From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Global Cybersecurity Index, 2024
Why in the News?
India has achieved Tier 1 status in the Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI) 2024, published by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
With a score of 98.49 out of 100, India is now among the top nations demonstrating role-model cybersecurity practices.
AboutGlobal Cybersecurity Index (GCI):
Details
Launch
2015, by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
About ITU
• Founded on 17 May 1865 as the International Telegraph Union
• Presently has 193 member states, with South Sudan joining most recently in 2011
• India became a member in 1869
Objective
• Measures the commitment of countries to cybersecurity based on five pillars.
• Helps identify areas for improvement and encourages capacity and capability building.
Five Pillars
• Legal: Laws and regulations on cybercrime and cybersecurity
• Technical: Implementation of technical capabilities via national and sector-specific agencies
• Organizational: National strategies and organizations implementing cybersecurity
• Capacity Development: Awareness, training, education, and incentives for cybersecurity
• Cooperation: Partnerships between agencies, firms, and countries
Strengths and Weaknesses
• Most countries are strongest in the Legal pillar.
• The Capacity Development and Technical pillars are where most countries are weakest.
GCI 2024 Five-Tier Analysis
• Tier 1 (Role-modelling): Score of 95-100
• Tier 2 (Advancing): Score of 85-95
• Tier 3 (Establishing): Score of 55-85
• Tier 4 (Evolving):
PYQ:
[2020] In India, under cyber insurance for individuals, which of the following benefits are generally covered, in addition to payment for the loss of funds and other benefits?
1. Cost of restoration of the computer system in case of malware disrupting access to one’s computer
2. Cost of a new computer if some miscreant willfully damages it, if proved so.
3. Cost of hiring a specialized consultant to minimize the loss in case of cyber extortion
4. Cost of defence in the Court of Law if any third-party files a suit
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MRSA, Vancomycin
Why in the News?
In 2019, MRSA caused over 100,000 deaths, and although vancomycin has been the main treatment for 40 years, a new study shows it may not stay effective for long.
About Vancomycin
Vancomycin is an antibiotic that has been a cornerstone in the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections for over 40 years.
It is a glycopeptide antibiotic that works by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, making it particularly effective against gram-positive bacteria like MRSA.
It has remained effective against MRSA due to its ability to target bacteria that have become resistant to other antibiotics like methicillin.
For decades, vancomycin has been the first-line treatment for severe MRSA infections, such as those affecting the bloodstream, heart, bones, and lungs.
How Vancomycin is losing its effectiveness against MRSA?
MRSA rarely develops resistance tovancomycin, but when it does, it leads to the emergence of vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA).
Resistance Mechanism: When S. aureus acquires the vanA operon, a gene cluster responsible for vancomycin resistance, it can resist the antibiotic. However, this resistance usually comes with a fitness cost—the bacteria tend to grow slower, making them less virulent.
Fitness Compensation: Recent research shows that S. aureus can evolve to overcome this fitness cost, allowing VRSA to grow faster and remain resistant even in the absence of vancomycin. This adaptation means the bacteria are less likely to lose their resistance and can spread more easily.
Mutations: The study found that additional mutations in the VRSA strains exposed to vancomycin helped the bacteria adapt and maintain resistance. These mutations made the bacteria more fit, ensuring they could thrive even in the presence of vancomycin.
Diminishing Options: As VRSA continues to adapt, vancomycin may no longer be reliable for treating MRSA infections. This raises concerns about the long-term viability of the antibiotic, prompting the need for new treatment strategies.
PYQ:
[2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without Doctor’s prescription, be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR)
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court has dismissed the curative petitions filed by major telecom service providers, seeking relief from the 2019 judgment regarding Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR) dues.
What is Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR)?
AGR is the usage and licensing fee that telecom operators are charged by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT).
It forms the basis for calculating telecom companies’ dues to the government, including the license fee and spectrum usage charges (SUC).
The AGR is divided into:
Spectrum Usage Charges (SUC): These are pegged at 3-5% of AGR, depending on the telecom company’s spectrum holdings.
License Fees: Telecom operators are required to pay 8% of their AGR as a license fee to the government.
Contention over AGR Calculation
The DoT maintains that AGR should include all revenues earned by telecom companies, including non-telecom sources such as deposit interest, asset sales, and dividends.
Telecom operators, on the other hand, insist that AGR should only include revenues generated from core telecom services, excluding income from non-telecom sources like interest and capital gains.
Legal Disputes on AGR
Beginning of the Dispute (2005): The AGR saga began in 2005 when the Cellular Operators Association of India (COAI) challenged the government’s definition of AGR in court. The dispute centered on whether non-telecom revenue should be included in the AGR calculation.
TDSAT Ruling (2015): In 2015, the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT) ruled in favor of telecom companies. TDSAT held that AGR should include only revenue from core telecom activities and exclude non-core sources such as rent, profit from the sale of assets, dividends, and interest income.
Supreme Court Ruling (2019): Setting aside the TDSAT decision, the SC upheld the DoT’s definition of AGR on October 24, 2019, declaring that AGR must include all revenue sources, including non-telecom activities like interest and capital gains. This ruling significantly increased the financial liabilities of telecom companies, as they had to pay outstanding dues.
Financial Impact of the AGR Ruling
The Supreme Court ruling had serious financial implications for telecom companies:
Massive Liabilities: Telecom companies, especially Vodafone Idea and Bharti Airtel, faced huge financial liabilities. The ruling resulted in unpaid dues amounting to over ₹1.4 lakh crore, which included penalties and interest.
Vodafone Idea’s Crisis: Vodafone Idea, in particular, was hit hard by these liabilities and faced potential insolvency, with its future in the Indian telecom sector hanging in the balance.
Sector Consolidation: The financial pressure from the AGR liabilities led to the consolidation of the telecom sector, with smaller players exiting the market.
PYQ:
[2019] In India, which of the following review the Independent regulators in sectors like telecommunications, insurance, electricity, etc.?
Ad Hoc Committees set up by the Parliament
Parliamentary Department Related Standing Committees
Finance Commission
Financial Sector Legislative Reforms Commission
NITI Aayog
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Naga King Chilli
Why in the News?
The village of Seiyhama in Nagaland hosted the 3rd edition of the Naga King Chilli Festival, celebrating the importance of the Naga king chilli, one of the world’s hottest chillies.
About Naga King Chilli
The Naga King Chilli, also known as Raja Mircha or Bhut Jolokia, is one of the world’s hottest chillies, with heat levels exceeding 1 million Scoville Heat Units (SHU).
It is primarily grown in the Northeast Indian states of Nagaland, Assam, Manipur, and Arunachal Pradesh.
In 2006, it was certified by the Guinness World Records as the hottest chilli in the world, a title it held for several years.
In 2008, it received a GI tag, recognizing its unique origin and significance in the global spice market.
The chilli has a heat range of 800,000 to 1,041,427 SHU, making it significantly hotter than common chillies like the jalapeño, which has a SHU of 2,500 to 8,000.
Benefits offered:
Rich in capsaicin, it is known for its pain-relieving properties and potential health benefits, such as boosting metabolism, promoting heart health, and relieving pain and inflammation.
Traditionally, the chilli has been used to preserve food in Nagaland’s hot, humid climate, helping to extend the shelf life of food and reduce waste.
Cultivation:
The chilli is grown in bamboo groves using ancient cultivation methods.
Farming begins in December or January, with peak harvests in August and September.
Approximately 150 households in Seiyhama village, Nagaland, cultivate the Naga King Chilli, with the annual harvest reaching 14,000 kg, valued at ₹70 lakh.
PYQ:
[2015] Which of the following has/have been accorded ‘Geographical Indication’ status?
1. Banaras Brocades and Sarees
2. Rajasthani Daal-Bati-Churma
3. Tirupathi Laddu
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pest-Control Pheromone Dispenser
Why in the News?
A new sustainable pheromone dispenser has been developed through a collaborative research project by scientists from Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR) and ICAR–National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (ICAR–NBAIR).
What is the Pest-Control Pheromone Dispenser?
Details
What is it?
A device designed to release pheromones that alter the behaviour of pests, primarily used in agriculture to control infestations and prevent crop damage.
Developed By
A collaborative project by scientists from Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bengaluru, and ICAR–National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (ICAR–NBAIR), India.
How it Works
Releases synthetic pheromones that mimic natural insect signals.
Attracts pests to traps or disrupts mating cycles, preventing infestations.
Technology
Uses mesoporous silica matrix technology for controlled release.
Ensures consistent pheromone release, independent of external factors like temperature.
Benefits
Cost-effective: Fewer replacements of pheromones reduce overall costs.
Labor-saving: Longer intervals between replacements lower labor requirements.
Environmentally friendly: Reduces chemical pesticide use, promoting sustainable agriculture.
Increased efficacy: Stable release rate ensures effective pest control over extended periods.
Scalability
Suitable for both small-scale farms and large industrial agricultural operations, making it highly scalable.
PYQ:
[2018] With reference to the Genetically Modified mustard (GM mustard) developed in India, consider the following statements:
1. GM mustard has the genes of a soil bacterium that give the plant the property of pest-resistance to a wide variety of pests.
2. GM mustard has the genes that allow the plant cross-pollination and hybridization.
3. GM mustard has been developed jointly by the IARI and Punjab Agricultural University.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Square Kilometer Array (SKA) Project
Why in the News?
The Square Kilometer Array (SKA), the world’s largest radio telescope, has carried out its first observations, marking a major milestone.
About Square Kilometer Array (SKA) Project:
Details
Project Overview
SKA is a global project aimed at building the world’s largest radio telescope network to explore the universe, galaxies, dark matter, and extraterrestrial life.
Construction Phases
Two phases:
SKA-Mid in South Africa operates in higher frequency ranges.
SKA-Low in Australia operates in lower frequency ranges.
Phase 1 (SKA- Mid) began in December 2022. Full operations expected by 2029.
Headquarters
Jodrell Bank Observatory, UK
Site Locations
Telescope arrays in Australia (low-frequency) and South Africa (mid-frequency).
Design and Features
197 parabolic radio antennae in South Africa
131,072 low-frequency antennae in Australia
These are capable of detecting faint radio signals from vast distances.
Global Consortium
16 member countries, including Australia, South Africa, India, China, Japan, and several European nations.
India’s Role
India’s Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (NCRA, TIFR) is a key partner
SKA India consortium (20+ institutions) involved in software, signal processing, and digital hardware development
Key Technologies
Advanced interferometer system using wave interference for data collection.
Scientific Objectives
Explore galaxies at the edge of the universe
Study the ‘Dark Ages’ and phenomena like dark matter and dark energy
Search for extraterrestrial life
Frequency Range
Operates between 50 MHz to 15.4 GHz
Global Collaboration
Key collaboration among India, Australia, South Africa, Italy, and other member nations for data generation, analysis, and installation of antennas.
PYQ:
[2022] Launched on 25th December, 2021, James Webb Space Telescope has been much in the news since then. What are its unique features which make it superior to its predecessor Space Telescopes? What are the key goals of this mission? What potential benefits does it hold for the human race?
[2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:
1. It is the world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic kilometre of ice.
2. It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter
3. It is buried deep in the ice.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: White Revolution 2.0
Why in the News?
The Ministry of Cooperation unveiled White Revolution 2.0, focusing on empowering women farmers and creating job opportunities in the dairy cooperative sector.
What is White Revolution 2.0?
Details
Objective
Transforming India’s dairy sector by empowering women farmers, increasing milk production, and modernizing dairy infrastructure.
Target
Increase procurement from the current 660 lakh litres per day to 1,000 lakh litres per day.
Funding
• Initial funding of ₹40,000 per Multi-Purpose Primary Agricultural Credit Society (PACS) by National Dairy Development Board.
• Total outlay of ₹70,125 crore with full government budgetary support.
Provisions and Features
1. Women Empowerment: Focus on empowering women in the dairy sector and strengthening women’s cooperatives.
2. Increase in Milk Procurement: Aims to raise procurement by 50% over the next five years.
3. Cooperative Infrastructure: 100,000 new and existing cooperative societies (district cooperative societies and Primary Agricultural Credit Societies) to be set up or enhanced.
4. RuPay Kisan Credit Cards: Nationwide rollout for dairy farmers, with micro-ATMs at cooperative societies.
5. Computerisation of Primary Agricultural Credit Societies: 67,930 Primary Agricultural Credit Societies will be computerised for better management.
Significance
1. Women Empowerment: Creates leadership opportunities for women in dairy, promoting gender equality.
2. Boost to Rural Economy: Strengthening cooperatives and milk procurement will improve rural livelihoods.
3. Improved Infrastructure: Modern technology, micro-ATMs, and computerisation will increase efficiency.
4. Job Creation: Expanding cooperatives and modern practices will generate jobs for 130 million farmers.
5. Malnutrition Reduction: Enhances dairy quality to combat malnutrition.
6. Cooperative Modernisation: Focus on Artificial Intelligence and advanced technologies.
7. Dairy Exports Boost: Improved production and quality to enhance India’s dairy exports.
PYQ:
[2017] Explain various types of revolutions, took place in Agriculture after Independence in India. How these revolutions have helped in poverty alleviation and food security in India?
This year, Kerala faced a sudden surge in Amoebic Meningoencephalitis cases, caused by free-living amoebae (FLA) found in freshwater ponds, lakes, and rivers.
Kerala also saw a diverse range of amoebic infections, caused by Naegleria fowleri, Vermamoeba vermiforis, and Acanthamoeba.
What is Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM)?
PAM is caused by the Naegleria fowleri, often referred to as the “brain-eating amoeba“. It destroys brain tissue, causing severe swelling and is fatal in most cases.
An amoeba is a type of cell or unicellular organism with the ability to alter its shape, primarily by extending and retracting pseudopods.
Higher temperatures of up to 115°F (46°C) are conducive to its growth and it can survive for short periods in warm environments.
The amoeba enters the body through the nose, typically during activities like swimming, and travels to the brain, causing severe damage.
According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), most people with PAM die within 1 to 18 days after symptoms begin. It usually leads to coma and death after 5 days.
Diagnosis and Treatment:
Currently, there are no established effective treatments for PAM.
Diagnosis involves PCR tests of cerebrospinal fluid, though detection can be challenging due to the rarity of PAM.
Treatment followsCDC guidelines, including miltefosine, Azithromycin, and Amphotericin B, with miltefosine recently procured by the State Health Department from Germany.
Medical interventions typically involve a combination of drugs, including amphotericin B, azithromycin, fluconazole, rifampin, miltefosine, and dexamethasone.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Important sites of Indus valley Civilization
Why in the News?
It has been 100 years since the discovery of the Harappan Civilization, announced by John Marshall on September 20, 1924.
Harappa: Remains of a Civilization
The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, flourished between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE, with earlier settlements dating back to 3200 BCE.
The origins of this civilisation are traced back to Mehrgarh in Balochistan, which dates to 7000 BCE.
It is considered one of the three earliest civilizations, alongside Egypt and Mesopotamia.
The civilization covered over 1.5 million sq. km, stretching across modern-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
Remains of the civilization include:
Well-planned cities with a grid layout, intersecting streets, and fortified structures.
Advanced drainage systems with underground sewers and covered drains, showing a strong emphasis on hygiene.
Granaries, warehouses, and dockyards, indicating the presence of structured trade and food storage mechanisms.
The discovery of seals made of steatite, often engraved with animals and an un-deciphered script, suggesting a sophisticated administrative system.
Craftsmanship in pottery, bead-making, terracotta figurines, metal artefacts, and weaving.
Water management systems such as reservoirs, wells, and baths, indicating an advanced understanding of hydraulic engineering.
The Discoverers:
Two ASI archaeologists were credited with the discovery:
Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa in 1921-22, discovering seals, pottery, and beads.
Rakhal Das Banerji began excavating Mohenjo-daro in 1922, finding similar items such as seals and copper objects.
John Marshall noticed the similarity between the objects found at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, despite the sites being 640 km apart.
About the Mohenjo-daro Site:
Mohenjo-daro is one of the largest cities of the Harappan Civilization, located in the Sindh province of Pakistan, discovered in 1922 by Rakhal Das Banerji.
The city represents one of the finest examples of ancient urban planning:
Great Bath: A large, centrally located structure thought to be used for ritual bathing or religious ceremonies. It is considered one of the earliest public water tanks in history.
Granaries: Massive storage facilities near the citadel suggest an organized system of storing food for the community.
Citadel and Lower Town: The city was divided into a raised citadel for the ruling elite and a lower town for common people. Both areas had well-planned streets and residential complexes.
Drainage Systems: Mohenjo-daro featured covered drainage systems with individual toilets connected to the drainage network, showcasing an impressive public sanitation system.
Residential Buildings: Homes were built from uniform mud bricks, with courtyards and bathrooms, and were often multi-storied. The use of standardised brick sizes (ratio 1:2:4) and cubic weights showed their high degree of organisation.
Artefacts found at Mohenjo-daro include:
Seals with animal motifs and the un-deciphered Harappan script, believed to have been used for administrative or trade purposes.
Pottery and tools made of bronze and copper.
Terracotta figurines, jewellery, and toys that reflect a highly developed artistic culture.
Weights and measures based on a uniform standard, indicating the use of a standardized economic system.
The city’s streets were aligned north-south and east-west, cutting at right angles, allowing for efficient transportation, including bullock carts.
Mohenjo-daro is believed to have had trade links with Mesopotamia, as suggested by artefacts with Mesopotamian connections.
PYQ:
[2013] Which of the following characterizes/characterize the people of Indus Valley Civilization?
1. They possessed great palaces and temples.
2. They worshipped both male and female deities.
3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare.
Select the correct statement/statements using the codes given below.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mini-Moon, Asteroid 2024 PT5,
Why in the News?
In a rare celestial event, Earth’s gravitational field will witness a small asteroid, 2024 PT5, creating a “mini-moon” for two months.
What is Mini-Moon?
A mini-moon is a small asteroid temporarily captured by Earth’s gravitational field, orbiting the planet for a short period before escaping back into space.
Unlike Earth’s permanent moon, mini-moons only stay for a few monthsto a few years before being ejected from orbit.
Mini-moons are a rare occurrence because most asteroids either pass by Earth or burn up in the atmosphere rather than being captured by Earth’s gravity.
Mini-moons are usually small, often just a few meters in diameter.
For example, 2024 PT5 is only about 33 feet (10 meters) in length.
They are hard to detect and are usually discovered using advanced telescopicsurveys like NASA’s Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS).
Significance of Mini-Moons
Mini-moons offer scientists a unique opportunity to study near-Earth objects, enhancing our understanding of asteroids’ behavior and composition.
Mini-moons could contain valuable minerals or water, making them potential targets for future space missions to extract resources.
Studying mini-moons helps scientists learn more about Earth’s gravitational influence and how it interacts with space objects.
PYQ:
[2011] What is the difference between asteroids and comets?
Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky and metallic material.
Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and Mercury.
Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National War Memorial, Abdul Hameed (PVC)
Why in the News?
A poem on National War Memorial and a chapter about Veer Abdul Hameed (PVC) introduced by the Ministries of Defence and Education has been included in the NCERT Class VI curriculum.
About National War Memorial
The National War Memorial was unveiled on 25th February 2019 to honor Indian soldiers who sacrificed their lives in conflicts with Pakistan, China, 1961 Goa war and Operation Pawan.
The monument is designed in a C-hexagonlayout, with names of the fallen soldiers inscribed on its walls.
It was designed by Yogesh Chandrasan of WeBe Design Lab.
Key features include the Amar Chakra (Circle of Immortality) with the ‘Eternal Flame’ symbolizing the nation’s commitment to remembering the soldiers.
The Veerta Chakra showcases six bronze murals depicting acts of bravery.
The Rakshak Chakra symbolizes protection with trees representing troops safeguarding the nation.
Tyag Chakra (Circle of Sacrifice) features concentric granite walls honoring the soldiers who have died since Independence.
The memorial also features busts of 21 soldiers who have received the Param Vir Chakra, India’s highest gallantry award.
Who was Veer Abdul Hameed?
Abdul Hamid was a soldier in the 4th Grenadiers of the Indian Army.
He fought in the Battle of Asal Uttar during the 1965 India-Pakistan war, which took place near the India-Pakistan border in Punjab.
On 10th September 1965, he destroyed 3 Pakistani tanks and damaged a 4th near Chima village. He was killed during the battle.
For his exceptional bravery, he was posthumously awarded the Param Vir Chakra, India’s highest military honour.
A war memorial now stands at the site of his death, featuring a captured PakistaniPatton tank as a tribute to his courage.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: TRISHNA Mission
Why in the News?
Philippe Baptiste, head of the French Space Agency, talked about the joint India-France “TRISHNA Mission.”
TRISHNA Mission:
Details
Overview
A joint Indo-French Earth observation satellite project developed by ISRO and CNES (French Space Agency).
Acronym for “Thermal infraRed Imaging Satellite for High-resolution Natural resource Assessment” (TRISHNA Mission)
Launch Year
Targeted for 2026.
Mission Lifespan
Designed for a 5-year operational life.
Primary Objectives
• Monitor water and energy budgets of the continental biosphere.
• Assess evapotranspiration for efficient water management.
• Improve agricultural water productivity and assist in irrigation water management.
• Provide high-resolution observations of water quality in coastal and inland waters.
• Assess urban heat islands and detect heat anomalies.
Payloads
• Thermal Infrared (TIR) Payload: Provided by CNES, this sensor maps surface temperature and emissivity in high resolution.
• Visible-Near Infrared-Short Wave Infrared (VNIR-SWIR) Payload: Developed by ISRO, this sensor uses seven spectral bands for detailed mapping of surface reflectance.
Orbit and Spatial Resolution
• TRISHNA will operate in a sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 761 km.
• Spatial resolution: 57 meters for land and coastal areas, 1 km for ocean and polar regions.
Application and Significance
• Supports water resource management, agriculture, and urban planning through precise data on water stress, crop productivity, and urban heat islands.
• Enhances climate resilience by tracking droughts, evapotranspiration, and permafrost changes.
• Contributes to global environmental initiatives like GEOGLAM and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by providing key agricultural and climate variables.
PYQ:
[2016] Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology helped India in its socio-economic development?
[2010] In the context of space technology, what is “Bhuvan”, recently in the news?
(a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India
(b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II
(c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rapa Nui Island, Moai statues
Why in the News?
The Volcanic Island of Rapa Nui (also known as Easter Island) has always been mysterious due to its harsh geography and iconic Moai statues.
About Rapa Nui Island
Details
Location
• Situated in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, Rapa Nui is part of Polynesia and a territory of Chile.
• One of the most remote islands, about 3,500 km from Chile.
Size
• Covers an area of 160 sq. km.
Geographical details
• The island has a volcanic origin, featuring lava-covered terrain and rocky soil.
• Notable volcanoes include Terevaka, Poike, and Rano Kau.
• Tropical climate with average temperatures ranging between 18°C and 28°C.
• Rainfall occurs mostly in the winter months.
Moai Statues
• Famous for over 900 moai statues, some as tall as 40 ft and weighing 75 tonnes.
• These statues were built between the 13th and 16th centuries to honor revered ancestors.
• Carved from volcanic rock and transported across great distances.
Discovery
• Discovered by European sailors on Easter Sunday, 1722, which gave it the name Easter Island.
• The island had been settled centuries earlier by Polynesian explorers who navigated thousands of kilometers of ocean.
Significance of New Findings
• Recent studies, including the use of AI analysis of satellite images, have debunked earlier theories of ecological collapse.
• Genetic studies show Native American ancestry before European contact, indicating earlier interactions with South America.
PYQ:
[2018] Consider the following statements:
1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian territory.
2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
The Union Cabinet approved the expansion of the Chandrayaan-4 mission, Venus Orbiter Mission (Shukrayaan Misison), Gaganyaan, the development of India’s first space station (the Bharatiya Antariksh Station), and NextGen launch vehicles.
About Chandrayaan-4 Mission
Chandrayaan-4 is the fourth mission in India’s Chandrayaan program (2003).
The mission is currently under conceptualisation and expected to launch around 2027.
Aims: To develop technology for a successful moon landing and ensure a safe return to Earth.
The mission will be launched in two phases onboard two LVM3 rockets.
It will collect lunar samples for analysis on Earth.
About Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM)
The VOM, also called Shukrayaan-1, is an upcoming ISRO mission targeting a 2028 launch.
The mission aims to study Venus’ surface, atmosphere, volcanic activity, and solar wind interactions with its ionosphere.
It will have a mission duration of 4 years.
The spacecraft will operate in an elliptical orbit, with distances of 60,000 km at apoapsis and 500 km at periapsis.
Its payload has a capacity of 100 kg, is powered by 500 watts, and will feature Indian and international instruments for comprehensive analysis.
For the mission’s payload and technology, collaborations with NASA, CNES (France), and Russia have been established.
PYQ:
[2016] The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO:
is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission
made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ammonium Nitrate
Why in the News?
Ammonium Nitrate (AN) imports from Russia have sharply increased affecting domestic fertilizer companies in India.
The import of Ammonium Nitrate is concerning due to increased dependence on foreign supply, price disparity impacting domestic industries, and potential risks to national energy and security.
What is Ammonium Nitrate?
Ammonium Nitrate (NH₄NO₃) is a nitrogen-rich, white, crystalline chemical compound.
It is soluble in water and commonly used in various industries.
Uses:
It is widely used as a fertilizer in agriculture.
It serves as a component for anaesthetic gases and cold packs.
It is also a key ingredient in commercial explosives used for mining and construction.
Ammonium nitrate is classified as an oxidizing substance under Grade 5.1 by the United Nations.
India’s Regulations:
AN is regulated under The Ammonium Nitrate Rules, 2012, and its manufacture or use requires a license.
The Explosives Act, 1884 defines ammonium nitrate as any compound with more than 45% AN by weight.
Storage Restrictions: Storing large quantities of AN in populated areas is illegal in India.
For manufacturing, companies need an industrial license under the Industrial Development and Regulation Act, 1951.
Why is it a Cause of Concern?
Ammonium Nitrate is a primary component in explosive mixtures like ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil).
Though not explosive on its own, it becomes highly dangerous when mixed with detonators like RDX or TNT.
It has been used in Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) by terrorist groups.
Accidents involving AN, like the Beirut port explosion in 2020, have raised serious concerns about its storage and handling.
Its widespread use in fertilizers leads to concerns about environmental impact, especially when mishandled.
Improper storage in populated areas can result in devastating accidents, which is why stringent regulations are in place to control its use, storage, and transport.
PYQ:
[2015] What can be the impact of excessive/inappropriate use of nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture?
1. Proliferation of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms in soil can occur.
2. Increase in the acidity of soil can take place.
3. Leaching of nitrate to the ground-water can occur.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: COP29
Why in the News?
COP29 is set to be hosted by Azerbaijan from November 11 to 22. It has a central focus on finalising a agreement on Climate Finance Action Fund (CFAF) particularly for the post-2025 period.
Proposals by Azerbaijan:
Azerbaijan has included key proposals in the COP29 Action Agenda, such as:
Increasing global energy storage capacity by six times by 2030.
Promoting a global market for green hydrogen.
Ensuring the carbon footprint from digitisation and data centres is kept to a minimum.
About the Climate Finance Action Fund (CFAF):
The CFAF will be capitalised with contributions from fossil fuel producing countries
It will be headquartered with its secretariat in Baku, Azerbaijan.
It will rely on voluntary contributions from fossil-fuel producing countries and companies.
Azerbaijan, a major petroleum economy, will make the first contribution to kickstart the fund.
Fossil-fuel producing countries and companies will have the option to make annual contributions, either as a fixed sum or based on production volumes.
The funds will be divided equally:
50% will go toward climate projects in developing countries.
50% will support developing nations in implementing national climate action plans.
The fund will become operational once it reaches a minimum corpus of $1 billion.
At least 10 countries must commit to being shareholders for the fund to start.
20% of the revenues generated from investments will be deposited in a Rapid Response Funding Facility (2R2F) providing highly concessional and grant-based support.
What did Paris Agreement of 2015 said on Climate Finance?
Under the Paris Agreement (2015), developed countries are obligated to raise at least $100 billion annually to aid developing nations in their fight against climate change.
This amount is expected to increase after 2025.
Negotiations have been slow, and countries are still debating the quantum of finance that industrialised nations should provide.
PYQ:
[2016] With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?
The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN, and it will go into effect in 2017.
It aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2ºC or even 1.5ºC above pre-industrial levels.
Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indian Flag Code
Why in the News?
The Bihar Police arrested some miscreants for waving India’s national flag with distorted Ashok Chakra/Dhammachakra.
Significance of Ashok Chakra:
Symbolism: Represents righteousness, justice, and the path of virtue, urging citizens to uphold moral values.
Legacy of Dhamma: Reflects Emperor Ashoka’s principles of peace, non-violence, and welfare, after his embrace of Buddhism.
Compassion for all: Derived from the Dhammachakra, it represents the Buddhist philosophy of ethical living and compassion.
Unity and Progress: The circular design symbolizes unity and continuous development, emphasizing national harmony and forward movement.
About Flag Code of India, 2002:
Details
Objective
To regulate the display, usage, and respect for the Indian National Flag by citizens, organizations, and the government.
Basisi
Article 51 ‘A’ contained in Part IV A i.e. Fundamental Duties asks: To abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem in clause (a).
Structure
The Flag Code is divided into three parts:
Part I: General provisions related to the display of the national flag by all.
Part II: Display of the flag by government bodies.
Part III: Display of the flag by public, private organizations, and educational institutions.
Material of Flag
The national flag should be made of hand-spun and hand-woven wool, cotton, silk, or khadi bunting.
However, polyester and machine-made flags were allowed under amendments in 2021.
Prohibitions (Section 2.2)
Not be used as a drapery, costume, or uniform.
Not be used for commercial purposes or as a receptacle.
Display Guidelines (Section 2.1)
Must be hoisted respectfully, always ensuring that the saffron band is on top when displayed vertically.
Should never touch the ground or be used as decoration.
Amendments
In 2022, rules were amended to allow the national flag to be flown both during the day and night, as long as it is hoisted in a dignified manner.
Penalties
Disrespect or misuse of the national flag is punishable under the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971.
PYQ:
[2008] What is the number of spokes in the Dharmachakra in the National Flag of India?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Telescopes
Why in the News?
Modern telescopes, both on Earth and in space, expand our understanding of the universe by gathering and focusing light from distant celestial bodies, revealing cosmic secrets.
ModernTelescopes: Everything you need to know
Primary Functions and Features
Purpose
• Telescopes serve as windows into space, revealing distant celestial bodies and helping explore the universe.
• Their primary function is to gather more light than the human eye can, making faint objects visible.
Types
1. Reflecting Telescopes:
• Use mirrors to focus light and create images.
• Most common in large observatories due to the use of parabolic mirrors, which prevent light scattering and offer clear images. 2. Refracting Telescopes:
• Use lenses to bend and focus light (Concave and Convex lenses used)
• Limited by lens size, with a maximum of about 1 meter (e.g., Yerkes Observatory). Large lenses may sag, distorting the image.
Primary purpose
• Telescopes are designed to collect more light than the human eye.
• The light-gathering ability is proportional to the size of the aperture (opening).
• Example: A small 70mm telescope collects 118 times more light than the human eye.
Features of Telescopes
Brightness and Magnitude
• Celestial objects’ brightness is measured in apparent magnitude (lower numbers = brighter).
• Examples: Sun (-26.78), Venus (-4.92), Sirius (-1.46), Andromeda Galaxy (+3.44).
• Small telescopes can detect objects with magnitudes up to +11.2, which are 100 times fainter than what the human eye can see.
Resolution and Detail
• The resolution of a telescope determines how much detail it can show.
• A small telescope can resolve details 1.47 arcseconds apart (40 times more detail than the human eye, which resolves details 60 arcseconds apart).
Why are Telescopes set up on Mountains?
Mountaintop benefits
• High-altitude observatories are set up to reduce atmospheric distortion, which affects image quality (e.g., stars twinkling).
• Space telescopes, like Hubble, are entirely above the atmosphere and provide clear, undistorted images.
Adaptive Optics
• Ground-based telescopes use adaptive optics to correct atmospheric distortions.
• Lasers create artificial stars, and the telescope adjusts its mirrors to reduce twinkling.
About the New Segmented Mirrors
Overcoming Mirror Limitations
• Large mirrors (over 8.5 meters) can sag under their own weight.
• Segmented mirrors solve this by using smaller sections to create larger, effective mirrors (e.g., Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) with a 39.3-meter aperture).
Notable Telescopes
• Large Binocular Telescope (LBT): Two 8.4-meter mirrors, combined aperture of 11.9 meters.
• Extremely Large Telescope (ELT): Under construction in Chile, it will have a 39.3-meter aperture.
• Subaru Telescope (Hawaii): Captured objects with a magnitude of +27.7, 100 million times fainter than what the human eye can see.
PYQ:
[2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:
1. It is the world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic kilometre of ice.
2. It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter
3. It is buried deep in the ice.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Windfall Tax
Why in the News?
The Government of India has scrapped the windfall tax on crude oil, which was previously set at ₹1,850 per tonne.
What is Windfall Tax?
Details
Definition
A higher tax levied on companies that earn unexpected and extraordinary profits due to external factors.
Purpose
To capture a portion of excess profits from industries benefiting from global price surges, such as oil.
Imposition in India
Imposed as a Special Additional Excise Duty (SAED) on crude oil production and exports of diesel, petrol, and aviation turbine fuel (ATF).
Dynamic Tax Rate
Revised every 15 days based on international oil prices in the preceding fortnight.
First Imposed
July 1, 2022, during the Russia-Ukraine conflict and post-COVID recovery.
Application
Applies to domestically produced crude oil and exports of diesel, petrol, and ATF.
Reasons for Imposing
Sharp rise in global oil prices due to external factors like the Russia-Ukraine war.
Capture supernormal profits of energy companies for public welfare.
Benefits
Generates revenue for public welfare schemes.
Ensures fair distribution of profits from market volatility.
Stabilizes fuel prices during inflation or supply chain disruptions.
India’s Crude Oil Trade:
India is the 3rd largest oil consumer globally, following the US and China.
The country relies on imports for 85% of its oil needs, with this dependence expected to increase due to declining domestic production.
Russia has become India’s top oil supplier, with imports surging to 1.53 million barrels per day (bpd) in January 2024.
Russia (1st) > Iraq (2nd) > Saudi Arabia (3rd)> UAE (4th) – Crude oil export to India
PYQ:
[2020] The term ‘West Texas Intermediate’, sometimes found in news, refers to a grade of:
(a) Crude oil
(b) Bullion
(c) Rare earth elements
(d) Uranium
[2017] Petroleum refineries are not necessarily located nearer to crude oil producing areas, particularly in many of the developing countries. Explain its implications. (250 words)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: BRICS-11, New members of BRICS
Why in the News?
Turkey has officially applied to join the BRICS group after Russia supported its entry. Russia is set to hold the BRICS Summit in Kazan from October 22 to 24, 2024.
Malaysia and Thailand had also expressed their interest in joining the expanded BRICS group of emerging economies.
Turkey’s Geopolitical Position:
Joining BRICS could signify Turkey’s foreignpolicy shift, possibly distancing the country further from its long-standing ambition to join the European Union (EU).
Turkey has faced Western criticism for its purchase of Russian S-400 defence systems, its ties with Russia, and its stance on sanctions.
Ankara is positioning itself as a middle power that can balance relationships between the West and the Global South.
What is BRICS?
Details
Members
BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa)
Origin
Coined by economist Jim O’Neill in 2001 as BRIC, formalised as BRICS in 2010
Formation
First meeting of BRIC Foreign Ministers in 2006. South Africa was invited to join BRIC in December 2010
Global share of BRICS
Population: 41%
GDP: 24%
Global trade: 16%
Chairmanship
Rotated annually among members, following sequence B-R-I-C-S
India’s Hosting
Hosted the 2021 BRICS Summit
Key Initiatives
New Development Bank (NDB) established in 2014: Approved 70 infrastructure and sustainable development projects
Contingent Reserve Arrangement signed in 2014: Aims to forestall short-term balance of payments pressures and strengthen financial stability
Customs agreements signed for trade facilitation
BRICS Remote Sensing Satellite Constellation initiated in 2021: Involves six existing satellites developed by members
Expansion
Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates joined as new full members on January 1, 2024.
Argentina refused to join the BRICS group in 2024
Malaysia, Thailand and Turkey have bid for its membership.
PYQ:
[2014] With reference to a grouping of countries known as BRICS, consider the following statements:
1. The First Summit of BRICS was held in Rio de Janeiro in 2009.
2. South Africa was the last to join the BRICS grouping.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
