FACTS 5.0, which was upgraded in 2007, was considered to have âoutlived its shelf lifeâ, according to a 2018 report by the NCRB and thus needed to be replaced by NAFIS.
Since when has India relied on fingerprinting as a crime-fighting tool?
- A system of fingerprinting identification first emerged in colonial India, where it was tested before it spread to Europe and beyond.
- At first, it was used by British colonial officials for administrative rather than criminal purposes.
- William Herschel, the chief administrator of the Hooghly district of Bengal, from the late-middle 1800s onwards, used fingerprinting to reduce fraud and forgeries.
- It then aimed to ensure that the correct person was receiving government pensions, signing land transfer deeds, and mortgage bonds.
- Anthropometry, the measurement of physical features of the body, was used by officials in India but was soon replaced with a system of fingerprints.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Argo
Mains level: Not Much
The International Argo Program system to observe carbon concentration in the worldâs oceans is extremely inadequate to meet the growing and urgent need for information on oceanic carbon, says a report.
What is Argo?
- Argo is an international program that uses profiling floats to observe temperature, salinity, currents, and, recently, bio-optical properties in the Earth’s oceans; it has been operational since the early 2000s.
- The real-time data it provides is used in climate and oceanographic research.
- A special research interest is to quantify the ocean heat content (OHC).
- Each instrument (float) spends almost all its life below the surface.
- The name Argo was chosen because the array of floats works in partnership with the Jason earth observing satellites that measure the shape of the ocean surface.
- In Greek mythology Jason sailed on his ship the Argo in search of the Golden Fleece.
What are its aims?
- The data that Argo collects describes the temperature and salinity of the water and some of the floats measure other properties that describe the biology/chemistry of the ocean.
- The main reason for collecting these data is to help us understand the oceansâ role in earthâs climate.
- For example, the changes in sea level (once the tides are averaged out) depend partly on the melting of icecaps and partly on the amount of heat stored in the oceans.
- Argoâs temperature measurements allow us to calculate how much heat is stored and to monitor from year to year how the distribution of heat changes with depth and from area to area.
- As ocean heat content increases, sea level rises, just like the mercury in a thermometer.
How does it work?
- Each Argo float (costing between $20,000 and $150,000 depending on the individual floatâs technical specification) is launched from a ship.
- The floatâs weight is carefully adjusted so that, as it sinks, it eventually stabilizes at a pre-set level, usually 1 km.
- Ten days later, an internal battery-driven pump transfers oil between a reservoir inside the float and an external bladder.
- This makes the float first descend to 2km and then return to the surface measuring ocean properties as it rises.
- The data and the float position are relayed to satellites and then on to receiving stations on shore.
- The float then sinks again to repeat the 10 day cycle until its batteries are exhausted.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ambedkar Tourist Circuit
Mains level: Not Much
The Central government has announced a special tourist circuit encompassing five key sites associated with Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
Why in news?
- Activists have urged that Mahad, located in Raigad District of Maharashtra, famous for Mahad Lake Satyagraha should also be included in the proposed circuit.
Ambedkar Circuit
- The five cities in the tourist circuit as announced are Mhow (his birthplace), London (where he resided and studied), Nagpur (also studied here), Delhi (where he passed away) and finally Mumbai (where he was cremated).
- With a special AC train, the government is looking to trace the footsteps of Ambedkar in India by giving better connectivity to four of these spots.
- The idea is to attract tourists beyond the Dalit community, who mostly visit these places as a pilgrimage.
- The journey will include meals, ground transportation, and entry to the sites.
About the sites
- Janma Bhoomi– Ambedkarâs birthplace in Madhya Pradeshâs Mhow
- Shiksha Bhoomi– the place in London where he stayed while studying in the UK
- Deeksha Bhoomi– the place in Nagpur where he embraced Buddhism
- Mahaparinirvan Bhoomi- the place of his demise in Delhi and
- Chaitya Bhoomi- the place of his cremation in Mumbai
Back2Basics: Tourism Circuits
- The government had identified 15 tourist circuits under the Swadesh Darshan Scheme in 2014-15.
- Besides the Ramayana and Buddhist Circuits, others include Coastal Circuit, Desert Circuit, Eco Circuit, Heritage, North East, Himalayan, Sufi, Krishna, Rural, Tribal, and Tirthankar Circuits.
- In terms of train collaboration, the Ramayana, Buddhist, and North East Circuits are already active, while Ambedkar will be fourth.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Account settlement, T+1
Mains level: NA
Beginning October 1, the new account settlement system for the stock broking industry will kick in under the new guidelines issued by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI).
What is Settlement of Accounts?
- The SEBI mandates stockbrokers to settle i.e., transfer the available credit balance from trading account to bank account, at least once in a quarter (90 days) or 30 days.
- The process of transferring the unutilised funds back into the bank account is called âRunning Account Settlementâ or âQuarterly Settlement of Fundsâ.
- The funds are transferred back to the primary bank account of the customer that is linked to the trading account.
- As per the latest guidelines, the settlement will now be done on the first Friday of the quarter or the month depending upon the option selected by the customer.
What are SEBIâs new settlement guidelines?
- On July 27, SEBI issued new guidelines on running accounts of client funds and securities lying with the broker.
- As per the new guidelines, with effect from October 1, 2022, the settlement of running account of clientsâ funds will be done by the trading members after considering the end of the day (EOD) obligation of funds.
- In cases where the client has opted for a monthly settlement process, then the running account shall be settled on the first Friday of every month.
How will it impact investors and traders?
- Changes in settlement brought in by SEBI over the last few years have had the aim of protecting the investor and preventing the misuse as money lying in trading accounts of investors for long periods.
- SEBIâs move will give certainty to investors and trading members.
- It will help brokers develop a system just like banks, which credit interest in the accounts of their customers at the end of the quarter.
- Another advantage would be that if a customer has more than one demat account with different brokers, having one settlement date for the entire industry will make it easier for her to keep track of her funds.
Back2Basics: Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)
- The SEBI is the regulatory body for securities and commodity market in India under the jurisdiction of Ministry of Finance Government of India.
- It was established on 12 April 1988 and given Statutory Powers on 30 January 1992 through the SEBI Act, 1992.
Jurisdiction of SEBI
- SEBI has to be responsive to the needs of three groups, which constitute the market:
- Issuers of securities
- Investors
- Market intermediaries
SEBI has three powers rolled into one body: quasi-legislative, quasi-judicial and quasi-executive.
- It drafts regulations in its legislative capacity, it conducts investigation and enforcement action in its executive function and it passes rulings and orders in its judicial capacity.
- Though this makes it very powerful, there is an appeal process to create accountability.
- There is a Securities Appellate Tribunal which is a three-member tribunal and is currently headed by Justice Tarun Agarwala, former Chief Justice of the Meghalaya High Court.
- A second appeal lies directly to the Supreme Court.
Also read:
SEBI introduces T+1 Settlement System
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: DART Mission, Didymos, Dimorphos
Mains level: Not Much
In the first-of-its kind NASAâs DART Mission is about to hit a small, harmless asteroid millions of miles away.
What is DART Mission?
- The main aim of the mission is to test the newly developed technology that would allow a spacecraft to crash into an asteroid and change its course.
- It is a suicide mission and the spacecraft will be completely destroyed.
- The target of the spacecraft is a small moonlet called Dimorphos (Greek for âtwo formsâ).
- It is about 160-metre in diameter and the spacecraft is expected to collide when it is 11 million kilometres away from Earth.
- Dimorphos orbits a larger asteroid named Didymos (Greek for âtwinâ) which has a diameter of 780 metres.
Why Dimorphos?
- Didymos is a perfect system for the test mission because it is an eclipsing binary which means it has a moonlet that regularly orbits the asteroid.
- It is observable when it passes in front of the main asteroid.
- Earth-based telescopes can study this variation in brightness to understand how long it takes Dimorphos to orbit Didymos.
Collision course
- At the time of impact, Didymos and Dimorphos will be relatively close to Earth – within 6.8 million miles (11 million kilometers).
- The spacecraft will accelerate at about 24,140 kilometers per hour when it collides with Dimorphos.
- It aims to crash into Dimorphos to change the asteroid’s motion in space.
- This collision will be recorded by LICIACube, or Light Italian CubeSat for Imaging of Asteroids, a companion cube satellite provided by the Italian Space Agency.
- Three minutes after impact, the CubeSat will fly by Dimorphos to capture images and video.
Why such mission?
- Dimorphos was chosen for this mission because its size is relative to asteroids that could pose a threat to Earth.
- The spacecraft is about 100 times smaller than Dimorphos, so it won’t obliterate the asteroid.
- The fast impact will only change Dimorphos’ speed as it orbits Didymos by 1%, which doesn’t sound like a lot — but it will change the moon’s orbital period.
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