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Type: Prelims Only

  • ISRO Missions and Discoveries

    India’s first space observatory AstroSat completes 10 years

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Why in the News?

    AstroSat, India’s first multi-wavelength space observatory has completed 10 years on September 28, 2025, boosting India’s role in multi-messenger astronomy.

    What is Multi-Messenger Astronomy?

    • Overview:  A modern approach that uses different cosmic messengers to study the universe, not just light.
    • Messengers:
      • Light (photons): Radio, visible, UV, X-ray, gamma rays.
      • Gravitational waves: From black hole/neutron star mergers.
      • Neutrinos: From nuclear reactions in stars.
      • Cosmic rays: Charged particles from space.
    • Insights: Light shows stellar surfaces; Gravitational waves show collisions; Neutrinos probe stellar interiors.
    • Example: 2017 neutron star collision observed with both light and gravitational waves, proving origin of heavy elements like gold.
    • AstroSat’s Role: Enabled simultaneous UV, optical, and X-ray observations, tracking flares, black holes, and neutron stars.

    What is AstroSat?

    • Overview: India’s first dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory, launched on September 28, 2015 by PSLV-C30 from Sriharikota.
    • Objective: To study celestial sources simultaneously in X-ray, ultraviolet (UV), and optical bands, unlike most single-band missions.
    • Management: Controlled by the Mission Operations Complex (MOX), ISTRAC, Bengaluru.
    • Mission Life: Designed for 5 years but operational even after 10 years.
    • Payloads:
      • UVIT (Ultra Violet Imaging Telescope).
      • LAXPC (Large Area X-ray Proportional Counter).
      • CZTI (Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride Imager).
      • SXT (Soft X-ray Telescope).
      • SSM (Scanning Sky Monitor).

    Its Accomplishments:

    • Extended Life: Surpassed design life; still generating data.
    • Black Hole Studies: Captured 500+ black hole births, advancing high-energy astrophysics.
    • Galaxy Detection: Tracked extreme UV light from a galaxy 9.3 billion light-years away, aiding early universe studies.
    • Gamma-Ray Bursts: 500+ bursts studied by CZTI.
    • Discoveries: Identified rare UV-bright Milky Way stars, thousands of times brighter than the Sun.
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘Astrosat’,’ the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space.

    2. Astrosat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

     

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  • Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

    [pib] Who was Rani Rashmoni (1793-1861)?

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister has paid tribute to Rani Rashmoni on her birth anniversary on 28th September.

    Rani Rashmoni (1793-1861)

    Who was Rani Rashmoni (1793–1861)?

    • Overview: A prominent zamindar, businesswoman, philanthropist, and social reformer from 19th-century Bengal.
    • Birth: Born on 28 September 1793 in Halisahar, Bengal.
    • Marriage: Married at the age of 11 to Raja Raj Chandra Das, wealthy zamindar of Janbazar, Kolkata.
    • Leadership: Took charge of the estate and business after her husband’s death in 1836, unusual for women of her time.
    • Reputation: Revered as “Lokmata” (Mother of the People) for her courage, administration, and social commitment.

    Her Contributions:

    • Patronage: Built the Dakshineswar Kali Temple (1847–1855); appointed Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa as chief priest despite caste opposition.
    • Social Reforms: Opposed polygamy and child marriage; supported widow remarriage; submitted a draft bill against polygamy to the British.
    • Public Welfare & Infrastructure: Constructed major ghats on the Ganga including Babughat, Ahiritola Ghat, Nimtala Ghat. Funded roads, reservoirs, and pilgrim facilities, such as the road from Subarnarekha River to Puri.
    • Resistance to British Rule: Fought against fishing taxes on Hooghly fishermen by blocking river traffic, compelling British to abolish the tax. Defied British restrictions on Durga Puja processions, preserving traditions.
    • Support for Education & Culture: Donated to the Imperial Library (now National Library of India) and Hindu College (now Presidency University). Established schools for women and marginalized groups.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements about Raja Ram Mohan Roy:

    I. He possessed great love and respect for the traditional philosophical systems of the East.

    II. He desired his countrymen to accept the rational and scientific approach and the principle of human dignity and social equality of all men and women.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) I only (b) II only (c) Both I and II* (d) Neither I nor II

     

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    Ganga River is drying faster than in 1,300 years: Report

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the News?

    A recent study by researchers from IIT Gandhinagar and the University of Arizona warns that the Ganga River is drying at a rate unseen in more than a millennium.

    About Drying of the Ganga River: New Study Findings

    • Overview: Reconstructed streamflow since 700 AD using tree-ring records (Monsoon Asia Drought Atlas) and hydrological models. Validated against historic droughts and famines such as the Bengal famine.

    • Findings:

      • Between 1991 and 2020, multiple droughts lasted 4–7 years, the rarest in the past 1,300 years.
      • The 2004–2010 drought was the most severe in 1,300 years.
      • Post-1990s drying was 76% more intense than the worst 16th-century drought.

    • Causes:

      • Weaker monsoons from Indian Ocean warming and aerosol pollution.
      • Groundwater over-extraction reducing river baseflow.
      • Land-use change disrupting natural recharge.
    • Climate Models: Most fail to reproduce the drying trend, raising doubts about optimistic rainfall projections.
    • Implications: Severe threats to agriculture, 600 million livelihoods, Bay of Bengal ecosystems, and the 40% GDP share of the basin. Calls for adaptive water management.

    ganga

    About the Ganga River:

    • Length: ~2,525 km, the longest river in India.
    • Origin: Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand at 3,892 m elevation as Bhagirathi.
    • Formation: Named Ganga at Devprayag after meeting Bhagirathi and Alaknanda.
    • Course: Flows through Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal before entering Bangladesh as Padma and emptying into the Bay of Bengal through the Sundarbans Delta.
    • Basin: Covers about 8.61 lakh sq. km, which is 26.4% of India’s area.

    • Tributaries:

      • Left bank: Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, Burhi Gandak, Koshi, Mahananda.
      • Right bank: Yamuna, Tons, Karamnasa, Sone, Punpun, Falgu, Kiul, Chandan, Ajoy, Damodar, Rupnarayan.
    • Population: Supports over 600 million people, making it the world’s most densely populated river basin.
    • Cultural Importance: Sacred in Indian culture; declared National River in 2008.
    • Economic Role: Central to agriculture, fisheries, and trade, contributing about 40% of India’s GDP.
    • Ecological Significance: Home to snow leopard, elephants, and Ganga dolphin; includes Corbett, Dudhwa, and Sundarbans reserves.
    • Conservation Efforts: Ganga Action Plan (1985) and Namami Gange Programme (2014); persistent issues of pollution, over-extraction, and climate change.
    [UPSC 2024] With reference to the Himalayan rivers joining the Ganga downstream of Prayagraj from West to East, which one of the following sequences is correct?

    Options: (a) Ghaghara – Gomati – Gandak – Kosi

    (b) Gomati – Ghaghara – Gandak – Kosi*

    (c) Ghaghara – Gomati – Kosi – Gandak

    (d) Gomati – Ghaghara – Kosi – Gandak

     

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  • Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

    Who was Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820–1891)?

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

    Why in the News?

    On his birth anniversary (26 September), the Union Home Minister paid tribute to the Bengali social reformer, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.

    Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

    About Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar:

    • Birth & Death: Born on 26 September 1820 in Birsingha, Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal; died on 29 July 1891 in Kolkata.
    • Early Life: Born into a poor priest family to Thakurdas Bandyopadhyay and Bhagavati Devi.
    • Title “Vidyasagar”: Meaning “Ocean of Knowledge,” conferred by Sanskrit College for his mastery of Sanskrit and philosophy.
    • Education: Excelled in Sanskrit grammar, Vedanta, literature, astronomy, logic; graduated with honours in 1841 from Sanskrit College, Calcutta.
    • Career: Served as Head Pandit at Fort William College, later Principal of Sanskrit College, Kolkata, and also Inspector of Schools.

    His Contributions:

    • Educational Reforms:

      • Simplified and modernised the Bengali alphabet and prose.
      • Authored “Borno Porichoy”, a primer still used to teach Bengali script.
      • Opened teacher training institutions and promoted non-Brahmin access to Sanskrit College.
      • Advocated blending traditional Indian learning with Western education.

    • Women’s Rights and Social Reform:

      • Leading advocate of Hindu widow remarriage; efforts led to the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856.
      • Strongly opposed child marriage and polygamy.
      • Championed raising the age of consent, influencing the Age of Consent Act, 1891.
      • Promoted women’s education, serving as secretary of the Hindu Female School (later Bethune School).

    • Philanthropy and Grassroots Work:

      • Founded schools for girls and adults in Santhal Parganas (Jharkhand).
      • Set up a free homeopathy clinic for tribals and the poor.

    • Language and Literature:

      • Regarded as the Father of Modern Bengali Prose.
      • Made Bengali prose clear, concise, and accessible to common people.
    [UPSC 2021] Who among the following was associated as Secretary with Hindu Female School which later came to be known as Bethune Female School?

    Options: (a) Annie Besant (b) Debendranath Tagore  (c) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar* (d) Sarojini Naidu

     

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    What are ‘Planetary Boundaries’?

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The Planetary Health Check (PHC) 2025 has warned that 7 of 9 planetary boundaries have now been breached.

    About Planetary Health Check (PHC):

    • The PHC is a global scientific assessment of Earth system health, tracking ecological thresholds that keep the planet habitable.
    • The 2025 report warns that 7 of 9 planetary boundaries have now been breached, with ocean acidification crossing the safe zone for the first time.
    • It highlights how human activities — fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, unsustainable agriculture, and industrial waste — are driving Earth beyond its safe operating space for the first time in 11,000 years.

    What are ‘Planetary Boundaries’?

    What are Planetary Boundaries?

    • Proposition: Coined in 2009 by scientists led by Johan Rockstrom.
    • What are they: Defines safe operating space for humanity by setting ecological thresholds that regulate Earth system stability and resilience.
    • Basis: Based on Holocene conditions (last ~11,000 years) that enabled human civilisation to thrive.
    • Significance: Crossing boundaries risks irreversible environmental collapse.

    • Nine Planetary Boundaries (PBs):

      1. Climate Change (CO₂ Concentration & Radiative Forcing): Safe atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) level: 350 parts per million (ppm). Current: 423 ppm (2025); radiative forcing at +2.97 Watts per square meter (W/m²) (safe: +1.5 W/m²).
      2. Biosphere Integrity (Biodiversity Loss / Extinction Rate): Extinction rate at 100 extinctions per million species years (E/MSY) vs safe 10 E/MSY; severe biodiversity decline continues.
      3. Land System Change (Deforestation / Ecosystem Conversion): Global forest cover reduced to 59% (safe: 75%). All major terrestrial biomes breached.
      4. Freshwater Change (Streamflow & Soil Moisture Deviations): Over 20% of global land shows significant streamflow (22.6%) and soil moisture (22%) deviations beyond thresholds. Indo-Gangetic Plain & North China basins most at risk.
      5. Biogeochemical Flows (Nitrogen & Phosphorus Cycles): Excessive use of Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) in agriculture, worsening dead zones and eutrophication in water bodies.
      6. Novel Entities (Synthetic Pollutants & Plastics): Release of plastics, synthetic chemicals, and untested compounds exceeds the safe zero-threshold for environmental introduction.
      7. Ocean Acidification (Aragonite Saturation State): Surface ocean acidity has increased by 30–40% since the industrial era. Aragonite saturation state (Aragonite) at 2.84 (safe: 2.86). Threatens corals, molluscs, and plankton.
      8. Atmospheric Aerosol Loading (Aerosol Optical Depth – AOD) [Currently Safe]: Interhemispheric Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) difference: 0.063, below safe threshold 0.10. Still harmful for health despite planetary stability.
      9. Stratospheric Ozone Depletion (Ozone Concentration in Dobson Units – DU) [Currently Safe]: Global ozone concentration stable at 285–286 Dobson Units (DU) (safe: 277 DU). Ozone hole recovery continues, though new threats flagged from rocket launches and satellite debris.
    [UPSC 2018] The term “sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction” is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of:

    (a) Widespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals.

    (b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth.

    (c) Large scale cultivation of genetically modified crops.

    (d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution and global climate change.

     

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  • Soil Health Management – NMSA, Soil Health Card, etc.

    Desert Soilification Technology

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    For the first time, researchers at the Central University of Rajasthan (CUoR) have successfully grown wheat in arid land of western Rajasthan using desert soilification technology.

    What is Desert Soilification Technology?

    • Overview: It is an innovative biotechnological method that transforms barren desert sand into soil-like material capable of supporting agriculture.
    • Technology: It uses bioformulations and polymers to bind loose sand particles, improve soil texture, and enable water retention.
    • Utility: It is designed to combat desertification, enhance agricultural productivity in arid zones, and ensure sustainable land use.
    • How does it work?
      • Polymer-based Bioformulation: Natural polymers and microbial formulations are applied to desert sand.
      • Cross-Linking of Sand Particles: Bio-polymers create a structural network, binding sand grains together into a soil-like matrix.
      • Water Retention: The cross-linked structure traps water, drastically reducing irrigation needs and preventing rapid percolation of water through sandy soil.
      • Microbial Boost: Introduced beneficial microbes stimulate plant growth, improve soil fertility, and enhance stress resistance of crops.
      • Soil-like Properties: The modified sand mimics fertile soil — enabling nutrient retention, microbial colonization, and sustainable cropping.

    Key Features:

    • Sand-to-Soil Conversion: Cross-links sand particles into a soil-like structure, creating porosity and root-holding capacity.
    • Water Retention Efficiency: Increases moisture-holding ability of sand, thereby reducing irrigation requirements by 30–40%.
    • Microbial Boost: Bioformulation stimulates beneficial soil microbes, enhancing nutrient cycling and crop stress resistance.
    • Crop Versatility: Tested successfully with wheat, bajra, guar gum, chickpea, and is now being expanded to millets and green gram.
    • Low Input Agriculture: Reduces number of irrigation cycles (3–4 vs 5–6 in normal wheat farming).
    • Climate Resilience: Provides a sustainable model for food production in water-stressed and desertified regions.
    • Scalability: Can be replicated in other arid ecosystems beyond Rajasthan (potential use in Middle East, Africa).
    [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following best describes the concept of ‘Small Farmer Large Field’?

    (a) Resettling war-displaced people on shared cultivable land

    (b) Marginal farmers group to coordinate farm operations *

    (c) Marginal farmers lease land collectively to a corporate

    (d) A company funds and guides farmers to grow required crops

     

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  • Bharat Emission Standards

    Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE) Norms

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under the Ministry of Power has issued draft CAFE-3 and CAFE-4 norms, applicable from April 2027 to March 2037.

    About Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE) Norms:

    • What is it: Standards that mandate automakers to maintain a sales-weighted fleet average of fuel efficiency and CO₂ emissions across all passenger vehicles.
    • Origin:
      • First introduced in the United States in 1975 after the Arab Oil Embargo, aimed at lowering oil dependency.
      • In India, first notified in 2017 under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, framed by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Ministry of Power.
    • Objective:
      • Reduce CO₂ emissions and oil imports, improve energy security.
      • Push adoption of EVs, hybrids, flex-fuels, and fuel-efficient technologies.
    • Applicability: Passenger vehicles (< 3,500 kg gross vehicle weight) across petrol, diesel, LPG, CNG, hybrid, and electric categories.
    • Phased Implementation in India:
      • CAFE I (2017–2022) → CO₂ emission limit of 130 g/km.
      • CAFE II (2022–2027) → stricter limit of 113 g/km.
      • CAFE III (Draft, 2027–2032) → 91.7 g/km CO₂ limit, aligned with WLTP (World Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure).
      • CAFE IV (Draft, 2032–2037) → 70 g/km CO₂ limit (most stringent stage yet).
    • Recent Updates (Draft CAFE-3 & CAFE-4, Sept 2025):
      • Automakers allowed to form pools of up to 3 manufacturers.
      • Pooling treated as one fleet for compliance; pool manager bears penalty if limits breached.
      • A manufacturer can join only one pool per year but can switch in later years.
      • Special relief for small cars (under 4m, <909 kg, <1200 cc): eligible for up to 9 g/km CO₂ relief.
      • Incentives for flex-fuel vehicles (ethanol-petrol blends) and strong hybrids alongside EVs.
      • Aim: Balance decarbonisation with consumer affordability and revive the small car segment (which saw 71% sales decline in 6 years).
    • Compliance & Penalties:
      • Exceeding CO₂ limits: Regulatory fines under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
      • CAFE credits may be earned, traded, or carried forward to offset temporary lapses.
    • Green Impact:
      • Complements India’s Net Zero 2070 goals.
      • Encourages fuel-efficient models, biofuels, and EV adoption.

    How are CAFE Norms different from Bharat Stage (BS) Norms?

    CAFE Norms Bharat Stage (BS) Norms
    Full Form Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency Bharat Stage Emission Standards
    Primary Focus Fleet-wide fuel efficiency & CO₂ emissions Individual vehicle toxic exhaust pollutants (NOx, PM, CO, HC, SOx)
    Objective Reduce oil imports, improve energy efficiency, cut CO₂ Reduce air pollution & public health risks
    Regulating Authority BEE, Ministry of Power (Energy Conservation Act, 2001) MoEFCC & CPCB
    Scope Passenger vehicles (<3,500 kg GVW; petrol, diesel, LPG, CNG, hybrids, EVs) Mainly ICE vehicles; tailpipe pollutants from petrol & diesel
    Parameters Measured Fleet average CO₂ (g/km) Pollutants: NOx, CO, PM, HC, SOx
    Basis of Measurement Sales-weighted fleet average across all models Individual vehicle emissions tested
    Phases in India CAFE I (2017–22: 130 g/km) → CAFE II (2022–27: 113 g/km) → Draft CAFE III (2027–32: 91.7 g/km) → Draft CAFE IV (2032–37: 70 g/km) BS-I (2000) → BS-II (2005) → BS-III (2010) → BS-IV (2017) → BS-VI (2020; leapfrogged BS-V)
    Testing Standard Fuel efficiency & CO₂ per km (lab-tested, WLTP cycle for future) Pollutant emissions measured under regulated driving cycles
    Impact on Industry Forces OEMs to balance fleet mix (e.g., SUVs offset by EVs/hybrids) Forces OEMs to adopt clean fuel & emission-control tech (e.g., DPF, SCR)
    Penalties Heavy fines for fleet CO₂ non-compliance; penalties apply to pool manager in pooled fleets Non-compliant vehicles cannot be sold; penalties & recalls
    Global Parallel U.S. CAFE norms (1975) Euro emission standards

     

    [UPSC 2020] Which of the following are the reasons/factors for exposure to benzene pollution?

    1. Automobile exhaust 2. Tobacco smoke 3. Wood burning 4. Using varnished wooden furniture 5. Using products made of polyurethane

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only * (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

     

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  • [pib] Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA)

    Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

    Why in the News?

    The Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) has imposed a penalty of ₹2,00,000 FirstCry for false and misleading price representations on its e-commerce platform.

    Background of the Case: You Must Know

    • Complaint: Products were displayed with the claim “MRP inclusive of all taxes,” but additional GST was levied at checkout.
    • Effect: Misled consumers by showing higher discounts than actually offered.
    • Findings:
      • A product advertised at 27% discount was effectively sold at 18.2% discount after GST.
      • Such pricing amounted to misleading advertisements (Section 2(28)) and unfair trade practices (Section 2(47)).
    • Dark Pattern: The practice qualified as “drip pricing”, a dark pattern under the Guidelines for Prevention and Regulation of Dark Patterns, 2023.
    • Violation of E-Commerce Rules: Contravened Rule 7(1)(e) of Consumer Protection (E-Commerce) Rules, 2020, which mandates displaying the total price inclusive of all charges and taxes upfront.

    About Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA):

    • Established: Under Section 10 of Consumer Protection Act, 2019 (effective July 20, 2020).
    • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution.
    • Functions & Powers:
      • Protects and enforces consumer rights as a class.
      • Prevents unfair trade practices and misleading advertisements.
      • Can initiate class-action suits (recalls, refunds, license cancellation).
      • Investigates through Investigation Wing headed by a Director-General.
      • Can order discontinuation of unfair practices and impose penalties.
    • Composition of CCPA: Chief Commissioner (Head); 2 Commissioners-
      • One for goods-related issues.
      • One for services-related complaints.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following organizations/bodies in India:

    1. The National Commission for Backward Classes

    2. The National Human Rights Commission

    3. The National Law Commission

    4. The National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission

    How many of the above are constitutional bodies?

    (a) Only one * (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

     

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  • Iran’s Nuclear Program & Western Sanctions

    What is Uranium Enrichment?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Iran’s supreme leader recently said Tehran has limited uranium enrichment to 60% U-235 and will not pursue further enrichment to ~90% (weapons grade).

    About Uranium Enrichment:

    • What is it: The process of increasing the proportion of U-235 isotope in uranium samples. Natural uranium has only 0.7% U-235, while the rest is mostly U-238.
    • Types of Enrichment:
      • Low-Enriched Uranium (3–5%): Used in civilian nuclear power reactors.
      • Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU, >20%): At 90%+ enrichment, uranium becomes weapons-grade, usable for efficient nuclear weapons.
    • Methods: Physical separation methods such as gas centrifuges, requiring advanced infrastructure and technology.
    • Implications:
      • Low enrichment: Controlled power generation.
      • High enrichment: Proliferation risks, shorter path to nuclear weapons capability.

    What is Uranium Enrichment?

    Controversy about Iran’s Pursuit:

    • Declared Program: Iran enriches uranium to 60% U-235, claiming peaceful purposes, but insists it will not pursue 90%+ enrichment.
    • Global Concerns:
      • Civilian irrelevance: 60% has no reactor use, only shortens the “breakout time” to weapons-grade.
      • IAEA Monitoring: International Atomic Energy Agency reports show significant 60% stockpiles, heightening suspicion.
    • Geopolitical Context:
      • Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) capped enrichment at 3.67% but collapsed after U.S. withdrawal in 2018.
      • Western governments see 60% enrichment as undermining trust, while Iran argues it is a deterrence and bargaining tool.
    • Strategic Dimension: Keeps Iran on the nuclear threshold, enabling leverage in negotiations and projecting deterrence without overt weaponisation.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    Statement-I: India, despite having uranium deposits, depends on coal for most of its electricity production.

    Statement-II: Uranium, enriched to the extent of at least 60%, is required for the production of electricity.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

    (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I

    (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-1

    (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect *

    (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

     

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  • Horticulture, Floriculture, Commercial crops, Bamboo Production – MIDH, NFSM-CC, etc.

    Coffee Board to hold awareness program on EUDR compliance

    Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Major Crops & Cropping Patterns

    Why in the News?

    The Coffee Board of India has launched extensive awareness and capacity-building programmes to help coffee growers register on its mobile application for EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR) compliance.

    What are EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR)?

    • About: Effective from June 2023; Prevent imported products like coffee, cocoa, palm oil, soy, rubber, cattle, wood (and derivatives) from being linked to deforestation.

    • Requirements:

      • Proof of production on non-deforested land (post-2020).
      • Mandatory due diligence statement with geo-coordinates.
    • Penalties: Non-compliance may attract fines up to 4% of EU turnover, seizure of products, and temporary bans.

    About Coffee Board of India:

    • Establishment: In 1942 under the Coffee Act, Section 4; Functions under the Ministry of Commerce & Industry; Headquartered at Bengaluru, Karnataka.
    • Structure: A statutory organisation comprising 33 members, with the Chairperson/CEO appointed by the Government of India.
    • Focus areas: Research, Extension, Development, Market Intelligence, Export Promotion, Domestic Promotion.
    • Early years: Coffee marketing was under the pooling system until 1995, after which liberalisation shifted marketing to the private sector.
    • Initiatives: Runs promotional campaigns like India Coffee, Walk With Coffee, and awareness on EUDR compliance for exports.

    Back2Basics: Coffee Cultivation in India:

    • Overview: Coffee introduced in 1600 AD by Baba Budan in Chikmagalur, Karnataka.
    • Geographical Spread: Grown in the Western Ghats (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) and in smaller areas of Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Northeast India.
    • Production Share: Karnataka ~ 70%, Kerala ~ 20%, Tamil Nadu ~ 7%.
    • Agro-climatic Conditions: Requires 16°–28°C temperature, 150–250 cm rainfall, and well-drained slopes; sensitive to frost, dry spells, and harsh sunlight.
    • Soil: Grows best in laterite soils of Karnataka and rich, well-drained loams.

    • Varieties:

      • Arabica: Mild aromatic flavour, high export value, but more susceptible to pests/diseases.
      • Robusta: Hardy, disease-resistant, stronger taste, higher yields.
      • Liberica:  Rare, niche cultivation.
    • Seasonality: Coffee exports peak during March–June.
    • Domestic Consumption: Rising gradually; Coffee Board promoting events like International Coffee Day (October 1) to increase per capita intake.

    Production Statistics (2025-26):

    • India’s coffee production:  It is projected at a record 4.03 lakh tonnes in 2025 up 11% from last year’s 363,000 tonnes.
      • Arabica output forecast: 118,000 tonnes, up 12% year-on-year.
      • Robusta output forecast: 285,000 tonnes, up 9.5%.
    • Karnataka contributes ~70% of output, followed by Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
    • India is the world’s 7th largest producer and 5th largest exporter, contributing 3.5% of global production and 5% of global exports.
    • Exports: Reached $1.8 billion in 2024-25, a 125% growth over 11 years (from $800 million in 2014-15).
      • Around 70% of Indian coffee is exported, mainly to Europe (Italy, Germany, Belgium), the Middle East, Japan, and Korea.

     

    [UPSC 2022] With reference to the “Tea Board” in India, consider the following statements :

    1. The Tea Board is a statutory body.

    2. It is a regulatory body attached to the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.

    3. The Tea Board’s Head Office is situated in Bengaluru.

    4. The Board has overseas offices at Dubai and Moscow.

    Which of the statements given above are correct ?

    Options: (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 *

     

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