Why in the News?
India has secured the world’s first International Seabed Authority (ISA) licence to explore polymetallic sulphur nodules in the Carlsberg Ridge, northwest Indian Ocean.
India’s Engagement with ISA:
- Exploration Contracts:
- 2002 – Polymetallic nodules, Central Indian Ocean Basin (valid till 2027).
- 2016 – Polymetallic sulphides, Indian Ocean Ridge (valid till 2031).
- 2025 – First global licence for polymetallic sulphides in Carlsberg Ridge.
- Pending Application: Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount (ANS), Central Indian Ocean.
- Strategic Goals:
- Secure access to critical minerals (nickel, cobalt, manganese, copper).
- Balance energy transition needs with environmental safeguards.
- Counter competing claims (e.g., China in the Indian Ocean).
- Role in ISA: Active participant in Mining Code negotiations; pushes for sustainable, equitable exploration.
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About International Seabed Authority (ISA):
- Establishment: Created under UNCLOS (1982) and the 1994 Agreement on Part XI; Based in Kingston, Jamaica.
- Membership: 168 States (including India) + EU; the US is NOT a member or party to UNCLOS.
- Mandate:
- Regulate exploration/exploitation of minerals in the Area (beyond national jurisdictions, ~54% of oceans).
- Ensure benefits for all humankind.
- Protect marine environment from mining impacts.
- Promote marine scientific research.
- Regulatory Framework: Guided by the Mining Code (licensing, EIA, sustainability standards).
- Functions:
- Grants 15-year exploration contracts (extendable).
- Monitors compliance of contractors.
- Balances resource use with environmental safeguards.
About Carlsberg Ridge:
- Location: A mid-ocean ridge in the northwest Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea region).
- Extent: Covers ~3,00,000 sq. km, stretching from Rodrigues Island (SW Indian Ocean) to the Owen fracture zone.
- Tectonic Setting: Boundary between the Indian Plate and the Arabian Plate.
- Critical Minerals: Deposits contain manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, vital for clean energy, electronics, and defence.
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| [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:
1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licenses for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
2. India has received licenses for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.
3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) has cautioned that record-high global share prices appear detached from concerns over rising government debt.
About the Bank for International Settlements (BIS):
- Establishment: Formed in 1930, making it the world’s oldest international financial institution.
- Role: Known as the “central bank for central banks”, serving only central banks & international organisations, not private entities or governments.
- Headquarters: Basel, Switzerland; offices in Hong Kong & Mexico City.
- Membership: Owned by 63 central banks, covering ~95% of global GDP.
- Purpose: Promotes international monetary and financial cooperation and ensures global monetary stability.
- Functions:
- Platform for policy coordination & information sharing among central banks.
- Provides banking services: reserve management, gold/forex transactions, liquidity support.
- Acts as trustee/agent in global financial operations.
- Conducts research, training, and seminars on financial stability.
- Hosts Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS), which frames Basel norms.
India and the BIS:
- Membership: Represented by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) as a full member.
- Representation: RBI Governor participates in BIS Board of Governors meetings.
- Participation:
- Engages in BIS research & policy discussions.
- RBI officials join working groups on supervision, stability, and fintech.
- Basel Norms: India, via RBI, has adopted Basel standards on capital adequacy, liquidity & risk management.
- Innovation Hub: Collaborates with BIS on digital payments, central bank digital currencies (CBDCs), and cross-border fintech solutions.
| [UPSC 2015] ‘Basel III Accord’ or simply ‘Basel III’ often seen in the news, seeks to
Options: (a) develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity
(b) improve banking sector’s ability to deal with financial and economic stress and improve risk management*
(c) reduce the greenhouse gas emissions but places a heavier burden on developed countries
(d) transfer technology from developed countries to poor countries to enable them to replace the use of chlorofluorocarbons in refrigeration with harmless chemicals |
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Why in the News?
At the 28th Universal Postal Congress in Dubai (2025), the Union Minister for Communications has unveiled the Unified Payments Interface (UPI)- UPU Integration Project.
About Universal Postal Union (UPU):
- Overview: A UN specialized agency and the primary forum for international postal cooperation.
- Establishment: Created by the Treaty of Bern (1874). It is the second oldest international organization (after CCNR, 1815).
- Headquarters: Bern, Switzerland.
-
Membership:
- 192 member countries (as of 2025).
- Any UN member state can join automatically.
- Non-UN states may join with two-thirds approval from members.
- India is a member since 1876.
-
Structure:
- Congress: Supreme authority meets every 4 years.
- Council of Administration (CA): Supervises activities between Congress sessions; studies regulatory and administrative issues.
- Postal Operations Council (POC): Technical/operational body of 48 elected members.
- International Bureau: Secretariat providing logistical and technical support.
-
Functions:
- Coordinates postal policies across nations.
- Sets rules for international mail exchanges.
- Makes recommendations to boost global mail, parcel, and financial services.
- Acts as advisory, mediator, and technical support agency for postal systems.
Significance of the UPI–UPU Integration:
-
For India:
- Strengthens India’s global leadership in digital payments innovation.
- Positions India as a hub for low-cost remittance solutions.
-
For Global Postal System:
- Adds digital financial services to the traditional postal network, enhancing its relevance in the digital era.
- Strengthens India–UPU cooperation and demonstrates India’s ability to combine fintech innovation with global multilateral platforms.
-
For Migrants:
- Enables fast, affordable, and secure cross-border remittances through post offices.
- Reduces dependence on high-cost traditional remittance channels.
| [UPSC 2004] Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below.
List I (Agency)
(A) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (B) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (C) United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) (D) Universal Postal Union (DPU)
List II (Headquarters) 1. Nairobi 2. Vienna 3. Berne 4. New York
Options: (a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 4 1 2 3 (c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 4 3 2 1* |
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Why in the News?
Semaglutide, a drug originally developed for type 2 diabetes but also highly effective for weight reduction has been added to the WHO’s Model List of Essential Medicines (EML).
What is Semaglutide?
- Overview: A GLP-1 receptor agonist drug developed for Type 2 Diabetes, also effective in weight reduction.
- Mode of Action: Stimulates insulin secretion, lowers blood glucose, slows gastric emptying, and suppresses appetite.
- Brand Names: Ozempic (diabetes), Wegovy (obesity/weight loss).
- WHO Recognition (2025): Added to the 24th EML, highlighting its dual role in diabetes and obesity management.
- Significance: Its inclusion pressures health systems to expand access and make it more affordable worldwide.
- Relevance for India: With 100+ million diabetics (2nd highest globally) and a rising obesity burden, Semaglutide could be a public health game-changer if affordability improves.
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About WHO’s Model List of Essential Medicines (EML):
- What is it: A global reference by WHO listing the most effective, safe, and essential medicines for priority healthcare needs.
- History: First introduced in 1977 to improve access in developing countries; updated every 2 years by a WHO Expert Committee.
- Structure:
- Core list: Basic medicines usable with limited infrastructure.
- Complementary list: Need specialised training, facilities, or are costlier.
- Global Impact: Over 150 countries use EML to build national lists for procurement, reimbursement, and universal health coverage (UHC).
- Selection Criteria:
- Public health relevance.
- Proven efficacy and safety.
- Cost-effectiveness compared to alternatives.
- Quality, stability, and reliable formulations.
- Preference for single-compound formulations unless combinations are better.
| [UPSC 2024] In which of the following are hydrogels used?
1. Controlled drug delivery in patients 2. Mobile air-conditioning systems 3. Preparation of industrial lubricants
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
The United States is preparing to reinterpret the 1987 Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) to expand exports of heavy attack drones, like the MQ-9 Reaper, to partner countries.
About Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR):
- Formation: Established in 1987 by the G-7 countries (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, USA) to prevent the spread of missiles and UAVs capable of delivering nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons.
- Membership: Today, 35 countries are members; India joined in 2016.
- Nature: Not a treaty but a voluntary political understanding where members implement export control guidelines.
-
Coverage:
- Category I items: Complete missile/UAV systems with ≥500 kg payload and ≥300 km range, major subsystems, and production facilities (exports presumed denied).
- Category II items: Less sensitive or dual-use components/technologies; exports subject to national discretion under strict licensing.
- Purpose: To limit missile proliferation while allowing peaceful space and aviation cooperation.
About the Recent Policy Change on MTCR:
-
US Reinterpretation (2025):
- Large unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) like the MQ-9 Reaper will be treated as “aircraft” instead of missile systems.
- This removes the “strong presumption of denial” that earlier restricted their export under MTCR.
- Objective: To make the US the leading drone supplier, countering competition from China, Israel, and Turkiye.
-
Implications:
- Opens the door for Foreign Military Sales (FMS) of heavy attack drones to partners like Saudi Arabia, India, and Indo-Pacific allies.
- Still subject to US reviews for regional stability, end-use monitoring, tech security, and human rights compliance.
- Facilitates India–US space and defence cooperation, lowering barriers for joint ventures and technology partnerships.
| [UPSC 2022] Consider the following:
1. Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank 2. Missile Technology Control Regime 3. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
India is a member of which of the above?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
India has ranked 115th in the Global Peace Index, 2025 published by the Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP).
About Global Peace Index (GPI):
- Publisher: Released annually by the Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP), Sydney.
- Coverage: Ranks 163 countries/territories, representing 99.7% of world population.
- Indicators: Based on 23 metrics grouped under three domains:
- Societal Safety & Security (crime, terrorism, political stability).
- Domestic & International Conflicts.
- Degree of Militarisation (defence spending, arms imports, personnel).
- Launch: First published in 2007; now a key global benchmark for peace, stability, and security.
Key Highlights of GPI 2025:
- Top 10: Iceland (1st), Ireland, New Zealand, Finland, Austria, Switzerland, Singapore, Portugal, Denmark, Slovenia.
- India’s Position: Ranked 115th (score 2.229), an improvement from 116th in 2024 (+0.58%).
- Neighbour Comparison:
- Pakistan – 144th (much lower).
- Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh – higher than India, reflecting stronger peace metrics.
- Least Peaceful: Russia, Ukraine, Sudan, DR Congo, Yemen, hit by wars, humanitarian crises, and instability.
- Regional Insights:
- Europe dominates top ranks.
- Singapore is only Asian country in top 10.
- South America shows gains (Argentina, Peru).
- South Asia, Middle East, Africa remain volatile.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following pairs:
1. North Kivu and Ituri: War between Armenia and Azerbaijan
2. Nagorno-Karabakh: Insurgency in Mozambique
3. Kherson and Zaporizhzhia: Dispute between Israel and Lebanon
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None* |
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Why in the News?
The United Nations has officially declared a famine in Gaza based on an Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) panel assessment.
About Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC):
- What It Is: A global standard tool to assess and classify the severity of food insecurity.
- Established: In 2004 during the Somalia food crisis by FEWS NET (Famine Early Warning Systems Network) and partners.
- Coordination: Led by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
- Purpose: Supports early warning, evidence-based decision-making, and coordinated response by governments, UN agencies, NGOs, and donors.
- Partnership Model: Combines efforts of UN bodies, NGOs, academic institutions, and national governments.
Key Features of the IPC:
- Five-Phase Classification System:
- Phase 1: Minimal
- Phase 2: Stressed
- Phase 3: Crisis
- Phase 4: Emergency
- Phase 5: Catastrophe/Famine
- Methodology:
- Uses convergence of evidence from food access, livelihoods, nutrition, and mortality.
- Requires technical consensus among analysts for transparency and accuracy.
- Allows real-time assessments and 6-month forecasts to support timely action.
What is Famine and How is it Declared?
- Definition: IPC Phase 5 – the most extreme level of food insecurity.
- Criteria (All Must Be Met):
- At least 20% of households face extreme food gaps.
- At least 30% of children under five suffer acute malnutrition (wasting).
- Death rate: 2 adults or 4 children per 10,000 people per day.
- Declaration: Made by UN agencies, national governments, or authorized global bodies.
- Purpose of Declaration:
- Mobilize international aid and emergency operations.
- Trigger food, health, and logistics support.
- Raise global awareness and funding for urgent interventions.
- Past Declarations: Somalia (2011), South Sudan (2017, 2020), Darfur, Sudan (2024)
| [UPSC 2023] Which of the following countries has been suffering from decades of civil strife and food shortages and was in news in the recent past for its very severe famine?
Options: (a) Angola (b) Costa Rica (c) Ecuador (d) Somalia* |
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Why in the News?
The Trump administration sanctioned judges and prosecutors of the International Criminal Court (ICC) over arrest cases involving Israeli leaders and past probes into U.S. officials.
About the International Criminal Court (ICC):
- Established: 2002 under the Rome Statute (1998); headquartered at The Hague, Netherlands.
- Nature: First permanent international court to try individuals for grave crimes.
- Jurisdiction over 4 core crimes:
-
- Genocide
- Crimes against humanity
- War crimes
- Crime of aggression
- Members: 124 States Parties
- NON-members: India, China, USA, Russia, Israel, Ukraine
- Structure:
- Office of the Prosecutor – investigates and prosecutes cases.
- 18 Judges – elected for 9 years.
- Assembly of States Parties – governs ICC administration.
- Trust Fund for Victims, Detention Centre
- Languages: English, French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian, Spanish
- Funding: Annual budget (2025) ~ €195 million (mostly from member states)
Jurisdiction and Reach of an ICC Warrant:
- Applicability:
- Crimes by nationals of member states
- Crimes committed on member state territory
- UNSC referrals can extend jurisdiction to non-member states (e.g., Libya, Darfur)
- Obligations on States:
- Member states must execute arrest warrants and cooperate fully.
- Non-compliance can be reported to Assembly of States Parties or UN Security Council (for UNSC referrals)
- Challenges:
- ICC lacks an independent enforcement mechanism
- Non-members (e.g., US, Russia) are not bound to cooperate
- Political and diplomatic constraints hinder the execution of warrants
- Special Mechanisms: ICC established an Arrest Working Group (2016) to enhance warrant enforcement through better intelligence-sharing.
| [UPSC 2022] Which one of the following statements best reflects the issue with Senkaku Islands, sometimes mentioned in the news ?
Options:
(a) It is generally believed that they are artificial islands made by a country around South China Sea.
(b) China and Japan engage in maritime disputes over these islands in East China Sea. *
(c) A permanent American military base has been set up there to help Taiwan to increase its defence capabilities.
(d) Though International Court of Justice declared them as no man’s land, some South-East Asian countries claim them. |
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Why in the News?
A women farmers’ collective from Karnataka has been recognised among the ten global winners of the United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP) Equator Prize 2025.
About UNDP Equator Initiative Award:
- Overview: Presented under the Equator Initiative of the UNDP.
- Awarded biennially: To community-led initiatives reducing poverty through biodiversity conservation and sustainable use.
- Significance: Often called the “Nobel Prize for Biodiversity Conservation”.
- Award: Includes a cash prize of $10,000.
- Eligibility:
- Initiative must have existed for at least three years.
- Must be a community-based group in a rural area of a UNDP-supported country, or an Indigenous Peoples’ community in a rural area.
- Actions must be nature-based and benefit two or more SDGs.
Back2Basics: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP):
- Established: 1966 by the UN General Assembly; Headquarters: New York, USA.
- Mission: End poverty, promote democratic governance, rule of law, and inclusive institutions.
- Focus Areas:
- Sustainable development.
- Democratic governance and peacebuilding.
- Climate and disaster resilience.
- Funding: Entirely from voluntary contributions of member states.
- Role: Advocates for change, connects countries to knowledge, resources, and expertise for sustainable human development.
- Key initiatives:
- Human Development Index (HDI).
- Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Reports.
- Gender Inequality Index (GII).
| [UPSC 2012] The Multi-dimensional Poverty Index developed by Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative with UNDP support covers which of the following?
1. Deprivation of education, health, assets and services at household level
2. Purchasing power parity at national level
3. Extent of budget deficit and GDP growth rate at national level
Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The 3rd UN Conference on Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDC3) in Awaza, Turkmenistan, adopted the Awaza Declaration to boost investment, address challenges, and promote sustainable growth in 32 landlocked nations.
About Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs):
- Overview: 32 UN-recognized countries with no direct access to the sea, collectively home to over 600 million people.
- List of LLDCs:
-
- Africa: Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Rwanda, South Sudan, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
- Asia: Afghanistan, Bhutan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Mongolia, Nepal, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan.
- Europe: Armenia, Azerbaijan, North Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia.
- South America: Bolivia, Paraguay.
- Challenges:
- Dependence on transit countries for global market access.
- Higher trade and transport costs (often twice those of coastal countries).
- Limited connectivity, slower growth, and vulnerability to climate impacts.
- Past Conferences:
- 2003 (Almaty) – Almaty Programme of Action.
- 2014 (Vienna) – Vienna Programme of Action (2014–2024).
- 2025 (Awaza) – Awaza Programme of Action (2024–2034).
Structure and Functioning:
- LLDC Conferences: Held every 10 years to review progress and set a new action framework.
- Awaza Programme of Action (2024–2034) – Priority Areas:
- Structural transformation, science, technology, and innovation.
- Trade facilitation and regional integration.
- Transit, transport, and connectivity.
- Climate resilience and adaptation.
- Monitoring and implementation.
- Stakeholder Participation:
- UN member states, transit countries, donor agencies, NGOs, private sector, and academia.
- Mechanisms:
- UN-wide monitoring framework covering 323 initiatives.
- Partnerships for infrastructure and digital connectivity.
- Climate Negotiating Group under UNFCCC for LLDC-specific challenges.
| [UPSC 2013] Which one of the following countries is landlocked?
Options: (a) Bolivia* (b) Peru (c) Suriname (d) Uruguay |
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Why in the News?
Russia officially announced its exit from the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, marking a pivotal moment in the dismantling of Cold War-era nuclear arms control architecture.
What is the INF Treaty?
- Signed In: 1987 by United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev.
- Purpose: Banned ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers.
- Impact: Led to the elimination of 2,692 missiles by June 1, 1991.
- Verification: Allowed on-site inspections, setting a benchmark for arms control agreements.
- Scope: Covered both nuclear and conventional missile systems.
- Significance: Became a key pillar of post-Cold War strategic stability.
Why did Russia exit the Treaty?
- Cited US deployments of:
- Tomahawk launchers (Philippines),
- Dark Eagle hypersonic missiles (Australia).
- Escalated by US nuclear submarine deployments in 2025 and rising NATO tensions.
- Russia had already withdrawn from:
Implications:
- Collapse of Arms Control: Removes a pillar of nuclear restraint.
- Resurgence of Arms Race: Possible missile deployments in Europe & Asia-Pacific.
- Regional Threats: NATO countries & East Asia more vulnerable.
- Proliferation Risk: May embolden China, India, and others.
| [UPSC 2011] The “New START” treaty was in the news. What is this treaty?
(a) It is a bilateral strategic nuclear arms reduction treaty between the USA and the Russian Federation.*
(b) It is a multilateral energy security cooperation treaty among the members of the East Asia Summit.
(c) It is a treaty between the Russian Federation and the European Union for energy security cooperation.
(d) It is a multilateral cooperation treaty among the BRICS countries for the promotion of trade. |
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Why in the News?
The 2025 State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) report highlights alarming levels of child malnutrition and anaemia among women in India.
About the SOFI Report:
- Full Name: State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World
- Published by: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the World Food Programme (WFP), and the World Health Organization (WHO).
- Started in: 1999
- Purpose: Tracks global hunger, food insecurity, and nutrition. Monitors SDG-2 (Zero Hunger).
Global Highlights (2025):
- Hunger Rate: Dropped from 8.5% (2023) to 8.2% (2024)
- Undernourished People: 735 million globally
- Double Burden: Undernutrition and obesity rising simultaneously
- Healthy Diets: Cost rising due to inflation and climate impacts
India-Specific Findings:
- Wasting (Under-5): 18.7% – highest globally (21+ million affected)
- Stunting (Under-5): 37.4 million children
- Overweight Children: 4.2 million (up from 2.7 mn in 2012)
- Anaemia in Women (15–49): 53.7% (203 million affected)
- Undernourished Population: 172 million (12% of population)
- Unaffordable Healthy Diet: 42.9% can’t afford; cost rose from $2.77 (2017) to $4.07 (2024)
- Adult Obesity: Doubled in a decade – now 71.4 million
| [UPSC 2016] Which of the following is/are the indicator/ indicators used by IFPRI to compute the Global Hunger Index Report?
1. Undernourishment 2. Child stunting 3. Child mortality
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3* (d) 1 and 3 only |
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Why in the News?
Delegates from 172 countries convened in Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, for the 15th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP15) to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
Highlights of Ramsar COP15
- Theme: Protecting Wetlands for Our Common Future
- Host Nation: Zimbabwe (holds presidency of the Ramsar Convention for 3 years)
- Expected Outcome: Adoption of the Victoria Falls Declaration, a global framework to protect wetlands
|
About the Ramsar Convention:
- Adopted on: 2 February 1971, in Ramsar, Iran.
- Objective: Conserve and ensure the wise use of wetlands globally.
- Key Functions:
- Identify wetlands of international importance.
- Promote sustainable management practices.
- Foster international cooperation in wetland conservation.
- Governing Body:
- Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP) meets every 3 years.
- Reviews implementation, adopts site designations, budgets, and policy actions.
- Includes member + non-member states, IGOs, and NGOs as observers.
Criteria for Ramsar Site Designation:
A wetland must meet at least one of the following 9 criteria:
- Unique or rare wetland type.
- Habitat for endangered, vulnerable, or endemic species.
- Crucial for migratory waterbirds.
- High ecological, hydrological, or biodiversity value.
- Supports ecosystem services (e.g., flood control, water purification).
- Provides cultural or spiritual value.
- Serves sustainable community livelihoods.
- Holds scientific or educational importance.
- Requires global cooperation due to threats.
India and the Ramsar Convention:
- Joined on: 1 February 1982.
- First Ramsar Site: Chilika Lake (Odisha), 1981.
- As of July 2025:
- Total sites: 91
- Total area: ~13.58 lakh hectares
- % of India’s wetland area under Ramsar: ~10%
- Top States: Tamil Nadu: 20 sites (highest); Uttar Pradesh: 10 sites
- Note: India has never chaired a Ramsar COP session.
Global Snapshot and Other Facts:
- Total Members: 171 countries.
- Leading Countries:
- United Kingdom: 175 sites (most)
- Mexico: 142 sites
- Bolivia: Largest area (~1.48 lakh sq. km under protection)
- World Wetlands Day: Celebrated on 2 February annually.
- Montreux Record: Register for Ramsar sites under serious threat needing urgent conservation.
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:
1. Under Ramsar Convention, it is mandatory on the part of the Government of India to protect and conserve all the wetlands in the territory of India.
2. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 were framed by the Government of India based on the recommendations of Ramsar Convention.
3. These Rules also encompass the drainage area or catchment regions of the wetlands as determined by the authority.
Which of the statements given above is / are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
India has improved its global mobility ranking, moving up eight places to 77th in the Henley Passport Index 2025, up from 85th in 2024.
About Henley Passport Index, 2025
- Overview: A global ranking of passports based on the number of destinations accessible without a prior visa.
- Compiled by: Published by Henley & Partners using data from the International Air Transport Association (IATA).
- Coverage: Includes 227 travel destinations and is updated quarterly.
- Purpose: Reflects changes in global mobility, international relations, and travel freedoms.
Global Scenario (2025 Rankings):
- 1st Rank: Singapore – Visa-free access to 193 destinations.
- 2nd Rank: Japan and South Korea – Access to 190 destinations.
- 3rd Rank (tie): Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Finland, Denmark, Ireland – Access to 189 destinations.
- United States: Fell to 10th rank – Access to 182 destinations.
- Overall Trend:
- Asian and European passports dominate top positions.
- Countries with restrictive or unstable foreign policies rank lower.
India’s Achievements:
- 2025 Rank: 77th, up from 85th in 2024 – an 8-place improvement.
- Access Level: Indian passport holders have visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 59 countries.
- New Additions: Philippines, Sri Lanka.
- Context:
- Despite gaining access to only two new countries, India’s rank rose significantly due to global reshuffling.
- This marks a recovery from a 5-place drop in 2024, indicating improved travel diplomacy.
| [UPSC 2011] In terms of economy, the visit by foreign nationals to witness the XIX Commonwealth Games in India amounted to-
Options: (a) Export (b) Import (c) Production (d) Consumption |
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Why in the News?
The United States has withdrawn from the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) for the third time citing its “anti-Israel bias”.
About UNESCO:
- Established: 1945, after World War II
- Headquarters: Paris, France
- Parent Body: United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
- Membership: 194 member states and 12 associate members; India is a member since 1946.
- Mission: Promotes peace, poverty eradication, sustainable development, and cultural diversity through global cooperation
Key Functions:
- Core Areas of Work:
- Education: Ensures inclusive and quality learning for all
- Natural Sciences: Fosters international scientific collaboration
- Social and Human Sciences: Promotes ethics, social justice, and human rights
- Culture: Preserves heritage and promotes creative diversity
- Communication & Information: Defends freedom of expression and universal access to knowledge
- Functions:
- Serves as a platform for idea-sharing and research
- Facilitates cooperation among governments, academia, and civil society
- Offers technical support and policy guidance
- Maintains World Heritage Site listings
- Frames global conventions and recommendations
Key Initiatives and Contributions:
- World Heritage Program: Protects sites of cultural and natural value
- Major Conventions:
- Convention on Cultural and Natural Heritage
- Convention on Intangible Cultural Heritage
- Convention on Cultural Diversity
- Convention against Discrimination in Education
- Flagship Reports:
- Global Education Monitoring Report
- United Nations World Water Development Report
- World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development
- UNESCO and Sustainable Development Goals: Supports SDGs with focus on education, gender equality, environment, and peace
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:
1. Shantiniketan 2. Rani-ki-Vav 3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya
How many of the above properties were included in 2023?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four |
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Why in the News?
India has renewed its call for time-bound reforms of the UN Security Council and reaffirmed support for the ‘Pact for the Future’ to strengthen global cooperation.
About the ‘Pact for the Future’ Agreement:
- Origin: Adopted at the UN Summit of the Future (September 2024).
- Purpose: To reinvigorate multilateralism and strengthen global cooperation on contemporary and emerging challenges.
- Scope: Comprises 56 commitments spanning development, peace, digital governance, and institutional reforms.
- Annexes:
-
- Global Digital Compact: Sets frameworks for AI, digital access, and rights.
- Declaration on Future Generations: Mainstreams long-term thinking in policymaking.
- Inclusivity: Drafted through multi-year negotiations involving member states, civil society, and global institutions.
- Implementation and Review Mechanism:
- Implementation through intergovernmental processes led by relevant UN agencies.
- First formal review at the 83rd UNGA (2028) at the Head of State/Government level.
- Monitoring via national/international accountability frameworks.
Notable Features and Challenges:
- Historic Significance:
- One of the broadest international agreements in scope.
- Embodies a “new multilateralism” for adapting the UN to modern realities.
- Controversies:
- Not unanimously adopted – Russia, Iran, and others objected to elements they found insufficient or overambitious.
- Criticisms:
- Lacks detailed mechanisms for enforcement and implementation.
- Disagreements persist on UNSC reform, disarmament timelines, and climate financing.
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Why in the News?
Despite growing global pressure, the International Seabed Authority (ISA) has yet to finalize regulations for deep sea mining.
Deadlock Over Deep Sea Mining Rules:
- ISA’s 36-member executive council concluded a line-by-line reading of the draft “mining code” containing 107 regulations.
- These regulations govern mining for cobalt, nickel, and manganese in international waters.
- Key concerns remain unresolved, especially around environmental protection mechanisms.
- Chile and 36 other countries demand a moratorium until scientific assessments confirm minimal harm to marine ecosystems.
- Also, the US is not a member of the ISA or party to UNCLOS.
|
About International Seabed Authority (ISA):
- Establishment: Formed under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982) and the 1994 Agreement relating to Part XI of the Convention.
- Headquarters: Located in Kingston, Jamaica.
- Membership: Comprises 168 member states including India and the European Union.
- Jurisdiction: Governs “The Area” — the seabed and ocean floor beyond national boundaries, covering around 54% of global oceans.
- Guiding Principle: Operates on the principle that deep-sea resources are the common heritage of humankind.
Key Functions:
- Regulation of Mineral Activities
-
- Licensing: Grants licenses for exploration of seabed mineral resources.
- Transition Oversight: Manages the shift from exploration to commercial exploitation.
- Mining Code Development: Maintains the Mining Code—rules for environmental impact, royalties, benefit sharing, and technology transfer.
-
- Standards: Sets and enforces environmental norms for seabed activities.
- Risk Management: Applies precautionary principles to minimize ecological harm.
-
- Monitoring: Oversees contractors and states for legal and environmental adherence.
- Enforcement: Investigates violations and recommends corrective action.
India’s Engagement with the International Seabed Authority:
- Active Participation: India contributes to rule-making and sustainable seabed governance.
- Existing Contracts:
- Polymetallic nodules in the Central Indian Ocean Basin.
- Polymetallic sulphides in the Central Indian Ridge.
- New Applications (2024):
- Polymetallic sulphides in the Carlsberg Ridge.
- Cobalt-rich crusts in the Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount.
- Mining Code Engagement: Participates in drafting and negotiating legal standards.
- Equity and Protection: Supports fair benefit-sharing and strong environmental safeguards.
[UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:
1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
2. India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters
3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
India recently participated in the 88th Codex Executive Committee (CCEXEC88) in Rome (14–18 July 2025), earning praise for leading global millet standards.
About the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC):
- Established: In 1963 by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO).
- Headquarters: Located in Rome, Italy.
- Membership:
- 189 members: 188 countries + the European Union.
- Open to all FAO and WHO members state and associate members.
- Objectives:
- Protect consumer health by ensuring food safety.
- Promote fair practices in international food trade.
- Harmonize food standards to reduce trade disputes.
- Key Functions:
- Develops global standards on:
- Food safety and hygiene
- Food additives, contaminants
- Residues of veterinary drugs and pesticides
- Labelling and import/export rules
- Sets Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) and general/horizontal standards.
- Supports developing countries in enhancing food safety systems.
- Structure:
- Executive Committee: Streamlines the Commission’s work.
- Subsidiary Bodies:
- General Subject Committees: Address additives, contaminants, hygiene, etc.
- Commodity Committees: Develop product-specific standards.
- Regional Coordinating Committees: Harmonize regional standards.
- Task Forces: Address short-term, emerging issues.
- Codex Alimentarius (Food Code):
- A collection of international food standards, guidelines, and codes of practice.
- Though voluntary, they are widely adopted, especially in international trade.
- Relevance to WTO:
- Codex standards are reference points under the WTO SPS Agreement for resolving trade-related food safety disputes.
India and Codex Alimentarius Commission:
- Member Since: 1964.
- Active Participation:
- India is an elected member of the Executive Committee (CCEXEC).
- Participates in standard-setting across various food sectors.
- Recent Contributions:
- Chaired the development of whole millet grain standards, co-chaired with Mali, Nigeria, and Senegal.
- Led new work on fresh dates (approved for CAC48).
- Will co-chair future standards for fresh turmeric and broccoli.
- Strategic Role at CCEXEC88 (Rome, July 2025):
- Proposed SMART Key Performance Indicators for the Codex Strategic Plan 2026–2031.
- Shared its capacity-building programs for neighbouring countries (Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Timor Leste), praised by FAO.
- Capacity Building & Mentorship:
- Promoted use of the Codex Trust Fund (CTF) by less active member countries.
- Shared success stories of mentorship programmes with Bhutan and Nepal.
- Special Role:
- Chairs the Codex Committee on Spices and Culinary Herbs (CCSCH) since 2014.
- Aligns domestic FSSAI standards with Codex to support export competitiveness.
Millets and India’s Leadership in Millets Promotion:
- Millets = Shree Anna: Renamed in the Union Budget 2023-24, emphasizing their nutritional, economic, and environmental value.
- Types of Millets:
- Major: Jowar (Sorghum), Bajra (Pearl Millet), Ragi (Finger Millet)
- Minor: Foxtail, Little, Kodo, Barnyard, Proso millets
- Key Traits:
- Drought-resistant, short duration crops
- Nutrient-rich: High in fiber, iron, calcium, gluten-free
- Climate-smart and low-input, suitable for dryland farming
- India’s Global Push:
- Government Initiatives:
- National Millet Mission (2007) to boost production and processing.
- Shree Anna Abhiyan: Focus on millet-based product innovation and marketing.
- Integration into Public Distribution System (PDS), midday meals, and armed forces’ diets.
| [UPSC 2010] As regards the use of international food safety standards as reference point for the dispute settlements, which one of the following does WTO collaborate with?
Options: (a) Codex Alimentarius Commission * (b) International Federation of Standards Users (c) International Organization for Standardization (d) World Standards Cooperation |
https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2146080
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Why in the News?
The International Criminal Court (ICC) has issued arrest warrants for senior Taliban leaders in Afghanistan over the persecution of women, a crime against humanity.
About the International Criminal Court (ICC):
- Established: 2002 under the Rome Statute (1998); headquartered at The Hague, Netherlands.
- Nature: First permanent international court to try individuals for grave crimes.
- Jurisdiction over 4 core crimes:
- Genocide
- Crimes against humanity
- War crimes
- Crime of aggression
- Members: 124 States Parties
- NON-members: India, China, USA, Russia, Israel, Ukraine
- Structure:
- Office of the Prosecutor – investigates and prosecutes cases.
- 18 Judges – elected for 9 years.
- Assembly of States Parties – governs ICC administration.
- Trust Fund for Victims, Detention Centre
- Languages: English, French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian, Spanish
- Funding: Annual budget (2025) ~ €195 million (mostly from member states)
Reach of an ICC Warrant:
- Applicability:
- Crimes by nationals of member states
- Crimes committed on member state territory
- UNSC referrals can extend jurisdiction to non-member states (e.g., Libya, Darfur)
- Obligations on States:
- Member states must execute arrest warrants and cooperate fully.
- Non-compliance can be reported to Assembly of States Parties or UN Security Council (for UNSC referrals)
- Challenges:
- ICC lacks an independent enforcement mechanism
- Non-members (e.g., US, Russia) are not bound to cooperate
- Political and diplomatic constraints hinder the execution of warrants
- Special Mechanisms: ICC established an Arrest Working Group (2016) to enhance warrant enforcement through better intelligence-sharing.
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:
1.The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute nationals of even those States that have not ratified the Rome Statute.
2. The International Criminal Court is a ‘court of last resort’ intended to complement national judicial systems.
3. The United Nations Security Council can refer a situation to the Prosecutor of the ICC even if the State concerned is not a party to the Statute.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4* |
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Why in the News?
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), in its latest Frontiers 2025 report titled The Weight of Time, has warned that increased river and coastal flooding caused by climate change could unearth dangerous legacy pollutants from water bodies.
About Legacy Pollutants:
- Definition: Legacy pollutants refer to toxic substances like heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that continue to remain in the environment even decades after their use has been banned or restricted.
- Examples:
- Heavy Metals: Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Arsenic.
- Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs):
- Pesticides: DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), Aldrin, Endrin, Chlordane.
- Industrial Chemicals: PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls), Dioxins, Furans.
- By-products: Produced from incineration, metal smelting, and waste burning.
- Persistence: These substances are highly resistant to environmental degradation and accumulate in riverbeds, lakes, estuaries, and other sediment-rich ecosystems.
- Health Hazards: Even at low exposure levels, legacy pollutants can cause: Neurotoxicity (nervous system damage), Immunotoxicity (immune disruption), Hepatotoxicity (liver damage), Reproductive toxicity (infertility, birth defects), Carcinogenicity (various cancers), Endocrine disruption etc.
- Sources:
- Past industrial practices, use of banned agricultural chemicals, and obsolete pesticide stockpiles.
- Improperly managed chemical landfills, which still hold an estimated 4.8–7 million tonnes of POP waste globally.
Key Highlights of Frontiers 2025: The Weight of Time (UNEP):
- Retreat of Toxins: Climate change-induced flooding can unearth and redistribute toxic legacy pollutants from contaminated sediments into the environment and food chain.
- How? Floodwaters re-suspend heavy metals and POPs trapped in sediment.
- Case Studies Cited:
- Hurricane Harvey (Texas, 2017): Released mercury and carcinogenic chemicals from flood-induced sediment dispersal into Galveston Bay.
- Niger Delta Floods (Nigeria, 2012): Mobilised Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) from oil-contaminated sediments.
- Pakistan Floods (2010 & 2022): Washed away obsolete pesticide stockpiles, spreading DDT and other POPs into floodwaters and soils.
- India-Specific Findings:
- Sediments of Ganga, Hindon, and Vaigai Rivers show dangerously high levels of Cadmium.
- Cadmium is a known carcinogen and endocrine disruptor, with potential to cause kidney, bone, and reproductive harm.
- Ayad and Vaigai Rivers also showed up deadly levels of Lead concentration.
| [UPSC 2016] Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India?
1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol 3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde 5. Uranium
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 4 and 5 only (c) 1, 3 and 5 only* (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 |
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