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Citizenship and Related Issues

Foreigners Tribunal (FT) can issue Arrest Warrants

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Why in the News?

The Union Home Ministry empowered Foreigners Tribunals (FTs), especially in Assam, to detain suspected illegal immigrants in designated camps, a power earlier exercised only through executive orders.

About Foreigners Tribunal (FT):

  • Nature: Quasi-judicial bodies constituted under the Foreigners (Tribunal) Order, 1964, framed under the Foreigners Act, 1946.
  • Purpose: Decide whether a person is a foreigner/illegal immigrant, especially in the context of Assam’s border migration issues.
  • Cases handled:
    • References from border police against suspected foreigners.
    • Cases of “D” (doubtful) voters flagged by the Election Commission.
  • Composition: Members drawn from retired judges, advocates, and civil servants with judicial experience; capped at 3 members per tribunal.
  • Functioning:
    • FTs exercise powers of a civil court (summons, evidence, witness examination).
    • Required to dispose of cases within 60 days of reference.
    • Burden of proof lies on the individual to establish citizenship (Section 9, Foreigners Act).
  • Present Status: About 100 FTs operational in Assam (expanded after NRC-2019). No FTs in other states, where suspected foreigners are tried in local courts.

New Provisions under the Immigration and Foreigners Act, 2025:

  • Replacement: Replaces the Foreigners (Tribunal) Order, 1964, now part of the comprehensive Immigration and Foreigners Act, 2025.
  • Detention Powers: For the first time, FTs are empowered to detain suspected illegal immigrants in designated transit camps, a power earlier exercised through executive orders.
  • Judicial Authority:
    • Powers of a civil court under CPC, 1908.
    • Powers of a judicial magistrate (first class) under Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 — including issuing arrest warrants, ordering detention, and directing personal appearance.
  • Ex-parte Orders: Can be set aside if the appellant files a review within 30 days.
  • Scope: Though applicable nationwide, functional relevance remains in Assam.
  • Restrictions on Employment: Bars foreigners from working in strategic sectors (defence, nuclear energy, petroleum, power, water supply, space, human rights) without Central government approval.
  • Border Security Measures: Border forces/Coast Guard to record biometrics and demographic data of illegal entrants before pushing them back.
  • Grounds for Refusal of Stay: Foreigners convicted of terrorism, espionage, narcotics trafficking, organized crime, human trafficking, cybercrime, child abuse, crimes against humanity, etc., can be refused entry or deported.
  • Exemptions: Citizens of Nepal, Bhutan, Tibetans, and Sri Lankan Tamils exempted under a special 2025 order.
[UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:

1. Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) was set up during the Prime Ministership of Lal Bahadur Shastri.

2. The Members for CAT are drawn from both judicial and administrative streams.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdictions (BBNJ) Agreement

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Earth Sciences has formed a 12-member committee led by SC lawyer Sanjay Upadhyay to draft a new national law safeguarding India’s maritime and economic interests under the 2023 High Seas Treaty (BBNJ Agreement).

About the BBNJ (High Seas Treaty) Agreement:

  • Overview: International treaty under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), focusing on biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction (high seas).
  • Objective: Conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in international waters (covering ~64% of the world’s oceans).
  • Scope of Provisions:
    • Establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in high seas.
    • Regulation of seabed mining and extractive activities.
    • Fair and equitable sharing of benefits from marine genetic resources.
    • Mandatory environmental impact assessments (EIAs) before major projects.
    • Use of both scientific and traditional knowledge, guided by the precautionary principle.
  • Relation to UNCLOS: Would be the third implementing agreement, alongside:
    • 1994 Part XI Implementation Agreement (seabed mineral resources).
    • 1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement (conservation of migratory fish stocks).
  • Adoption & Status:
    • Agreed in March 2023, open for signature for 2 years from September 2023.
    • Enters into force 120 days after the 60th ratification (currently ratified by 55 countries).
[UPSC 2022] With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements:

1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention.

2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea.

3. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

 

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Judicial Reforms

[3rd September 2025] India needs more women judges in the Supreme Court

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Disucss the desirability of greater representation to women in higher judiciary to ensure equity and inclusiveness.

Linkage: The acute gender imbalance in the Supreme Court, with only 11 women judges since 1950, directly reflects the inequity in higher judiciary appointments. Greater representation of women is not only about fairness but also about inclusiveness, diversity of perspectives, and legitimacy of justice delivery. This makes the 2021 UPSC question highly relevant as it highlights why institutionalising gender as a criterion in judicial appointments is essential.

Mentor’s Comment

The issue of women’s representation in the higher judiciary has resurfaced sharply after the recent appointments to the Supreme Court overlooked senior women judges and lawyers. Despite being the guardian of constitutional morality and equality, the apex court itself reflects a glaring gender imbalance. This article explores the extent of underrepresentation, the opacity in the appointment process, and why diversity on the Bench is not merely symbolic but essential for justice delivery.

Introduction

The retirement of Justice Sudhanshu Dhulia in August 2025 created an opportunity to address the deep gender imbalance in India’s Supreme Court. However, with the appointments of Justices Vipul Pancholi and Alok Aradhe, the Court continues to have only one woman judge—Justice B.V. Nagarathna. This exposes both a structural problem in the judicial appointment system and the reluctance to institutionalise gender as a criterion for higher judiciary appointments.

The significance of gender imbalance in the Supreme Court

  1. Striking underrepresentation: Only 11 women judges out of 287 since 1950 (3.8%).
  2. Missed opportunity: Despite two vacancies in August 2025, no woman judge was appointed.
  3. Historical first ignored: The 2021 Collegium decision appointing three women judges at once raised hope of change, but the momentum has not continued.
  4. Symbolic contradiction: The Court upholds gender equality but does not reflect it internally.

The historical trajectory of women judges in the Supreme Court

  1. First woman judge: Justice Fathima Beevi (1989).
  2. Trail of appointments: Only 11 till date, with short tenures limiting their influence.
  3. Tenure disparity: Women often appointed at a late stage in career, reducing chances of reaching the Collegium or CJI position.
  4. Upcoming first woman CJI: Justice B.V. Nagarathna, but for only 36 days (Sept–Oct 2027).
  5. Lack of caste and minority representation: Only Justice Fathima Beevi represented a minority faith; no SC/ST woman judge was ever appointed.

Gender disparity in direct elevation from the Bar

  1. Male dominance: Nine men have been directly elevated from the Bar.
  2. Single woman appointee: Justice Indu Malhotra (2018) was the only woman elevated directly.
  3. Systemic discrimination: Despite women Senior Advocates being present, elevation remains blocked.
  4. Global comparison: Worldwide, the Bar is a major route to the higher judiciary, India lags in enabling women lawyers.

The opacity of the judicial appointment process

  1. Collegium secrecy: No clarity on criteria or names under consideration.
  2. Inconsistent transparency: Collegium resolutions briefly made public in 2017 under CJI Dipak Misra, but not institutionalised.
  3. Regional and caste factors considered: Yet gender is ignored as a formal category.
  4. Violation of merit claims: Recent appointments skipped senior women High Court judges despite “seniority” being cited in the past as a hurdle.

The importance of women’s representation on the Bench

  1. Unique perspectives: Women judges bring experiential diversity that shapes judicial outcomes.
  2. Public trust: Greater representation builds confidence in judicial impartiality.
  3. Truly representative court: The SC must reflect India’s social and gender diversity to strengthen legitimacy.
  4. Judicial precedents: The Court itself has mandated 30% reservation for women in Bar Association elections, but has no such rule for its own appointments.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s gender imbalance undermines its constitutional commitment to equality and inclusivity. Unless women are institutionalised as a criterion for judicial appointments, alongside caste, religion, and region, the credibility of India’s top court will remain in question. Representation is not tokenism; it is a constitutional necessity to ensure justice is dispensed through the lens of diversity, fairness, and lived realities.

Value Addition

Committees & Reports

  1. Law Commission 230th Report (2009): Recommended adequate representation of women and minorities in higher judiciary.
  2. Justice Verma Committee (2013): Strongly stressed the need for gender diversity in judiciary to handle women-related cases with sensitivity.

International Comparisons & Norms

  1. Beijing Platform for Action (1995): Calls for women in decision-making positions, including judiciary.
  2. Canada & UK: Women form 40–50% of higher judiciary in recent years.
  3. South Africa: Institutionalised diversity (race + gender) as a mandatory criterion in judicial appointments.

 

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Policy Wise: India’s Power Sector

Decoding the SC order on regulatory assets

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Introduction

India’s electricity sector faces a chronic mismatch between the cost of supply and the revenue collected, leaving distribution companies (DISCOMs) financially stressed. To bridge this gap, regulatory assets, unrecovered costs deferred for future recovery, have become common. The Supreme Court has now ordered DISCOMs and regulators to clear these within strict timelines and capped their creation, marking a crucial step towards financial discipline and consumer protection in the power sector.

Significance of the Supreme Court’s Directive

The Supreme Court directed State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) and DISCOMs to clear existing regulatory assets within four years and any new ones within three years, while capping their creation at 3% of Annual Revenue Requirement (ARR). The Court also mandated transparent recovery roadmaps and intensive audits for non-compliant DISCOMs.The judgment is significant because it marks the first time the Supreme Court has set explicit timelines and caps for the liquidation of regulatory assets. With Delhi DISCOMs alone carrying regulatory assets worth over ₹58,000 crore, and Tamil Nadu reporting ₹89,375 crore in FY 2021-22, the scale of the problem is massive. The ruling highlights how the misuse of regulatory assets has become systemic, leading to debt accumulation, delayed payments to generators, and poor grid modernisation.

Understanding Regulatory Assets

  1. Definition: Regulatory assets are deferred costs created when the Average Cost of Supply (ACS) is higher than the ARR, allowing DISCOMs to recover the gap later instead of burdening consumers immediately.
  2. Example: If ACS = ₹7.20/unit and ARR = ₹7.00/unit, the shortfall of ₹0.20 per unit across 10 billion units leads to a revenue gap of ₹2,000 crore, which becomes a regulatory asset.
  3. Consumer relief: Prevents immediate tariff shocks but leads to deferred steep tariff hikes later, often with interest.

Causes of the Average Cost of Supply (ACS)- Annual Revenue Requirement (ARR) Gap

  1. Non-cost reflective tariffs: Tariffs often kept artificially low for political reasons.
  2. Delayed subsidies: State governments fail to release subsidies for agriculture or low-income households on time, worsening DISCOM finances.
  3. Fuel price shocks: Sudden increases in coal/gas prices inflate procurement costs.
  4. Historical evidence: Punjab’s 2004–05 case of ₹487 crore revenue gap set the precedent for regulatory assets in India.

Impact of regulatory assets on consumers and DISCOMs

  1. Consumers:
    • Immediate stability in tariffs but eventual steeper hikes.
    • Example: Delhi DISCOMs must recover ₹16,580 crore annually in four years, implying an additional ₹5.5/unit on average.
  2. DISCOMs:
    • Persistent cash flow crises as revenue doesn’t cover costs.
    • Forced to borrow → higher debt burden.
    • Limited capacity to modernise grids, integrate renewables, or improve services.
    • Creates a vicious cycle of financial and operational distress.

Regulatory Assets and Grid Modernisation

  1. Yes: Large unrecovered costs reduce capital available for investment in infrastructure.
  2. Renewable integration challenge: Financially weak DISCOMs are unable to invest in flexible grids or storage solutions.
  3. Consumer service compromise: Lower quality of supply, billing inefficiencies, and lack of digital modernisation.

Way forward

  1. Cost-reflective tariffs: Rationalise tariffs while shielding vulnerable consumers with targeted subsidies.
  2. Timely subsidy release: State governments must ensure fiscal discipline.
  3. Automatic fuel cost adjustments: Tariffs should respond dynamically to input cost fluctuations.
  4. Annual true-up exercises: Prevent backlog accumulation by reconciling projections with actual costs.
  5. Regulatory discipline: Enforce caps, transparency, and timelines to ensure regulatory assets remain exceptional, not structural.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s directive signals a turning point for India’s power sector. It underlines the urgent need for financial discipline, timely subsidies, and transparent tariff setting. If implemented well, this move could break the cycle of deferred costs and inefficiencies, ensuring that electricity supply remains both affordable for consumers and financially viable for utilities. For policymakers, it serves as a reminder that delaying reforms through regulatory tools only compounds systemic risks.

Value Addition

Importance of DISCOMs in India’s Power Sector

  1. DISCOMs are the last-mile link in the electricity chain, responsible for delivering power to households, industries, and agriculture.
  2. Their financial health directly impacts energy access, affordability, and quality of supply.

Current Financial Stress

  1. AT&C Losses: Aggregate Technical & Commercial losses remain high at ~16–20% (against a target of 12–15%).
  2. Revenue Gap: ACS > ARR leads to losses per unit supplied.
  3. Debt Burden: Many DISCOMs rely on borrowing to bridge gaps, adding to systemic financial stress.

Key Causes of DISCOM Distress

  1. Non-cost reflective tariffs: Political pressure keeps tariffs lower than actual supply cost.
  2. Delayed subsidies: State governments often delay releasing agricultural/poor household subsidies.
  3. Cross-subsidisation: Industrial and commercial consumers are charged higher rates to subsidise other sectors, affecting competitiveness.
  4. Fuel price volatility: Sudden spikes in coal/gas prices worsen procurement costs.

Government Initiatives for DISCOMs

  1. UDAY (2015): Transferred debt to State governments, targeted efficiency improvements.
  2. Revamped Distribution Sector Scheme (RDSS) (2021): RDSS, focuses on smart meters, loss reduction, and IT-based monitoring.
  3. Electricity Amendment Bill (2022) (proposed): Aims to promote competition, allow multiple distributors in the same area, and reduce monopolies.

DISCOMs and Energy Transition

  1. Financially weak DISCOMs struggle to integrate renewable energy and invest in smart grids, storage, and modernisation.
  2. This hampers India’s 2030 renewable energy targets (500 GW capacity, 50% non-fossil share).

Global Comparisons

  1. Many countries (e.g., UK, Germany) have cost-reflective tariff mechanisms and automatic adjustment clauses to prevent accumulation of arrears.
  2. India’s reliance on regulatory assets is unusual, reflecting deeper political economy challenges.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] “Access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy is the sine qua non to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).’’ Comment on the progress made in India in this regard.

Linkage: The Supreme Court’s directive on regulatory assets directly ties to SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) by addressing the financial distress of DISCOMs, which undermines both affordability for consumers and sustainability for utilities. India has expanded electricity access impressively, but the persistence of unrecovered costs, delayed subsidies, and non-cost-reflective tariffs highlight the fragility of the system. The judgment pushes for financial discipline, timely subsidy release, and transparent tariff recovery, ensuring that progress towards universal, reliable, and modern energy access is not compromised by systemic inefficiencies.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-SCO

Unmistakable shift (India signalled a change in foreign policy stance at SCO Summit)

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Introduction

India’s foreign policy has historically oscillated between balancing great power politics and safeguarding its strategic autonomy. The 2025 SCO Summit in China witnessed a landmark moment: Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s first bilateral engagement with Chinese President Xi Jinping since the 2020 military standoff. The visit not only revived dormant dialogues but also underscored India’s shifting posture in a multipolar world marked by U.S. sanctions, instability in West Asia, and contestations within Eurasia.

Significance of Indian Prime Minister’s Visit to China

  1. Seven-year gap: PM Modi had not travelled to China since 2017, making this a major diplomatic breakthrough.
  2. First bilateral since standoff: Meeting with Xi Jinping was the first since the 2020 military confrontation along the LAC.
  3. Three-year SCO absence: Modi’s return to SCO after three years shows India’s willingness to re-engage with a grouping seen as anti-Western.
  4. Optics of bonhomie: Images with Xi and Putin evoked memories of the inactive Russia-India-China trilateral, signalling recalibration.

Revival of India-China Bilateral Engagement

  1. Troop disengagement: Both leaders endorsed the normalisation process initiated in October 2024.
  2. Boundary resolution: Agreed to fast-track talks between Special Representatives.
  3. Connectivity revival: Resumption of direct flights and visa facilitation announced.
  4. Economic ties: Leaders stressed on building trade relations to stabilise world commerce.
  5. Mutual trust rhetoric: Modi stressed ties based on “mutual trust, respect and sensitivity”, while Xi used the metaphor of “Dragon and Elephant” coming together.

External Drivers of India’s Foreign Policy Recalibration

  1. U.S. tariffs and sanctions: American restrictions and mistrust of the Trump administration nudged India to diversify partnerships.
  2. Strategic compulsion: India managed to side-step concerns like China’s support to Pakistan during Operation Sindoor, UNSC/NSG opposition, and shielding of terrorists.
  3. Multipolar optics: India’s engagement at SCO signals balancing between West and Eurasia.

Key Outcomes of the 2025 SCO Summit

  1. Tianjin declaration: Strong language against cross-border terrorism, including condemnation of the Pahalgam attack (India) and Balochistan attacks (Pakistan).
  2. West Asian crisis: SCO united on humanitarian crisis in Gaza and condemned U.S.-Israeli strikes on Iran.
  3. China’s push: Xi proposed an SCO Development Bank.
  4. India’s push: Modi proposed a Civilisational Dialogue among SCO members.
  5. India’s reservation: Continued opposition to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) paragraph.

Missed Diplomatic Opportunities at the Summit

  1. Skipped SCO Plus: Indian Prime Minister did not attend the extended “SCO Plus” Summit, limiting engagement with neighbourhood and Global South leaders.
  2. Regional bonding gap: While optics were strong, substantive regional outreach was diluted.

Conclusion

The SCO Summit underscored India’s willingness to recalibrate its foreign policy in a changing world order. Modi’s visit after years of distance marked a thaw with China, greater Eurasian engagement, and assertion of India’s independent foreign policy despite U.S. pressures. However, missed opportunities in broader outreach and unresolved trust deficits with China remain cautionary notes.

Value Addition

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)

Historical Background

  1. Successor to: SCO is the successor to the Shanghai Five, formed in 1996 between China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, and Tajikistan.
  2. Formation: Established in 2001 in Shanghai by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
  3. Expansion: India and Pakistan joined as full members in 2017; Iran became a member in 2023.
  4. Observers & Dialogue Partners: Afghanistan, Belarus, Mongolia, and others engage as observers; several countries (e.g., Turkey, Sri Lanka) are dialogue partners.

Strategic Importance of SCO for India

  1. Geopolitical Balancing: Provides a platform to engage with China and Russia while maintaining ties with the West (Quad, U.S.).
  2. Regional Security: Key forum for counter-terrorism cooperation, especially in light of cross-border terrorism and instability in Afghanistan.
  3. Eurasian Connectivity: Enhances India’s presence in Central Asia, a region rich in energy resources.
  4. Multipolar World Order: Strengthens India’s narrative of strategic autonomy and non-alignment in new form.

Key SCO Mechanisms

  1. Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS): Headquartered in Tashkent, focuses on counter-terrorism intelligence sharing.
  2. Economic Cooperation: Proposals for SCO Development Bank, regional trade, and connectivity projects (though India resists BRI-linked initiatives).
  3. Cultural and Civilisational Dialogues: Shared platforms for people-to-people exchanges, education, and cultural diplomacy.

India’s Challenges within SCO

  1. China Factor: Difficult to expand cooperation given border disputes and China’s Pakistan tilt.
  2. Pakistan Factor: Its membership often leads to diplomatic blockages on issues like terrorism.
  3. BRI Opposition: India consistently refuses to endorse the Belt and Road Initiative, creating friction.
  4. Russia-China Axis: Russia’s growing dependence on China may dilute India’s influence in the bloc.

Contemporary Relevance

  1. Energy and Trade: Central Asia is crucial for energy diversification; SCO provides a gateway.
  2. Geopolitical Flux: With U.S.-China rivalry and West Asia instability, SCO’s role in Eurasian stability gains importance.
  3. Soft Power Opportunity: India uses SCO to promote civilisational dialogue, yoga, Ayurveda, and cultural diplomacy.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Critically examine the aims and objectives of SCO. What importance does it hold for India?

Linkage: The article directly illustrates the objectives of SCO—counter-terrorism (Tianjin declaration), multipolarity, and Eurasian stability. It highlights India’s balancing act—reviving ties with China, opposing BRI, and pushing for civilisational dialogue. Thus, the SCO Summit outcomes reflect both the scope and constraints of SCO’s importance for India in strategic, economic, and security domains.

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

[pib] PRATUSH Mission

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Raman Research Institute (RRI) has devised the Probing ReionizATion of the Universe using Signal from Hydrogen (PRATUSH) Telescope to study the “Cosmic Dawn” by detecting radio signals from neutral hydrogen gas.

About the PRATUSH Mission:

  • Developer: Designed by the Raman Research Institute (RRI), Bengaluru, an autonomous institute under the Department of Science and Technology (DST).
  • Main Goal: To study the Cosmic Dawn – the period when the first stars and galaxies formed – by detecting the faint 21-cm radio signal from neutral hydrogen.
  • Why from the Moon? On Earth, these signals get lost due to radio noise (like FM signals) and atmospheric distortions. The lunar far side is the quietest place in the inner Solar System for radio astronomy, making it the best site.
  • Scientific Importance: Will help scientists understand how the first stars heated and ionized hydrogen gas, how the early Universe changed, and may even give clues about dark matter and fundamental physics.

Key Features:

  • Compact Design: Small, lightweight, low-power, and cost-effective – in line with the global trend of miniaturized space instruments.
  • Digital Receiver System:
    • Uses a single-board computer (like Raspberry Pi prototype).
    • Equipped with FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) for high-speed radio data processing.
  • How it Works:
    • Antenna collects faint hydrogen signals.
    • Analog receiver amplifies them.
    • Digital receiver + FPGA convert them into detailed spectral fingerprints of sky brightness.
  • Test Results: Lab trials (352 hours) showed extremely low noise (few millikelvins), proving it can detect faint cosmic signals.
  • SWaP Advantage: Optimized for Size, Weight, and Power (SWaP), making it highly suitable for space deployment.
[UPSC 2010]  In the context of space technology, what is Bhuvan, recently in the news?

Options:

(a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India

(b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II

(c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India *

(d) A space telescope developed by ISRO

 

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Governor vs. State

Appointment of Vice Chancellors by Governor

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Why in the News?

A recent controversy arose in Kerala, where the Governor (ex-officio Chancellor of State Universities) urged the Supreme Court to exclude the Chief Minister from the process of selecting Vice-Chancellors (VCs).

Who is the Vice-Chancellor?

  • Position: Serves as Principal Academic and Executive Officer of the university.
  • Functions: Bridges executive and academic wings; ensures compliance with Acts, Statutes, and Regulations.
  • Authority: Chairs key bodies such as the Executive Council, Academic Council, Finance Committee, and Selection Committees.
  • Qualities Emphasized: Historical commissions (Radhakrishnan 1948, Kothari 1964–66, Gnanam 1990, Ramlal Parikh 1993) stressed academic excellence, administrative skill, integrity, and vision.
  • Significance: Maintains quality, relevance, and reform in higher education.

About the Role of Governor and President in Universities:

  1. State Universities:
    1. Chancellor’s Position: The Governor is ex-officio Chancellor, functioning independently of the State Cabinet in university matters.
    2. VC Appointment: As per UGC Regulations, 2018, the Chancellor appoints Vice-Chancellors from a panel recommended by a Search-cum-Selection Committee.
    3. Legal Supremacy: In conflicts between UGC regulations and State laws, UGC norms prevail under Article 254 of the Constitution.
  2. Central Universities:
    1. Visitor Role: The President of India is the Visitor under the Central Universities Act, 2009.
    2. Chancellor: A ceremonial head, appointed by the President.
    3. VC Appointment: The President selects from a panel suggested by a Search Committee and can demand a fresh panel if unsatisfied.
    4. Oversight Powers: The President can authorize inspections and inquiries into universities.
[UPSC 2014] Which of the following are the discretionary powers given to the Governor of a State?

1. Sending a report to the President of India for imposing the President’s rule

2. Appointing the Ministers

3. Reserving certain bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President of India

4. Making the rules to conduct the business of the State Government

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) a) 1 and 2 only (b) b) 1 and 3 only (c) c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

 

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Electronic System Design and Manufacturing Sector – M-SIPS, National Policy on Electronics, etc.

Vikram 32-Bit Processor

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Indigenization Of Technology

Why in the News?

Union Minister for Electronics & IT has presented PM with a memento containing the first ‘Made in India’ Vikram 32-bit Launch Vehicle Grade Processor (VIKRAM3201).

About Vikram 32-bit Processor (VIKRAM3201):

  • Overview: India’s first fully indigenous 32-bit space-grade microprocessor, developed by VSSC–ISRO with Semiconductor Laboratory (SCL), Chandigarh.
  • Lineage: Successor of 16-bit VIKRAM1601 (used since 2009 in ISRO launch vehicles), designed for avionics, navigation, guidance, and mission control.
  • Launch & Validation: Unveiled at Semicon India 2025 as a symbol of India’s semiconductor self-reliance. Validated in space during PSLV-C60 (2025) via POEM-4 experiments.
  • Applications: Primarily for space missions, but also suited for defence, automotive, and energy systems due to its rugged reliability.
  • Policy Support: Developed under India Semiconductor Mission and Design Linked Incentive (DLI) scheme, reflecting policy thrust on indigenous chip design and manufacturing.

Key Technical Features:

  • Architecture: 32-bit design with support for 16/32-bit fixed-point and 64-bit floating-point (IEEE754) operations, essential for trajectory precision.
  • Registers & Memory: 32 registers (32-bit wide), capable of addressing up to 4096M words of memory.
  • Instruction Set: 152 instructions with microprogrammed control for flexibility in aerospace computations.
  • Performance: Operates at 100 MHz, single 3.3V supply, consumes <500 mW power, with <10 mA quiescent current.
  • Environmental Tolerance: Functions between –55°C to +125°C, fit for space and military conditions.
  • Interfaces: Equipped with four 32-bit timers, 256 software interrupts, and dual on-chip 1553B bus interfaces for avionics communication.
  • Software Compatibility: Optimised for Ada language (aerospace standard); C compiler support under development by ISRO.
  • Packaging & Fabrication: Built in a 181-pin ceramic PGA package, fabricated on 180 nm CMOS process at SCL, Mohali.
[UPSC 2008] Which one of the following laser types is used in a laser printer?

Options: (a) Dye laser  (b) Gas laser (c) Semiconductor laser  (d) Excimer laser

 

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Judicial Reforms

Recusal of Judges

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Seperation Of Power

Why in the News?

A Madhya Pradesh High Court judge has recused himself from hearing a petition in an alleged illegal mining case, saying that a MLA had “attempted to call him” to have a discussion regarding the matter.

About Recusal:

  • Overview: Recusal is the act of a judge or official abstaining from a case due to conflict of interest or a possible perception of bias.
  • Legal Basis:
    • There are no codified laws, but multiple Supreme Court rulings provide guiding principles.
    • In Ranjit Thakur v. Union of India (1987), SC held that the test of bias is the reasonableness of the apprehension in the mind of the affected party.
  • Grounds for Recusal:
    • Prior personal/professional association with a party.
    • Having appeared for a party in the case earlier.
    • Ex parte communications with parties involved.
    • Cases where a judge may be reviewing his own earlier judgment (e.g., SC appeals against HC orders delivered by the same judge earlier).
    • Financial or personal interests (e.g., shareholding in a company party to the case).
  • Underlying Principle: Rooted in the maxim “nemo judex in causa sua” — no one should be a judge in their own cause.

Process of Recusal:

  • Judge’s Discretion:
    • Decision usually rests with the judge’s conscience and discretion.
    • Judges may orally inform the parties, record it in the order, or sometimes recuse silently without explanation.
  • On Request:
    • Lawyers or parties may request recusal; final decision still rests with the judge.
    • Some judges have recused even without conflict, merely to avoid doubt. Others refuse if no genuine bias exists.
  • Procedure: Once recusal is declared, the case is placed before the Chief Justice for reassignment to another Bench.

Concerns Related to Recusal:

  • Judicial Independence at Risk: Can be misused by litigants to bench hunt (cherry-pick a judge), undermining judicial impartiality.
  • Lack of Uniform Standards: Absence of formal rules might lead to inconsistent approaches by different judges.
  • Potential for Abuse:
    • Requests for recusal may be used to delay proceedings, intimidate judges, or obstruct justice.
    • This undermines both the integrity of courts and timely justice delivery.
[UPSC 2019] With reference to the Constitution of India, prohibitions or limitations or provisions contained in ordinary laws cannot act as prohibitions or limitations on the constitutional powers under Article 142. It could mean which one of the following?

Options:

(a) The decisions taken by the. Election Commission of India while discharging its duties cannot be challenged in any court of law.

(b) The Supreme Court of India is not constrained in the exercise of its powers by the laws made by Parliament.

(c) In the event of grave financial crisis in the country, the President of India can declare Financial Emergency without the counsel from the Cabinet.

(d) State Legislatures cannot make laws on certain matters without the concurrence of Union Legislature.

 

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Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

In news: Sudan’s Darfur Region

world map | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Why in the News?

A landslide in Sudan’s western Darfur region reportedly wiped out a village, killing an estimated 1,000 people.

In news: Sudan’s Darfur Region

About Darfur Region:

  • Location & Size: Western Sudan; borders Chad, Libya, CAR; spans about 493,000 sq. km (nearly France-sized).
  • Geography: Predominantly arid/semi-arid; desert north, fertile south. Highly vulnerable to drought, desertification, and climate change.
  • Administrative Units: Divided into five states — North, South, West, Central, East Darfur.
  • Demographics: Mixed ethnic groups — Arab pastoralists and non-Arab farming communities.
  • Capital: El Fasher, main hub for administration, economy, and humanitarian operations.

Ongoing Conflict & Crisis:

  • Origins of Uprising: Armed rebellion began in 2003 (SLM, JEM) against political and economic marginalization.
  • Janjaweed & RSF: Janjaweed militias, accused of genocide and ethnic cleansing, later evolved into Rapid Support Forces (RSF), now central to instability.
  • Humanitarian Crisis: Since 2003, region has seen mass killings, displacement, refugee flows, ranked among the worst global humanitarian crises.
  • Current Instability: Renewed 2023 violence between RSF and rival groups worsened agriculture, aid, and governance.
  • Regional Impact: Conflict spills into Chad and CAR, destabilizing the Sahel region.
  • Natural Disasters: Alongside conflict, disasters like the 2025 Darfur landslide (~1,000 deaths) add to human suffering.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

Statement-I: There is instability and worsening security situation in the Sahel region.

Statement-II: There have been military takeovers/coups d’état in several countries of the Sahel region in the recent past.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statement?

a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I

b) Bothe Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I

c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect

d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct

 

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

[2nd September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The rise and risks of health insurance in India

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Investment Models

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent this has been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth?

Linkage: The expansion of Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY) and State Health Insurance Programmes (SHIPs) shows rising public expenditure on health but largely towards insurance reimbursements rather than strengthening primary health infrastructure. This trend benefits private hospitals and tertiary care but fails to reduce out-of-pocket costs or enhance inclusivity, as utilisation remains low. Thus, the expenditure pattern reflects growth without true inclusiveness, misaligned with the objectives of inclusive growth.

Mentor’s Comment

The debate on health insurance in India has intensified in recent years, especially with the expansion of State-sponsored schemes like Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY). While these initiatives provide some relief, the core question remains: can insurance-driven models substitute for robust public health infrastructure? This article unpacks the illusion of universal health coverage (UHC) through insurance, its systemic risks, and the urgent need for course correction.

Introduction

The Bhore Committee Report (1946) defined UHC as guaranteed access to quality health care for every citizen irrespective of their ability to pay. Eight decades later, India still falls far short of this goal. Instead of strengthening public health infrastructure, India has leaned heavily on health insurance schemes like the PMJAY and State Health Insurance Programmes (SHIPs). Though they provide relief to some, these schemes have created new distortions, risks, and inequities in the health system.

The Surge of Health Insurance Schemes

  1. PMJAY Launch (2018): Landmark scheme under Ayushman Bharat with ₹5 lakh annual cover per household for in-patient care.
  2. Massive Coverage: In 2023–24, PMJAY covered 58.8 crore individuals with an annual budget of ₹12,000 crore.
  3. Parallel SHIPs: State-level schemes cover a similar number with a budget of at least ₹16,000 crore.
  4. Rising Budgets: SHIP allocations grew at 8–25% annually (2018–19 to 2023–24) in States like Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra.

Commercialisation of Healthcare under Insurance

  1. Two-thirds of the PMJAY budget flows to private hospitals, often profit-oriented.
  2. Study findings: Minimal change in hospitalisation rates, but rise in private hospital use.
  3. Weak regulation: India’s poorly regulated profit-seeking providers dominate the system.

Hospitalisation Bias in Insurance Models

  1. Bias towards hospitalisation: Insurance covers only in-patient care, neglecting primary and outpatient care.
  2. Ageing challenge: Expanding coverage to elderly (70+) risks disproportionate spending on tertiary care.

Challenges in Effective Utilisation of Coverage

  1. High theoretical coverage: 80% of the population enrolled under PMJAY + SHIPs.
  2. Low effective use: Only 35% of insured patients could utilise benefits (2022–23 HCES).
  3. Barriers: Lack of awareness, procedural hurdles, and discrimination by providers.

Discrimination in Healthcare Delivery

  1. Private hospitals: Prefer uninsured patients for higher commercial charges.
  2. Public hospitals: Prefer insured patients for reimbursement incentives.
  3. Result: Discriminatory treatment and pressure on patients to enrol immediately.

Financial Strains Leading to Hospital Withdrawals

  1. Pending dues: PMJAY arrears reached ₹12,161 crore, more than its annual budget.
  2. Provider dissatisfaction: Low reimbursement, long delays.
  3. Hospital exits: 609 hospitals opted out of PMJAY since inception.

Corruption and Irregularities in PMJAY and SHIPs

  1. Fraudulent practices: NHA flagged 3,200 hospitals for irregularities.
  2. Common issues: Overcharging, denial of treatment, unnecessary procedures.
  3. Weak safeguards: No evidence of effective audits or transparency in scheme portals.

The Systemic Risk of Insurance-Led Health Care

  1. Profit over patients: Insurance reinforces commercial medicine rather than correcting it.
  2. Underfunded public health: India spends only 1.3% of GDP on health (World Bank, 2022), vs world average of 6.1%.
  3. Comparative failure: Unlike Canada and Thailand, India’s schemes lack universal coverage and non-profit focus.
  4. Result: Insurance becomes a “painkiller”, not a cure for India’s broken public health system.

Conclusion

Health insurance in India has expanded rapidly, but it remains a fragile foundation for UHC. It fosters profit-driven medicine, neglects primary care, suffers from poor utilisation, and is riddled with corruption. Without massive investment in public health infrastructure, primary care, and regulation, India cannot hope to achieve universal health coverage. Insurance schemes, at best, provide temporary relief, not sustainable health security.

Value Addition
  1. National Health Policy, 2017: Targets increasing government health expenditure to 2.5% of GDP by 2025, but current levels remain at ~1.3%.
  2. High Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE): As per NSSO 2017–18, OOPE in India still accounts for over 50% of total health expenditure, one of the highest in the world.
  3. Lancet Commission on Global Surgery (2015): Highlighted that nearly 5 billion people worldwide lack access to safe, affordable surgery, underscoring the gaps in India’s insurance-driven, hospitalisation-focused approach.
  4. WHO Recommendation: For effective Universal Health Coverage (UHC), countries need to strengthen primary health systems — India still lags here, with sub-centres and PHCs facing severe staff shortages.
  5. National Health Accounts (NHAI) 2019–20: Show that private sector spending dominates health financing in India, with households bearing the brunt, unlike in OECD nations where governments fund the majority.
  6. Insurance Penetration vs. Health Security: India’s insurance penetration (life + non-life) is about 4.2% of GDP, but penetration does not automatically translate to healthcare access or financial protection.
  7. Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres (AB-HWCs): Intended to provide comprehensive primary healthcare (preventive + promotive), yet remain underfunded compared to PMJAY, skewing priorities.
  8. Equity Gap – Rural vs. Urban: Rural populations face doctor-population ratio deficits, with most PMJAY empanelled hospitals concentrated in urban centres, worsening regional disparities.
  9. Digital Health Mission (NDHM 2020): Aims to create digital health IDs and improve transparency, but challenges include digital divide and privacy concerns.
  10. Economic Survey 2020–21: Stressed that public health investment has high multiplier effects on productivity and human capital formation — much higher than insurance subsidies.

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Geography uncover why some rivers stay single while others split

Explained | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Introduction

For decades, scientists wondered why some rivers flow as single channels while others split into braided systems. Researchers at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), after studying 84 rivers over 36 years using satellite data, have uncovered the mechanism. Their findings resolve a geomorphological puzzle and offer fresh insights for managing rivers amid climate change, rising floods, and human interventions.

Why is this discovery significant?

The UCSB study shows that erosion, not equilibrium, drives multi-threading. Single-thread rivers balance erosion and deposition, while braided rivers erode banks faster than they deposit, making them unstable. This overturns earlier models assuming fixed depth and width. In an era of extreme weather, such insights are vital for flood prediction, ecosystem restoration, and sustainable infrastructure.

Understanding the dynamics of single-thread and multi-thread rivers

  1. Single-thread rivers: They maintain equilibrium between bank erosion and bar accretion, ensuring stable width.
  2. Multi-thread rivers: They are characterised by imbalance, where erosion exceeds deposition, causing channels to widen and split repeatedly.
  3. Example: Brahmaputra’s braided channels erode laterally at a rapid pace, making them inherently unstable.

Scientific breakthrough in decoding river channel behavior

  1. Data analysed: 84 rivers across climates and terrains, spanning 36 years (1985–2021).
  2. Technology used: Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) on satellite images, generating 4 lakh+ measurements of erosion and accretion.
  3. Outcome: Identification of patterns showing why some rivers remain stable and others split into multiple channels.

The ecological role of vegetation in shaping river morphology

  1. Earlier belief: Vegetated banks were considered essential for meandering rivers.
  2. Stanford study finding: Vegetation alters river bend migration:
  3. Vegetated bends → Move outward, creating levees, limiting sinuosity.
  4. Unvegetated bends → Drift downstream, forming different sedimentary deposits.
  5. Implication: River evolution is not only hydrological but also ecological.

Implications for India’s river systems: Ganga and Brahmaputra in focus

  • Case studies: Ganga near Patna, Farakka, Paksey; Brahmaputra near Pandu, Pasighat, Bahadurabad.
  • Findings: Multi-thread rivers like Brahmaputra are inherently unstable due to rapid lateral erosion.
  • Problem: Artificial confinement by embankments has worsened risks in India.
  • Implication: Flood forecasting models (rating curves) need frequent updates as channel shapes shift.

Nature-based solutions and strategies for sustainable river management

  1. Remove artificial embankments
  2. Restore natural floodplains
  3. Create vegetated buffer zones along banks
  4. Reactivate abandoned channels
  5. Build wetlands in braided sections
  6. Advantages: Lower cost of restoration, better flood absorption, reduced disaster risk.

Conclusion

The new understanding of why rivers split reshapes our approach to flood management, river restoration, and ecological conservation. For India, where rivers like the Ganga and Brahmaputra are lifelines but also sources of recurrent floods, this research is a wake-up call. Emphasising natural solutions over artificial confinement could pave the way for sustainable water governance in the climate change era.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2016] Major cities of India are becoming more vulnerable to flood conditions. Discuss.

Linkage: The recent UCSB study highlights that multi-thread rivers like the Ganga and Brahmaputra are inherently unstable because erosion outpaces deposition, causing channels to split and shift rapidly. In India, this instability is often worsened by human interventions such as embankments, damming, and encroachment, which artificially confine rivers. As these channels change, urban centres located along floodplains (Patna, Guwahati, Kolkata, etc.) become highly flood-prone. The research also suggests that relying on outdated models assuming rivers are stable leads to poor flood prediction in cities. Thus, insights from this study strengthen the argument that urban flooding in India is not only due to unplanned urbanisation but also due to the geomorphological instability of river systems and flawed management practices.

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Noise pollution is rising but policy is falling silent

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

Noise pollution in India has emerged as a silent but significant public health crisis. With urban decibel levels routinely breaching permissible limits near schools, hospitals, and residential zones, the constitutional promise of dignity and peace is being eroded. Despite a robust legal framework in place since 2000, fragmented enforcement, civic fatigue, and policy inertia have left the issue largely unaddressed. Unlike Europe, where noise-induced illnesses shape policymaking, India remains institutionally and politically silent.

Why is noise pollution in the news?

Noise pollution has resurfaced as a pressing issue because of increasing violations in silence zones, lack of updated enforcement mechanisms, and alarming ecological findings. The Central Pollution Control Board’s National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network (NANMN), launched in 2011 as a flagship real-time monitoring system, has become a passive repository with little accountability. In 2024, the Supreme Court reaffirmed that excessive noise is a violation of Article 21. A 2025 ecological study added urgency, revealing that even one night of urban noise disrupts bird song and communication.

Weaknesses in India’s noise monitoring system

  1. Flawed sensor placement: Many noise monitors are mounted 25–30 feet high, violating CPCB’s 2015 guidelines and recording misleading data.
  2. Data without enforcement: NANMN has been reduced to a dashboard of figures with no link to penalties or compliance.
  3. Fragmented institutions: State Pollution Control Boards, traffic police, and municipalities act in silos, preventing unified action.
  4. Opacity in data: RTI queries remain unanswered, and States like Uttar Pradesh have not released first-quarter 2025 data.

Noise pollution as a constitutional and legal challenge

  1. Right to life with dignity (Article 21): Supreme Court reaffirmed in 2024 that unchecked urban noise directly undermines mental well-being.
  2. Directive Principle (Article 48A): The State has a duty to protect and improve the environment, but silence on noise policy reflects neglect.
  3. Failure of Silence Zones: Hospitals and schools often record 65–70 dB(A) against the permissible 50 dB(A) daytime and 40 dB(A) nighttime limits set by WHO.

Human and ecological costs of unchecked urban noise

  1. Mental health erosion: Chronic noise exposure causes disturbed sleep cycles, hypertension, and reduced cognitive function.
  2. Children and elderly at risk: Sensitive groups face aggravated anxiety and cardiovascular problems.
  3. Biodiversity disruption: 2025 Auckland study shows even one night of noise alters bird song complexity, affecting species survival and ecological communication.
  4. Cultural normalisation: Honking, drilling, and loudspeakers have become ambient irritants, tolerated rather than resisted.

Fragmented governance and symbolic compliance

  1. Weak legal update: Noise Pollution Rules, 2000 have not been revised to reflect rapid urbanisation and logistics-heavy economies.
  2. Institutional silos: No coordination between police, local bodies, and SPCBs, leaving sporadic enforcement drives without systemic change.
  3. Judicial reminders: Despite Noise Pollution (V), In Re (2005, reaffirmed in 2024), state capacity to enforce remains symbolic.

Towards a national acoustic policy and cultural change

  1. Decentralise monitoring: Grant local governments access to real-time NANMN data.
  2. Link data with penalties: Without enforcement, monitoring becomes performative.
  3. National acoustic policy: Define permissible decibel limits across zones with periodic audits.
  4. Urban planning reforms: Embed acoustic resilience into city designs, zoning, and transport planning.
  5. Sonic empathy campaigns: Similar to seatbelt norms, honking reduction must be internalised through community education.

Conclusion

Noise pollution is not an invisible irritant, it is a public health emergency, an ecological disruptor, and a constitutional concern. Without a rights-based framework that treats silence as essential to dignity, India’s urban future risks becoming unliveable. The challenge is not only regulatory but also cultural: fostering a shared ethic of sonic empathy. Silence must not be imposed, but enabled through design, governance, and civic will.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] What is oil pollution? What are its impacts on the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil pollution particularly harmful for a country like India?

Linkage: Both oil and noise pollution are invisible pollutants with severe but often neglected impacts — oil disrupts marine ecosystems while noise erodes mental health and biodiversity.

Like India’s vulnerability to oil spills due to its long coastline, rapid urbanisation makes it highly exposed to noise hazards. In both cases, regulatory frameworks exist but enforcement is fragmented, highlighting a gap between law and practice.

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

The NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission has recently traced the origin of Solar Energetic Electrons (SEE), advancing knowledge of solar activity and space weather.

NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission

About NASA–ESA Solar Orbiter Mission:

  • Launch & Cost: Launched in Feb 2020 on an Atlas V from Cape Canaveral; joint ESA–NASA mission worth $1.5 billion.
  • Duration: Primary mission till 2026, extendable to 2030.
  • Orbit: Highly eccentric, approaching 0.28 AU (inside Mercury’s orbit); gradually tilts to image Sun’s poles.
  • Payload: 10 instruments — both in-situ (solar wind, magnetic fields, particles) and remote sensing (imaging, spectroscopy).
  • Firsts & Objectives: First to image solar poles; aims to study solar wind origin, solar cycle dynamics, causes of flares/CMEs, and their impact on heliosphere & space weather.

What are Solar Energetic Electrons (SEE)?

  • What are they: Streams of high-energy electrons released into space, travelling across the heliosphere.
  • Sources: Emerge from solar flares (sudden surface bursts) and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) (plasma + magnetic eruptions).
  • Patterns: Release not always immediate; often delayed by hours due to turbulence/scattering in interplanetary medium.
  • Solar Orbiter Observations: Detected 300+ bursts (2020–22), clearly linking SEE to solar flares/CMEs for the first time.

Significance of the recent findings:

  • Science: Clarifies Sun’s particle acceleration mechanisms.
  • Space Weather: CMEs are the main drivers of severe events — affecting satellites, GPS, communication, power grids, and astronaut safety.
  • Practical Utility: Improves solar storm forecasting and early-warning systems for infrastructure & human spaceflight.
  • Long Term Implications: Expected to revolutionise solar physics and our predictive capacity of Sun–Earth interactions.
[UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?

1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.

2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.

3. Power grids could be damaged.

4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.

5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.

6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.

7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only (b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only (c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7* only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

 

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

Dongar Cultivation of Odisha

Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

Why in the News?

The Dongar cultivation, a hill-slope mixed cropping system of the Kondh tribals in Odisha’s Rayagada is now under decline due to eucalyptus monoculture.

What is Dongar Cultivation?

  • Overview: A traditional shifting/mixed cropping system practised on hill slopes (uplands) by the Kondh tribal community in Odisha.
  • Crops grown: Millets (finger millet, foxtail millet), pulses, oilseeds, and even uncultivated foods like wild tubers.
  • Benefits offered: Provides nutritional diversity, supports birds and biodiversity, and maintains soil fertility without chemical inputs.
  • Cultural practice: Linked to seed conservation, labour exchange, and community-based farming traditions, reflecting a holistic tribal food system.
  • Significance: Its poly-cropping nature makes it more resilient to rainfall variability and climate shocks, unlike monocultures.

Other Traditional Cultivation Practices in India:

Type Key Features
Bewar / Dahiya (Madhya Pradesh Baiga & Gond tribes, Dindori district) Shifting cultivation; mixed cropping of millets, pulses, oilseeds; similar to Dongar; sustainable tribal food system.
Poonam Krishi (Western Ghats, Maharashtra & Karnataka) Traditional multi-cropping around rice fields; ensures year-round food and fodder security.
Pamlou (Manipur) Form of jhum (slash-and-burn) cultivation; rotational clearing of forests; crops include cereals, pulses, vegetables; supports subsistence farming.
Kuruma / Podu (Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh) Hill-slope shifting cultivation; millets and pulses dominant; threatened by monoculture plantations and forest restrictions.
Apatanis’ Wet Rice Cultivation – Arunachal Pradesh Intensive valley wetland system; combines paddy farming with fish rearing; highly sustainable and productive.

 

[UPSC 2018] With reference to the circumstances in Indian agriculture, the concept of “Conservation Agriculture” assumes significance.  Which of the following fall under the Conservation Agriculture?

1. Avoiding the monoculture practices

2. Adopting minimum tillage

3. Avoiding the cultivation of plantation crops

4. Using crop residues to cover soil surface

5. Adopting spatial and temporal rop sequencing/crop rotations.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3, 4 and 5 (c) 2, 4 and 5 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 5*

 

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

Jarosite in Kutch: India’s Mars Analogue Site

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Matanomadh in Kutch, Gujarat, with jarosite deposits like those on Mars, is being considered by ISRO as a test site for future Mars missions.

What is Jarosite?

  • Composition: A yellow, iron-rich sulphate mineral containing iron, sulphur, oxygen, and potassium.
  • Formation: Develops when volcanic ash or sulphur-bearing minerals chemically react with water, making it a marker of past water–rock interaction.
  • Discovery in India: Reported in 2016 at Matanomadh, Kutch (Gujarat) by ISRO’s Space Applications Centre; also found at Varkala cliffs, Kerala. Kutch is more suitable for planetary research.
  • Martian Link: Detected in 2004 by NASA’s Opportunity Rover. This referred as terrestrial clone of Martian surface.
  • Global Occurrence: Found in Mexico, Spain, Canada, Japan, and the USA (Utah, California), all serving as Mars analogue sites.

Matanomadh’s Significance for Mars Study:

  • Mars Analogue Value: Geological dating shows deposits about 55 million years old (Paleocene period), resembling early Martian conditions.
  • Test Bed for ISRO: Provides ground for testing rover mobility, drilling systems, geochemical studies, and remote sensing for Mangalyaan-2 and future missions.
  • Astrobiology Potential: Since jarosite can trap organic molecules, it helps in shaping strategies to search for signs of past life on Mars.
  • Complement to Ladakh: While Ladakh sites simulate Martian climate, Matanomadh represents Martian geology and mineralogy, creating a comprehensive Mars-analogue ecosystem in India.
  • Conservation Importance: Facing threats from waterlogging and coal mining; scientists urge its declaration as a Planetary Geo-heritage Site.
  • Strategic Edge: Strengthens India’s role in planetary exploration, astrobiology research, and international collaborations.
[UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:

1. The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO

2. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission

3. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA

4. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only   (b) 2 and 3 only   (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Deadly Earthquake in Afghanistan

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Why in the News?

A powerful earthquake in Afghanistan killed at least 800 people and injured thousands, highlighting the country’s extreme vulnerability to seismic hazards.

Deadly Earthquake in Afghanistan

Why is Afghanistan so prone to Earthquakes?

  • Geological Setting: Afghanistan lies in the Hindu Kush mountains, part of the Alpide Belt, the world’s second most seismically active belt after the Circum-Pacific.
  • Tectonic Origin: The Alpide Belt was formed by the closure of the Tethys Ocean, following the collision of the African, Arabian, and Indian Plates with the Eurasian Plate.
  • Ongoing Collision: The Indian Plate’s continued movement into the Eurasian Plate builds mountain ranges (Himalayas, Hindu Kush) and drives strong seismic activity.
  • Seismic Characteristics: Afghanistan experiences both shallow-focus earthquakes (0–70 km depth) causing major destruction and rare deep-focus quakes (up to 200 km) unique to the Hindu Kush.
  • Fault Structures: Major faults occur where the Indian and Eurasian Plates meet, making Afghanistan heavily fractured and highly vulnerable to tremors.

Where do Afghanistan’s Earthquakes occur?

  • Hindu Kush Region (Northern Afghanistan): Produces both shallow and deep-focus quakes due to the Indian Plate’s lithosphere sinking into the mantle, making it one of the world’s most unique seismic zones.
  • Sulaiman Range (SE Afghanistan & Western Pakistan): Known for shallow, thrust fault quakes, often destructive at the surface.
  • Main Pamir Thrust Zone: Another hotspot for shallow, surface-level earthquakes that cause high damage.
  • Overall Vulnerability: These regions together make Afghanistan one of the most earthquake-prone countries, with repeated deadly events since the 1990s.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

1. In a seismograph, P waves are recorded earlier than S waves.

2. In P waves, the individual particles vibrate to and fro in the direction of waves propogation whereas in S waves, the particles vibrate up and down at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a)  1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 * (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

RTE Act and Minority Educational Institutions

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Why in the News?

The Supreme Court has referred to a larger Bench the question of whether Minority Educational Institutions (MEIs) are completely exempt from the purview of the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009.

About Minority Educational Institutions (MEIs):

  • Constitutional Basis:
    • Article 30(1) grants religious and linguistic minorities the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
    • Article 29 protects their cultural and educational rights.
  • Legal Framework:
    • Defined under the National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions (NCMEI) Act, 2004.
    • The NCMEI adjudicates disputes, grants recognition, and safeguards the autonomy of such institutions.
  • Recognized Minority Communities: Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, and Zoroastrians (Parsis) are notified as minorities by the Government of India.
  • Judicial Principles:
    • In T.M.A. Pai Foundation vs. State of Karnataka (2002), SC held that minority status is determined state-wise, not nationally.
    • Minority institutions can reserve seats for their community and enjoy greater control over administration and recruitment.
  • Purpose and Role:
    • Preserve the cultural, linguistic, and religious heritage of minority groups.
    • Provide quality education with constitutional protection from excessive state interference.

What is the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009?

  • Genesis: Stemming from Unnikrishnan vs. State of Andhra Pradesh (1993), where SC declared education as a Fundamental Right under Article 21.
    • Later given constitutional backing through the 86th Amendment Act (2002), which inserted Article 21A – free and compulsory education for children aged 6–14 years.
  • Enactment: To operationalize Article 21A, Parliament passed the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009.
  • Key Provisions:
    • Free and compulsory education for all children aged 6–14 in a neighbourhood school.
    • 25% reservation in private schools for children from disadvantaged groups and weaker sections.
    • No detention, expulsion, or board exams up to Class VIII (amended in 2019 to allow states discretion).
    • Teacher norms: TET (Teachers Eligibility Test) qualification mandatory; ban on private tuitions by teachers.
    • School Management Committees (SMCs): Parents, local authority reps, and teachers oversee school functioning.
    • Curriculum & Standards: Developed by an academic authority (often NCERT/SCERT).
  • Amendments:
    • 2012: Included children with disabilities; exempted minority/religious institutions.
    • 2019: Abolished uniform “no-detention policy,” left to states’ choice.

 

[UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

1. As per the Right to Education (RTE) Act, to be eligible for appointment as a teacher in a State, a person would be required to possess the minimum qualification laid down by the concerned State Council of Teacher Education.

2. As per the RTE Act, for teaching primary classes, a candidate is required to pass a Teacher Eligibility Test conducted in accordance with the National Council of Teacher Education guidelines.

3. In India, more than 90% of teacher education institutions are directly under the State Governments

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only

 

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Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

In news: Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan

Schemes | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Why in the News?

The Supreme Court intervened after Tamil Nadu faced ₹3,000+ crore reimbursements to private schools for economically disadvantaged students’ admissions, as the Centre declined to share costs under Samagra Shiksha.

About Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan:

  • Launch & Integration: Started in 2018 (by then Ministry of HRD), integrating Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA), and Teacher Education (TE) into one holistic programme.
  • Benchmark Feature: Treats schooling as a continuous system from pre-primary to Class XII (ages 4–18), removing silos.
  • Funding Pattern: A Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) with Centre–State sharing (60:40, 90:10 for NE/hilly states), implemented via a single State Implementation Society (SIS).
  • Policy Alignment: Aligned with NEP 2020 and UN SDG-4 (quality education).
  • Coverage: 1.16 million schools, 156+ million students, 5.7 million teachers across government & aided institutions.
  • Upgraded Phase: Samagra Shiksha 2.0 (2021–26) with focus on digital education, vocational training, FLN, and inclusion.

Key Features of the Scheme:

  • Unified Structure: One umbrella for pre-primary to Class XII, ensuring coherent planning.
  • Teachers & Technology:
    • Continuous teacher training via SCERTs, DIETs, NISHTHA, SWAYAM.
    • Digital initiatives: DIKSHA, Operation Digital Board, ICT labs, smart classrooms, AI-based learning tools.
  • Foundational Literacy & Numeracy: NIPUN Bharat Mission (ages 3–9) for universal reading & numeracy.
  • Vocational & Skill Education: Subjects like coding, robotics, financial literacy, AI with 1000+ training centres (from Class VI).
  • Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT): Uniforms, textbooks, transport allowance directly credited via IT platforms.
  • Holistic Development: Integration of sports, physical education, self-defence, soft skills under Khelo India.
  • Funding Scale: Allocation crossed ₹41,000 crore (2025); nationwide coverage till March 2026 under Samagra Shiksha 2.0.
[UPSC 2017] What is the aim of the programme ‘Unnat Bharat Abhiyan’?

Options: (a) Achieving 100% literacy by promoting collaboration between voluntary organizations and government’s education system and local communities.

(b) Connecting institutions of higher education with local communities to address development challenges through appropriate technologies. *

(c) Strengthening India’s scientific research institutions in order to make India a scientific and technological Power.

(d) Developing human capital by allocating special funds for health-care and education of rural and urban poor, and organizing skill development programmes and vocational training for them.

 

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Economic Indicators and Various Reports On It- GDP, FD, EODB, WIR etc

[1st September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: India’s economic churn, the nectar of growth

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2019] Do you agree with the view that steady GDP growth and low inflation have left the Indian economy in good shape? Give reasons in support of your arguments.

Linkage: India’s steady GDP growth of 7.8%, coupled with broad-based sectoral performance, reflects macroeconomic stability, while effective fiscal and monetary discipline underpins low inflation. The sovereign rating upgrade after 18 years validates external confidence in India’s fundamentals. These trends, along with inclusive poverty reduction, highlight that the economy is indeed in good shape.

Mentor’s Comment

India’s economy is once again at the centre of global attention. From being dismissed as a “dead economy” by sceptics, the latest economic data, sovereign rating upgrade, and energy security achievements have painted a powerful picture of resilience and renewal. This article unpacks the recent developments in India’s economic and energy story, their significance, and what they mean for aspirants of Viksit Bharat.

Why is this issue in the news?

India’s Q1 FY 2025-26 GDP figures revealed 7.8% real growth, the fastest among major economies, coupled with a historic sovereign rating upgrade by S&P Global after 18 years. Simultaneously, India has consolidated its position as the world’s third-largest energy consumer and is spearheading a green transition. These milestones are striking because they overturn the “dead economy” narrative, highlight India’s growing share in global growth, and showcase a balance between growth, reform, and welfare, all while maintaining democratic values in contrast to authoritarian models of fast-paced growth.

Introduction

Indian civilisation has always embraced the philosophy that turbulence precedes triumph, like the Samudra Manthan, where chaos yielded nectar. Similarly, India’s economic journey has turned crises into opportunities, from the liberalisation of 1991 to the digital surge during COVID-19. Today, India stands at another inflection point. Despite global headwinds and doubts, the country is demonstrating robust growth, deepening reforms, and a secure energy base, shaping the narrative of resilience and inclusive progress.

Broad-based economic growth

  1. GDP expansion: Real GDP grew 7.8% in Q1 FY 2025-26, while GVA rose 7.6%, supported by manufacturing (7.7%), construction (7.6%), and services (9.3%).
  2. Global standing: India is the world’s fourth-largest economy and the fastest-growing major one, projected to overtake Germany by decade’s end.
  3. Global contribution: Independent estimates suggest India contributes 15% of incremental world growth, with ambitions to raise it to 20%.

Why the sovereign rating upgrade matters

  1. S&P recognition: First upgrade in 18 years, citing robust growth, fiscal consolidation, and monetary credibility.
  2. Lower borrowing costs: Improves India’s access to cheaper capital and widens the investor base.
  3. Narrative shift: Counters the label of a “dead economy,” giving credibility to India’s reforms.

Growth with inclusion

  1. Poverty reduction: 24.82 crore Indians moved out of multidimensional poverty between 2013-14 and 2022-23.
  2. Last-mile delivery: Success through bank accounts, clean cooking fuel, health cover, tap water, and direct benefit transfers (DBT).
  3. Democratic model: Built on consensus, competitive federalism, and digital rails, contrasting authoritarian growth models.

Energy security as a growth driver

  1. Global role: India is the third-largest energy consumer, fourth-largest refiner, and fourth-largest LNG importer.
  2. Capacity expansion: Refining capacity of 5.2 mb/d with plans to cross 400 MTPA by 2030.
  3. Exploration reforms: Sedimentary basin coverage expanded to 16% in 2025 (from 8% in 2021), with 1 million sq km target by 2030.
  4. Gas reforms: New pricing linked to Indian crude basket; 20% premium for deepwater wells boosting investment.

India’s energy transition

  1. Ethanol blending: Surged from 1.5% (2014) to 20% today, saving ₹1.25 lakh crore forex and paying ₹1 lakh crore to farmers.
  2. Green fuels: 300 compressed biogas plants under SATAT, targeting 5% blending by 2028.
  3. Hydrogen push: Oil PSUs driving the green hydrogen mission.

Responding to global criticism on Russian oil

  1. Compliance: India operates fully within G-7/EU price cap systems; every transaction uses legal, audited channels.
  2. Global stabiliser: Purchases prevented oil shocks and stabilised prices, aligning with Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.
  3. Export reality: India has been a top petroleum exporter for decades, not a “laundromat” for Russia.

India’s digital-industrial revolution

  1. Semiconductors: Four new projects cleared under the India Semiconductor Mission; strengthened by Japan collaborations.
  2. Digital economy: India leads in real-time payments; UPI enhances small-business productivity and exports of solutions.
  3. Synergy: Gati Shakti logistics & digital rails reduce costs, formalise the economy, and spur consumption.

Conclusion

India’s recent performance is more than statistics, it is the reaffirmation of resilience, reform, and inclusion. The world’s doubters labelled it a “dead economy,” yet growth, energy security, digital leadership, and poverty reduction tell a different story. As reforms deepen, India is on track not just to become the world’s third-largest economy soon but also to build a model of democratic, inclusive, and sustainable growth. For India, Viksit Bharat is not aspiration, it is delivery in motion.

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