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  • Capital Markets: Challenges and Developments

    Cost Inflation Index (CII) for FY25 to compute Capital Gains

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Why in the News?

    • The Income Tax Department has notified the cost inflation index (CII) for the current fiscal to calculate long-term capital gains arising from the sale of immovable property, securities and jewellery.
      • The CII is used by a taxpayer to compute gains arising out of the sale of capital assets after adjusting for inflation.

    CII Values:

    • For FY 2024-25, the CII is set at 363.
    • Previous years’ CII values were 348 for FY 2023-24 and 331 for FY 2022-23.

    What is Cost Inflation Index (CII)?

    • CII is a measure used by the Income Tax Department of India to account for inflation when calculating the capital gains on the sale of long-term capital assets.
    • It helps to adjust the purchase price of assets to reflect the effect of inflation.
      • CII adjusts the cost of acquisition of assets to the price level inflation at the time of sale.
      • This ensures that taxpayers pay taxes on the real gains rather than on the inflationary component of the price rise.
    • It is defined under Section 48 of the Income-tax Act, 1961.
    • The index is revised annually to keep up with inflation, with the base year being periodically reset (currently the base year is 2001-02 in India).

    Application of CII

    • CII is used to compute the indexed cost of acquisition of a capital asset that has been held for more than 36 months (considered as long-term capital assets).
    • Different holding periods apply for certain types of assets like immovable property and listed securities.

    Tax Calculation:

    • The formula used is:

    • This formula helps determine the adjusted cost basis from which any sale proceeds are subtracted to calculate capital gains.

    Back2Basics: Long Term Capital Gains

    • In India, long-term capital gains (LTCG) refer to the profit earned from the sale of a capital asset held for a specific period, qualifying it as “long-term” based on the duration of holding.
    • The tax implications and treatment of these gains are distinct from those of short-term capital gains.

    Definition of Long-Term Capital Assets

    • Equity or Preference Shares, Listed Securities, Units of UTI, etc.: These are considered long-term if held for more than 12 months before sale.
    • Immovable Property (e.g., Land, Building): Considered long-term if held for more than 24 months.
    • Other Assets (e.g., Jewellery, Debt-oriented Mutual Funds, etc.): These need to be held for more than 36 months to be considered long-term.

    Taxation of Long-Term Capital Gains

    • Equity Investments:
      • LTCG from the sale of listed shares or equity-oriented mutual funds over ₹1 lakh is taxed at 10% without the benefit of indexation, provided the securities transaction tax (STT) was paid at the time of sale.
    • Non-Equity Investments:
      • LTCG from assets like debt mutual funds, real estate, gold, etc., is taxed at 20% with the benefit of indexation.
    • Indexation Benefit:
      • For non-equity assets, the Cost Inflation Index (CII) is used to adjust the purchase price of the asset to reflect inflation. This reduces the taxable gain by increasing the acquisition cost.

    Calculation of Long-Term Capital Gains

    The general formula for calculating LTCG is:


    Where:

    Full Value of Consideration is the sale price of the asset.

    Indexed Cost of Acquisition is the purchase price adjusted by the CII.

    Indexed Cost of Improvement refers to the cost of any improvements made to the asset, adjusted by the CII.

    Cost of Transfer includes expenses directly related to the sale or transfer of the asset.

    Exemptions and Deductions

    • Section 54: Exemption on LTCG from the sale of a residential property if the proceeds are reinvested in another residential property in India.
    • Section 54EC: Exemption by investing LTCG in bonds issued by NHAI or REC within 6 months of the asset sale, subject to a cap of ₹50 lakhs.

     

    PYQ:

    [2015]  Which reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct?

    (a) Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only

    (b) The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation

    (c) Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation

    (d) Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    Omega-3 Fatty Acids and its Health Impacts

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    • Fish oil supplements, highly regarded for their high omega-3 fatty acid content, have long been associated with heart health benefits.
      • A recent study has caused controversy by raising the possibility that these supplements may be as harmful as previously thought.

    What are Fatty Acids?


    Fatty acids are crucial lipids (fats and oils) essential for various biological functions (Fatty Acid + Glycerol = Fats). They are carboxylic acids with a long aliphatic chain, either saturated or unsaturated.

    • Basic Structure: Consists of a hydrocarbon chain with a terminal carboxyl group (-COOH). The length and degree of saturation of the hydrocarbon chain can vary.
    • Roles in the Body: Serve as energy sources, components of cell membranes, and precursors for bioactive lipids.

    Types of Fatty Acids

    Fatty acids are classified based on the presence and number of double bonds in their hydrocarbon chain:

    1. Saturated Fatty Acids (SFA)
      • Structure: Contain no double bonds between carbon atoms; the hydrocarbon chain is saturated with hydrogen atoms.
      • Properties: Typically solid at room temperature.
      • Sources: Animal fats, coconut oil, palm oil, dairy products.
      • Examples: Palmitic acid, stearic acid.
    2. Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFA)
      • Structure: Contain one double bond in the hydrocarbon chain.
      • Properties: Generally liquid at room temperature but solidify when chilled.
      • Sources: Olive oil, canola oil, peanut oil, avocados, nuts.
      • Examples: Oleic acid.
    3. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA)
      • Structure: Contain two or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain.
      • Properties: Liquid at room temperature and in the refrigerator.
      • Sources: Fish, flax seeds, walnuts, sunflower oil, corn oil.
      • Examples:
    1. Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
    2. Omega-6 Fatty Acids: Linoleic acid, arachidonic acid.
    1. Trans Fatty Acids
      • Formation: Produced by the industrial process of hydrogenation of unsaturated fats, or naturally in the guts of some animals.
      • Properties: Similar to saturated fats, solid at room temperature.
      • Health Impact: Associated with negative cardiovascular effects.
      • Sources: Margarine, partially hydrogenated oils, and some baked goods.

    What are Omega-3 Fatty Acids?

    • Omega-3 fatty acids (omega-3s) are polyunsaturated fats that perform important functions in the human body.
    • There are three main types of omega-3 fatty acids:
      • EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid). EPA is a “marine omega-3” because it’s found in fish.
      • DHA (docosahexaenoic acid). DHA is also a marine omega-3 found in fish.
      • ALA (alpha-linolenic acid). ALA is the form of omega-3 found in plants.
      • When we get ALA from food, the human body can turn some of the ALA into EPA and subsequently to DHA. However, this process provides just a small amount of EPA and DHA. So, dietary sources of EPA and DHA (like fish) are essential.

    Functions of Omega-s fatty acids:

      • They help to provide structure and supporting interactions between cells.
      • Omega-3s are concentrated in high levels in cells in human eyes and brain.
      • They provide the human body with energy (calories) and support the health of many body systems.  These include the human cardiovascular system and endocrine system.

    Significance of Omega-3 fatty acids:

    • Omega-3 fatty acids have many potential benefits for human cardiovascular health.
    • One key benefit is that they help lower human triglyceride levels.
      • Too many triglycerides in human blood (hypertriglyceridemia) raise human risk of atherosclerosis, and through this, can increase human risk of heart disease and stroke. So, it’s important to keep triglyceride levels under control.
    • Omega-3s may help us by raising human HDL (good) cholesterol and lowering human blood pressure.
      • Some studies show omega-3s may lower human risk for Cardiovascular disease (CVD), and hence lowering the sudden death caused by an abnormal heart rhythm (arrhythmia), and blood clots.
    • Beyond heart health, omega-3s may help lower the human risk of developing some forms of cancer, including breast cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, and dementia, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), research continues to investigate these and other possible benefits.

    PYQ:

    [2011] A company marketing food products advertises that its items do not contain trans-fats. What does this campaign signify to the customers?

    1. The food products are not made out of hydrogenated oils.
    2. The food products are not made out of animal fats/ oils.
    3. The oils used are not likely to damage the cardiovascular health of the consumers.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

    Hampi’s Virupaksha Temple

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    The temple’s pavilion or the Saalu Mantap of the historic Virupaksha Temple in Hampi, Karnataka collapsed following Torrential rains.

    About Virupaksha Temple

    • Traced back to the 7th century AD.
    •  Built by early rulers of the Chalukya dynasty.
    • The temple was significantly expanded by Lakkan Dandesha, a chieftain under the rule of Deva Raya II (Prauda Deva Raya) of the Vijayanagara Empire.
    • However, the most significant expansions and contributions were made during the reign of King Krishnadevaraya in the early 16th century.
    • The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva, known locally as Virupaksha or Pampa Pathi, and is associated with the local deity Pampadevi.
    • Hampi, including the Virupaksha Temple, was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986 due to its rich architectural heritage and historical significance.

    Architectural Features of Virupaksha Temple

    Here are the major Dravidian architectural features of the Virupaksha Temple:

    Gopurams (Temple Towers):

    • Main Gopuram: The eastern entrance of the temple features a monumental nine-story gopuram (tower) that is approximately 50 meters high. This tower is intricately decorated with sculptures depicting Hindu myths and deities.
    • Smaller Gopurams: Other entrances of the temple are also marked by smaller but similarly elaborate gopurams.

    Mandapas (Pavilions):

    • Ranga Mandapa: Added in 1510 by King Krishnadevaraya, this is one of the most elaborately carved areas. The Ranga Mandapa is used for temple ceremonies and performances, featuring pillars with intricate carvings of mythical creatures and deities.
    • Open Pillar Hall: A large hall with rows of intricately carved pillars that depict various mythological scenes and form an important part of the temple structure.
    • Kalyana Mandapa: This area is used for celebrating the annual marriage festival of the deities, reflecting both architectural grandeur and cultural significance.

    Sanctum Sanctorum (Garbhagriha):

    • Main Shrine: The innermost sanctum houses the sacred Linga of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva). This area is considered the most sacred and is elaborately decorated.
    • Lesser Sanctums: Surrounding the main sanctum, there are smaller shrines dedicated to other deities, which are typical in South Indian temple complexes.

    Pillars and Sculptures:

    • Carved Pillars: The temple’s pillars are renowned for their detailed carvings, which depict scenes from Hindu mythology, including episodes from the epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
    • Artistic Themes: The sculptures include a mix of divine figures, mythological animals, and scenes from daily life, showcasing the craftsmanship and artistic sensibilities of the era.

    Water Structures:

    • Sacred Tank: A sacred water tank within the complex is used for religious rituals and ceremonies.

    About Vijayanagara Empire

    • It was established in 1336 by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, who were brothers and possibly former officers in the Hoysala Empire.
    • Dynastic Rule: Governed by four main dynasties: Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu.
    • Capital: The capital was Hampi, in the modern state of Karnataka, India, recognized today as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
    • Geographical Span: At its peak, the empire covered not only Karnataka but also extended into parts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
    • Krishnadevaraya: Considered the greatest ruler of the empire, known for his administrative genius and patronage of arts and literature.
    • Decline: The Empire suffered a major military defeat against a coalition of Deccan Sultanates in the Battle of Talikota (1565), which led to a significant decline in power.

     

    PYQ:

    [2019] Building ‘Kalyana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of-

    1. Chalukya
    2. Chandela
    3. Rashtrakuta
    4. Vijayanagara

    [2016] Krishnadeva Raya, the king of Vijayanagar, was not only an accomplished scholar himself but was a also a great patron of learning and literature. Discuss.

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  • Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

    Periyar River and Industrial Pollution

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    • A mass fish kill struck the Periyar River, the ‘Lifeline of Kerala’.
      • The incident, believed to be caused by industrial pollution from the Edayar Industrial Area, has caused immense loss to fish farmers and disrupted the local ecosystem.

    About Periyar River

    Details
    Length Approximately 244 kilometers (151 miles)
    Source of the river Originates in the Sivagiri hills of Sundaramala, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu
    Mouth of the River Empties into the Arabian Sea at Aluva, near Kochi, Kerala
    Flow Through Flows through Idukki, Ernakulam, and Thrissur districts in Kerala
    Major Tributaries Muthirapuzha, Cheruthoni, Edamalayar
    Key Hydroelectric Projects Idukki Dam (one of Asia’s highest arch dams), other significant dams include Mullaperiyar Dam
    Ecological Conservation Supports diverse ecosystems, passes through Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary (notable for elephants and tigers)
    Cultural Significance The ancient port of Muziris, is believed to have been located near the mouth of the Periyar.
    Environmental Challenges Faces pollution from industrial discharge and urban waste; water management disputes, especially related to the Mullaperiyar Dam’s safety and water sharing between Kerala and Tamil Nadu

    Threats to Periyar River

    • The lower reaches of the Periyar are heavily polluted. Industries in the Eloor industrial zone discharge waste into the river.
    • Greenpeace India describes the lower Periyar as “a cesspool of toxins, which have alarming levels of deadly poisons like DDT, endosulfan, hexa and trivalent chromium, lead, cyanide, BHC”.
    • Illegal sand mining from the Periyar is another major environmental issue.

    PYQ:

    [2011] With reference to the Indus river system, of the following four rivers, three of them pour into one of them which joins the Indus direct. Among the following, which one is such river that joins the Indus direct?​

    (a) Chenab

    (b) Jhelum

    (c) Ravi

    (d) Sutlej

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  • WTO and India

    India fighting pressure at WTO to allow ‘plurilateral pact’ on investment facilitation

    Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Why in the News?

    An official stated on Tuesday that India opposes a China-led proposal on investment facilitation at the WTO, arguing that it is a ‘non-trade’ issue beyond the global trade body’s mandate.

    About Plurilateral Agreement/Pact:

    • A plurilateral agreement is a trade agreement between more than two countries, but not necessarily encompass all members of a larger organization such as the World Trade Organization (WTO).
    • These agreements are binding only on the signatories and not on the entire membership of the organization under annexure-4 of the WTO.
    • They allow for deeper integration among interested parties without requiring full consensus, which can be difficult to achieve in larger multilateral frameworks.

    What is the China-led Investment Facilitation for Development Agreement (IFD)?

    • The IIFD Agreement is a proposed pact by China, with support from other countries, to streamline and facilitate foreign investment.
    • The main objectives of the IFD Agreement include:
      • Enhancing transparency of investment measures.
      • Streamlining and speeding up investment-related authorization procedures.
      • Promoting international cooperation, information sharing, and exchange of best practices.
      • Encouraging sustainable investment practices.
    • The proponents of the IFD argue that it would bring benefits to all WTO members, especially developing and least-developed countries, by creating a more predictable and transparent investment climate.

    India’s Strong Stand against the IFD at WTO MC13

    India has taken a firm stance against the inclusion of the IFD Agreement in the WTO framework for several reasons:

    • Investment is Not a Trade Issue: India argues that investment does not fall within the traditional purview of the WTO, which primarily focuses on trade issues. It points out that past Ministerial decisions have explicitly kept investment outside the WTO’s scope.
    • Sovereignty Concerns: A significant concern for India is the potential impact on its policy space. The IFD Agreement includes provisions that would require the government to consult with investors on policy matters, which India fears could undermine its ability to make sovereign decisions.
    • Lack of Consensus: India, along with South Africa, has highlighted the absence of a unanimous consensus among WTO members regarding the inclusion of the IFD as a plurilateral agreement. They argue that without exclusive consensus, it should not be brought onto the formal agenda.
    • Policy Autonomy: India is wary that the IFD Agreement’s requirements could constrain its autonomy in regulating investments to align with national development priorities and strategies.
    • Procedural Concerns: India contends that the issue should not have been part of the MC13 agenda and instead, should be discussed at the General Council, given the divisive nature of the proposal among WTO members.

    Conclusion: India’s opposition to the IFD Agreement at the WTO stems from a combination of concerns about preserving national sovereignty, adhering to established WTO boundaries regarding trade versus investment issues, and ensuring that any significant changes in the WTO framework are backed by broad-based consensus.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q The broader aims and objectives of WTO are to manage and promote international trade in the era of globalisation. But the Doha round of negotiations seems doomed due to differences between the developed and the developing countries.” Discuss in the Indian perspective. (UPSC IAS/2016)

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  • Electoral Reforms In India

    SC refuses to issue Interim order on Voter data     

    Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People’s Act

    Why in the news?

    On May 24, the Supreme Court rejected an [Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR)] NGO’s request for the Election Commission of India to upload authenticated, scanned, and legible copies of Form 17C, which details the booth-wise account of votes recorded after each phase of Lok Sabha elections.

    About the Application Filed by the Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR):

    • ADR sought an order directing the Election Commission of India (ECI) to upload authenticated, scanned, and legible copies of Form 17C, which shows the account of votes recorded booth-wise after each phase of polling in Lok Sabha elections.
    • ADR highlighted concerns regarding the delay in publishing final voter turnout data and the significant revisions in voter turnout percentages, which raised public suspicions and apprehensions about the accuracy of the data.

    Why did the Supreme Court refuse to issue interim order on voter data?

    • Timing of the Elections: The Supreme Court refused the plea on May 24, stating that the nation was in the middle of the General Elections and at the moment of the sixth phase of polling.
    • Diverting the attention: The court acknowledged the mammoth nature of the elections, which require vast human resources. Diverting the attention of the Election Commission during this critical period was not deemed appropriate.
    • Ongoing Petition: The interim relief sought by ADR was already part of a relief sought in a petition pending since 2019. Granting interim relief at this stage would effectively mean providing final relief in the ongoing writ petition.
    • Already decided in previous judgments: Senior advocate Maninder Singh for the EC argued that ADR’s application was unfounded.
      • It aimed at discrediting the EC, invoking the concept of constructive res judicata, implying that issues already decided in previous judgments (like EVM-VVPAT case) cannot be re-litigated in the middle of an election process.

    About the Role of the Judiciary During Election Polls:

    • Non-Interference During Elections: The Supreme Court emphasized that it should not interfere with the conduct of elections, which are managed by the Election Commission, during the polling process.
    • Enhancing Conduct of Polls: The judiciary’s role is to enhance the conduct of elections rather than interrupt or interfere in ongoing electoral processes.
    • Ground Reality Awareness: The judiciary must be conscious of the practical realities and complexities involved in the conduct of elections, ensuring that its actions do not disrupt the democratic process.

    Conclusion: The Supreme Court’s refusal to entertain ADR’s application highlights the judiciary’s cautious approach in intervening in electoral processes, especially during ongoing elections, to maintain the integrity and smooth functioning of the democratic exercise. The court seeks to balance the need for transparency and fairness in elections with the practicalities and operational challenges faced by the Election Commission.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful? (UPSC IAS/2017)

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  • Electoral Reforms In India

    Reading the lower voter turnout scenario

    Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

    Why in the News?

    Low voter turnout has been a notable trend in the initial phases of the ongoing 2024 general elections in India which reflects the shift in dynamics of democratic politics.

    American Scenario during Past Elections:

    • Conventional Wisdom: In the U.S., increased voter turnout is traditionally believed to benefit Democrats. For example, it was argued that higher voter turnout could have altered the outcome in favour of Hillary Clinton in states like Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Wisconsin.
      • According to Daron R. Shaw and John R. Petrocik in “The Turnout Myth” (2020), Hillary Clinton’s support did not significantly vary with voter turnout.
    • Class Cleavages: The advantage Democrats gained from higher turnout has decreased since 1960 due to the erosion of class-based voting patterns.
    • Simulation Studies: Research by Michael D. Martinez and Jeff Gill, and later by Spencer Goidel, Thiago Moreira, and Brenna Armstrong, used simulations to predict how changes in turnout would affect election outcomes. In recent studies, the impact of increased turnout on party advantage has varied over time.

    Perception About the Party’s Prospects:

    • High confidence in a party’s victory can deter voters from participating, thinking their vote is unnecessary.
    • Polls showing Bill Clinton’s like victory during the 1996 US Elections,  led to low voter turnout, with some Clinton supporters abstaining because they believed his win was assured.
    • While both Clinton and Dole supporters showed reluctance to vote due to predicted outcomes, it led to higher abstention to vote for them.

    Indian Scenario:

    • Class and Caste based: The 2019 Indian election saw a significant jump in the SC vote for the BJP, from 24% in 2014 to 34% in 2019, indicating a shift in voting patterns among Scheduled Castes. The Upper Caste Poor voted 49% BJP and 9% Congress, while Poor OBCs and Poor STs also followed a similar pattern. Poor Muslims, however, voted 8% BJP and 30% Congress.
    • Religion and Language-based: Religion is a significant factor, with political parties often indulging in communal propaganda to exploit religious sentiments. Language also plays a role, with parties arousing linguistic feelings to influence voter decisions.
    • Region and Personality based: Regionalism and sub-regionalism are important, with regional parties appealing to regional identities and sentiments. The charismatic personalities of party leaders, such as Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, and Narendra Modi, have significantly influenced voter decisions.
    • Voter turnout trends in India have fluctuated, with no consistent correlation to incumbent advantage or disadvantage.
    • It is generally believed that higher voter turnout is detrimental to incumbents, though recent elections (2014 and 2019) saw high turnout with incumbent victories.
    • The voting patterns of habitual versus non-habitual voters likely vary significantly, influenced by the diverse and multi-party nature of Indian politics.
    • Decreased turnout in the 2024 general elections could be due to factors like weather, COVID-19, economic issues, and voter apathy, potentially impacting different parties in varied ways.

    Conclusion

    The role of non-habitual voters in Indian elections adds an element of unpredictability, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions until election results are finalised.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Individual Parliamentarian’s role as the national law maker is on a decline, which in turn, has adversely impacted the quality of debates and their outcome. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2019)

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  • Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

    Oldest Known Human Viruses Discovered In 50,000-Year-Old Neanderthal Bones

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    • Researchers found traces of many present-day viruses in the bones of two Neanderthals who lived 50,000 years ago, providing a new perspective on their extinction.

    Breakthrough Study on Neanderthals 

    • Ancient viruses in Neanderthal DNA samples from skeletons found in Russia’s Chagyrskaya cave.
    • The study detected fragments resembling three modern viruses: adenovirus (common colds), herpesvirus (cold sores), and papillomavirus (genital warts).

    Health Impacts Inherited in Modern Human Beings:

    Modern humans inherit various health impacts from Neanderthals, including skin conditions, allergies, metabolism, nicotine addiction, mood disorders, sleep patterns, blood clotting, sense of smell, and UV radiation response.

    Who were the Neanderthals?

      • Neanderthals were a distinct species of hominins that lived in Europe and parts of Asia around 400,000 to 40,000 years ago during the Middle to Late Pleistocene Epochs.
      • Their evidence was first found in 1856 in the Neander Valley in present-day Germany.
    • Physical Features:
        • Neanderthals were robustly built, with a stocky and muscular frame adapted to cold climates.
        • They had large brains, comparable in size to modern humans, indicating advanced cognitive abilities.
        • Distinctive features included a prominent brow ridge, large nose, and a receding chin.
    • Social Life:
        • Neanderthals were skilled hunters and gatherers, using tools such as stone flakes, scrapers, and spears for hunting and butchering animals.
        • They utilized fire for cooking, warmth, and protection, as evidenced by the presence of hearths in their archaeological sites.
        • Evidence suggests they had complex social structures and engaged in rituals and symbolic behaviours, including burying their dead with grave goods.
    • Habitat and Distribution:
    • Neanderthals inhabited a wide range of environments, including open grasslands, forests, and even cold tundra regions.
        • Their range extended from Western Europe to Central Asia, with evidence of populations in regions such as Spain, France, Germany, Croatia, and the Middle East.
    • Interactions with Modern Humans:
      • Neanderthals coexisted with early modern humans (Homo sapiens) for thousands of years in Europe and Asia.
      • There is evidence of interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans, with genetic studies indicating that non-African humans carry about 1-2% Neanderthal DNA.

    PYQ:

    [2019] The word ‘Denisovan’ is sometimes mentioned in media in reference to

    (a) Fossils of a kind of dinosaurs

    (b) An early human species

    (c) A cave system found in North-East India

    (d) A geological period in the history of Indian subcontinent

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  • Zoonotic Diseases: Medical Sciences Involved & Preventive Measures

    Ferroptosis Cases in Severe Covid Patients

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Columbia University study on COVID-19 fatalities found ferroptosis as the main cause of lung cell death, advancing understanding of lung disease development.

    What is Ferroptosis?

    • Ferroptosis is a type of regulated cell death characterized by the iron-dependent accumulation of lipid peroxides to lethal levels.

    Other forms of cell death: 

    1. Apoptosis (highly regulated process that occurs in multicellular organisms to eliminate unwanted or damaged cells without causing inflammation),
    2. Necrosis (cell death characterized by rapid and uncontrolled cell lysis, often accompanied by inflammation and tissue damage).
    3. Autophagy (involves the degradation and recycling of cellular components through lysosomal machinery).

    Mechanism of Ferroptosis:

    The precise molecular mechanism underlying ferroptosis is still being elucidated, but it involves the deregulation of iron metabolism and lipid peroxidation. Here’s a simplified overview of how ferroptosis occurs:

    1. Iron Accumulation: Ferroptosis is characterized by the accumulation of iron within cells, particularly in the form of labile iron pools. Excess iron can lead to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) through Fenton chemistry.
    2. Lipid Peroxidation: ROS generated from excess iron promotes lipid peroxidation, particularly of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) within cell membranes. Lipid peroxides accumulate and propagate, leading to membrane damage and loss of membrane integrity.
    3. Glutathione Depletion: Glutathione (GSH) is an antioxidant that helps to neutralize ROS and prevent lipid peroxidation. In ferroptosis, there is a depletion of cellular GSH levels, which impairs the cell’s ability to counteract oxidative stress.
    4. GPX4 Inhibition: Glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) is an enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of lipid hydroperoxides to their corresponding alcohols, thereby protecting cells from lipid peroxidation. In ferroptosis, GPX4 activity is inhibited, leading to the accumulation of lipid peroxides and cell death.
    5. Mitochondrial Dysfunction: Ferroptosis is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, including alterations in mitochondrial membrane potential and morphology, as well as disruption of mitochondrial metabolism and bioenergetics.
    6. Cellular Consequences: The accumulation of lipid peroxides and mitochondrial dysfunction ultimately leads to cellular damage, loss of cell membrane integrity, and cell death by ferroptosis.

    Significance of the Study

    • Targeting and preventing ferroptosis could offer novel treatment avenues for COVID-19 lung disease and its possible future mutations.
    • Inhibiting this form of cell death may help improve the treatment outcomes for severe cases of COVID-19.

    PYQ:

    [2020] COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented devastation worldwide. However, technological advancements are being availed readily to win over the crisis. Give an account of how technology was sought to aid management of the pandemic.

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    Cyclone Remal to make landfall

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

    Why in the News?

    • Cyclone Remal is forecasted to make landfall between Sagar Island in West Bengal and Bangladesh’s Khepupara on Sunday midnight.
    • The name ‘Remal’ originates from Oman and means ‘sand’ in Arabic.

    What are Cyclones?

    • Cyclones are wind systems rotating inwardly towards an area of low atmospheric pressure. They are categorised into Tropical (Temperature-induced) and Temperate (extra-tropical) cyclones(airmass-induced).
    • Formation Conditions: Tropical cyclones originate in warm regions, requiring conditions such as
    1. Warm sea surface (> 27°C),
    2. Coriolis Force,
    3. Pre-existing low-pressure systems,
    4. Small vertical wind speed differences, and
    5. Upper air divergence.

    Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones:

    • They form over warm water bodies due to energy derived from the condensation of warm water within cumulonimbus clouds.
    • Wind rotation is influenced by the Coriolis force, resulting in anti-clockwise rotation in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere.

    Regional Movement of Cyclones:

    • In the northern hemisphere, cyclones initially move westward under earth rotation and the Easterlies.
    • As they progress towards higher latitudes, the Coriolis force deflects them rightward, towards north and later east.
    • By 30° latitude, the diminished warmth halts cyclone activity.

    Naming of Cyclones: 

    • Responsibility of RSMCs and TCWCs: The naming of cyclones that form in every ocean basin across the world is carried out by the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centres (RSMCs) and Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres (TCWCs).
    • Procedure in the North Indian Ocean: For north Indian Ocean including Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, the RSMC, New Delhi assigns the name to tropical cyclones following a standard procedure.
    • Agreement by WMO/ESCAP Panel: The WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones in 2000 agreed in principle to assign names to the tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
    • Selection Process: Each country would sent their suggestions, based on which the Panel would finalise a list.
    • Retirement of Names: Generally, names of some storms that cause widespread damage and deaths are usually retired and are not brought back or reused later, at least for 10 years. These names are then replaced with new names.
    • Unique Policy for North Indian Ocean: Unlike in other regions, the names of tropical cyclones over the north Indian Ocean once used, will cease to be used again.

    Destruction Caused by Cyclones:

    • Strong Winds/Squall: Cyclones cause infrastructure damage through high-speed winds.
    • Torrential Rains and Inland Flooding: Heavy rainfall leads to floods, soil erosion, and embankment weakening.
    • Storm Surge: Abnormal sea level rise inundates coastal regions, causing floods, erosion, and destruction.

    PYQ:

    [2015] In the South Atlantic and South Eastern Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclone does not originate. What is the main reason behind this?

    (a) Sea Surface temperature are low

    (b) Inter Tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs

    (c) Coriolis force is too weak

    (d) Absence of land in those regions

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  • The Crisis In The Middle East

    Arab League demands UN Peacekeepers in Palestine

    IOCRPrelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    The Arab League called for UN peacekeeping forces in the Palestinian territories during a summit in Bahrain’s Manama. The “Manama Declaration” issued by the league sought UNPKF in the occupied Palestinian territories” until a two-state solution is implemented.

    Back2Basics: United Nations Peacekeeping

    • UN Peacekeeping is a collective effort by the international community, led by the United Nations, to maintain peace and security in regions affected by conflict.
    • UN peacekeepers are often referred to as Blue Berets or Blue Helmets because of their light blue berets or helmets) can include soldiers, police officers, and civilian personnel.

    History:

    • The concept of UN peacekeeping emerged in the aftermath of World War II, with the establishment of the United Nations in 1945.
    • The first UN peacekeeping mission was established in 1948, following the Arab-Israeli War, to monitor the ceasefire between Israel and its Arab neighbours.
      • This mission, known as the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), set the precedent for future peacekeeping operations.
    • Since then, the scope and complexity of UN peacekeeping have evolved significantly, with operations conducted across the globe in regions affected by conflict, civil war, and humanitarian crises.

    Operations:

    • UN Peacekeeping is guided by three basic principles:
    1. Consent of the parties
    2. Impartiality
    3. Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate
    • UN peacekeeping operations are deployed with the consent of the main parties to the conflict. It can be deployed at the request of the parties involved in a conflict or with the authorisation of the UN Security Council.
    • The objectives may vary depending on the specific context but often include monitoring ceasefires, disarming combatants, facilitating the delivery of humanitarian aid, promoting human rights, and supporting the establishment of democratic governance structures.
    • UN peacekeeping operations operate under the principles of impartiality, consent of the parties, and non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate.

    India’s Role:

    • India has been one of the largest contributors to UN peacekeeping operations since their inception.
    • India has contributed nearly 195,000 troops, the largest number from any country, and participated in more than 49 missions and 168 supreme sacrifices while serving in UN missions.

    About Arab League

    Details
    Establishment Founded on March 22, 1945, in Cairo, Egypt.
    Founding Members Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria.
    Objective Promote economic, cultural, political, and military cooperation among member states. Safeguard independence and sovereignty.
    Functions 
    1. Operates on consensus among member states. Decisions are made through consultations and discussions.
    2. Regular meetings among Arab leaders to address regional issues, formulate policies, and coordinate actions.
    3. Specialised committees and councils address specific areas of cooperation, such as economic affairs, social affairs, and defence.
    Member States Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Kuwait, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Somalia, Sudan, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.
    Observer Nations
    • Non-Arab countries with observer status include Brazil, Eritrea, India, Venezuela, and others.
    • No voting rights are accorded to Observer nations.
    Important Achievements
    • Proposal of the Arab Peace Initiative in 2002.
    • Coordination of military efforts in various conflicts.
    • Promotion of economic cooperation through initiatives such as the Arab Free Trade Area.
    • Facilitation of cultural and educational exchange programs among member states.
    Challenges Internal divisions, Differences of opinion over the Palestinian-Israeli conflict etc.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] Recently, a series of uprisings of people referred to as ‘Arab Spring’ originally started from

    (a) Egypt

    (b) Lebanon

    (c) Syria

    (d) Tunisia

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  • Cyber Security – CERTs, Policy, etc

    Southeast Asia origin of at least 45% cyber frauds targeting Indians

    Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Cyber Security

    Why in the News?

    Over 5,000 unemployed/employed Indians are reportedly trapped in Cambodia and forced to work into cyber fraud, resulting in an estimated Rs 500 crore loss in India over six months.

    Present Cybersecurity Status of India:

    • India has secured 10th rank in the Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI) 2020 by ITU (International Telecommunication Union) by moving up 37 places.
    • The US topped (1st), followed by the UK (United Kingdom) and Saudi Arabia tied for the second position together.
    • India secured the fourth position in the Asia Pacific region.

    What is the Budapest Convention? Is India a party to it?

    • The Council of Europe’s (CoE) Cybercrime Convention, commonly known as the Budapest Convention, was opened for signature in 2001 and came into force in 2004.
    • It is the only legally binding international multilateral treaty on cybercrime, coordinating investigations between nations and criminalizing specific cybercrime activities.
    • Budapest Convention is supplemented by a Protocol addressing xenophobia and racism committed through computer systems.
    • As of now, the Convention has 56 member countries, including the US and UK. However, India is not a party to the Budapest Convention.

    Indian Nationals vs. Organised Crimes in the South Asian Region:

    • Most web applications use the Chinese language to perform financial fraud, thereby not ruling out the Chinese connection.
    • Financial crimes such as digital arrest, stock market scams, investment scams, and romance or dating scams account for a loss of over ₹1,776 crores in 89,054 cases in the first four months of the year spurt in organized crime from Southeast Asia.
    • Numerous Indian nationals employed within a suspected fraudulent operation based in Sihanouk City, Cambodia, have voiced their grievances against their employers.

    What are the causes of the increase in Organized Financial Fraud?

    • Weak Prevention Measures:  Online Platforms in India at present account for 89% of all fraud incidents, with 40% of companies losing over $1 million.
    • Rapid Digitization and Payment Systems: After the pandemic, there was a massive shift, with the average Indian company now operating at least more than two online platforms in the normal course of business.
      • This has made it easier for fraudsters to operate anonymously and target a large number of victims.
    • Informal Investigation and Prosecution: India lacks the standardized data formats protocol system from the core banks itself. This makes it difficult to track devices and jurisdictional issues in interstate cases.
    • Lack of Deterrence: With only 26% of victims able to recover lost funds, fraudsters are encouraged to target individuals and organizations. The total value of frauds reported in 2021-22 was a staggering ₹60,414 crore.
    • Lack of Awareness: Sharing sensitive financial details with others or storing them insecurely it makes a common man vulnerable to fraud.

    What are the Initiatives taken by the government to tackle cyber crimes in India?

    • National Cyber Security Strategy 2020: Currently being formulated to enhance cyber awareness and strengthen cybersecurity through more rigorous audits.
    • Draft Personal Data Protection Bill, 2018: Based on the recommendations of the Justice BN Srikrishna Committee, this bill aims to secure citizens’ data.
    • Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C): Approved in October 2018, this initiative addresses all types of cybercrimes in a comprehensive and coordinated manner.
    • National Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In): Functions as the nodal agency for coordinating all cybersecurity efforts, emergency responses, and crisis management.
    • National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC): Established to protect and ensure the resilience of critical information infrastructure.

    Way Forward:

    • Update and Enforce Laws: Regularly update the Information Technology Act and other relevant laws to address emerging cyber threats and ensure strict enforcement.
    • Upgrade Cyber Defense Systems: Invest in advanced cybersecurity technologies and infrastructure to protect critical information systems.
    • Training Law Enforcement: Provide specialized training for law enforcement agencies to equip them with the skills needed to investigate and prosecute cybercrimes.
    • Collaborate with Industry: Foster partnerships between the government and private sector to share threat intelligence and best practices.

    Mains question for practice:

    Q Discuss the current challenges of cybersecurity in India, citing examples of recent trends in cybercrime. What measures have been taken by the Indian government to address these challenges? 15M

    Mains PYQ

    Q What are the different elements of cyber security? Keeping in view the challenges in cyber security, examine the extent to which India has successfully developed a comprehensive National Cyber Security Strategy.(UPSC IAS/2022)

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  • Monsoon Updates

    What is La Nina, expected to set in later this year, and how it could impact global weather

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the news?

    The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has recently forecasted that La nina will affect the Indian monsoon in August and September.

    What are El nino and La nina?

    • El Nino and La Nina are climate phenomena resulting from ocean-atmosphere interactions in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, significantly influencing global weather patterns.
    • El Nino (meaning “little boy” in Spanish) occurs when weak trade winds allow warm surface waters to accumulate near South America, reducing the usual upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water. This leads to warmer-than-average sea surface temperatures.
    • La Nina (meaning “little girl” in Spanish) involves strong trade winds pushing warm water towards Asia, increasing upwelling and resulting in cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures along South America.
    • Together with a neutral phase, they form the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.

    How could the incoming La Nina impact global weather?

    • Temperatures
        • Global temperatures are likely to decrease compared to the recent record-breaking heat during the 2023-2024 El Nino event.
        • However, despite the cooling effect of La Nina, temperatures will still be higher than in previous decades due to the long-term warming trend from greenhouse gas emissions.
    • Rainfall
        • La Nina typically brings drier conditions to parts of Southeast Asia, Australia, and the southern United States.
        • Wetter than normal conditions are expected in parts of South America and eastern Africa.
    • Tropical Storms
        • La Nina is associated with increased tropical storm activity in the Atlantic Ocean and fewer storms in the Pacific.
        • The 2023 Atlantic hurricane season could see more intense storms due to La nina conditions.
    • Economic Impacts
      • Droughts and floods linked to La nina can negatively impact agriculture, food security, and infrastructure in affected regions.
      • Fishing communities in the eastern Pacific may face reduced catches due to cooler ocean temperatures.

    La nina’s impact on India

    • Positive Impact on Monsoons
        • La Nina generally leads to above-average monsoon rainfall in India. Since 1950, out of the 13 droughts India faced, only one was during a La nina year.
        • The extended La Nina event in 2022 led to a change in wind patterns, with winds blowing from north to south instead of the usual northwesterly direction.
        • This caused pollutants from agricultural burning in northern states to bypass Delhi and reach southern regions like Mumbai.
    • Negative Impacts
      • La Nina can sometimes lead to heavy rains and floods in some parts of India, while the Western Ghats may receive average or below-average rainfall.
      • Winter rainfall is less than normal in north India, and snowfall over the Western Himalayas is also lower than usual during La Nina years.
      • Farmers may be at risk of losing their standing Kharif crops if heavy rains occur during this period.

    Is climate change affecting EnSO?

    • El Nino–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a global climate phenomenon that emerges from variations in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical Pacific Ocean.
      • Climate change is likely impacting the ENSO cycle, potentially altering the frequency and intensity of El Nino and La Nina events.
      • Studies suggest that global warming may change mean oceanic conditions in the Pacific, possibly leading to more frequent or intense El Nino events.
    • The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has indicated that climate change is expected to influence extreme weather events associated with EnSO, including more severe droughts, floods, and heatwaves.

     Way Forward:

    • Develop more accurate climate models for better prediction of EnSO events and their impacts.
    • Foster international collaboration to share data, resources, and strategies for managing EnSO-related challenges.

    BACK2BASICS

    India Meteorological Department (IMD)

    • The India Meteorological Department (IMD), established in 1875, serves as the national Meteorological Service and is the principal government agency responsible for meteorology and related subjects in India.
    • Operating under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, IMD is headquartered in New Delhi.
    • IMD is one of the six Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres of the World Meteorological Organization.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Most of the unusual climatic happenings are explained as an outcome of the El-nino effect. Do you agree? (UPSC IAS/2014)

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-SAARC Nations

    BIMSTEC acquires ‘legal personality’ after charter comes into force

    Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of External Affairs has announced that with the establishment of its inaugural charter on May 20th, the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) will now accept new members and observers.

    About BIMSTEC: 

    • The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) formed in 1997 is a multilateral regional organization comprising seven member states: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Thailand, Myanmar, and India.
    • Aim: To promote technical and economic cooperation among its member countries, particularly in sectors such as security, connectivity, trade, agriculture, environment, science and technology, and people-to-people contact.

    Adoption of the Charter:

    • After years of deliberation, the BIMSTEC leaders adopted the organization’s first charter during their 5th summit.
    • This charter provides a legal framework for the group, granting it a “legal personality” and enabling the structured diplomatic dialogue with other countries and regional groupings.
    • In the context of international organizations like BIMSTEC, obtaining legal personality means that the organization is recognized as a legal entity in its own right, separate from its member states.

    Significance of BIMSTEC for all member countries:

    The charter’s implementation enhances cooperation and deeper integration within the Bay of Bengal region, benefiting all member states economically and strategically.

    • Enhanced Cooperation: With the charter in place, member countries can engage in more structured and organized cooperation across various sectors such as security, connectivity, trade, agriculture, environment, science and technology, and people-to-people contact.
    • Strengthened Regional Integration: The charter facilitates deeper integration within the Bay of Bengal region. By establishing common goals and mechanisms for cooperation, it promotes economic growth, social development, and cultural exchange among member countries.
    • Diplomatic Dialogue: The charter enables BIMSTEC to enter into structured diplomatic dialogue with other countries and regional groupings. This opens up avenues for broader engagement and partnership, enhancing the geopolitical significance of the BIMSTEC platform.

    Challenges in the present world context: 

    • Historical Discord: Long-standing historical discord between member states, such as Bangladesh and Myanmar, presents a challenge to cohesive cooperation within BIMSTEC. These tensions can hinder progress on joint initiatives and impede the organization’s effectiveness.
    • Geopolitical Complexities: Geopolitical complexities, exacerbated by events like the Rohingya refugee crisis and the coup in Myanmar, add layers of complexity to regional dynamics.
      • These complexities can strain relationships between member states and complicate efforts to foster collaboration and integration within BIMSTEC.
    • Stagnation of SAARC: While BIMSTEC offers an alternative platform for regional cooperation, the near stagnation of SAARC underscores the challenges faced by regional organizations in fostering meaningful collaboration.

    Way forward:

    • Need a Conflict Resolution Mechanisms: Implement effective conflict resolution mechanisms to address historical discord and tensions between member states.
    • High Diplomatic Engagement: Encourage regular diplomatic engagement and dialogue between member states to address geopolitical complexities and build trust.

    Mains PYQ

    Q Do you think that BIMSTEC is a parallel organization like the SAARC? What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the two? How are Indian foreign policy objectives realized by forming this new organization? (UPSC IAS/2022)

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    Xenotransplantation: Prospects and Challenges

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    The recent passing away of Richard Slayman, the first recipient of a modified pig kidney transplant, has drawn attention to xenotransplantation—an innovative medical procedure with the potential to revolutionise organ transplantation.

    What is Xenotransplantation?

    • It involves transplanting live cells, tissues, or organs from nonhuman animal sources into human recipients.
    • It seeks to address the critical gap between organ demand and supply.
    • Xenotransplantation, pioneered in the 1980s with heart transplants, has emerged as a promising solution to alleviate the organ shortage crisis, particularly prevalent in kidney transplantation.

    Examples:

    • Chimpanzee-to-Human Transplants: In the 1960s, there were attempts at chimpanzee-to-human kidney transplants, heart transplants, and liver transplants.
    • Pig-to-Human Heart Transplant: In 2022, a groundbreaking milestone was achieved with the first successful transplantation of a pig heart into a human with end-stage heart disease

    Procedural Details

    • Xenotransplantation involves genetic modifications to animal organs, like 69 CRISPR-Cas9 edits to a pig kidney, removing pig genes and adding human genes for compatibility.

    Why is the Pig a Preferred Source?

    • Anatomical Resemblance: Pigs are favoured for xenotransplantation due to their physiological similarities to humans, facilitating successful integration. Pig organs, like heart valves, have been used in human medicine for over 50 years.
    • Breeding Advantages: Extensive pig farming ensures a readily available and cost-effective supply of organs, with diverse breeds offering size-matching opportunities.

    Challenges associated

    • The main challenge is preventing organ rejection. Innovative methods, such as embedding the pig’s thymus gland under the kidney’s outer layer, help manage immune responses.
    • There are also significant concerns regarding potential infections from both recognised and unrecognised infectious agents that could affect not only the recipient but also the wider population.
    • Retroviruses present in the animal organs pose a risk of cross-species infection, which could remain latent and cause diseases years after the transplantation.

    PYQ: 

    [2017] With reference to agriculture in India, how can the technique of ‘genome sequencing’, often seen in the news, be used in the immediate future?

    1. Genome sequencing can be used to identify genetic markers for disease resistance and drought tolerance in various crop plants.
    2. This technique helps in reducing the time required to develop new varieties of crop plants.
    3. It can be used to decipher the host-pathogen relationships in crops.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Tax Reforms

    Supreme Court upholds ICAI Rule on Tax Audit Assignments

    Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Statutory, Regulatory & Various Quasi-Judicial Bodies

    Why in the News?

    • The Supreme Court upheld a rule issued by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) that limits Chartered Accountants to accepting no more than 60 tax audit assignments in a financial year.
      • The court found that the rule does NOT violate the fundamental right to practice a profession under Article 19(1) (g) of the Constitution (apart from also being violative of the right to equality under Article 14).

    Tax Audit Regime: A Quick Backgrounder

    • The mandatory tax audit regime was initiated in 1984 with Section 44AB in the Income Tax Act, of 1961 which required certain businesses and professionals to get their accounts audited.
      • Tax Audit aims to ensure compliance with the provisions of the Income Tax Act, 1961, and detect and prevent tax evasion and fraud.
    • In 1988, the ICAI limited Chartered Accountants to a specified number of tax audit assignments to ensure quality and reduce the risk of misconduct.
    • This limit was part of the guidelines issued in 2008, which replaced previous notifications and were challenged in various High Courts.

    About the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI):

    Details
    Establishment The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) is a statutory body established by an Act of Parliament, viz. The Chartered Accountants Act, 1949.
    Regulatory Body The second largest professional body of chartered accountants in the world after the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA).

    Only licensing authority for chartered accountants in India
    Headquarters New Delhi, India, with 5 regional offices and 163 branches across the country.
    Functions Regulates education, training, and examinations for Chartered Accountants. Formulates accounting and auditing standards.
    Membership Granted to individuals who complete prescribed education and training and pass final examinations.
    Powers of ICAI
    • Involves theoretical education and practical training under a practising Chartered Accountant.
    • Conducted at Foundation, Intermediate, and Final levels, held twice a year in May and November.
    • Formulates Accounting Standards (AS), Auditing Standards (SA), and other guidance notes.
    • Investigates complaints of professional misconduct against members and takes disciplinary actions.
    International Affiliations Member of international accounting bodies including-

    1. International Federation of Accountants (IFAC),
    2. Confederation of Asian and Pacific Accountants (CAPA), and
    3. South Asian Federation of Accountants (SAFA).

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] With reference to India’s decision to levy an equalization tax of 6% on online advertisement services offered by non- resident entities, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. It is introduced as a part of the Income Tax Act.
    2. Non-resident entities that offer advertisement services in India can claim a tax credit in their home country under the “Double Taxation Avoidance Agreements”.

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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  • Tourism Sector

    India rises to 39th position in WEF Index for travel, tourism development

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Why in the News? 

    • India has moved up to the 39th position in the World Economic Forum’s latest “Travel & Tourism Development Index (TTDI) 2024, a significant climb from 54th in 2021.
      • The United States tops the index, followed by Spain, Japan, France, and Australia.
      • Pakistan is ranked 101st.

    India’s Performance and Ranking

    • Price Competitiveness: India is ranked 18th in terms of price competitiveness.
    • Transport Infrastructure: It stands at 26th for air transport and 25th for ground and port infrastructure.
    • Resource Ranking: India is 6th in natural resources, 9th in cultural resources, and 9th in non-leisure resources.
    • TTDI Score Change: India’s overall TTDI score decreased by 2.1% compared to its 2019 level.
    • Decline in Sustainability Performance: India has seen a decline in sustainability performance relative to 2019 but still performs well due to the prevalence of sustainable long stays among inbound visitors.

    About Travel & Tourism Development Index (TTDI)

    • The TTDI was compiled in collaboration with the World Economic Forum (WEF) and the University of Surrey in the United Kingdom (UK).
    • TTDI 2024 is the second edition, evolved from the Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI) series, a flagship index of WEF that has been in production since 2007.
    • TTDI 2024 covered 119 countries’ travel and tourism sectors across various factors and policies.

    Back2Basics: World Economic Forum (WEF)

    Description
    Establishment Founded in 1971 by Swiss-German economist Klaus Schwab in Geneva, Switzerland.
    Purpose To bring together public and private sector leaders to address global political, social, and economic issues.
    Membership Introduced in 1975, membership includes the world’s top 1,000 companies.
    Scope Expansion Initially focused on European firms catching up with US management practices, expanded to encompass broader economic and social issues.
    Birth of the G20 The concept of the G20, focusing on global finance and comprising 20 countries, emerged from discussions at the WEF in 1998.
    Key Reports Published
    • Global Competitiveness Report
    • Global Risks Report
    • Global Gender Gap Report
    • Global Human Capital Report
    • Global Information Technology Report
    • Future of Jobs Report
    • Global Enabling Trade Report

    Trick: Reports beginning with the name ‘Global’.

    World level recovery in travel and tourism:

    • Sector Recovery: International tourist arrivals and the sector’s contribution to global GDP are expected to return to pre-pandemic levels in 2024.
    • Regional Recovery: West Asia exceeded its 2019 tourist arrival levels by 20%, while Europe, Africa, and the Americas are recovering robustly, each reaching about 90% of their 2019 levels.

    PYQ:

    [2019] The Global Competitiveness Report is published by the:

    (a) International Monetary Fund

    (b) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

    (c) World Economic Forum

    (d) World Bank

    Practice MCQ:

    The Travel & Tourism Development Index (TTDI) is released by:

    1. International Air Transport Association (IATA)
    2. World Tourism Foundation (WTF)
    3. World Economic Forum
    4. World Bank

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  • Waste Management – SWM Rules, EWM Rules, etc

    Microplastic Pollution in Ashtamudi Lake

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    • A recent study conducted by the “Department of Aquatic Biology and Fisheries”, University of Kerala, has revealed alarming levels of microplastic pollution in Ashtamudi Lake, a Ramsar wetland in Kollam district.

    Back2Basics: Microplastics

    • Microplastics are small plastic particles that are less than 5 millimetres (0.2 inches) in size.
    • They are a type of plastic pollution that originates from the fragmentation of larger plastic debris, as well as from the direct release of small plastic particles in various products and activities.

    Types of Microplastics:

    About Ashtamudi Lake

    • Ashtamudi Lake is located in the Kollam district of Kerala.
    • The lake is also called the “gateway to the backwaters of Kerala”.
      • Historical Background: The importance of Ashtamudi Kayal dates back to the times of the Romans and Phoenicians in the 14th century.
    • It is a brackish water lake, meaning it contains a mix of freshwater and saltwater. It covers an area of approximately 61 square kilometres (23.5 square miles).
    • Kallada River is a major river discharging into the Ashtamudi Lake.
    • The name “Ashtamudi” translates to “eight coned” in Malayalam, referring to the lakes eight prominent arms or channels.
    • The lake is surrounded by lush vegetation, including mangrove forests, coconut groves, and palm trees.
    • Ashtamudi Lake is an integral part of the Kollam-Kottapuram Waterway, which connects the Kerala backwaters to the Arabian Sea.
      • Notable Islands: Chavara, Munroe

    PYQ:

    [2022] Consider the following pairs:

    Wetland              : Lake Location

    1.    Hokera Wetland  : Punjab

    2.   Renuka Wetland  : Himachal Pradesh

    3.   Rudrasagar Lake  :  Tripura

    4.   Sasthamkotta Lake : Tamil Nadu

    How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

    (a) Only one pair

    (b) Only two pairs

    (c) Only three pairs

    (d) All four pairs

    [2019] Why is there a great concern about the ‘microbeads’ that are released into the environment?

    (a) They are considered harmful to marine ecosystems.

    (b) They are considered to cause skin cancer in children.

    (c) They are small enough to be absorbed by crop plants in irrigated fields.

    (d) They are often found to be used as food adulterants.

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

    Expert Explains: Why the ICC Prosecutor has asked for an arrest warrant against Netanyahu, and what could happen now

    Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

    Why in the News?

    On 20 May 2024, the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) requested arrest warrants against leaders of Hamas and Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu of Israel about the events of October 7, 2023, and the conflict in Palestine.

    What is the International Criminal Court?

    • The International Criminal Court formed in 2002, is an Intergovernmental Organization and International Tribunal seated in the Hague, Netherlands.
    • It deals with the most serious crimes of concern to the international community, including genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and crimes of aggression.
    • Unlike the international tribunals, the International Criminal Court is a permanent body.

    Against whom has the Prosecutor requested warrants of arrest?

    Specifically, warrants have been sought for senior Hamas leaders Yahya Sinwar, Mohammed Deif, and Ismail Haniyeh, along with Netanyahu and Israel’s Minister of Defence Yoav Gallant.

    The process of ICC decision-making and the scope of the present case:

    • ICC decisions are binding, but they rely on the cooperation of member states for support.
      • A panel of judges at the ICC must decide on the Prosecutor’s application for arrest warrants.
      • If approved, all State Parties are obligated to cooperate, including arresting and extraditing the accused individuals to The Hague.
      • This could restrict international travel for Netanyahu and Gallant, affecting visits to countries that are State Parties to the Rome Statute.
    • Israel is not a Party to the Rome Statute. However, the ICC does have jurisdiction over crimes committed by nationals of both State Parties  (such as Palestine) and Non-state Parties (such as Israel) on the territory of a State Party (such as Palestine).

    International Criminal Court (ICC) Vs. International Court of Justice (ICJ) 
    ICC ICJ
    Relationship with the UN ICC is an independent organization not part of the United Nations ICJ is an integral part of the UN and acts as its primary judicial branch
    Members ICC has around 105 members, focusing on prosecuting individuals for crimes. ICJ has all 193 UN member countries as its members, primarily resolving disputes between states
    Derivation of Authority ICC derives its authority from the Rome Statute, focusing on prosecuting individuals for crimes against humanity, war crimes, genocide, and crimes of aggression. ICJ derives its authority from the Charter of the United Nations, settling disputes between countries based on international law
    Funding It mainly functions on contributions made by state parties to the Rome Statute and voluntary contributions Its funding sources differ based on its status as an organ of the United Nations

     

    Way forward:

    • Need Enhanced Cooperation: Encouraging greater cooperation between the ICC and the UN to strengthen their effectiveness in addressing international crimes.
    • Need Wider Membership: Advocating for more countries to become State Parties to the Rome Statute to broaden the ICC’s jurisdiction and reach.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q India’s relations with Israel have, of late, acquired a depth and diversity, which cannot be rolled back.” Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2018)

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  • Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

    ‘Silent demise’ of vast ‘Rangelands’ threatens climate, food, wellbeing of billions: UNCCD 

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) recently published the “Global Land Outlook Thematic Report” on Rangelands and Pastoralists, revealing that up to 50% of Rangelands are degraded.

    About UNCCD:

    • UNCCD adopted in 1994 (effectively from 1996),  is a legally binding agreement that aims to protect and restore land and combat desertification and drought.
    • It is one of the three Rio Conventions (the other two being – the Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD) and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)).

    What is the Rangeland?

    • Rangeland, is any extensive area of land that is occupied by native herbaceous or shrubby vegetation which is grazed by domestic or wild herbivores.

      • It may include tallgrass prairies, steppes (shortgrass prairies), desert shrublands, shrub woodlands, savannas, chaparrals, and tundras.
    • These lands constitute 54% of all land cover, account for 1/6th of global food production, and represent nearly 1/3rd of the planet’s carbon reservoir.

    World areas that are most acutely affected by Rangeland Degradation:

    • Central Asia, China, Mongolia: The replacement of government management with privatization and agricultural industrialization led to the abandonment of herders and reliance on insufficient natural resources, causing degradation.
    • North Africa and the Near East: Climate change is pushing pastoralists into poverty and degrading rangelands.
    • Sahel and West Africa: Conflict, power imbalances, and border issues have disrupted livestock mobility, leading to degradation.
    • South America: Climate change, deforestation from industrial agriculture, and land use conversion are primary drivers of degradation.
    • East Africa: Migration and forced displacement due to competing land uses are evicting pastoralists, causing degradation.
    • North America: Degradation of ancient grasslands and dry rangelands threatens biodiversity in ecosystems like tall-grass prairies and southern deserts.
    • Europe: Policies favoring industrial farming over pastoralism and misguided incentives are causing the abandonment and degradation of rangelands.
    • South Africa and Australia: Afforestation, mining, and land conversion are causing degradation and loss of rangelands.

    How does it impact the Food chain?

    • Over two billion people, including small-scale herders, ranchers, and farmers, depend on healthy rangelands for their livelihoods, underscoring the critical link between rangeland health and food chain cycle.
    • Up to 50% of rangelands are degraded due to various factors including overuse, misuse, climate change, and biodiversity loss, posing a severe threat to food security.

    The Economic significance of Rangelands:

    • Livestock Grazing and Agriculture: Rangelands are crucial for livestock production, providing natural forage for cattle, sheep, goats, and other herbivores. This grazing land supports the meat and dairy industries, which are vital to the global food supply and rural economies.
    • Eco-tourism and hunting: These areas support a wide range of wildlife, contributing to biodiversity and offering opportunities for eco-tourism and hunting, both of which generate significant income for local economies.
    • Ecosystem Services: Rangelands provide vital services like water filtration, carbon storage, and soil preservation, yielding economic advantages through climate regulation and conservation.
    • Income and employment opportunities: Harvesting these resources provides income and employment opportunities for rural populations. The economic contributions made by different countries are as follows:
      • Ethiopia: Livestock production from rangelands accounts for 19% of the country’s GDP.
      • India: Livestock from rangelands contributes 4% to the national GDP.
      • Brazil: As a major beef producer, Brazil generates one-third of its agribusiness GDP from cattle livestock, producing 16% of the world’s beef.

    What is the innovative approach presented by the UNCCD Report?

    • The past estimates by UNCCD of degraded rangeland of roughly 25% are significantly underestimated, where the actual loss of rangeland’s health and productivity was potentially reaching up to 50%.
    • Conceptual Approach: The report outlines a new conceptual approach designed to help policymakers stabilize, restore, and manage rangelands more effectively.
      • This new approach is supported by detailed case studies from nearly every world region, which provide important lessons from both the successes and failures in rangeland management.
    • Core Recommendation – Protect Pastoralism: The report emphasizes the importance of protecting pastoralism a traditional, mobile way of life based on pasture-based livestock production as a key strategy for sustainable rangeland management.

    Conclusion: Many countries like the U.S. and Canada makingare trying to reintroduce bison, an animal with significant cultural importance to indigenous peoples. This initiative aims to promote rangeland health and enhance food security.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q The process of desertification does not have climate boundaries. Justify with examples.(UPSC IAS/2020)

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