Why in the News?
The United Nations Environment Programmeâs (UNEP) 2024 Emission Gap Report (âOff Targetâ) released before COP30, says India saw the worldâs largest rise in greenhouse gas emissions in 2024, adding 165 MtCOâe.
About the Emission Gap Report:
- Overview: It is an annual flagship publication by UNEP that measures the gap between current national emission pledges (NDCs) and the cuts required to meet the Paris Agreement goals of limiting global warming to 1.5°C or 2°C.
- Purpose: Evaluates global progress, national commitments, and policy effectiveness, recommending actions to close the âemissions gap.â
- Scope: Assesses emissions from energy, land use, and industry, comparing policy trajectories with required emission reduction pathways.
Key highlights of the 2024 Edition- âOff Targetâ:
- Core Message: Warns that the world remains far off track to achieve the 1.5°C limit.
- Global Emissions: Hit a record 57.7 gigatonnes COâ equivalent (GtCOâe) in 2024, a 2.3% rise from 2023.
- Warming Projections:
- Current policies â ~2.8°C by 2100.
- Full NDC implementation â only 2.3â2.5°C limit.
- G20 Role: Account for 77% of global emissions, led by China, USA, India, EU, Russia, and Indonesia.
- NDC Submission: Only 64 countries (63% of global emissions) updated their NDCs by 2024; most G20 nations off-track for 2030â2035 goals.
- Sectoral Breakdown:
- Fossil fuels â 69% of total emissions.
- Methane â 16%.
- Land-use change â significant share of increase.
- Temperature Outlook: Predicts a temporary overshoot of 1.5°C by the early 2030s without rapid global action.
India-Specific Findings:
- Emission Growth: India saw the largest absolute rise in 2024, +165 MtCOâe, the worldâs highest single-country increase.
- Growth Rate: 3.6%, second only to Indonesia (4.6%).
- Per Capita Emissions: 3 tCOâe, less than half the global average (6.4 tCOâe).
- Global Ranking: 3rd-largest emitter, after China and the USA.
- NDC Commitments: Aims to reduce emission intensity by 45% (2005â2030) and achieve 50% non-fossil energy capacity by 2030.
- Progress: Overachieved by 15% on emission intensity but has not submitted an updated 2025 NDC.
- COP30 Outlook: Indiaâs rapid emission rise and missed NDC update may invite scrutiny, though low per capita emissions and developmental equity support its climate position.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
I. Carbon dioxide (COâ) emissions in India are less than 0.5 t CO2/capita.
II. In terms of CO2 emissions from fuel combustion, India ranks second in Asia-Pacific region.
III. Electricity and heat producers are the largest sources of CO2 emissions in India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) I and III only (b) II only (c) II and III only * (d) I, II and III |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
The World Bankâs November 2025 Financial Sector Assessment (FSA) Report says India must deepen financial reforms and boost private capital to reach its $30 trillion economy goal by 2047.
What is the Financial Sector Assessment (FSA) Report?
- Overview: It is a joint evaluation by the IMF and World Bank under the Financial Sector Assessment Program (FSAP), launched in 1999 to review a countryâs financial stability and institutional soundness.
- Objective: Assesses the resilience, inclusiveness, and stability of the financial system, analysing how well it supports sustainable and equitable growth.
- Scope: Covers banks, NBFCs, insurance, capital markets, and payment systems, along with regulation, supervision, and crisis management frameworks.
- Methodology: Uses stress tests, policy diagnostics, and supervisory assessments to evaluate financial soundness and regulatory effectiveness.
- Frequency: Conducted every 5â7 years, tracking policy reforms and emerging risks in both advanced and emerging economies.
Key Highlights: Indiaâs FSA Report 2025
- Improved Stability: Found Indiaâs financial system more diversified, inclusive, and resilient than in 2017, aided by regulatory reforms.
- Reform Success: Credited India for recovering from the 2010s banking crisis and COVID-19 shocks through RBIâs tighter supervision of banks and NBFCs.
- Regulatory Strengthening: Praised the extension of RBIâs authority over cooperative banks and scale-based regulation for NBFCs.
- Digital Financial Inclusion: Highlighted Indiaâs UPI, Aadhaar, and Jan Dhan ecosystem as global benchmarks for financial access and gender inclusion.
- Capital Market Expansion: Reported capital marketsâ size rising from 144% to 175% of GDP since 2017, driven by investor confidence and strong infrastructure.
- Policy Recommendations: Advised improving credit-risk management, developing conduct-risk oversight for mutual funds, and empowering self-regulatory bodies.
- Private Capital Mobilization: Urged creation of credit-enhancement and securitization platforms to attract global long-term investors.
- Strategic Vision: Emphasized that continued reforms, deeper markets, and financial integration are essential to achieving Indiaâs $30 trillion economy goal by 2047.
[UPSC 2015] Which one of the following issues the ‘Global Economic Prospects’ report periodically?
Options:
(a) The Asian Development Bank
(b) The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(c) The US Federal Reserve Bank
(d) The World Bank* |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
China has rejected President Trumpâs claim of secret nuclear tests, reaffirming its commitment to the CTBT amid renewed U.S. calls for nuclear testing and revived Cold Warâstyle tensions.
About Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO):
- Establishment: Formed in 1996 under the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) to build and operate a verification regime ensuring compliance with the global ban on nuclear explosions.
- Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
- Mandate: To monitor adherence to the CTBT through a global verification system capable of detecting any nuclear test anywhere in the world.
- Verification System: Operates the International Monitoring System (IMS) with 337 facilities, including seismic, hydroacoustic, infrasound, and radionuclide stations to detect underground, underwater, or atmospheric nuclear tests.
- Data Centre: The International Data Centre (IDC) analyses and distributes real-time data to member states, providing early warning of suspicious activities.
- Preparatory Commission: Functions until the CTBT formally enters into force, maintaining operational readiness and supporting statesâ verification capabilities.
- Scientific Applications: The IMS also contributes to tsunami warning systems, atmospheric research, and disaster response, reinforcing the CTBTOâs global utility beyond disarmament.
Back2Basics: How are CTBT and NPT related?
- Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) are closely linked pillars of the global nuclear arms control regime:
-
- Shared Goal: Both aim to prevent nuclear proliferation and promote disarmament.
- Scope Difference: The NPT focuses on stopping the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting peaceful nuclear use; the CTBT bans all nuclear explosions for any purpose.
- Chronological Link: The NPT (1970) came first, creating the legal framework for non-proliferation; the CTBT (1996) built on it by prohibiting testing, reinforcing the NPTâs disarmament pillar.
- Verification and Compliance: The CTBT adds technical verification through the International Monitoring System, complementing NPTâs safeguards under the IAEA.
- Disarmament Pathway: Ratification of the CTBT is often viewed as a key step toward fulfilling Article VI of the NPT, which obliges nuclear powers to pursue disarmament.
|
Status of the Treaty and Ratification Gap:
- Adoption: It was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1996 and opened for signature on September 24, 1996.
- Membership: As of 2025, 187 states have signed and 178 have ratified the treaty.
- Enforcement: It will become legally binding only after 44 specific âAnnex 2â states, those with nuclear technology at the time ratify it.
- Pending Ratifications: Eight critical states have not ratified the treaty- China, Egypt, Iran, Israel, and the United States (signatories but unratified), and India, Pakistan, and North Korea (non-signatories).
- Recent Setback: In 2023, Russia revoked its ratification, though it continues to observe a testing moratorium, weakening the treatyâs political momentum.
- Global Compliance: Despite legal limbo, a de facto moratorium on nuclear testing has largely held since the 1990s; only North Korea has violated it with tests since 2006.
- Significance: The CTBT remains a cornerstone of the global non-proliferation regime, its verification network providing both deterrence and transparency even without formal legal enforcement.
| [UPSC 2015] Consider the following countries:
1. China 2. France 3. India 4. Israel 5. Pakistan
Which among the above are Nuclear Weapons States as recognized by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)?
(a) 1 and 2 only * (b) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
The State of Food and Agriculture (SOFA) Report 2025, released by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) on 3 November 2025, highlights the alarming global impact of human-induced land degradation.
About the SOFA Report:
- Goal: Aims to help governments design sustainable land management and food security policies.
- Publication: Released annually by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations as one of its flagship analytical reports.
- Focus (2025 Edition): Examines human-induced land degradation and its effects on agricultural productivity, poverty, and ecosystem stability.
- Analytical Scope: Integrates soil data, land use patterns, crop yields, and socioeconomic indicators to identify global vulnerability hotspots.
Key Global Findings (2025):
- Population Exposure: Around 1.7 billion people live in land-degraded regions with declining agricultural output.
- Deforestation Drivers: Agricultural expansion remains the cause of nearly 90% of global forest loss.
- Land Use Trends (2001â2023): Global agricultural land shrank by 78 mha (â2%); cropland increased by 78 mha, while pastures declined by 151 mha.
- Land Abandonment: About 3.6 mha of cropland is abandoned annually due to soil degradation.
- Restoration Potential: Reversing 10% of degraded cropland could feed 154 million people yearly; restoring abandoned land could feed 476 million.
- Vulnerability Hotspots: Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia face the highest overlap of degradation, poverty, and child malnutrition.
- Farm Structure Inequality: Small farms (<2 ha) constitute 85% of all farms but hold only 9% of farmland; large farms (>1,000 ha) control nearly 50% of it.
- Degradation Masking: Large farms offset degradation through high input use, while smallholders face disproportionate yield losses.
India-specific Insights:
- Overview: India among countries with highest yield losses due to human-driven land degradation.
- Regional Impact: Eastern and southern India worst affected owing to dense population and intensive cropping.
- Major Causes: Include soil erosion, nutrient depletion, deforestation, and over-irrigation.
- FAO Recommendations:
- Scale up sustainable land management, soil health, and watershed programs.
- Promote precision farming, agroforestry, and organic inputs for soil restoration.
- Strengthen smallholder resilience through credit, technology, and market access.
- Integrate land restoration with national missions like PM-KUSUM and PMKSY for long-term sustainability.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
1. India is a member of the International Grains Council.
2. The country needs to be a member of the International Grains Council for exporting or importing rice and wheat.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
Since 2014, BRICS nations have worked to cut dependence on the U.S. dollar, launching the New Development Bank (NDB), Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA), and now BRICS Pay to promote local currency trade and rival the SWIFT system.
About BRICS Pay Initiative:
- Overview: BRICS Pay is a proposed cross-border digital payment and settlement platform developed by the BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) to facilitate trade in local currencies and reduce reliance on the U.S. dollar and the SWIFT network.
- Origins: The idea emerged after the 2014 Fortaleza Summit, where BRICS established its own financial architecture, the New Development Bank (NDB) and the Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA).
- Purpose: To enable direct financial transactions among member nations using local currencies, minimizing the role of Western-controlled financial systems and avoiding U.S.-led sanctions.
- Development Path:
- 2017: BRICS agreed to enhance currency cooperation via swaps, local currency settlements, and direct investments.
- Early 2020s: The BRICS Payments Task Force (BPTF) was created to design interoperable systems.
- 2024 Kazan Summit: Leaders highlighted strengthening of correspondent banking networks and settlements in local currencies under the BRICS Cross-Border Payments Initiative.
- Prototype: A demo of BRICS Pay was unveiled in Moscow (October 2024), marking a concrete step toward implementation.
- Supporting National Systems:
- India: Unified Payments Interface (UPI)
- China: Cross-Border Interbank Payment System (CIPS)
- Russia: System for Transfer of Financial Messages (SPFS)
- Brazil: Pix instant payment system
- Strategic Importance: The initiative seeks to establish a self-reliant financial network, bypass SWIFT, and enhance monetary sovereignty among emerging economies.
Back2Basics: Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT) System
- Establishment: Founded in 1973 by 239 banks from 15 countries to standardize and secure cross-border financial communications.
- Headquarters: La Hulpe, Belgium.
- Nature: A messaging network, not a bank, it does not hold or transfer funds but enables secure interbank communication for financial transactions.
- Coverage: Connects over 11,000 financial institutions across 200+ countries, making it the largest international payment messaging system.
- Operation:
- Assigns each member a Bank Identifier Code (BIC) of 8â11 characters.
- Standardizes message formats to ensure seamless global financial communication.
- Facilitates fund transfer instructions, trade settlements, and foreign exchange operations.
- Governance:
- Supervised by G10 central banks, the European Central Bank (ECB), and the National Bank of Belgium.
- Managed by a 25-member board of directors, representing about 3,500 member institutions.
- Strategic Role:
- Forms the backbone of global finance, allowing efficient movement of capital.
- Exclusion from SWIFT acts as a powerful economic sanction tool, isolating nations (e.g., Russia and Iran) from the international financial system.
- Significance: SWIFTâs dominance reflects Western control over global finance, making it a central target for alternative networks like BRICS Pay, Chinaâs CIPS, and Russiaâs SPFS that seek a multipolar monetary order.
|
| [UPSC 2023] With reference to the Central Bank digital currencies, consider the following statements:
1. It is possible to make payments in a digital currency without using US dollar or SWIFT system.
2. A digital currency can be distributed with a condition programmed into it such as time-frame for spending it.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
The 32nd APEC Economic Leadersâ Summit (2025) is being held in Gyeongju City, South Korea
About Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC):
- Establishment: Created in 1989 as a regional economic forum to enhance the growing interdependence of the Asia-Pacific region.
- Objective: Promote balanced, inclusive, sustainable, innovative, and secure growth, and accelerate regional economic integration.
- Membership: Comprises 21 member economies– Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, the Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, the United States, and Vietnam.
- Secretariat: Headquartered in Singapore, coordinating policy dialogues, working groups, and capacity-building across member economies.
- Decision-Making Principle: Functions on voluntary, non-binding, and consensus-based commitments rather than treaty obligations.
- Economic Scale: Represents 2.9 billion people, accounting for ~60% of global GDP and ~48% of global trade.
- Terminology: Refers to its members as âeconomiesâ (not countries) to accommodate non-sovereign entities like Hong Kong and Taiwan.
- Major Frameworks:
- Bogor Goals (1994) â Free and open trade and investment in the Asia-Pacific.
- APEC Putrajaya Vision 2040 â Envisions an open, dynamic, resilient, and peaceful Asia-Pacific community by 2040.
- Focus Areas: Trade liberalisation, digital economy, supply chain resilience, sustainable energy, and inclusive growth.
India and APEC:
- Membership: India is NOT a member but has shown consistent interest since the early 1990s, aligning with its Look East / Act East Policy.
- Geographical Criterion: APECâs membership is limited to Asia-Pacific economies, while India is categorised under South Asia, restricting eligibility.
- Economic Context: Indiaâs gradual liberalisation in the 1990s contrasted with APECâs open market orientation, reducing its early appeal to members.
- Political Resistance: China has reportedly opposed Indiaâs entry to maintain regional influence and prevent rival power balancing.
- Moratorium: A 1997 freeze on new memberships continues to block Indiaâs formal inclusion.
- Current Engagement: Participates in Track-II dialogues, observer consultations, and partner discussions with APEC economies.
- Strategic Significance:
- APEC economies drive 60% of world GDP and 48% of global trade.
- Membership would improve market access, FDI inflows, and digital integration.
- Enhances Indiaâs engagement with U.S., Japan, China, and ASEAN through multilateral diplomacy.
- Alternative Platforms: India engages APEC members via BRICS, QUAD, IPEF, and RCEP-linked forums, expanding Indo-Pacific economic influence.
- Future Outlook: Once the moratorium is lifted, Indiaâs robust economic scale, digital economy, and supply chain capacity make it a strong candidate for future APEC membership.
| [UPSC 2017] With reference to `Asia Pacificâ Ministerial Conference on Housing and Urban Development (APMCHUD)â, consider the following statements:
1. The first APMCHUD was held in India in 2006 on the theme `Emerging Urban Forms â Policy Responses and Governance Structureâ.
2. India hosts all the Annual Ministerial Conferences in partnership with ADB, APEC and ASEAN.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2* |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
Iran has officially ratified the UN International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (CFT), signalling a major policy shift toward international financial reintegration.
Why such move by Iran?
- Economic Isolation: Iranâs blacklisting by FATF in 2020 and U.S.-led sanctions have severely restricted its banking access, trade, and foreign investment.
- Reformist Agenda: President Pezeshkianâs government seeks economic stabilization through engagement, not confrontation, with Western institutions.
- Trade Barriers: Even traditional allies like Russia and China face difficulty trading with Iran due to its non-compliance with FATF norms.
- Diplomatic Leverage: CFT accession signals willingness to reform and could help Tehran negotiate sanction relief or trade facilitation.
- Political Balance: The government faces domestic opposition from hardliners who fear the law will expose Iranâs support for groups like Hezbollah and Hamas, but reformists view it as essential for economic recovery.
|
About the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (CFT):
- Adopted: 1999 by the UN General Assembly; entered into force in 2002.
- Parties: Ratified by 188 countries including India, making it one of the most widely accepted anti-terror treaties.
- Objective: To criminalize, prevent, and punish the financing of terrorism and enhance international cooperation against terror-linked financial networks.
- Definition: Financing terrorism includes collecting or providing fundsâdirectly or indirectlyâwith intent or knowledge that they will be used for terrorist acts causing death or injury to civilians or non-combatants.
- Key Provisions:
- States must criminalize terror financing in domestic law.
- Freeze, seize, and confiscate assets linked to terrorism.
- Ban misuse of banking secrecy to block investigations.
- Facilitate extradition, legal cooperation, and mutual assistance.
- Ensure political or ideological motives cannot justify terrorist financing.
- Legal Mechanism: Creates obligations for states to report suspicious transactions and cooperate across jurisdictions for enforcement.
FATF and CFT: Complementary Global Frameworks
- CFT (1999): Provides the legal foundation, obligating states to define and criminalize terror financing under international law.
- FATF (1989): Provides the operational and policy framework, setting 40 detailed recommendations for implementation, monitoring, and compliance.
- Interaction:
- FATF requires its members to implement CFT obligations in national systems.
- CFT establishes criminalization and cooperation, while FATF ensures compliance, enforcement, and evaluation.
- Iranâs Case:
- FATF blacklisted Iran for failure to adopt CFT and AML standards.
- Ratification of CFT is Iranâs first step toward FATF re-evaluation and possible removal from the blacklist.
- Compliance would enable Iranian banks to restore correspondent relations and resume limited international transactions.
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
India has been elected as Co-Chair of the Regional Committee of the United Nations Global Geospatial Information Management for Asia and the Pacific (UN-GGIM-AP) for a three-year term till 2028.
About UN-GGIM-Asia and the Pacific (UN-GGIM-AP):
- Objective: Maximises social, economic, and environmental benefits of geospatial data through regional collaboration, innovation, and policy harmonisation.
- Overview: It is one of the five regional committees under the UN Committee of Experts on Global Geospatial Information Management (UN-GGIM).
- Function: Serves as the highest inter-governmental platform in the region for joint decision-making on geospatial data generation, governance, and utilisation.
- Mandate: Coordinates geospatial policy, promotes data standardisation, and supports applications in sustainable development, disaster management, and environmental monitoring.
- Establishment: Formed in 1995 as the Permanent Committee on GIS Infrastructure for Asia and the Pacific (PCGIAP); rebranded in 2012 following UN-GGIMâs global launch in 2011.
- Membership: Comprises 56 national geospatial agencies from across the Asia-Pacific region.
- Secretariat: Hosted by the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP) since 2018, providing institutional and technical support.
Indiaâs Role and Significance:
- Leadership Role: India elected Co-Chair (2025â2028), reflecting global recognition of its geospatial governance and digital mapping expertise.
- Strategic Influence: Strengthens Indiaâs position in regional policy formation, data ethics, and standardisation frameworks.
- Policy Alignment: Complements Indiaâs National Geospatial Policy 2022, Digital India, and PM GatiShakti National Master Plan initiatives.
- Regional Contribution: India to lead capacity-building, data interoperability, and open-access frameworks for disaster management and climate resilience.
- Institutional Integration: Links ISROâs remote sensing and Survey of Indiaâs ground mapping to regional development goals.
- Global Impact: Positions India as a knowledge hub in geospatial innovation and ensures its active role in defining global spatial data standards for sustainable growth.
| [UPSC 2023]Â Consider the following infrastructure sectors :
1. Affordable housing 2. Mass rapid transport 3. Health care 4. Renewable energy
On how many of the above does UNOPS Sustainable Investments in Infrastructure and Innovation (S3i) initiative focus for its investments?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three* (d) All four |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
The 19th Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) Mid-Term Ministerial Meeting was recently held in Kampala, Uganda.
About the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
- Overview: A grouping of states not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc, established to uphold sovereignty, independence, and neutrality during the Cold War.
- Formation: Founded in 1961 at Belgrade, Yugoslavia, emerging from the 1955 Bandung Conference (Indonesia) which laid down the Ten Principles of Bandung as its ideological foundation.
- Founding Leaders:
-
- Jawaharlal Nehru (India)
- Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt)
- Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia)
- Ahmed Sukarno (Indonesia)
- Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana)
- Membership:
- 120 countries: 53 from Africa, 39 from Asia, 26 from Latin America & the Caribbean, and 2 from Europe.
- Includes Palestine as a member and 17 observer nations with 10 observer organisations.
- Represents nearly 60% of UN membership, making it the second-largest intergovernmental bloc after the UN.
- Structure: NAM functions without a permanent secretariat, charter, or budget, relying on rotational leadership and consensus-driven decision-making.
Indiaâs Contemporary Role in NAM:
- India advocates for reinvigorating NAM as a platform for South-South cooperation in technology, trade, and climate resilience.
- It seeks to make NAM relevant in a multipolar world, focusing on digital equity, global governance reforms, and sustainable development.
- India views NAM not as an anti-West bloc but as a forum of balanced autonomy, promoting strategic non-alignment and global partnership in the 21st century.
| [UPSC 2009] Among the following Presidents of India, who was also the Secretary General of Non-Aligned Movement for some period ?
Options: (a) Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (b) Varahairi Venkatagiri (c) Giani Zail Singh * (d) Dr. Shanker Dayal Sharma |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
The UN will cut peacekeeping personnel by 25% across nine missions after U.S. funding dropped from $1 billion to $680 million under President Trumpâs âAmerica Firstâ policy.
US and Peacekeeping Funding Dynamics:
- The US and China together contribute nearly 50% of the UNâs peacekeeping budget.
- The U.S. outlined its new commitment of $680 million, marking a 32% decrease from last yearâs payment.
- A senior UN official confirmed that China has pledged to pay its full contribution by the end of 2025, offsetting some of the financial shortfall.
Implications of Funding Cut:
- The withdrawal of peacekeepers will leave several fragile regions exposed to renewed instability, especially in Africa and the Middle East.
- The cuts signal a shift toward selective, donor-driven peacekeeping, prioritising geopolitical interests over collective international responsibility.
- For the UN, the challenge lies in maintaining operational credibility and protecting civilian populations amid reduced resources.
|
About the United Nations Peacekeeping Mission:
- Overview: UN Peacekeeping is a collective international mechanism established to maintain peace and security in conflict-affected regions under the leadership of the United Nations.
- Personnel: Peacekeepers, known as Blue Berets or Blue Helmets, include military, police, and civilian members from contributing nations.
- Origin: The idea arose after World War II with the formation of the UN in 1945, marking a new era in global conflict resolution.
- First Mission (1948): The United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation (UNTSO) was deployed after the ArabâIsraeli War to monitor ceasefires, setting the template for future operations.
- Evolution: Over time, missions expanded to cover civil wars, humanitarian crises, and post-conflict reconstruction across Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Middle East.
- Core Principles:
-
- Consent of the Parties
- Impartiality
- Non-use of Force (except in self-defence or mandate defence)
- Deployment: Missions require the consent of key conflict parties and are authorised by the UN Security Council.
- Functions: Include monitoring ceasefires, disarmament, protection of civilians, humanitarian assistance, promotion of human rights, and support for democratic governance.
- Finance: United States (26.95%)> China (18.69%)> Japan (8.03%) > Germany (6.11%) > United Kingdom (5.36%) > France (5.29%).
- Indiaâs Contribution:
- Major Contributor: India ranks among the largest troop contributors since the inception of UN peacekeeping.
- Participation Record: Contributed over 1.95 lakh troops, served in 49 missions, and made 168 supreme sacrifices in service.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following pairs:
Country Reason for being in the news
1. Argentina: Worst economic crisis
2. Sudan: War between the country’s regular army and
paramilitary forces
3. Turkey: Rescinded its membership of NATO
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
(a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs* (c) All three pairs (d) None of the pairs |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
U.S. President Donald Trump has indicated a willingness to extend the New START Treaty with Russia by one year, until February 2027, as the treaty is due to expire next February.
About the New START Treaty:
- About: New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New START); Bilateral nuclear arms control pact between the United States and Russia.
- Signed: April 8, 2010, in Prague by U.S. President Barack Obama and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev; Came into Force: February 5, 2011.
- Initial Duration: 10 years, set to be expired in February 2021; extended by 5 years to February 2026.
- Proposed Further Extension: To February 2027, as hinted by U.S. President Donald Trump.
- Objective: Limit and verify the number of deployed strategic nuclear weapons to ensure predictability and strategic stability between the two nuclear superpowers.
- Ceilings:
- 1,550 deployed strategic nuclear warheads.
- 700 deployed intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), and heavy bombers.
- 800 deployed and non-deployed launchers and bombers combined.
- Verification Regime:
- Regular on-site inspections.
- Biannual data exchanges.
- Notifications of movement or deployment of nuclear assets.
- Telemetry sharing for missile tests.
- Administering Authority: U.S. Department of State and Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs under a joint commission.
- Scope: Applies only to strategic (long-range) nuclear forces, not tactical nuclear weapons.
- Historical Context:
- Successor to START I (1991) and START II (1993).
- Last remaining arms control treaty after the collapse of the INF Treaty (2019) and U.S. withdrawal from the ABM Treaty (2001).
- Significance: Serves as the final legal constraint on the two largest nuclear arsenals, reducing risk of an unconstrained arms race.
Implications of Extending the New START
- Maintains Strategic Stability: Retains verifiable limits on the worldâs two largest nuclear stockpiles, reducing risk of escalation or miscalculation.
- Prevents Arms Race: Avoids a strategic vacuum that could lead to rapid weapon modernization and expansion by both nations.
- Diplomatic Leverage: Provides a diplomatic window for future multilateral disarmament talks, possibly involving China and other nuclear powers.
- Global Signalling: Reinforces commitment to nuclear restraint and non-proliferation under the spirit of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
- Risks of Non-Extension:
- Collapse of all bilateral arms control between the U.S. and Russia.
- Accelerated nuclear modernization programs.
- Weakened global disarmament norms and potential CTBT irrelevance.
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
During the 42nd International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Assembly in Montreal, India was re-elected to Part II of the ICAO Council.
About the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO):
- Overview: Specialized UN agency created in 1944 through the Chicago Convention (signed 7 December 1944).
- Headquarters: Montreal, Canada; Membership: 193 states (virtually every UN member).
- Objectives: Ensure safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation; Standardize aviation rules and regulations across nations.
-
Functions:
-
- Formulates Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) for global aviation.
- Promotes air safety, security, efficiency, and environmental protection.
- Resolves aviation disputes between states.
- Monitors compliance with international aviation norms.
- Coordinates global air traffic management and accident investigation standards.
-
- Assembly: Sovereign body, meets every 3 years, includes all 193 members.
- Secretariat: Headed by Secretary-General.
- Council: 36 elected members serving 3-year terms; key decision-making body.
- Bureaus: Air Navigation, Air Transport, Technical Co-operation, Legal, Administration & Services.
ICAO and India:
- Membership: Founder member since 1944, uninterrupted presence on ICAO Council for 81 years.
- Nodal Agency: Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA).
- Performance: India rated above global average for airworthiness in 2022 ICAO audit.
- Contributions: Active in policy development, international standards, harmonized and sustainable aviation frameworks.
- Aviation Growth: One of the fastest-growing markets globally, attracting investments in aircraft manufacturing, MRO (Maintenance, Repair & Overhaul), and skill development.
- Cultural Role: India hosts International Civil Aviation Day annually (first observed 1994; UN recognition 1996).
Indiaâs Re-Election to ICAO Council (2025â2028):
- Significance: Elected to Part II of ICAO Council (states making largest contribution to civil air navigation facilities); India positioned itself as a global aviation hub.
- Priorities for 2025â2028 Term:
- Strengthening aviation safety, security, and sustainability.
- Promoting equitable growth in air connectivity.
- Advancing technology and innovation in aviation.
- Supporting ICAOâs âNo Country Left Behindâ initiative.
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
Protests erupted over Microsoft after allegations that its cloud services (Azure) are aiding Israeli military operations, harming Palestinian civilians, raising concerns under the Wassenaar Arrangement.
What is Wassenaar Arrangement?
- Establishment: Created in 1996 as a successor to the Cold War-era COCOM (Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls).
- Name Origin: Named after Wassenaar, a suburb of The Hague, where the agreement was reached in 1995.
- Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
- Membership: 42 countries; India joined in 2017. Includes most NATO/EU states and all UNSC P5 except China.
- Objective: Promote transparency, responsibility, and control in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use technologies.
- Mechanism: Works through voluntary information-sharing, export license denials, and notifications on controlled transfers.
- Control Lists:
- Munitions List: Covers conventional arms including tanks, combat aircraft, UAVs, helicopters, missiles, small arms.
- Dual-Use List: Covers sensitive technologies and equipment with both civilian and military applications.
Wassenaar Arrangement and Software:
- Initial Scope: Designed for hardware exports (equipment, chips, devices).
- 2013 Expansion: Included âintrusion softwareâ that can bypass or defeat cyber protections.
- Challenges:
- Cloud/SaaS blurs what counts as an âexport.â
- Inconsistent interpretations among members for software transfer and access.
- Grey areas: defensive research exemptions, cross-border data flows, and digital surveillance.
- Gap: Rapid rise of AI, cloud computing, and biometrics has outpaced WAâs traditional framework.
-
- Broaden lists to explicitly cover cloud, AI, surveillance, and biometric systems.
- Recognize remote access as exports.
- Establish technical committees for frequent updates and agile controls.
Wassenaar Arrangement and India:
- Membership (2017): Enhanced Indiaâs profile in non-proliferation and arms control, bolstering its case for entry into the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
- Export Controls: Aligns Indiaâs SCOMET list (Special Chemicals, Organisms, Materials, Equipment, and Technologies) with global norms.
- Technology Access: Opens pathways to sensitive dual-use technologies vital for space, defence, and digital industries.
- Diplomacy: Supports Indiaâs counter-terrorism efforts, including the No Money for Terrorism (NMFT) initiative.
| [UPSC 2011] Recently, the USA decided to support India’s membership in multilateral export control regimes called the “Australia Group” and the “Wassenaar Arrangement”. What is the difference between them?
1. The Australia Group is an informal arrangement which aims to allow exporting countries to minimize the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapons proliferation, whereas the Wassenaar- Arrangement is a formal group under the OECD holding identical objectives.
2. The Australia Group comprises predominantly of Asian, African, and North American countries, whereas the member countries of Wassenaar Arrangement are predominantly from the European Union and American continents.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 * |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
India recently hosted a meeting of foreign ministers of Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC) in New York.
About Forum for IndiaâPacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC):
- Launch: Established in 2014 during PM Narendra Modiâs visit to Fiji under the Act East Policy.
- Members: Comprises 14 Pacific Island Countries (PICs) i.e Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
- Objectives: Strengthen cooperation in trade, investment, health, agriculture, renewable energy, disaster management, digital connectivity, and climate change adaptation.
-
Summits Held:
- Suva (2014)
- Jaipur (2015)
- Port Moresby (2023)
- Key Initiatives: $1 million climate fund, Pan-Pacific Islands e-network, visa on arrival, cooperation in space technology, and training of diplomats.
- Trade: Current bilateral trade is about $300 million annually (exports $200 million, imports $100 million).
Strategic Importance of FIPIC:
- Indo-Pacific Outreach: Expands Indiaâs role in maritime governance and regional security.
- Countering China: Acts as a soft-power tool to balance Chinaâs influence in the Pacific.
- Maritime Leverage: PICs control vast Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) crucial for shipping lanes, fisheries, and seabed resources.
- Climate Diplomacy: Strengthens Indiaâs leadership with climate-vulnerable PICs under South-South cooperation.
- Global Forums: PICs often vote as a bloc in UN, WTO, and other multilateral institutions, enhancing Indiaâs diplomatic weight.
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) has released the Global Innovation Index (GII) 2025.
About the Global Innovation Index (GII):
- Overview: Annual ranking of 139 economies by their innovation capacity and success.
- Publishers: Jointly by Cornell University, INSEAD, and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
- Origin: First published in 2007.
- Indicators: Uses 80+ metrics across 7 pillars.
- Structure:
- Innovation Input Sub-Index: Institutions, human capital and research, infrastructure, market sophistication, business sophistication.
- Innovation Output Sub-Index: Knowledge and technology outputs, creative outputs.
- Purpose: Helps governments evaluate how effectively R&D, education, and infrastructure are translated into innovation outcomes.
Key Highlights of GII 2025:
- Global R&D growth: Slowed to 2.9% (2024) and 2.3% (2025 projection), down from 4.4% earlier; lowest since the 2010 financial crisis.
- Top Performers: Switzerland (1st), Sweden (2nd), United States (3rd), followed by Republic of Korea, Singapore, United Kingdom, Finland, Netherlands, Denmark, and China (10th).
- China: Surpassed Switzerland in knowledge and technology outputs; 2nd highest in R&D expenditure; world leader in patent filings.
- Regional Trends: Europe dominates with 15 of top 25 economies; Southeast, East Asia and Oceania (SEAO) region has 6 economies in top 25.
- India: Ranked 38th globally with a score of ~40.5; top among lower-middle income countries and in Central & Southern Asia.
- Strengths: Knowledge and technology outputs (22nd), market sophistication, and human capital and research.
- Weaknesses: Business sophistication, infrastructure, and institutions remain lagging.
| [UPSC 2019] The Global Competitiveness Report is published by the:
Options:
(a) International Monetary Fund (b) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (c) World Economic Forum * (d) World Bank |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
India has secured the worldâs first International Seabed Authority (ISA) licence to explore polymetallic sulphur nodules in the Carlsberg Ridge, northwest Indian Ocean.
Indiaâs Engagement with ISA:
- Exploration Contracts:
- 2002 â Polymetallic nodules, Central Indian Ocean Basin (valid till 2027).
- 2016 â Polymetallic sulphides, Indian Ocean Ridge (valid till 2031).
- 2025 â First global licence for polymetallic sulphides in Carlsberg Ridge.
- Pending Application: Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount (ANS), Central Indian Ocean.
- Strategic Goals:
- Secure access to critical minerals (nickel, cobalt, manganese, copper).
- Balance energy transition needs with environmental safeguards.
- Counter competing claims (e.g., China in the Indian Ocean).
- Role in ISA: Active participant in Mining Code negotiations; pushes for sustainable, equitable exploration.
|
About International Seabed Authority (ISA):
- Establishment: Created under UNCLOS (1982) and the 1994 Agreement on Part XI; Based in Kingston, Jamaica.
- Membership: 168 States (including India) + EU; the US is NOT a member or party to UNCLOS.
- Mandate:
- Regulate exploration/exploitation of minerals in the Area (beyond national jurisdictions, ~54% of oceans).
- Ensure benefits for all humankind.
- Protect marine environment from mining impacts.
- Promote marine scientific research.
- Regulatory Framework: Guided by the Mining Code (licensing, EIA, sustainability standards).
- Functions:
- Grants 15-year exploration contracts (extendable).
- Monitors compliance of contractors.
- Balances resource use with environmental safeguards.
About Carlsberg Ridge:
- Location: A mid-ocean ridge in the northwest Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea region).
- Extent: Covers ~3,00,000 sq. km, stretching from Rodrigues Island (SW Indian Ocean) to the Owen fracture zone.
- Tectonic Setting: Boundary between the Indian Plate and the Arabian Plate.
- Critical Minerals: Deposits contain manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, vital for clean energy, electronics, and defence.
|
| [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:
1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licenses for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
2. India has received licenses for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.
3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3 |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) has cautioned that record-high global share prices appear detached from concerns over rising government debt.
About the Bank for International Settlements (BIS):
- Establishment: Formed in 1930, making it the worldâs oldest international financial institution.
- Role: Known as the âcentral bank for central banksâ, serving only central banks & international organisations, not private entities or governments.
- Headquarters: Basel, Switzerland; offices in Hong Kong & Mexico City.
- Membership: Owned by 63 central banks, covering ~95% of global GDP.
- Purpose: Promotes international monetary and financial cooperation and ensures global monetary stability.
- Functions:
- Platform for policy coordination & information sharing among central banks.
- Provides banking services: reserve management, gold/forex transactions, liquidity support.
- Acts as trustee/agent in global financial operations.
- Conducts research, training, and seminars on financial stability.
- Hosts Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS), which frames Basel norms.
India and the BIS:
- Membership: Represented by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) as a full member.
- Representation: RBI Governor participates in BIS Board of Governors meetings.
- Participation:
- Engages in BIS research & policy discussions.
- RBI officials join working groups on supervision, stability, and fintech.
- Basel Norms: India, via RBI, has adopted Basel standards on capital adequacy, liquidity & risk management.
- Innovation Hub: Collaborates with BIS on digital payments, central bank digital currencies (CBDCs), and cross-border fintech solutions.
| [UPSC 2015] ‘Basel III Accordâ or simply âBasel IIIâ often seen in the news, seeks to
Options: (a) develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity
(b) improve banking sector’s ability to deal with financial and economic stress and improve risk management*
(c) reduce the greenhouse gas emissions but places a heavier burden on developed countries
(d) transfer technology from developed countries to poor countries to enable them to replace the use of chlorofluorocarbons in refrigeration with harmless chemicals |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
At the 28th Universal Postal Congress in Dubai (2025), the Union Minister for Communications has unveiled the Unified Payments Interface (UPI)- UPU Integration Project.
About Universal Postal Union (UPU):
- Overview: A UN specialized agency and the primary forum for international postal cooperation.
- Establishment: Created by the Treaty of Bern (1874). It is the second oldest international organization (after CCNR, 1815).
- Headquarters: Bern, Switzerland.
-
Membership:
- 192 member countries (as of 2025).
- Any UN member state can join automatically.
- Non-UN states may join with two-thirds approval from members.
- India is a member since 1876.
-
Structure:
- Congress: Supreme authority meets every 4 years.
- Council of Administration (CA): Supervises activities between Congress sessions; studies regulatory and administrative issues.
- Postal Operations Council (POC): Technical/operational body of 48 elected members.
- International Bureau: Secretariat providing logistical and technical support.
-
Functions:
- Coordinates postal policies across nations.
- Sets rules for international mail exchanges.
- Makes recommendations to boost global mail, parcel, and financial services.
- Acts as advisory, mediator, and technical support agency for postal systems.
Significance of the UPIâUPU Integration:
-
For India:
- Strengthens Indiaâs global leadership in digital payments innovation.
- Positions India as a hub for low-cost remittance solutions.
-
For Global Postal System:
- Adds digital financial services to the traditional postal network, enhancing its relevance in the digital era.
- Strengthens IndiaâUPU cooperation and demonstrates Indiaâs ability to combine fintech innovation with global multilateral platforms.
-
For Migrants:
- Enables fast, affordable, and secure cross-border remittances through post offices.
- Reduces dependence on high-cost traditional remittance channels.
| [UPSC 2004] Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below.
List I (Agency)
(A) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (B) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (C) United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) (D) Universal Postal Union (DPU)
List II (Headquarters) 1. Nairobi 2. Vienna 3. Berne 4. New York
Options: (a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 4 1 2 3 (c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 4 3 2 1* |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
The United States is preparing to reinterpret the 1987 Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) to expand exports of heavy attack drones, like the MQ-9 Reaper, to partner countries.
About Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR):
- Formation: Established in 1987 by the G-7 countries (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, USA) to prevent the spread of missiles and UAVs capable of delivering nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons.
- Membership: Today, 35 countries are members; India joined in 2016.
- Nature: Not a treaty but a voluntary political understanding where members implement export control guidelines.
-
Coverage:
- Category I items: Complete missile/UAV systems with â„500 kg payload and â„300 km range, major subsystems, and production facilities (exports presumed denied).
- Category II items: Less sensitive or dual-use components/technologies; exports subject to national discretion under strict licensing.
- Purpose: To limit missile proliferation while allowing peaceful space and aviation cooperation.
About the Recent Policy Change on MTCR:
-
US Reinterpretation (2025):
- Large unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) like the MQ-9 Reaper will be treated as âaircraftâ instead of missile systems.
- This removes the âstrong presumption of denialâ that earlier restricted their export under MTCR.
- Objective: To make the US the leading drone supplier, countering competition from China, Israel, and Turkiye.
-
Implications:
- Opens the door for Foreign Military Sales (FMS) of heavy attack drones to partners like Saudi Arabia, India, and Indo-Pacific allies.
- Still subject to US reviews for regional stability, end-use monitoring, tech security, and human rights compliance.
- Facilitates IndiaâUS space and defence cooperation, lowering barriers for joint ventures and technology partnerships.
| [UPSC 2022] Consider the following:
1. Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank 2. Missile Technology Control Regime 3. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
India is a member of which of the above?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Why in the News?
India has ranked 115th in the Global Peace Index, 2025 published by the Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP).
About Global Peace Index (GPI):
- Publisher: Released annually by the Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP), Sydney.
- Coverage: Ranks 163 countries/territories, representing 99.7% of world population.
- Indicators: Based on 23 metrics grouped under three domains:
- Societal Safety & Security (crime, terrorism, political stability).
- Domestic & International Conflicts.
- Degree of Militarisation (defence spending, arms imports, personnel).
- Launch: First published in 2007; now a key global benchmark for peace, stability, and security.
Key Highlights of GPI 2025:
- Top 10: Iceland (1st), Ireland, New Zealand, Finland, Austria, Switzerland, Singapore, Portugal, Denmark, Slovenia.
- Indiaâs Position: Ranked 115th (score 2.229), an improvement from 116th in 2024 (+0.58%).
- Neighbour Comparison:
- Pakistan â 144th (much lower).
- Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh â higher than India, reflecting stronger peace metrics.
- Least Peaceful: Russia, Ukraine, Sudan, DR Congo, Yemen, hit by wars, humanitarian crises, and instability.
- Regional Insights:
- Europe dominates top ranks.
- Singapore is only Asian country in top 10.
- South America shows gains (Argentina, Peru).
- South Asia, Middle East, Africa remain volatile.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following pairs:
1. North Kivu and Ituri: War between Armenia and Azerbaijan
2. Nagorno-Karabakh: Insurgency in Mozambique
3. Kherson and Zaporizhzhia: Dispute between Israel and Lebanon
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None* |
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
