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Tax Reforms

An Inheritance Tax will help reduce Inequality

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Inheritance Tax and Land Value Tax (LVT)

Mains level: Taxation system in India;

Why in the news?

A remark by Chairman of Indian Overseas Congress Sam Pitroda on implementing an inheritance tax as a tool of wealth redistribution has sparked massive debates.

The Negative Impact of Inequality:

Growth affected: Inequality harms growth in the medium-to-long run by reducing firm productivity, lowering labor income, and diverting resources away from essential rights like education.
Inequal Opportunity: In unequal countries like India, where one is born greatly influences lifetime outcomes, with almost a third of consumption variation being explained by the place of residence (state, city, or village).
Concentration of Wealth: The richest 1% holding 40% of India’s wealth underscores the vast wealth disparities that exacerbate inequality.
Skewed Distribution of Gains: Research indicates that the gains from India’s growth over the last two decades have disproportionately benefited high-income urban residents, further exacerbating inequality.

What is Inheritance Tax?

An inheritance tax is a tax levied on the assets or wealth passed down from one generation to another upon the death of the owner.
Unlike a wealth tax, which is recurring and applied to all physical and financial assets an individual owns, an inheritance tax is a one-time tax specifically targeting intergenerational transfers of wealth.

How an Inheritance Tax could help reduce Inequality?

The Constitution mandates equality of status and opportunity, obliging the government to take steps to reduce disparities arising from accidents of birth.

Reduction of Wealth Concentration: By taxing large inheritances, an inheritance tax helps to redistribute wealth from the wealthiest individuals and families to the broader society.
Encouragement of Productive Investments: Inheritance taxes can encourage wealthy individuals to invest their wealth in productive activities rather than simply passing it down to heirs.
Incentive for Innovation: Critics may argue that inheritance taxes disincentivize innovation by reducing the incentive to accumulate wealth to pass on to future generations.
Funding for Public Expenditure: Revenue generated from inheritance taxes can be used to fund essential public services and social programs, such as education, healthcare, infrastructure, and poverty alleviation initiatives.
Historical Effectiveness: Historical examples, such as the estate duty in India between 1953 and 1985. It reduced the top 1% personal wealth share from 16% to 6% between 1966 and 1985.

Another approach is the Land Value Tax (LVT): The Land Value Tax (LVT) is a tax system that levies charges on the unimproved value of land. Unlike traditional property taxes, which take into account both the value of the land and the value of any buildings or improvements on the land, the LVT focuses solely on the value of the land itself.

Conclusion: Tackling wealth inequality requires a multifaceted approach that includes measures such as inheritance taxation, wealth taxation, and the Land Value Tax (LVT). These measures not only help to redistribute wealth and promote economic fairness but also contribute to fostering a more inclusive and prosperous society where opportunities are more evenly distributed.

Mains PYQ:

Q Comment on the important changes introduced in respect of the Long term Capital Gains Tax (LCGT) and Dividend Distribution Tax (DDT) in the Union Budget for 2018-2019.

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RBI Notifications

CBDC pilot programmes for CPs, CDs likely: RBI

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: CBDC, CPs, CDs;

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

RBI Governor Shaktikanta Das unveiled plans for a pilot program targeting the wholesale segment of Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) focusing on commercial papers (CPs) and certificates of deposits (CDs).

What is Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC)?

CBDC is a legal tender to be issued by the central bank in digital form; like rupee notes or coins, which are in physical form.
It was announced in the Union Budget 2022-23.
Subsequently, the Government amended Section 22 of the RBI Act, 1934 through the Finance Bill 2022. [Ref].
Working of CBDC:
- Like fiat currency, it can also be exchanged between people. Simply, put it’s just like rupee (₹) notes but in digital form (e₹).
- However, unlike fiat currency that’s usually stored in banks and hence their liability, CBDC is a liability on the RBI’s balance sheet.
- That’s why one does not necessarily need to have a bank account to own a digital rupee.

About Commercial Papers (CPs) and Certificates of Deposits (CDs)

	Commercial Papers	Certificates of Deposits
Type of Instrument	Unsecured promissory note	Fixed-income financial instrument
Issuer	Large corporations, primary dealers, financial institutions	Scheduled Commercial Banks, All-India Financial Institutions
Maturity Period	1 to 364 days	3 months to 1 year (for SCBs), 1 to 3 years (for financial institutions)
Minimum Investment	Rs. 5 lakh or multiples thereof	Rs. 1 lakh or multiples thereof
Credit Rating Requirement	Minimum credit rating required (e.g., A-2) from recognized rating agencies	Typically issued by highly rated banks and financial institutions
Collateral	Unsecured	Not applicable
Purpose	Short-term funding for corporations	Short to mid-term investment for individuals and institutions
Interest Rate	Typically higher than bonds, fluctuates with market conditions	Typically fixed, higher than savings accounts, fluctuates with market conditions
Investment Eligibility	Individuals, banking companies, corporate bodies (registered or incorporated in India), NRIs, FIIs, etc.	Individuals, banking companies, other corporate bodies, NRIs, FIIs, etc.
Issuing and Paying Agent (IPA)	Only scheduled banks act as Issuing and Paying Agent	Not applicable
Trading	Actively traded in Over-the-Counter (OTC) market, reported on Fixed Income Money Market and Derivatives Association of India (FIMMDA) reporting platform	Not publicly traded
Dematerialized Holding	Can be held in dematerialized form through Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)-approved depositories	Can be issued in dematerialized form through SEBI-approved depositories

With inputs from: https://www.indiainfoline.com

PYQ:

[2020] With reference to the Indian economy, consider the following statements:

‘Commercial Paper’ is a short-term unsecured promissory note.
‘Certificate of Deposit’ is a long-term instrument issued by the Reserve Bank of India to a corporation.
‘Call Money’ is a short-term finance used for interbank transaction.
‘Zero-Coupon Bonds’ are the interest-bearing short-term bonds issued by the Scheduled Commercial Banks to corporations.

Which of the pairs above is/are correctly matched?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 4 only

(d) 2, 3 and 4 only

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and the Science behind

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: MRI and its working principle

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) revolutionized medical diagnostics, offering non-invasive insights into soft tissues.
The pioneering efforts of Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield led to its commercialization, earning them the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2003.

What is MRI?

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive diagnostic procedure used to obtain detailed images of soft tissues within the body.
It is particularly valuable for imaging sophisticated structures like the brain, cardiovascular system, spinal cord, joints, muscles, liver, and arteries.
MRI is instrumental in diagnosing and monitoring various conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders (such as Alzheimer’s and stroke), and cardiovascular diseases.
Functional MRI (fMRI) can also assess brain activity by monitoring changes in blood flow.

Working Principle:

MRI utilizes the magnetic properties of hydrogen atoms (one proton with one electron around it), which are abundant in water and fat molecules found throughout the body.
The MRI machine generates a powerful magnetic field, aligning hydrogen atoms within the body.
Radiofrequency pulses are then applied, causing hydrogen atoms to absorb energy and emit signals.
These emitted signals are detected by sensors and processed by a computer to create detailed images of the body’s internal structures.

Components of an MRI Machine:

The MRI machine consists:

Superconducting Magnet: Large magnet (superconducting magnet) that produces a powerful and stable magnetic field.
Gradient Coils: Gradient magnets produce smaller magnetic fields with varying strengths and directions, allowing for precise imaging of specific body areas.
Radiofrequency Coils: This emit radiofrequency pulses to excite hydrogen atoms in the body. The frequency of pulse the ‘excess’ atoms have to absorb is called the Larmor frequency.
Detectors: It capture emitted signals from hydrogen atoms and convert them into image data for analysis.

Advantages of MRI:

High-Resolution Imaging: MRI offers high-resolution imaging with excellent tissue contrast, allowing for accurate diagnosis and treatment planning.
Versatile Viewing Angles: It can visualize structures from various angles without the need for repositioning, providing comprehensive information.
Safety and Non-Invasiveness: MRI scans are non-invasive and do not involve ionizing radiation, making them safe for repeated use.
Enhanced Image Quality: Contrast agents can enhance image quality by highlighting specific tissues or abnormalities.

Limitations of MRI:

High Costs: MRI machines are expensive to purchase and maintain, resulting in high healthcare costs for patients.
Requirement for Patient Stillness: Patients undergoing MRI scans must remain still for extended periods to prevent image distortion, which can be challenging for some individuals.
Discomfort or Anxiety: The strong magnetic fields and loud noises produced during MRI scans may cause discomfort or anxiety for patients.
Limitations with Metallic Implants: Certain metallic implants or objects can interfere with MRI scans, limiting their use in individuals with such implants.

PYQ:

[2020] With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?

Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units
Create meaningful short stories and songs
Disease diagnosis
Text-to-Speech Conversion
Wireless transmission of electrical energy

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only

(b) 1, 3 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Role of Fusobacterium in Colorectal Cancer

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Fusobacterium nucleatum animalis (Fna)

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

Researchers at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center in the US have identified specific subtypes of Fusobacterium nucleatum associated with colorectal cancer (CRC) tumors.
These subtypes, particularly Fusobacterium nucleatum animalis (Fna), have been found in relatively higher quantities in CRC tumors.

About Fusobacterium nucleatum

Fusobacterium nucleatum is a species of bacteria commonly found in the human mouth.
It is a gram-negative anaerobic bacterium, meaning it does not require oxygen for growth.
While typically residing in the oral cavity, it has been associated with various diseases and conditions, including periodontal diseases and colorectal cancer.

Association with Colorectal Cancer (CRC):

In cases of colorectal cancer (CRC), Fusobacterium nucleatum has been found within tumors in the gut.
Studies have shown that this bacterium can aid cancer cells in evading the immune system and promoting metastasis, or the spread of cancer to other parts of the body.
Its presence in CRC tumors has led to investigations into its potential role in the development and progression of colorectal cancer.

Impact:

Assisting cancer cells in evading the immune system.
Promoting inflammation and creating an environment conducive to tumor growth.
Facilitating metastasis by interacting with cancer cells and promoting their spread to other tissues.

PYQ:

[2013] Improper handling and storage of cereal grains and oilseeds result in the production of toxins known as Aflatoxins which are not generally destroyed by normal cooking process. Aflatoxins are produced by:

(a) Bacteria

(b) Protozoa

(d) Viruses

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Mass Coral Bleaching in Lakshadweep Sea

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Marine heatwave, Coral Bleaching, Agatti Reef, DHW Indicator

Mains level: NA

The Agatti Reef is experiencing unprecedented mass coral bleaching.

Why in the news?

Extreme heatwaves along the Indian coast, coupled with marine heatwaves, have triggered Mass Coral Bleaching events in the Lakshadweep Sea.

Heatwaves Toll on Lakshadweep’s Coral:

Researchers from the ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) conducted surveys across various Lakshadweep Islands.

- The Degree Heating Week (DHW) indicator in Lakshadweep has soared above 4 °C-weeks, as per the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
  - This elevation in DHW levels poses a substantial risk of coral bleaching, posing a severe threat to the region’s marine ecosystems.
Should DHW surpass 12 °C-weeks, it could trigger an unprecedented biodiversity crisis, leading to multispecies mortality.

Prolonged marine heatwaves since October 2023 have inflicted substantial stress on the coral reefs, exacerbating bleaching phenomena.
- A marine heatwave is characterized by seawater temperatures exceeding a seasonally-varying threshold (often the 90th percentile) for at least 5 consecutive days.

Degree Heating Week (DHW) indicator: It is a measurement used to assess the accumulated thermal stress that corals experience over an extended period, which can lead to coral bleaching. This indicator is expressed in °C-weeks, reflecting the exposure of coral reefs to elevated sea surface temperatures.

Lakshadweep’s Coral Treasure: Agatti Reef

Agatti Island is part of the Lakshadweep archipelago, situated in the Arabian Sea.
The island is surrounded by extensive coral reefs, making it a popular destination for snorkeling and diving enthusiasts.
The coral reefs around Agatti Island are composed of various coral species, including branching corals like Acropora, table corals like Acropora Hyacinthus, and massive corals like Porites.
These corals form intricate reef structures that provide habitat and food for numerous marine organisms.

What causes Coral Bleaching?

When exposed to conditions like heat stress, pollution, or high levels of ocean acidity, the zooxanthellae start producing reactive oxygen species not beneficial to the corals.
So, the corals kick out the colour-giving algae from their polyps, exposing their pale white exoskeleton and leading to coral starvation as corals cannot produce their own food.
Severe bleaching and prolonged stress in the external environment can lead to coral death.

Back2Basics: Corals

Coral are made up of genetically identical organisms called polyps.
These polyps have microscopic algae called zooxanthellae living within their tissues in a mutualistic relationship.
The coral provides the zooxanthellae with the compounds necessary for photosynthesis.
In return, the zooxanthellae supply the coral with organic products of photosynthesis, like carbohydrates, which are utilized by the coral polyps for synthesis of their calcium carbonate skeletons.
Corals are marine invertebrates or animals which do not possess a spine.
They are the largest living structures on the planet.
Each coral is called a polyp and thousands of such polyps live together to form a colony, which grow when polyps multiply to make copies of themselves.
Coral reefs are also called the “rainforests of the seas”.

Types of Coral

Corals are of two types — hard corals and soft corals:

Hard corals extract calcium carbonate from seawater to build hard, white coral exoskeletons. Hard corals are in a way the engineers of reef ecosystems and measuring the extent of hard coral is a widely-accepted metric for measuring the condition of coral reefs.
Soft corals attach themselves to such skeletons and older skeletons built by their ancestors. Soft corals also add their own skeletons to the hard structure over the years. These growing multiplying structures gradually form coral reefs.

Conditions needed for Corals to Flourish

Extensive submarine platforms for the formation of colonies by the coral polyps (not more than 90m below sea level).
High mean annual temperature ranging 20-21 degree Celsius.
Clean sediment-free water because muddy water or turbid water clogs the mouths of coral polyps resulting into their death.
Oceanic salinity ranging between 27-30 ppt.
Ocean currents and waves, as they bring food supply for the polyps.

PYQ:

2014: Which of the following have coral reefs?

Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Gulf of Kachchh
Gulf of Mannar
Sunderbans

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2 and 3 only

(b) 2 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

West Nile Fever Outbreak in Kerala

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: West Nile Virus, Its host, Transmission;

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

The Kerala government disclosed the re-emergence of West Nile fever cases in Thrissur, Malappuram, and Kozhikode districts.
West Nile fever was first detected in Kerala in 2011, with a fatal case recorded in 2019 involving a six-year-old from Malappuram.

What is West Nile Fever?

West Nile fever is caused by a West Nile Virus (WNV) transmitted through bites from infected Culex mosquitoes.
The WNV is a mosquito-borne, single-stranded RNA virus.
According to the WHO, it is a member of the flavi-virus genus and belongs to the Japanese Encephalitis antigenic complex of the family Flaviviridae.

How does it spread?

It is transmitted by infected mosquitoes between and among humans and animals, including birds, which are the reservoir host of the virus.
Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on infected birds, which circulate the virus in their blood for a few days.
The virus eventually gets into the mosquito’s salivary glands.
During later blood meals (when mosquitoes bite), the virus may be injected into humans and animals, where it can multiply and possibly cause illness.
WNV can also spread through blood transfusion, from an infected mother to her child, or through exposure to the virus in laboratories.
It is not known to spread by contact with infected humans or animals.

Symptoms of WNV infection:

The disease is asymptomatic in 80% of the infected people.
The rest develop what is called the West Nile fever or severe West Nile disease.
In these 20% cases, the symptoms include fever, headache, fatigue, body aches, nausea, rash, and swollen glands.

PYQ:

[2017] Consider the following statements:

1. In tropical regions, Zika virus disease is transmitted by the same mosquito that transmits dengue.

2. Sexual transmission of Zika virus disease is possible.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Back2Basics: Type of Viruses

	Subtypes	Description	Examples
DNA Viruses	Herpesviruses	DNA viruses with a complex structure causing various diseases including cold sores, chickenpox, and mononucleosis.	HSV-1, HSV-2, VZV, EBV
	Papillomaviruses	DNA viruses associated with warts and certain cancers.	HPV
	Adenoviruses	DNA viruses causing a wide range of infections in humans.	Adenovirus types causing respiratory, gastrointestinal, and ocular infections
	Poxviruses	Large, complex DNA viruses responsible for diseases like smallpox.	Variola virus (smallpox), Vaccinia virus
RNA Viruses	Positive-Sense RNA Viruses	RNA viruses with genomes that can directly serve as mRNA, causing diseases like the common cold, Zika, and COVID-19.	Picornaviruses, Flaviviruses, Coronaviruses
	Negative-Sense RNA Viruses	RNA viruses requiring transcription into positive-sense RNA before translation, causing diseases like influenza and rabies.	Orthomyxoviruses, Paramyxoviruses, Rhabdoviruses
	Retroviruses	RNA viruses that use reverse transcriptase to integrate their genome into the host cell’s DNA.	HIV, HTLV
	Double-Stranded RNA (dsRNA) Viruses	RNA viruses with double-stranded RNA genomes causing gastroenteritis and other infections.	Reoviruses
	Single-Stranded RNA (ssRNA) Viruses with Ambisense Genome	RNA viruses with genomes containing both positive-sense and negative-sense RNA regions.	Arenaviruses, Bunyaviruses
	Single-Stranded RNA (ssRNA) Viruses with Segmented Genome	RNA viruses with genomes consisting of multiple segments, causing diseases like influenza and hemorrhagic fevers.	Orthomyxoviruses, Bunyaviruses
	Single-Stranded RNA (ssRNA) Viruses with Circular Genome	Satellite viruses with a circular RNA genome requiring helper viruses for replication.	Hepatitis Delta Virus (HDV)
Enveloped Viruses	Influenza Viruses	RNA viruses surrounded by a lipid envelope causing seasonal flu outbreaks.	Influenza A, B, C viruses
	Herpesviruses	Enveloped DNA viruses causing diseases like cold sores, chickenpox, and mononucleosis.	HSV-1, HSV-2, VZV, CMV
	Coronaviruses	Enveloped RNA viruses causing diseases like severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and COVID-19.	SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2
	HIV	Enveloped retroviruses responsible for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).	Human immunodeficiency virus
	Ebola Virus	Enveloped RNA virus causing severe hemorrhagic fever in humans.	Ebola virus
Non-enveloped Viruses	Adenoviruses	DNA viruses lacking a lipid envelope, causing various infections in humans.	Adenovirus types causing respiratory, gastrointestinal, and ocular infections
	Papillomaviruses	DNA viruses associated with warts and certain cancers, lacking an envelope.	HPV
	Noroviruses	RNA viruses causing gastroenteritis, lacking an envelope.	Norovirus
	Rotaviruses	RNA viruses causing severe gastroenteritis in infants and young children, lacking an envelope.	Rotavirus
Bacteriophages	T4 Bacteriophage	Viruses that infect bacteria, with a complex structure and lifecycle.	T4 bacteriophage
Bacteriophages	Lambda Phage	Temperate bacteriophage capable of lysogenic and lytic cycles in E. coli.	Lambda phage

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Freedom of Speech – Defamation, Sedition, etc.

India press freedom score falls, says Reporters sans Frontieres

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Freedom of Expression; Freedom of Press; World Press Freedom Index

Mains level: Issues with Freedom of Expression in India;

Why in the news?

India’s score in the World Press Freedom Index fell over the last year, from 36.62 to 31.28, according to Reporters Without Borders. In South Asia, India finds itself ranked at 159th, while its neighbor Pakistan stands marginally higher at 152.

Key Highlights of the Report:

Deterioration Since 2014: Press freedom in India has significantly deteriorated since 2014.
Government vs Media Nexus: The government is criticized for maintaining a close relationship with big media families, leading to a lack of independence and critical journalism being labeled as “anti-national and anti-India“.
Self-Censorship: Fear of political backlash has forced journalists to censor themselves, as Modi’s supporters aggressively target critical reporting of the government.
Corporatization of Media: There’s an increasing trend of wealthy businessmen close to Modi owning a majority of mainstream media outlets, which undermines media independence and diversity.
BBC Raids: Recent raids on the BBC offices in India have drawn international criticism and contributed to India’s declining press freedom ranking.
Comparative Analysis: While India’s press freedom declines, neighboring countries like Pakistan and Sri Lanka have improved, although they still lag behind global leaders in press freedom rankings.

India’s Initiative of “Index Monitoring Cell”:

Purpose of the Cell: The Index Monitoring Cell has been set up to work on improving India’s press freedom ranking. It will consist of representatives from various government agencies and credible journalists suggested by the Press Council of India.
Ranking Parameters: The cell will engage with agencies publishing the World Press Freedom Index, like Reporters Without Borders, for a better understanding of the parameters and methodology used for the rankings. This will help formulate an action plan to address the issues identified.
Coordination with State Governments: The cell will coordinate with state governments to appoint nodal officers who can provide regular updates on the state of press freedom and any issues faced by journalists at the local level.
Engagement with Stakeholders: This aims to improve communication and visibility of steps taken to support press freedom and address concerns raised by global media watchdogs.
Reporting Mechanisms: Setting up proper reporting mechanisms is crucial to ensure that the data and information provided to ranking agencies are up-to-date and accurate. This will help in portraying a clearer picture of the press freedom landscape in India.

Conclusion: India needs to enact and strengthen laws to protect the freedom of the Press and ensure journalists’ safety. This includes legislation to prevent harassment, attacks, and threats against journalists, as well as provisions for swift and effective legal recourse in cases of censorship or intimidation.

Mains PYQ

Q What do understand by the concept “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2014)

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Labour, Jobs and Employment – Harmonization of labour laws, gender gap, unemployment, etc.

Why Youth Unemployment is India’s biggest challenge?

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Laws, Institutions & Bodies Constituted For The Vulnerable Sections

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: The India Employment Report 2024

Mains level: Employment Issues in India;

Why in the News?

The India Employment Report (IER) 2024, brought out by the Institute for Human Development (IHD) and the International Labour Organisation (ILO), has attracted widespread attention.

The analysis compares four years — 2000, 2012, 2019, and 2022 — which capture the changes over the past 22 years.

Positives in the IER Report, 2024:

Employment Quality Improvement: The report highlights a robust improvement in employment conditions as indicated by the Employment Condition Index, with an increase in non-farm employment and a decline in agriculture employment, suggesting structural transformation in the economy.
Female Workforce Participation: There has been a significant increase in the female workforce participation rate, albeit mainly in the agricultural sector and in own-account and unpaid family work. The Female workforce participation (FWFP) rate from 24.5% in 2019 to 37.0% in 2023.
Labour Market Resilience Amidst COVID: Despite the global slowdown induced by the pandemic, the labor market in India bounced back well, with wages of casual workers increasing, leading to a reduction in extreme poverty and deprivation.
Unemployment Trends: Unemployment and underemployment rates increased until 2018 but have declined thereafter. The unemployment rate has declined from 6 percent in 2018 to 3.2 percent in 2023.

Challenges as per the IER Report, 2024:

Emerging Employment Challenges: Challenges include a skewed employment pattern towards agriculture, increasing capital and skill-intensive production processes, low women’s participation, and rising educated youth unemployment.
Youth Unemployment Focus: The report emphasizes youth unemployment as a principal challenge, especially among educated youth, who account for a significant portion of total unemployment.
Informal Employment: Despite improvements, the majority of jobs remain informal and of lower productivity, with over 90% of employment being informal and 83% in the informal sector.

Way Forward

Policy Recommendations: Policy measures suggested include making production more employment-intensive, improving job quality, addressing labor market inequalities, enhancing skills training, and generating reliable statistics to better understand labor market dynamics.
Demographic Advantage: India is likely to have a demographic advantage for the next decade, and policy measures are recommended to leverage this advantage for robust economic growth.

Mains PYQ:

Q Besides the welfare schemes, India needs deft management of inflation and unemployment to serve the poor and the underprivileged sections of the society. Discuss.(UPSC IAS/2022)

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Oil and Gas Sector – HELP, Open Acreage Policy, etc.

The Clean Energy Transition has become messy

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Major Global happenings; USA and European countries;

Mains level: Sustainable Development; Issues with the Petroleum Industry in the Global Market;

Why in the news?

The war in the Middle East, Russia, and Ukraine, and sanctions by the US have eventually resulted into a fragmented market in the petroleum industry.

Causes of Fragmentation in the Petroleum Industry:

Impact of Sanctions: The sanctions imposed by the US on countries like Venezuela, Iran, and Russia have led to a fragmentation of the petroleum market, with trading relations becoming more regional than global. This fragmentation has reshaped the dynamics of oil supply and demand, with different regions relying on specific suppliers based on geopolitical circumstances and sanctions
Regional Trading Patterns: Trading relations in the petroleum industry have shifted regionally, with the US emerging as a major supplier of LNG and products in Europe, Russia becoming the largest supplier of crude to India, and Iran focusing on exports to China despite Western sanctions. This regionalization of trade has altered traditional market dynamics and diversified supply chains.
Challenges Faced by Oil Companies: International petroleum majors are experiencing solid profits due to higher production and prices of oil and gas. However, they are confronted with the need to reconcile their investment strategies with net zero carbon emission targets. This balancing act poses a significant challenge for oil companies as they navigate between profitability and sustainability goals
Geopolitical Uncertainties: The ongoing conflicts in the Middle East, particularly between Israel and Iran, have added to the complexities of the petroleum market. The region, which holds a significant portion of the world’s petroleum reserves, is facing a mix of warfare, racism, and radicalism, contributing to heightened tensions and uncertainties in the oil industry
AI Industry’s Energy Demand: Increasing energy demand from the artificial intelligence (AI) industry for data centers, cloud storage facilities, and crypto mining. This growing demand for electricity poses a challenge as renewables may not be able to meet the requirements, leading to a dilemma for industry leaders committed to achieving net zero carbon emissions.

What needs to be done?

Diversification of Energy Sources: To mitigate the impact of geopolitical uncertainties and sanctions-induced market fragmentation, there is a need for countries to diversify their energy sources.
Strengthening Regional Cooperation: Regional cooperation agreements and partnerships can help stabilize petroleum markets and ensure energy security.
Promotion of Energy Efficiency: Improving energy efficiency across various sectors, including transportation, manufacturing, and residential buildings, can reduce overall energy consumption and lessen dependence on petroleum products.

Mains PYQ:

Q Discuss the multi-dimensional implications of uneven distribution of mineral oil in the world. (UPSC IAS/2021)

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Air Pollution

What is Carbon Farming? | Explained

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Carbon Farming;

Mains level: Significance and challenges of Carbon farming;

Why in the News?

The goal of carbon farming is to mitigate climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

BACK2BASICS:

What is meant by Carbon Farming?

Carbon farming is a holistic approach to agriculture that focuses on sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) into the soil and vegetation, thereby mitigating climate change while simultaneously enhancing soil health and agricultural productivity.
It involves implementing regenerative agricultural practices that promote carbon sequestration, such as agroforestry, cover cropping, rotational grazing, conservation tillage, composting, and diverse crop rotations.

Significance of Carbon Farming:

Mitigation of Climate Change: Carbon farming practices such as rotational grazing, agroforestry, conservation agriculture, and integrated nutrient management help sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide into the soil and vegetation, thereby mitigating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing carbon storage.
Soil Health Improvement: Carbon farming enhances soil health by increasing soil organic carbon levels, improving soil structure, fertility, water retention, and resilience to drought and extreme weather events. Practices like zero tillage, cover cropping, and crop residue management minimize soil disturbance and enhance organic content.
Biodiversity Conservation: Agroforestry, agroecology, and land restoration practices promote biodiversity conservation by diversifying plant and animal species, providing habitat for wildlife, and restoring degraded ecosystems.
Sustainable Agriculture: Carbon farming promotes sustainable agricultural practices by minimizing environmental impacts, conserving natural resources, and enhancing the long-term productivity and resilience of agricultural systems.

Challenges in Carbon farming:

Water Availability: Carbon farming can be challenging in hot and dry areas. Limited water availability can hinder plant growth and restrict the potential for carbon sequestration through photosynthesis, affecting practices like cover cropping.
Plant Selection: The selection of plant species is crucial, as not all species trap and store carbon in the same amounts or equally effectively. Fast-growing trees and deep-rooted perennial grasses are generally better at carbon sequestration, but may not be suitable for arid environments.
Financial Resources: Small-scale farmers in developing countries may particularly lack the resources to invest in sustainable land management practices and environmental services.
Policy Support: Sufficient policy support is essential for the widespread adoption of carbon farming practices. This includes incentives, subsidies, regulations, and technical assistance to encourage and facilitate the implementation of carbon farming at the local, national, and international levels.

What are some carbon farming schemes worldwide?

Voluntary Carbon Markets: Carbon trading in the agriculture sector has gained importance globally, especially in countries like the U.S., Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. Voluntary carbon markets, such as the Chicago Climate Exchange, provide platforms for incentivizing carbon mitigation activities in agriculture.
Kenya’s Agricultural Carbon Project: Supported by the World Bank, Kenya’s Agricultural Carbon Project exemplifies efforts to address climate mitigation, adaptation, and food security challenges in economically developing countries through carbon farming initiatives.
‘4 per 1000’ Initiative: Launched during the COP21 climate talks in 2015 in Paris, the ‘4 per 1000’ initiative emphasizes the role of carbon sinks, including those created through carbon farming practices, in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. It underscores the importance of managing the remaining global carbon budget wisely.

The Silver Line for the Indian Government:

Viability of Organic Farming: Grassroots initiatives and agrarian research in India demonstrate the viability of organic farming to sequester carbon. Agroecological practices have the potential to generate significant economic benefits, estimated at $63 billion in value from approximately 170 million hectares of arable land.
Economic Benefits for Farmers: Adoption of sustainable agricultural practices could lead to economic benefits for farmers, including an estimated annual payment of around ₹5,000-6,000 per acre for providing climate services through carbon farming.
Suitability of Agricultural Regions: Regions with extensive agricultural land, such as the Indo-Gangetic plains and the Deccan Plateau, are well-suited to adopt carbon farming practices. These regions have the potential to contribute significantly to carbon sequestration and climate mitigation efforts.

Way forward:

Research and Development: Invest in research and development to identify and promote plant species that are well-suited for carbon sequestration. Develop drought-resistant crops and agroforestry species to enhance carbon farming viability.
Financial Support: Provide Financial assistance and incentives to small-scale farmers in developing countries to invest in sustainable land management practices and adopt carbon farming techniques.
Policy Framework: Develop and implement supportive policy frameworks at local, national, and international levels to encourage the adoption of carbon farming practices. For example setting carbon pricing mechanisms, establishing regulatory standards, and providing technical assistance to farmers.

Mains PYQ

Q Should the pursuit of carbon credits and clean development mechanisms set up under UNFCCC be maintained even though there has been a massive slide in the value of a carbon credit? Discuss with respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth.(UPSC IAS/2014)

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Forest Fires

Uttarakhand Forest Fires

DOMR Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Forest Fires as per FSI report

Mains level: NA

Why in the News?

Last week, three instances of forest fire were reported from the major forest belts in Uttarakhand.

The severity of the situation has prompted the deployment of Indian Air Force personnel and Mi-17 choppers, engaged in the critical operation of dousing the flames using the Bambi Bucket Method.

Causes of Wildfire:

Firstly, the general major causes of forest fires in Uttarakhand are continued dry weather and lack of moisture in the forests.
Secondly, according to the Forest Research Institute (FRI, 2019), 95% of forest fires are attributed to human activities.
The common human-induced causes include – Grazers setting fire to dry grass, Slash-and-burn agriculture, Unattended campfires, and Intentional arson.

Uttarakhand’s Forest Vulnerability:

As per the latest report from the Forest Survey of India (FSI), the Recorded Forest Area (RFA) in the State is 38,000 sq km of which 26,547 sq km is Reserved Forest, 9,885 sq km is Protected Forest, and 1,568 sq km is Unclassed Forests.
Highly flammable Chir Pine trees, covering extensive areas, increase the fire risk.
This risk is compounded by prolonged dry spells and excess biomass accumulation.
Additionally, the proximity of villages facilitates anthropogenic activities such as forest clearance and grazing.

Forest Fires in India: Recent Statistics

Odisha recorded 4,237 forest fires as compared to 1,499 between April 20 and 27 in 2023. Similarly, Chhattisgarh recorded 757 fires last year as compared to 2,116 this year, Jharkhand 633 as against 1,926 and Andhra Pradesh 527 as compared to 1,126 in 2023.
However, Uttarakhand has recorded the highest number of large forest fires in the country in the last seven days since April 28, according to the Forest Survey of India (FSI) data.

Mitigation Strategies

Localized Initiatives:

Effective measures to mitigate forest fire risks include controlled burning, biomass removal, prescribed burns, and enhanced surveillance using drones.
Community engagement and proactive involvement, as demonstrated in Kerala, provide valuable insights for forest fire management.

Government Initiatives:

The government has introduced measures such as a satellite-based fire alert system by the Forest Survey of India, aiding in early detection and response efforts.
Forest staff utilize various techniques, including counter-fires and fire beaters, to contain and manage forest fires effectively.

Wildfires Mitigating Strategies:

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) outlines four strategies to prevent and manage forest fires:

Erecting watch towers for early detection,
Deploying fire watchers,
Engaging local communities, and
Establishing and maintaining fire lines.

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) website distinguishes between two types of fire lines:

Kachha fire lines involve clearing undergrowth and shrubs while preserving trees to decrease the amount of available fuel.
Pucca fire lines are clear-cut areas that create a barrier between forest compartments or blocks to contain potential fire spread.

PYQ:

[2020] Examine the status of forest resources of India and its resultant impact on climate change.

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Catatumbo Lightning: A Torrent of Current

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Catatumbo Lightning

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

Catatumbo lightning is a natural event seen over the Catatumbo River in Venezuela, where lightning strikes almost nonstop.

What is Catatumbo Lightning?

Catatumbo Lightning is an atmospheric phenomenon that occurs over the Catatumbo River in Venezuela.
It specifically occurs at the Catatumbo Delta, where the river meets Lake Maracaibo.
It is known as one of the world’s largest lightning displays.
This natural spectacle involves frequent and nearly continuous lightning strikes that illuminate the night sky, creating a mesmerizing light show.
Catatumbo Lightning is most prevalent during the wet season, typically from April to November.
The consistent and abundant lightning activity has earned the region the moniker “the lightning capital of the world.”

Factors behind Catatumbo Lightning

Weather Dynamics

Warm, moisture-laden air from the Caribbean Sea clashes with cooler air descending from the Andes mountains, creating a dynamic interplay of atmospheric forces.
This collision, accentuated by the local landscape, triggers rapid upward movement of warm air, leading to the formation of towering cumulonimbus clouds.

Electrical Charge Generation

Strong winds and temperature differentials within these clouds generate electrical charges.
Cumulonimbus clouds, towering over 5 km high, accumulate vast amounts of static electricity.

Lightning Discharge: When the electrical potential within the clouds reaches a critical level, it discharges in the form of lightning strikes.

Characteristics of Catatumbo Lightning

Catatumbo lightning occurs on approximately 160 nights annually, exhibiting a remarkable longevity.
At its peak, the phenomenon generates an astonishing average of 28 lightning strikes per minute.

PYQ:

[2013] During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the skies is produced by the

1. Meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky

2. Lightning that separates the nimbus clouds

3. Violent upward movement of air and water particles

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3

(d) None of the above produces the thunder

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New Species of Plants and Animals Discovered

Scintillating Sea Creatures and their Uniqueness

Prelims Only Species | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Scintillating Sea Creatures mentioned in the newscard

Mains level: NA

Why in the News?

“Scintillating” means sparkling or shining brightly, often used metaphorically to describe something lively, exciting, or brilliantly clever.

Species	Description	Notable Features	IUCN Status
Seahorses	Small, dragon-like creatures inhabiting tropical seas.	Vibrant colors and intricate camouflage Unique parenting style with male nurturing eggs	Status: Near Threatened
Mantis Shrimp	Colorful crustaceans found in tropical waters, known for hunting prowess.	Impressive stabbing or punching abilities Display familial bonds	Status: Least Concerned
Octopus	Highly intelligent marine creatures with a wise demeanor.	They have *three functioning hearts.* Venomous beaks and powerful suckers. Solitary nature, adept at camouflage	Status: Least Concerned Recently, marine scientists have discovered a new Octopus nursery off the coast of Costa Rica.
Starfish	Also known as sea stars, possess remarkable regenerative abilities. Starfish have *two stomachs* – the pyloric and the cardiac stomach.	Each arm contains vital organs. Starfish belongs to the phylum *Echinodermata group*. Echinodermata are so named owing to their spiny skin They have a unique feeding method involving stomach extrusion.	Status: The Sunflower sea star (Pycnopodia helianthoides) is Critically Endangered.
Hermit Crabs	Resourceful creatures use discarded shells for shelter.	They use *empty snail shells or other hollow objects* as a shelter for partial containment and protection of the body. Hermit crabs occur in *sandy- or muddy-bottomed marine waters* and occasionally on land and in trees.	Status: Least Concerned The majority of terrestrial hermit crab species worldwide have used trash as shells, according to a recent study by experts.

PYQ:

[2013] Consider the following animals

Sea cow
Sea horse
Sea lion

Which of the above is/are mammal/mammals?

(a) 1 only

(b) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

Shellfish Aquaculture for Water Remediation

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Geukensia demissa

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

Shellfish aquaculture using Geukensia demissa is emerging as a viable solution for mitigating excess nutrients and contaminants in coastal and estuarine waters.

About Geukensia demissa

Geukensia demissa is a species of mussel commonly known as the ribbed mussel or Atlantic ribbed mussel.
It is native to the Atlantic coast of North America, ranging from Nova Scotia in Canada to the Gulf of Mexico.
They inhabit intertidal and shallow subtidal areas, typically found in estuaries, salt marshes, and tidal flats.
They prefer areas with muddy or sandy substrates where they can burrow and anchor themselves.

Ecological Importance

Ribbed mussels play a vital role in estuarine ecosystems.

Water Filtration: They filter large volumes of water, helping to improve water quality by removing suspended particles and excess nutrients.
Key species of Food Chain: Additionally, their presence provides habitat and food for various other organisms, including small invertebrates and fish.
Organisms Filter: These mussels thrive in diverse habitats and possess the ability to filter bacteria, microalgae, and detritus laden with nutrients and contaminants.

Geukensia demissa: Experimental Deployment and Results

To assess the efficacy of G. demissa in purifying urban waters, a raft stocked with local ribbed mussels was deployed in an estuary near New York City.
Subsequent analysis revealed that the mussels exhibited robust health and accumulated significant amounts of local nitrogen isotopes, indicative of nitrogen removal from the water.
Based on the findings, it is estimated that a fully stocked raft could purify an average of 11,356 m3 of water daily and remove approximately 159 kg of particulate matter on a daily basis.
Moreover, upon harvesting, the mussels sequestered 62.6 kg of nitrogen in their tissues and shells, further enhancing the water quality.

PYQ:

[2011] Recently, “oil-zapper” was in the news. What is it?

(a) It is an eco-friendly technology for the remediation of oily sludge and oil spills

(b) It is the latest technology developed for under-sea oil exploration

(d) It is the latest technology to control the accidentally caused flames from oil wells

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

[pib] May 5: World Pulmonary Hypertension Day

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Pulmonary Hypertension, 75-25 Initiative

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

Every year on May 5, pulmonary hypertension organizations and groups around the world participate in World Pulmonary Hypertension Day.

What is Pulmonary Hypertension?

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a condition characterized by high blood pressure in the pulmonary arteries, which are the blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to the lungs.
This elevated pressure in the pulmonary arteries can lead to various symptoms and complications, affecting the heart’s ability to pump blood effectively to the lungs and the rest of the body.

Here are some key aspects of pulmonary hypertension:

Causes:

Idiopathic Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension (IPAH): In many cases, the exact cause of pulmonary hypertension is unknown, and it is referred to as idiopathic. IPAH is a subtype of PH without an identifiable cause.
Secondary Pulmonary Hypertension: PH can also develop secondary to other underlying conditions, including:
- Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
- Interstitial lung disease
- Sleep apnea
- Connective tissue diseases such as scleroderma and lupus
- Congenital heart diseases
- HIV infection
- Liver disease (cirrhosis)
Genetic Factors: Some forms of PH may have a genetic component, with mutations in certain genes predisposing individuals to the condition.

Features:

Symptoms: Symptoms of pulmonary hypertension may include:

1. - Shortness of breath, especially during physical activity
  - Fatigue
  - Chest pain or pressure
  - Dizziness or fainting spells
  - Swelling in the ankles and legs (edema)
  - Bluish lips or skin (cyanosis)

Diagnostic Tests: Diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension typically involves a combination of medical history review, physical examination, and diagnostic tests, including:

1. - Echocardiogram (ECG)
  - Right heart catheterization
  - Pulmonary function tests
  - Chest X-ray
  - CT scan or MRI of the chest
  - Blood tests

Treatment: Treatment for pulmonary hypertension aims to relieve symptoms, improve quality of life, and slow disease progression. Treatment options may include:

- Medications such as vasodilators, endothelin receptor antagonists, and prostacyclin analogs
- Oxygen therapy
- Pulmonary rehabilitation
- Surgery or a lung transplant in severe cases

Hypertension Control Initiatives in India:

India Hypertension Control Initiative (IHCI) (2017): It was launched to strengthen the hypertension component of National Programme for Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases (NP-NCD) in primary care public sector facilities in India
75/25 initiative (2023): Union Health Ministry announced the initiative- 75 million people with hypertension and diabetes to be put on Standard Care by 2025, through the Primary Health Centres (PHCs).

PYQ:

[2021] In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements :

1. Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by mitochondrial replacement therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of egg.

2. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from mother and not from father.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

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Poverty Eradication – Definition, Debates, etc.

Make the poor richer without making the rich poorer

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Poverty & Hunger

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Right to Equality;

Mains level: Poverty Gap; Issues due to inequality;

Why in the News?

Since the Congress Party released its Election Manifesto ’Nyay Patra’, the word ‘redistribution’ has dominated the election discourse.

Arguments against the redistribution of wealth:

Against the fair mean: Wealth redistribution stems from a ‘zero-sum’ thought to reduce economic disparity. However, this approach conflates the process of acquiring wealth with the outcome, potentially penalizing even those who acquired their wealth through fair means.
Hindrance to Economic Growth: Implementing confrontational policies to make the rich poorer can hinder investments and trigger capital flight, which is essential for economic growth. Economic growth is necessary for increasing the overall economic pie and improving prosperity for all.

Measures needed to reduce Inequality:

On Wealth and Inheritance Taxes: Wealth and inheritance taxes are seen as potentially punitive measures that may not effectively address economic inequality. The government needs to focus on fixing systemic issues rather than penalizing the wealthy.
On Policies: Economic growth is emphasized as crucial for addressing inequality. Policies should prioritize investment and avoid hindrances that might deter capital flow.
Job Creation and Labour Market Policies: Jobless growth and imbalance in capital-labour relations contribute to inequality. Labor market-focused policy incentives, such as employment-linked schemes and promoting labor-intensive activities, are proposed to rebalance this skew.
Overhaul of the taxation structure: The taxation system is criticized for burdening the poor and middle class disproportionately compared to corporations. There’s a call for an overhaul of the taxation structure to ensure fairness and simplicity, with a focus on lowering the tax burden for the common person.
Social Welfare Programs: Social welfare programs are deemed essential to provide a safety net for the poor until they can benefit from economic growth. Funding for such programs can come from a combination of faster growth, efficient tax collection, and welfare delivery mechanisms.

Steps taken by the Government:

For addressing Social Inequality

- - Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY) and Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana- National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM): These schemes aim to create additional employment opportunities in both rural and urban areas.
  - Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): This scheme provides a legal guarantee for 100 days of employment per year to rural households
  - Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana: This scheme provides affordable housing to the urban and rural poor

For improving Financial Inclusion

- - Atal Pension Yojana: This pension scheme targets the unorganized sector and private sector employees without pension benefits
  - Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana: This scheme aims to provide universal access to banking facilities for all households

For enhancing Access to Basic Necessities

- Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana: This scheme provides LPG connections to women from Below Poverty Line (BPL) households
- Swachh Bharat Mission: This program focuses on providing toilets for every household and cleaning India’s cities and villages

Conclusion: The Indian government implements schemes to reduce inequality. For example targeting financial inclusion, health protection, and economic development to reduce inequality. Beneficiaries include rural and urban poor, low-income families, and women from Below Poverty Line households.

Mains PYQ:

Q Can the vicious cycle of gender inequality, poverty, and malnutrition be broken through the microfinancing of women SHGs? Explain with examples. (UPSC IAS/2021)

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Defence Sector – DPP, Missions, Schemes, Security Forces, etc.

It is time to operationalize the Indian Defence University (IDU)

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Status of IDU in India;

Mains level: Need for Professional Military Education;

Why in the news?

While the nature of war remains constant, its changing character imposes a premium on Military Education and the Academic preparation required to cope with security challenges.
It is reported that Pakistan has created two universities for its armed forces, while China has three but India has no Defence University even though such a university in India was first proposed in 1967.

Need for Professional Military Education:

Inadequacy of RRU: Comparing the Rashtriya Raksha University (RRU) to the IDU is seen as flawed because the RRU’s objectives and curriculum do not specifically address military requirements for managing warfare and executing plans.
Long Overdue Realization: The establishment of the IDU has been delayed, despite its critical importance for defense preparedness, fostering a strategic culture, and promoting inter-service integration.
Rapidly changing the dynamic of Warfare: The dynamic and chaotic nature of warfare, particularly in regions like Europe and West Asia, requires military officers to be able to produce results despite dealing with unclear initial information and rapidly changing circumstances.
Empowerment through PME: To tackle these complex challenges, military officers are empowered through a well-constructed PME continuum. This continuum enhances their abilities to adapt to changing assignments and increasing responsibilities over their long careers.
Parallels with U.S. Evolution: The evolution of PME in the United States, as exemplified by the Goldwater-Nichols Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 and ‘Ike’ Skelton’s report to the U.S. Congress, serves as an example of the importance of structured military education in enhancing professionalism and preparedness.

Slow Progress in the Establishment of IDU:

Historical Context: The idea of establishing a Defence Services University was proposed as early as 1967 by the Chiefs of Staff Committee (COSC). This indicates a long-standing recognition of the need for a broad-based education system in the Indian armed forces.
Delays in Implementation: Despite proposals and recommendations dating back to the 1960s and 1980s, significant progress towards establishing the IDU was only made after the Kargil conflict in the late 1990s. Even then, progress remained slow, with ‘in principle’ approval granted in May 2010, several years after the conflict.
Committee Formation: Following the Kargil conflict, a committee chaired by Dr K. Subrahmanyam was established to examine the issue of establishing the IDU. Based on its recommendations, in May 2010, ‘in principle’ approval was accorded for the setting up of the IDU in Gurgaon. Despite some optimistic reportage in 2017-18, the progress on setting up of the IDU has been rather slow.

Way Forward:

Government Commitment and Funding: The government should prioritize the establishment of the IDU and allocate sufficient funding for its development and infrastructure.
Streamlined Administrative Processes: Efforts should be made to streamline bureaucratic processes involved in setting up the IDU, ensuring that administrative hurdles do not impede progress.
Stakeholder Collaboration: Collaboration between various stakeholders, including the armed forces, government agencies, academic institutions, and industry partners, should be facilitated to expedite the establishment of the IDU.

Mains PYQ

Q) Taxila University was one of the oldest universities in the world with which were associated several renowned learned personalities of different disciplines. Its strategic location caused its fame to flourish, but unlike Nalanda, it is not considered a university in the modern sense. Discuss.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

An overview of Sudan’s civil war

Explained world map | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Bordering countries of Sudan;

Mains level: Important issues in the Global world;

Why in the News?

The inability of successive governments to articulate a shared vision has resulted in the unfair distribution of wealth and resources in Sudan.

ANKARA, TURKIYE – NOVEMBER 3: An infographic titled ”Sudanese civil war intensifies in the western cities” is created in Ankara, Turkiye on November 3, 2023. Since mid-April, the intensity of the conflicts between the army and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) in Sudan, which have resulted in nearly 10,000 casualties, shifted from the capital Khartoum and its surroundings to the western cities. (Photo by Yasin Demirci/Anadolu via Getty Images)

Historical background of Conflict:

In 1956: The government that came to power in 1956 emphasized an Arab and Islamic identity based on Mahdist principles. It was not representative of diverse communities and demanded compliance, leading to widespread resistance.
In 1989: In 1989, a new government seized control under the National Islamic Front, an alliance between army officers and the Muslim Brotherhood. Omar al-Bashir came to power, supported by Islamist leader Hassan al-Turabi, aiming to establish an Islamic state.
In 1991: The government set up an internal security apparatus, arresting and torturing dissenters. It introduced a new penal code in 1991 to impose an Islamization agenda.
In 2003: The al-Bashir (in 2003) regime enlisted Janjaweed militias to quell an insurgency in Darfur. These militias were later designated as the Rapid Support Forces in 2013.
In 2018-19: After protests in 2018 and al-Bashir’s removal in 2019, a transitional military government was established. Despite challenges and a failed coup attempt, a power-sharing agreement was reached, but another coup led by Abdel Fattah al-Burhan derailed the democratic transition.

Causes of the present conflict in Sudan:

Deep-rooted Crisis in Governance: The conflict reflects a longstanding crisis within Sudan’s governing structure since gaining independence in 1956, characterized by power struggles and frequent coups.
Identity Crisis and Rebellion: Sudan has experienced numerous rebellions fueled by an identity crisis, with marginalized populations seeking autonomy and fair representation within the state.
Ethnic and Regional Disparities: Sudan comprises of 19 major ethnic groups and about 597 ethnic sub-groups. Since independence, the Sudanese have experienced 35 coups and attempted coups, more than any other African country.
Religious and Political Ideologies: Shifts in government ideologies, such as the establishment of an Islamic state in 1989, have exacerbated tensions and led to further marginalization of certain groups.
Role of Militias: The emergence of paramilitary forces, such as the Rapid Support Forces, has complicated the conflict dynamics, with militias vying for power and control over resources.
Other country’s involvement: External influences, including support from foreign entities like Russia, have played a role in shaping the conflict landscape, particularly in resource-rich regions like Darfur.
Economic Interests: Economic factors, such as control over lucrative industries like gold mining, have contributed to the entrenchment of certain groups in power and fueled conflict dynamics.

Way Forward:

Establish a Civilian-Led Government: Sudan needs to prioritize the establishment of a transparent, civilian-led government that represents the diverse Sudanese populace. This government should ensure inclusivity and participation in decision-making processes.
Disarm and Demobilize Militias: Urgent action is needed to disarm and demobilize militias like the Rapid Support Forces. This will prevent militia dominance over the state and reduce the risk of armed confrontations and conflicts.
International Support for Reconstruction: Sudan requires collaborative efforts from the international community to aid in post-conflict reconstruction. This support can include financial assistance, capacity-building programs, and technical expertise to rebuild infrastructure, institutions, and communities affected by conflict.

Mains PYQ

Q Africa was chopped into states artificially created by accident of European competition. Analyse. (UPSC IAS/2013)

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Endosymbiotic Theory and Symbiogenesis

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Endosymbiotic Theory, Nitrogen Cycle

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

The endosymbiotic theory suggests that tiny structures in cells called mitochondria and chloroplasts were once independent bacteria.
A biologist named Lynn Margulis came up with the idea that cells merged with bacteria, challenging the usual belief that evolution happens mainly through genetic changes.

What is the Endosymbiotic Theory?

The endosymbiotic theory proposes that organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free-living bacteria engulfed by recipient cells.
American biologist Lynn Margulis introduced Symbiogenesis, challenging the Neo-Darwinist consensus on genetic mutations driving evolution.
Margulis’s Struggle:

Margulis’s manuscript on symbiogenesis faced rejection by academic journals before finally being published in The Journal of Theoretical Biology in 1967.
It took years for mitochondria and chloroplasts to be acknowledged as former free-living bacteria turned endosymbionts.

Recent Discoveries and Endosymbiotic Theory

Recent papers published in Science and Cell have reignited interest in the endosymbiotic theory.
The focus is on nitrogen fixation, crucial for proteins and DNA in living organisms.
Despite abundant atmospheric nitrogen, plants lack the means to utilize it efficiently.
Legumes host nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules, aiding in ammonia production for plant use.

Evolution of Nitroplast

Cyanobacterium UCYN-A was found in marine algae, establishing a symbiotic relationship.
Nitroplast, a new organelle, co-evolved with its host cell, satisfying criteria for organelle classification.
Nitroplast integrates into host cell function and architecture, imports host cell proteins, synchronizes growth, and is inherited during cell division.
Nearly half of nitroplast proteins are derived from the host cell.

Nitrogen Cycle:

The nitrogen cycle is a crucial biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformation and circulation of nitrogen in various forms within ecosystems. It involves several key steps:

Nitrogen Fixation: This is the process by which atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted into ammonia (NH3) or nitrate (NO3-) ions, which are forms of nitrogen that plants can utilize. Nitrogen fixation can occur through biological, atmospheric, and industrial processes. In biological nitrogen fixation, certain bacteria like Rhizobium spp. in the root nodules of leguminous plants or cyanobacteria convert N2 into ammonia.
Ammonification: Ammonification is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds from dead organisms, feces, and other waste materials are converted into ammonia by decomposer organisms like bacteria and fungi during the decay process.
Nitrification: Nitrification is the biological oxidation of ammonia (NH3) or ammonium (NH4+) to nitrite (NO2-) and then to nitrate (NO3-) by nitrifying bacteria such as Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. This process occurs in aerobic conditions and plays a crucial role in making nitrogen available to plants.
Assimilation: Plants and other organisms take up ammonia, nitrate, or organic nitrogen compounds from the soil to use them in synthesizing proteins, nucleic acids, and other vital nitrogen-containing compounds.
Denitrification: Denitrification is the process by which nitrate (NO3-) is converted back into nitrogen gas (N2) or nitrous oxide (N2O) by denitrifying bacteria under anaerobic conditions. This step completes the cycle by returning nitrogen to the atmosphere, closing the loop.
Ammonium Ionization: In soils and aquatic environments, ammonium ions (NH4+) may undergo ionization, converting to ammonia gas (NH3), which can volatilize and return to the atmosphere.

Significance of the Nitroplasts

Agriculture: Nitroplasts offer potential solutions for reducing the harmful effects of industrial ammonia production.
Biotechnology: Biotechnological applications may include engineering host cells and nitroplasts for efficient nitrogen fixation in plants.

PYQ:

[2021] In case of which one of the following biogeochemical cycles, the weathering of rocks is the main source of release of nutrient to enter the cycle?

(a) Carbon cycle

(b) Nitrogen cycle

(d) Sulphur cycle

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Eta Aquariid Meteor Shower and how it can be spotted

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Eta Aquariid Meteor Shower, Halley’s Comet

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

The Eta Aquariid meteor shower, an annual event, will reach its peak on May 5 and 6.
This meteor shower is a result of Earth intersecting with the debris trail left by Halley’s Comet during its orbit.

Halley’s Comet

Halley’s Comet is a short-period comet visible from Earth every 75–79 years.
It was last seen in Earth’s skies in 1986 and was met in space by an international fleet of spacecraft. It will return in 2061 on its regular journey around the Sun.

What are Meteoric Showers?

Meteors, fragments of dust, rock and ice, are expelled from comets during their celestial orbits around the sun.
The Earth’s atmosphere heats these space rocks as they descend, leaving luminous streaks of gas in their way.
NASA’s records confirms existence of over 30 meteor showers annually.

Origin of Meteor Showers:

Meteor showers originate from comets, remnants of the solar system’s formation composed of dust, rock, and ice.
Comets orbit the Sun in highly elliptical paths, and as they approach, they heat up, releasing gases and dust to form a glowing head and a tail stretching millions of miles.
When Earth traverses through the debris left behind by comets along their orbital plane, we witness meteor showers.

About Eta Aquariids

Known for their rapid speed, Eta Aquariid meteors produce long, glowing tails lasting several minutes.
Observers in the Southern Hemisphere can witness approximately 30 to 40 meteors per hour during the peak, while those in the Northern Hemisphere may see around 10 meteors per hour.
They seem to originate from the Aquarius constellation, hence the name ‘Eta Aquariid.’

PYQ:

[2014] What is a coma, in the content of astronomy?

(a) Bright half of material on the comet

(b) Long tail of dust

(d) Two planets orbiting each other

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