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Foreign Policy Watch: India – EU

India-EU Strategic Agenda

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Introduction

The India–European Union (EU) relationship has traditionally been overshadowed by India’s closer ties with the U.S. and Russia. However, the release of the EU’s Strategic Agenda for India, ahead of the 2026 leaders’ summit, is a milestone. It lays out a comprehensive framework across five pillars:

  • Economy & Trade
  • Global Connectivity
  • Emerging Technologies
  • Security & Defence
  • People-to-People Ties

With trade volumes nearing EUR 180 billion (goods + services), EU FDI nearly doubling in five years, and ambitious connectivity projects like the India–Middle East–Europe Corridor, this document represents Europe’s intent to recalibrate its Asia policy with India at the centre.

Why in the News?

This development is significant because it is the first time the EU has released a detailed, forward-looking strategic agenda exclusively for India. Traditionally, India–EU ties have been seen as underwhelming compared to India–US or India–Russia ties. But with EUR 120 billion goods trade in 2024 (a 90% increase over the last decade) and the EU emerging as India’s largest trading partner, the stakes have never been higher. What makes this moment compelling is the convergence: Europe seeks predictability away from U.S. uncertainty, and India seeks diversification in partners. The scale of planned cooperation, from AI and nuclear fusion to migration and maritime security, signals that India–EU ties are set to move from rhetoric to institutionalised, multi-sectoral partnership.

How significant is the economic partnership? (Pillar 1 – Economy & Trade)

  1. Largest trading partner: EU is India’s biggest trade partner; India is EU’s largest in the Global South.
  2. High-value trade: Goods trade at EUR 120 bn in 2024 (+90% in 10 years); services add EUR 60 bn.
  3. FDI surge: EU FDI in India EUR 140 bn in 2023 (doubled in 5 years).
  4. Employment impact: 6,000 European companies directly employ 3 million Indians.
  5. Future goals: Negotiations on FTA, Investment Protection Agreement (IPA), Geographical Indications (GI), and air transport deal.

How are India and the EU shaping global connectivity? (Pillar 2 – Global Connectivity)

  • Global Gateway: EU’s EUR 300 bn infrastructure programme aligned with India’s MAHASAGAR initiative.
  • EU-India Connectivity Partnership (2021): Framework for joint digital, energy, and transport projects.
  • IMEC (India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor): Revival of historical trade routes via rail, maritime, clean hydrogen, and digital infrastructure.
  • Digital corridor: Blue Raman cable (11,700 km) connecting EU–Africa–India with secure, high-speed internet.
  • Green shipping: Joint efforts for sustainable maritime corridors to cut carbon dependency.

How will cooperation in emerging technologies unfold? (Pillar 3 – Emerging Technologies)

  • Complementary strengths: EU = regulation, research, green tech; India = startups, datasets, frugal innovation.
  • Innovation hubs: Proposed EU-India platforms on critical tech domains.
  • Startup partnership: Collaboration with European Innovation Council & Start-up India.
  • AI applications: Joint work on large language models, multilingual NLP, climate-focused AI.
  • Nuclear cooperation: Euratom-India pact on nuclear safety, waste, security, and fusion energy.

What are the prospects in security and defence? (Pillar 4 – Security & Defence)

  • Strategic Dialogue (2025): Maritime, cyber, counter-terrorism, and non-proliferation as focus areas.
  • Security of Information Agreement: To enable sharing of classified intelligence.
  • Indo-Pacific role: EU aligning with India as a stabilising force in the region.
  • Naval cooperation: Proposed link between EU Naval Force & Indian Navy in Western Indian Ocean.
  • Defence industry: EU–India Defence Forum under consideration to build resilient supply chains.

Why are people-to-people ties central to this partnership? (Pillar 5 – People-to-People Ties)

  • Migration scale: 825,000 Indians in EU (2023); largest group with EU Blue Cards.
  • Visa access: 1 million Schengen visas issued in 2024 (many multiple-entry).
  • Education mobility: Focus on Erasmus+ expansion, Union of Skills, recognition of qualifications.
  • Talent mobility: Balancing India’s workforce needs with the EU’s labour market.
  • Strategic timing: EU’s education appeal grows as U.S. under Trump curtails research openness.

Issues and Complications in India–EU Relations

  1. Stalled Free Trade Agreement (FTA) in the past: Negotiations began in 2007 but stalled due to disagreements over tariff reductions, intellectual property rights, and services access. This history raises doubts about the 2025 deadline.
  2. Agricultural sensitivities: India’s reluctance to open its farm sector clashes with EU’s push for market access and strict sanitary and phytosanitary standards.
  3. Regulatory frictions: The EU’s strict data protection regime (GDPR), climate-linked trade measures like the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), and sustainability norms could penalise Indian exports.
  4. Human rights and political conditionalities: The EU often raises concerns about human rights, labour laws, and democratic freedoms, which India perceives as interference in internal matters.
  5. Slow EU decision-making: Unlike bilateral partnerships with the US or Russia, negotiations with the EU are often complicated by the need for consensus among 27 member states.
  6. Strategic divergence: The EU still lacks a coherent Indo-Pacific strategy compared to the Quad or NATO, limiting its security role. India, on its part, prioritises strategic autonomy and may be hesitant to align too closely with Western blocs.

Way Forward

  1. Conclude the FTA swiftly: India and the EU must avoid past deadlocks by ensuring flexibility on tariff and regulatory issues, especially in agriculture, services, and data protection.
  2. Deepen strategic convergence: Institutionalise the proposed EU–India Security and Defence Partnership, enhancing naval cooperation in the Indo-Pacific, and expanding counter-terrorism and cyber security frameworks.
  3. Leverage connectivity initiatives: Ensure timely execution of flagship projects like IMEC and the Blue Raman digital corridor, aligning them with India’s own initiatives (MAHASAGAR, Sagarmala) to strengthen regional integration.
  4. Balanced tech cooperation: Create safeguards for responsible AI, nuclear safety, and emerging tech to ensure mutual trust while tapping into EU’s regulatory strengths and India’s innovation ecosystem.
  5. Migration and education synergy: Streamline recognition of Indian qualifications in Europe and negotiate mobility partnerships that align with India’s demographic advantage and EU’s labour market shortages.
  6. Sustain political momentum: Regular high-level summits, parliamentary dialogues, and Track-II diplomacy should be pursued to prevent bureaucratic inertia from stalling this ambitious agenda.

Conclusion

The India–EU strategic agenda signals a qualitative shift in the partnership, moving beyond transactional trade ties to a multi-pillar strategic convergence. With ambitious timelines, such as concluding the FTA by 2025, and big-ticket projects like IMEC and nuclear fusion cooperation, both sides are investing political capital. For India, this means access to technology, markets, and security partnerships that complement ties with the U.S. and Indo-Pacific allies. For the EU, this provides an anchor in Asia’s fastest-growing economy and a reliable partner in turbulent global politics.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2023] The expansion and strengthening of NATO and a stronger US-Europe strategic partnership works well in India.’ What is your opinion about this statement? Give reasons and examples to support your answer.

Linkage: The India–EU Strategic Agenda complements a stronger US–Europe partnership by giving India parallel, diversified strategic options in trade, technology, and security; together, they reinforce India’s strategic autonomy while balancing China’s rise. NATO’s strengthening secures Europe’s defence, freeing the EU to deepen economic and technological engagement with India, as seen in IMEC, AI cooperation, and FTA talks.

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

Who was Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820–1891)?

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Why in the News?

On his birth anniversary (26 September), the Union Home Minister paid tribute to the Bengali social reformer, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

About Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar:

  • Birth & Death: Born on 26 September 1820 in Birsingha, Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal; died on 29 July 1891 in Kolkata.
  • Early Life: Born into a poor priest family to Thakurdas Bandyopadhyay and Bhagavati Devi.
  • Title “Vidyasagar”: Meaning “Ocean of Knowledge,” conferred by Sanskrit College for his mastery of Sanskrit and philosophy.
  • Education: Excelled in Sanskrit grammar, Vedanta, literature, astronomy, logic; graduated with honours in 1841 from Sanskrit College, Calcutta.
  • Career: Served as Head Pandit at Fort William College, later Principal of Sanskrit College, Kolkata, and also Inspector of Schools.

His Contributions:

  • Educational Reforms:

    • Simplified and modernised the Bengali alphabet and prose.
    • Authored “Borno Porichoy”, a primer still used to teach Bengali script.
    • Opened teacher training institutions and promoted non-Brahmin access to Sanskrit College.
    • Advocated blending traditional Indian learning with Western education.

  • Women’s Rights and Social Reform:

    • Leading advocate of Hindu widow remarriage; efforts led to the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856.
    • Strongly opposed child marriage and polygamy.
    • Championed raising the age of consent, influencing the Age of Consent Act, 1891.
    • Promoted women’s education, serving as secretary of the Hindu Female School (later Bethune School).

  • Philanthropy and Grassroots Work:

    • Founded schools for girls and adults in Santhal Parganas (Jharkhand).
    • Set up a free homeopathy clinic for tribals and the poor.

  • Language and Literature:

    • Regarded as the Father of Modern Bengali Prose.
    • Made Bengali prose clear, concise, and accessible to common people.
[UPSC 2021] Who among the following was associated as Secretary with Hindu Female School which later came to be known as Bethune Female School?

Options: (a) Annie Besant (b) Debendranath Tagore  (c) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar* (d) Sarojini Naidu

 

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

What are ‘Planetary Boundaries’?

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Planetary Health Check (PHC) 2025 has warned that 7 of 9 planetary boundaries have now been breached.

About Planetary Health Check (PHC):

  • The PHC is a global scientific assessment of Earth system health, tracking ecological thresholds that keep the planet habitable.
  • The 2025 report warns that 7 of 9 planetary boundaries have now been breached, with ocean acidification crossing the safe zone for the first time.
  • It highlights how human activities — fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, unsustainable agriculture, and industrial waste — are driving Earth beyond its safe operating space for the first time in 11,000 years.

What are ‘Planetary Boundaries’?

What are Planetary Boundaries?

  • Proposition: Coined in 2009 by scientists led by Johan Rockstrom.
  • What are they: Defines safe operating space for humanity by setting ecological thresholds that regulate Earth system stability and resilience.
  • Basis: Based on Holocene conditions (last ~11,000 years) that enabled human civilisation to thrive.
  • Significance: Crossing boundaries risks irreversible environmental collapse.

  • Nine Planetary Boundaries (PBs):

    1. Climate Change (CO₂ Concentration & Radiative Forcing): Safe atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) level: 350 parts per million (ppm). Current: 423 ppm (2025); radiative forcing at +2.97 Watts per square meter (W/m²) (safe: +1.5 W/m²).
    2. Biosphere Integrity (Biodiversity Loss / Extinction Rate): Extinction rate at 100 extinctions per million species years (E/MSY) vs safe 10 E/MSY; severe biodiversity decline continues.
    3. Land System Change (Deforestation / Ecosystem Conversion): Global forest cover reduced to 59% (safe: 75%). All major terrestrial biomes breached.
    4. Freshwater Change (Streamflow & Soil Moisture Deviations): Over 20% of global land shows significant streamflow (22.6%) and soil moisture (22%) deviations beyond thresholds. Indo-Gangetic Plain & North China basins most at risk.
    5. Biogeochemical Flows (Nitrogen & Phosphorus Cycles): Excessive use of Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) in agriculture, worsening dead zones and eutrophication in water bodies.
    6. Novel Entities (Synthetic Pollutants & Plastics): Release of plastics, synthetic chemicals, and untested compounds exceeds the safe zero-threshold for environmental introduction.
    7. Ocean Acidification (Aragonite Saturation State): Surface ocean acidity has increased by 30–40% since the industrial era. Aragonite saturation state (Aragonite) at 2.84 (safe: 2.86). Threatens corals, molluscs, and plankton.
    8. Atmospheric Aerosol Loading (Aerosol Optical Depth – AOD) [Currently Safe]: Interhemispheric Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) difference: 0.063, below safe threshold 0.10. Still harmful for health despite planetary stability.
    9. Stratospheric Ozone Depletion (Ozone Concentration in Dobson Units – DU) [Currently Safe]: Global ozone concentration stable at 285–286 Dobson Units (DU) (safe: 277 DU). Ozone hole recovery continues, though new threats flagged from rocket launches and satellite debris.
[UPSC 2018] The term “sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction” is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of:

(a) Widespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals.

(b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth.

(c) Large scale cultivation of genetically modified crops.

(d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution and global climate change.

 

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Soil Health Management – NMSA, Soil Health Card, etc.

Desert Soilification Technology

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

For the first time, researchers at the Central University of Rajasthan (CUoR) have successfully grown wheat in arid land of western Rajasthan using desert soilification technology.

What is Desert Soilification Technology?

  • Overview: It is an innovative biotechnological method that transforms barren desert sand into soil-like material capable of supporting agriculture.
  • Technology: It uses bioformulations and polymers to bind loose sand particles, improve soil texture, and enable water retention.
  • Utility: It is designed to combat desertification, enhance agricultural productivity in arid zones, and ensure sustainable land use.
  • How does it work?
    • Polymer-based Bioformulation: Natural polymers and microbial formulations are applied to desert sand.
    • Cross-Linking of Sand Particles: Bio-polymers create a structural network, binding sand grains together into a soil-like matrix.
    • Water Retention: The cross-linked structure traps water, drastically reducing irrigation needs and preventing rapid percolation of water through sandy soil.
    • Microbial Boost: Introduced beneficial microbes stimulate plant growth, improve soil fertility, and enhance stress resistance of crops.
    • Soil-like Properties: The modified sand mimics fertile soil — enabling nutrient retention, microbial colonization, and sustainable cropping.

Key Features:

  • Sand-to-Soil Conversion: Cross-links sand particles into a soil-like structure, creating porosity and root-holding capacity.
  • Water Retention Efficiency: Increases moisture-holding ability of sand, thereby reducing irrigation requirements by 30–40%.
  • Microbial Boost: Bioformulation stimulates beneficial soil microbes, enhancing nutrient cycling and crop stress resistance.
  • Crop Versatility: Tested successfully with wheat, bajra, guar gum, chickpea, and is now being expanded to millets and green gram.
  • Low Input Agriculture: Reduces number of irrigation cycles (3–4 vs 5–6 in normal wheat farming).
  • Climate Resilience: Provides a sustainable model for food production in water-stressed and desertified regions.
  • Scalability: Can be replicated in other arid ecosystems beyond Rajasthan (potential use in Middle East, Africa).
[UPSC 2023] Which one of the following best describes the concept of ‘Small Farmer Large Field’?

(a) Resettling war-displaced people on shared cultivable land

(b) Marginal farmers group to coordinate farm operations *

(c) Marginal farmers lease land collectively to a corporate

(d) A company funds and guides farmers to grow required crops

 

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Bharat Emission Standards

Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE) Norms

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under the Ministry of Power has issued draft CAFE-3 and CAFE-4 norms, applicable from April 2027 to March 2037.

About Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE) Norms:

  • What is it: Standards that mandate automakers to maintain a sales-weighted fleet average of fuel efficiency and CO₂ emissions across all passenger vehicles.
  • Origin:
    • First introduced in the United States in 1975 after the Arab Oil Embargo, aimed at lowering oil dependency.
    • In India, first notified in 2017 under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, framed by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Ministry of Power.
  • Objective:
    • Reduce CO₂ emissions and oil imports, improve energy security.
    • Push adoption of EVs, hybrids, flex-fuels, and fuel-efficient technologies.
  • Applicability: Passenger vehicles (< 3,500 kg gross vehicle weight) across petrol, diesel, LPG, CNG, hybrid, and electric categories.
  • Phased Implementation in India:
    • CAFE I (2017–2022) → CO₂ emission limit of 130 g/km.
    • CAFE II (2022–2027) → stricter limit of 113 g/km.
    • CAFE III (Draft, 2027–2032) → 91.7 g/km CO₂ limit, aligned with WLTP (World Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure).
    • CAFE IV (Draft, 2032–2037) → 70 g/km CO₂ limit (most stringent stage yet).
  • Recent Updates (Draft CAFE-3 & CAFE-4, Sept 2025):
    • Automakers allowed to form pools of up to 3 manufacturers.
    • Pooling treated as one fleet for compliance; pool manager bears penalty if limits breached.
    • A manufacturer can join only one pool per year but can switch in later years.
    • Special relief for small cars (under 4m, <909 kg, <1200 cc): eligible for up to 9 g/km CO₂ relief.
    • Incentives for flex-fuel vehicles (ethanol-petrol blends) and strong hybrids alongside EVs.
    • Aim: Balance decarbonisation with consumer affordability and revive the small car segment (which saw 71% sales decline in 6 years).
  • Compliance & Penalties:
    • Exceeding CO₂ limits: Regulatory fines under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
    • CAFE credits may be earned, traded, or carried forward to offset temporary lapses.
  • Green Impact:
    • Complements India’s Net Zero 2070 goals.
    • Encourages fuel-efficient models, biofuels, and EV adoption.

How are CAFE Norms different from Bharat Stage (BS) Norms?

CAFE Norms Bharat Stage (BS) Norms
Full Form Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency Bharat Stage Emission Standards
Primary Focus Fleet-wide fuel efficiency & CO₂ emissions Individual vehicle toxic exhaust pollutants (NOx, PM, CO, HC, SOx)
Objective Reduce oil imports, improve energy efficiency, cut CO₂ Reduce air pollution & public health risks
Regulating Authority BEE, Ministry of Power (Energy Conservation Act, 2001) MoEFCC & CPCB
Scope Passenger vehicles (<3,500 kg GVW; petrol, diesel, LPG, CNG, hybrids, EVs) Mainly ICE vehicles; tailpipe pollutants from petrol & diesel
Parameters Measured Fleet average CO₂ (g/km) Pollutants: NOx, CO, PM, HC, SOx
Basis of Measurement Sales-weighted fleet average across all models Individual vehicle emissions tested
Phases in India CAFE I (2017–22: 130 g/km) → CAFE II (2022–27: 113 g/km) → Draft CAFE III (2027–32: 91.7 g/km) → Draft CAFE IV (2032–37: 70 g/km) BS-I (2000) → BS-II (2005) → BS-III (2010) → BS-IV (2017) → BS-VI (2020; leapfrogged BS-V)
Testing Standard Fuel efficiency & CO₂ per km (lab-tested, WLTP cycle for future) Pollutant emissions measured under regulated driving cycles
Impact on Industry Forces OEMs to balance fleet mix (e.g., SUVs offset by EVs/hybrids) Forces OEMs to adopt clean fuel & emission-control tech (e.g., DPF, SCR)
Penalties Heavy fines for fleet CO₂ non-compliance; penalties apply to pool manager in pooled fleets Non-compliant vehicles cannot be sold; penalties & recalls
Global Parallel U.S. CAFE norms (1975) Euro emission standards

 

[UPSC 2020] Which of the following are the reasons/factors for exposure to benzene pollution?

1. Automobile exhaust 2. Tobacco smoke 3. Wood burning 4. Using varnished wooden furniture 5. Using products made of polyurethane

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only * (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Pacific Island Nations

[pib] Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC)-III Summit

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

India recently hosted a meeting of foreign ministers of Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC) in New York.

About Forum for India–Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC):

  • Launch: Established in 2014 during PM Narendra Modi’s visit to Fiji under the Act East Policy.
  • Members: Comprises 14 Pacific Island Countries (PICs) i.e Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
  • Objectives: Strengthen cooperation in trade, investment, health, agriculture, renewable energy, disaster management, digital connectivity, and climate change adaptation.

  • Summits Held:

    • Suva (2014)
    • Jaipur (2015)
    • Port Moresby (2023)
  • Key Initiatives: $1 million climate fund, Pan-Pacific Islands e-network, visa on arrival, cooperation in space technology, and training of diplomats.
  • Trade: Current bilateral trade is about $300 million annually (exports $200 million, imports $100 million).

Strategic Importance of FIPIC:

  • Indo-Pacific Outreach: Expands India’s role in maritime governance and regional security.
  • Countering China: Acts as a soft-power tool to balance China’s influence in the Pacific.
  • Maritime Leverage: PICs control vast Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) crucial for shipping lanes, fisheries, and seabed resources.
  • Climate Diplomacy: Strengthens India’s leadership with climate-vulnerable PICs under South-South cooperation.
  • Global Forums: PICs often vote as a bloc in UN, WTO, and other multilateral institutions, enhancing India’s diplomatic weight.

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[pib] Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA)

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Why in the News?

The Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) has imposed a penalty of ₹2,00,000 FirstCry for false and misleading price representations on its e-commerce platform.

Background of the Case: You Must Know

  • Complaint: Products were displayed with the claim “MRP inclusive of all taxes,” but additional GST was levied at checkout.
  • Effect: Misled consumers by showing higher discounts than actually offered.
  • Findings:
    • A product advertised at 27% discount was effectively sold at 18.2% discount after GST.
    • Such pricing amounted to misleading advertisements (Section 2(28)) and unfair trade practices (Section 2(47)).
  • Dark Pattern: The practice qualified as “drip pricing”, a dark pattern under the Guidelines for Prevention and Regulation of Dark Patterns, 2023.
  • Violation of E-Commerce Rules: Contravened Rule 7(1)(e) of Consumer Protection (E-Commerce) Rules, 2020, which mandates displaying the total price inclusive of all charges and taxes upfront.

About Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA):

  • Established: Under Section 10 of Consumer Protection Act, 2019 (effective July 20, 2020).
  • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution.
  • Functions & Powers:
    • Protects and enforces consumer rights as a class.
    • Prevents unfair trade practices and misleading advertisements.
    • Can initiate class-action suits (recalls, refunds, license cancellation).
    • Investigates through Investigation Wing headed by a Director-General.
    • Can order discontinuation of unfair practices and impose penalties.
  • Composition of CCPA: Chief Commissioner (Head); 2 Commissioners-
    • One for goods-related issues.
    • One for services-related complaints.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following organizations/bodies in India:

1. The National Commission for Backward Classes

2. The National Human Rights Commission

3. The National Law Commission

4. The National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission

How many of the above are constitutional bodies?

(a) Only one * (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

 

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North-East India – Security and Developmental Issues

[26th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Eight North-Eastern states with International borders, 0.13% of exports

op-ed snap | | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] India has a long and troubled border with China and Pakistan, fraught with contentious issues. Examine the conflicting issues and security challenges along the border. Also give out the development being undertaken in these areas under the Border Area Development Programme (BADP) and Border Infrastructure and Management (BIM) Scheme.

Linkage: This PYQ on BADP/BIM links with the article’s focus on the Northeast, where 5,400 km of borders yield only 0.13% exports. Both stress that borders must be treated as developmental, not just security, frontiers — a recurring UPSC theme.

Mentor’s Comment

India’s trade story is dominated by coastal powerhouses, while the Northeast, despite its 5,400 km of international borders and strategic location, contributes a meagre 0.13% of exports. The recent 25% U.S. tariff on Indian goods has exposed not just external vulnerabilities but also deep structural and spatial imbalances in India’s trade economy. This article dissects the marginalisation of the Northeast in India’s export architecture, the missed opportunities in border trade, and the urgent need to diversify resilience across regions.

Introduction

When the United States imposed an additional 25% tariff on imports from India in August 2025, New Delhi responded with restraint, continuing its familiar strategy of quiet diplomacy. But beneath this diplomatic choreography lies a deeper crisis: India’s export economy is dangerously centralised. While four States, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka, account for more than 70% of exports, the entire Northeast contributes only 0.13%, despite sharing long borders with multiple countries and lying at the crossroads of South and Southeast Asia. This exclusion is not incidental but structural, reflecting decades of neglect in infrastructure, policy, and representation.

Why is this in the news?

The U.S. tariff hike of 25% against India is significant not just for its external trade implications but for the internal fault lines it exposes. For the first time, the spotlight has shifted from India-U.S. friction to India’s own spatial imbalance in trade. Striking numbers illustrate the scale of the problem: Gujarat alone contributes 33% of exports, while eight northeastern States together contribute only 0.13%. This stark contrast shows that India negotiates global trade deals while leaving its eastern frontier out of the economic map. It highlights a major failure in policy design, where infrastructure and incentives remain clustered in a few industrial enclaves, leaving large swathes of the country economically orphaned.

Why is India’s export economy so centralised?

  1. Export concentration: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka together account for over 70% of exports, with Gujarat alone contributing 33%.
  2. Policy alignment: Infrastructure, political continuity, and incentives have been systematically channelled to these States.
  3. Peripheral neglect: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh together contribute barely 5%, showing how populous regions remain trade lightweights.

Why does the Northeast remain marginalised in trade?

  1. Minuscule share: Eight northeastern States, despite 5,400 km of international borders, contribute only 0.13% of exports.
  2. Security apparatus over trade: Borders are securitised for counterinsurgency, not for commerce. Goods do not move, but surveillance forces do.
  3. Policy exclusion: No representation from the Northeast in the PM’s Economic Advisory Council or the Board of Trade.
  4. Ignored in planning: The DGFT’s 2024 export strategy ran into 87 pages without a single mention of Northeast corridors.

What are the ground-level impacts of neglect?

  1. Tea economy in crisis: Assam produces over half of India’s tea output, but branding and packaging are almost absent. A 25% tariff hike threatens viability, with planters in Dibrugarh warning of job losses.
  2. Oil vulnerability: Numaligarh Refinery’s expansion requires imports, increasingly relying on discounted Russian crude. U.S. sanctions risk choking supplies, with Golaghat bearing the brunt, not Mumbai.

How has border trade with Myanmar collapsed?

  1. Vanishing corridors: Zokhawthar (Mizoram) and Moreh (Manipur) have withered into skeletal outposts.
  2. Free Movement Regime scrapped (2024): Severed kinship ties, daily trade, and hill economies.
  3. Performative infrastructure: Roads and customs offices exist on paper, cold-chain facilities are missing.
  4. Security logic over market demand: Borders function more as containment grids than trade hubs.

How does global context deepen India’s challenge?

  1. China’s influence: Consolidating control in northern Myanmar through infrastructure investments and militia alliances.
  2. India’s inertia: The India-Myanmar-Thailand Highway remains unfinished, symbolic of missed opportunities.
  3. Global supply chains shifting: Southeast Asia builds new corridors, but India clings to colonial-era coastal routes.

What does this reveal about India’s trade resilience?

  1. Dependence on few corridors: A flood in Gujarat or strike in Tamil Nadu can paralyse exports.
  2. Northeast excluded by design: Not just oversight, but structural neglect in infrastructure, logistics, and institutions.
  3. Strategic hollowness: India claims Indo-Pacific leadership but leaves its eastern flank brittle and disconnected.

Conclusion

India cannot aspire to regional leadership while its Northeast remains economically orphaned. The 25% U.S. tariffs are not just a foreign policy irritant but a reminder that trade resilience must mean dispersion, not dependence. The Northeast needs roads, warehouses, and representation, not rhetoric. Integrating this frontier into the export map is essential for both economic equity and strategic credibility. Without it, India risks negotiating global trade while ignoring the geographies that could anchor its cohesion.

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J&K – The issues around the state

Listen to Ladakh

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Introduction

Ladakh has historically been a symbol of loyalty, sacrifice, and national integration. From its soldiers’ valour in wars to its monasteries embodying peace, it has stood by India unfailingly. However, the grant of Union Territory status in 2019 has created unexpected discontent, with Ladakhis now demanding constitutional safeguards, ecological balance, and meaningful empowerment. Delhi’s response to Ladakh is not just a matter of regional governance but also of strategic national importance.

Why in News (Timeline of Demands)

  1. August 2019: Ladakh granted Union Territory (UT) status after abrogation of Article 370. Initially welcomed in Leh but caused discontent in Kargil.
  2. 2020–21: Fears of demographic change, land alienation, and ecological damage surface; demand for inclusion in the Sixth Schedule grows.
  3. 2021: Formation of Leh Apex Body (Buddhist leaders) and Kargil Democratic Alliance (Muslim leaders). Despite historic rivalry, both groups unite demanding constitutional safeguards.
  4. 2022–23: Protests intensify for empowerment of Hill Councils, job reservation, and land protection.
  5. 2024–25: Discontent spills into the streets; Ladakh witnesses unprecedented Buddhist–Muslim solidarity. Calls grow louder for legislative assembly or statehood, beyond Sixth Schedule status.

Ladakh’s legacy of loyalty and sacrifice

  1. Military contributions: From 1947 raids to the 1999 Kargil War, Ladakhis have consistently defended India’s frontiers. Heroes like Colonel Chewang Rinchen and Sonam Wangchuk embody this spirit.
  2. Cultural resilience: Monasteries, mosques, and local traditions reflect Ladakh’s unique identity and trust in India’s unity.

Why discontent has emerged after 2019

  1. Union Territory status: While celebrated initially, it stripped Ladakh of legislative empowerment, leaving governance centralised.
  2. Fear of marginalisation: Locals worry about land, jobs, and ecology in the absence of Sixth Schedule protections.
  3. Geostrategic location: Proximity to Chinese and Pakistani borders heightens the stakes of dissatisfaction.

Community unity and mobilization

  1. Leh Apex Body and Kargil Democratic Alliance: For the first time, Buddhists and Muslims have forged a common platform.
  2. Shared agenda: Demands include strengthened Hill Councils, greater representation, and protection of Ladakh’s unique ecological and cultural heritage.
  3. Grassroots mobilization: Local movements are engaging with Delhi directly, seeking dialogue and recognition.

Delhi’s challenge and way forward

  1. Triangular balance: Policies must reconcile development, ecology, and empowerment.
  2. Prudent engagement: The Centre must avoid delay, ensure quiet consultations, and expand local representation.
  3. Strategic necessity: Addressing Ladakh’s demands is vital to prevent alienation in a sensitive frontier region.

National and strategic significance

  1. Security implications: Every decision has ripple effects across the Line of Actual Control and Pakistan frontiers.
  2. Democratic ethos: Empowering Ladakh demonstrates India’s ability to blend federalism with strategic caution.
  3. Symbolic importance: How Delhi treats Ladakh will echo in other sensitive regions seeking greater autonomy.

Conclusion

Ladakh’s loyalty to India has been unquestionable. Yet its current grievances demand sensitive handling. By combining development with ecological protection and democratic empowerment, Delhi can reaffirm Ladakh’s trust and secure this frontier for future generations. This is a test of India’s governance maturity and strategic foresight.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] While the national political parties in India favour centralisation, the regional parties are in favour of State autonomy. Comment

Linkage: Ladakh after its 2019 Union Territory status is a live case of the centralisation vs. autonomy debate. The Centre justified direct control citing security and integration, reflecting the national parties’ bias for centralisation. Yet, Ladakh’s Buddhist and Muslim groups now demand Sixth Schedule safeguards and stronger Hill Councils, echoing the regional push for autonomy to protect land, ecology, and culture. This tension captures the essence of the PYQ — the challenge of balancing national integration with regional aspirations in India’s federal system.

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Citizenship and Related Issues

Citizens, domicile, migrants: Why should we worry about Provincial Citizenship?

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Communalism, Secularism, Regionalism

Introduction

Indian citizenship was envisioned as singular and uniform, rising above provincial or ethnic divides. Yet, as Ranjan’s recent research (2025) and Sarkar’s reflections suggest, the rise of provincial citizenship has complicated this narrative. Rooted in nativist politics and tied to emotional belonging to one’s State, this phenomenon is altering the politics of domicile, migration, and rights. While the COVID-19 migrant crisis exposed vulnerabilities of inter-state labour, subsequent domicile policies and debates around NRC, SIR, and regional protectionism have re-opened constitutional fault lines. The issue compels us to revisit constitutional provisions, historical warnings, and contemporary challenges to Indian federalism.

Why in the News

The discussion on provincial citizenship has gained traction because it reflects a sharp break from the constitutional promise of uniform Indian citizenship. Jharkhand’s domicile politics, post-2000, demonstrates how regional grievances can weaponize ‘sons of the soil’ sentiment. J&K’s domicile rules post-2019 abrogation illustrate how domicile is used as a tool of inclusion and protection. Assam’s migration-linked exclusions add another layer of contestation. For the first time, an “unofficial citizenship” has become powerful enough to rival the official national framework, forcing judicial interventions and challenging the foundational principle of equality under Article 16(2). This is no longer a marginal issue but a structural problem, shaping electoral politics and democratic legitimacy.

What is meant by Provincial Citizenship?

  1. Concept: Rooted in nativist politics, it emphasizes belonging to a State rather than to India as a whole.
  2. Political use: Gains leverage in regional elections by mobilising ‘locals’ against ‘outsiders’.
  3. Entanglement: Blurs lines between spatial identity, freedom of movement, and constitutional citizenship.

Issues with Provincial Citizenship

  1. Exclusion & Discrimination: Creates second-class citizens among internal migrants, violating the spirit of Articles 15, 16(2), 19.
  2. Fragmentation of National Unity: Undermines the principle of one nation, one citizenship, fostering parochialism and regionalism.
  3. Economic Inefficiency: Restricts labour mobility, hurting industries and services in cities dependent on migrant workers.
  4. Judicial Burden: Conflicts between migrants’ rights and domicile rules often end up in Supreme Court adjudication, showing gaps in political resolution.

Benefits of Provincial Citizenship

  1. Local Identity & Belonging: Strengthens emotional connection of “sons of the soil” to their State.
  2. Protection of Vulnerable Groups: In J&K, domicile rules safeguarded historically excluded groups like Valmikis, Gorkhas, and West Pakistan refugees.
  3. Equitable Resource Allocation: Ensures locals are not overshadowed by migrants in jobs, education, and land rights.
  4. Democratic Mobilisation: Acts as a rallying point in regional politics, giving voice to sub-national concerns.

How has Jharkhand become a case study?

  1. Statehood in 2000: Did not end sub-nationalist demands but transformed them into domicile-based politics.
  2. Domicile politics: Used to articulate majoritarian grievances against minority elites.
  3. Departure: Unlike Sixth Schedule areas, it encompassed the entire State, challenging federal norms and Article 16(2).

What role does Jammu & Kashmir and Assam play?

  1. J&K (Post-2019): Domicile introduced to safeguard minorities like Valmikis, Gorkhas, West Pakistan refugees after abrogation of Article 370.
  2. Assam: NRC and SIR processes highlight anxieties around migration and exclusion.

How does this challenge the idea of One Citizenship?

  1. Undermines Article 15, 16, 19: Domicile restrictions contradict equality and mobility rights.
  2. Supreme Court interventions: Conflicts between migrants and provincial citizenship often need judicial resolution.
  3. Multiple vocabularies: Terms like citizen-outsiders (Roy), differentiated citizenship (Jayal), paused citizens (Sharma), hyphenated nationality (Sarkar) capture fragmented realities.

Is this a new phenomenon or an old concern?

  1. Historical context: Myron Weiner’s Sons of the Soil (1978) already flagged migration-linked conflicts.
  2. SRC Report 1955: Explicitly warned that domicile rules undermine the concept of common Indian citizenship.
  3. Newness: The idea has now moved from reports and theory to an active political reality.

Way Forward

  1. Constitutional Balance: Uphold national citizenship guarantees while allowing limited affirmative safeguards for locals.
  2. Labour Protections: Create a national migrant workers framework to ensure portability of rights and benefits.
  3. Dialogue & Federal Coordination: Encourage Centre–State mechanisms to harmonise domicile policies with constitutional provisions.
  4. Judicial & Policy Oversight: Courts to curb excesses, and Parliament may revisit domicile laws as warned by the States Reorganisation Commission (1955).
  5. Promote Inclusion: Foster constitutional morality and fraternity so regional protections don’t become exclusionary.

Conclusion

The rise of provincial citizenship shows that the unity of Indian citizenship is being tested not by foreign threats but by internal contestations of belonging. Jharkhand’s domicile struggles, Assam’s NRC anxieties, and J&K’s experiments demonstrate that citizenship is increasingly layered, contested, and politicised. Unless reconciled, such provincial claims may fracture the inclusive national vision of Akhanda Bharat and weaken democratic federalism.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Why do large cities tend to attract more migrants than smaller towns? Discuss in the light of conditions in developing countries.

Linkage: This article is best linked with the GS1 PYQ “Why do large cities tend to attract more migrants than smaller towns?” as it directly discusses internal migration, mobility vs sedentarism, and the allure of metropolises for rural workers despite precarity, highlighted starkly during COVID-19. It also adds depth by showing how migrants face exclusion through provincial citizenship and domicile politics, raising constitutional questions under Articles 15, 16(2), and 19 and reflecting federal tensions. For UPSC, it is relevant across GS1 (urbanisation, migration, regionalism), GS2 (citizenship, federalism, rights), GS3 (labour and economic vulnerabilities), and GS4 (constitutional morality vs exclusion), making it a rich theme that connects social realities with polity and governance debates.

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Indian Missile Program Updates

Intermediate Range Agni-Prime Missile

| Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Why in the News?

The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and the Strategic Forces Command (SFC) successfully test-fired the Agni-Prime missile from a rail-based mobile launcher, marking India’s first such operational test.

About Agni-Prime Missile:

  • About: 6th missile in the Agni family, developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP).
  • Design: Two-stage, solid-propellant, canisterised surface-to-surface ballistic missile.
  • Range and Payload: 1,000–2,000 km; covering both China and Pakistan; Payload: Up to 1.5 tonnes (1,500–3,000 kg).
  • Navigation: Dual redundant guidance system; Maneuverable Re-entry Vehicle (MaRV) with delta fins to evade missile defence systems.
  • Deployment: Already inducted in road-mobile canisterised version; now tested with rail-based mobile launcher.

Global Context: Rail-Based Missile Technology:

With Agni-P rail launch, joins this select strategic group.

  • Soviet Union: Operated RT-23 Molodets Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) on rail; dismantled after START Treaty.
  • Russia: Planned Barguzin rail-mobile ICBM system, shelved to focus on hypersonics.
  • United States: Explored rail-mobile Minuteman and Peacekeeper ICBMs, cancelled post-Cold War.
  • China: Tested rail-mobile DF-41 ICBM in 2016.
  • North Korea: Tested rail-based Short-Range Ballistic Missile system in 2021.

Significance of Rail-Based Launch:

  • Mobility & Concealment: Railcars move across the network, hide in tunnels, evade satellite detection.
  • Survivability: Unlike silos, less vulnerable to pre-emptive strikes.
  • Rapid Response: Enables quick deployment and shorter reaction time.
  • Strategic Deterrence: Boosts credible second-strike nuclear capability.
  • Technological Showcase: Demonstrates India’s maturity in missile systems.

Back2Basics: Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP)

  • Launch: Conceived in 1983 by Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam to achieve self-reliance in missile technology.
  • Completion: 2012.
  • Missile Family (P-A-T-N-A):
    • Prithvi – Short-range ballistic missile.
    • Agni – Ballistic missiles of multiple ranges (Agni I–V, Agni-P).
    • Trishul – Short-range surface-to-air missile.
    • Nag – 3rd generation anti-tank guided missile.
    • Akash – Medium-range surface-to-air missile.

Agni Series and its Development:

  • Origins: Began in 1983 under the IGMDP led by Dr. Kalam.
  • Evolution: Started as technology demonstrators for re-entry vehicles; later developed into full-fledged strategic missiles.
  • Variants:
    • Agni-I: 700–1,200 km range, inducted 2007.
    • Agni-II: 2,000–3,000 km range, inducted 2010.
    • Agni-III: 3,500 km range, highly accurate, tested 2007.
    • Agni-IV: 4,000 km range, advanced avionics, tested 2011.
    • Agni-V: 5,000+ km range, ICBM, MIRV capable.
    • Agni Prime (Agni-P): 1,000–2,000 km, lighter, tested 2021.
    • Agni-VI: Under development, 6,000–10,000 km, MIRV + submarine launch capable.
  • Significance: Backbone of India’s nuclear triad, enhancing deterrence against regional and global adversaries.

 

[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.

2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

 

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MGNREGA Scheme

Centre amends MGNREGA for Water Conservation in Scarcity Zones

Schemes | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

Why in the News?

The Central Government has amended the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (2005) to mandate a minimum share of funds for water conservation and harvesting works. Earlier this month, MGNREGA completed 20 years of its implementation.

What is entailed in this MGNREGA (2005) Amendment?

  • Objective: Prioritise long-term water management, shift focus from reactive drought relief to preventive groundwater conservation.
  • Provision Amended: Paragraph 4(2), Schedule I of MGNREGA (2005).
  • Mandate: Minimum share of MGNREGA funds earmarked for water conservation & harvesting works.
  • Allocation Criteria: Based on groundwater stress classification (Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) assessment):
    • 65% in over-exploited / critical (dark zones).
    • 40% in semi-critical blocks.
    • 30% in safe/non-critical blocks.
  • Responsibility: District Programme Coordinator / Programme Officer must ensure compliance.
  • Earlier Provision: Gram Panchayats could prioritise works; at least 60% of funds had to go to agriculture & allied works, including water.

About MGNREGA:

  • Overview: MGNREGS is a rights-based Centrally Sponsored Scheme launched under the MGNREGA Act of 2005 to ensure the Right to Work for rural households.
  • Origins:
    • The idea of employment guarantee in India began with Maharashtra’s pilot, Employment Guarantee Scheme (MEGS), in 1965 under the Vasantrao Naik government.
    • At the national level, the idea was first proposed in 1991 by then PM P. V. Narasimha Rao and later enacted in 2005.
  • Employment Guarantee: It provides 100 days of wage employment per year to any adult willing to do unskilled manual labour in rural India.
  • Legal Obligation: It is the first law in India that imposes a legal duty on the government to provide employment and compensate for non-compliance.
  • Development Goal: The scheme aims to promote livelihood security, inclusive growth, and rural development.

Key Features:

  • Statutory Right: Employment under MGNREGS is a legal entitlement, not just a welfare scheme.
  • Eligibility: Any rural adult aged 18 or above can apply and must be offered work within 15 days.
  • Proximity and Wages: Work must be provided within 5 km of the applicant’s residence with minimum wage, and delays attract compensation.
  • Unemployment Allowance: If work is not provided on time, the state must pay an allowance.
  • Demand-Driven Model: The scheme is worker-initiated, requiring the government to respond to demand.
  • Transparency and Audits: Regular social audits and online updates ensure accountability in job cards, muster rolls, and fund use.
  • Local Implementation: It is decentralised, led by Gram Panchayats, with support from block and state officials, and centrally funded.
  • Women’s Inclusion: At least one-third of beneficiaries must be women, enhancing gender equity.
  • Sustainable Assets: Projects focus on durable rural infrastructure like ponds, roads, canals, and plantations.
[UPSC 2011] Among the following who are eligible to benefit from the “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act”?

(a) Adult members of only the scheduled caste and scheduled tribe households

(b) Adult members of below poverty line (BPL) households

(c) Adult members of households of all backward communities

(d) Adult members of any household *

 

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Iran’s Nuclear Program & Western Sanctions

What is Uranium Enrichment?

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Iran’s supreme leader recently said Tehran has limited uranium enrichment to 60% U-235 and will not pursue further enrichment to ~90% (weapons grade).

About Uranium Enrichment:

  • What is it: The process of increasing the proportion of U-235 isotope in uranium samples. Natural uranium has only 0.7% U-235, while the rest is mostly U-238.
  • Types of Enrichment:
    • Low-Enriched Uranium (3–5%): Used in civilian nuclear power reactors.
    • Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU, >20%): At 90%+ enrichment, uranium becomes weapons-grade, usable for efficient nuclear weapons.
  • Methods: Physical separation methods such as gas centrifuges, requiring advanced infrastructure and technology.
  • Implications:
    • Low enrichment: Controlled power generation.
    • High enrichment: Proliferation risks, shorter path to nuclear weapons capability.

What is Uranium Enrichment?

Controversy about Iran’s Pursuit:

  • Declared Program: Iran enriches uranium to 60% U-235, claiming peaceful purposes, but insists it will not pursue 90%+ enrichment.
  • Global Concerns:
    • Civilian irrelevance: 60% has no reactor use, only shortens the “breakout time” to weapons-grade.
    • IAEA Monitoring: International Atomic Energy Agency reports show significant 60% stockpiles, heightening suspicion.
  • Geopolitical Context:
    • Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) capped enrichment at 3.67% but collapsed after U.S. withdrawal in 2018.
    • Western governments see 60% enrichment as undermining trust, while Iran argues it is a deterrence and bargaining tool.
  • Strategic Dimension: Keeps Iran on the nuclear threshold, enabling leverage in negotiations and projecting deterrence without overt weaponisation.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

Statement-I: India, despite having uranium deposits, depends on coal for most of its electricity production.

Statement-II: Uranium, enriched to the extent of at least 60%, is required for the production of electricity.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I

(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-1

(c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect *

(d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

 

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Horticulture, Floriculture, Commercial crops, Bamboo Production – MIDH, NFSM-CC, etc.

Coffee Board to hold awareness program on EUDR compliance

Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Major Crops & Cropping Patterns

Why in the News?

The Coffee Board of India has launched extensive awareness and capacity-building programmes to help coffee growers register on its mobile application for EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR) compliance.

What are EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR)?

  • About: Effective from June 2023; Prevent imported products like coffee, cocoa, palm oil, soy, rubber, cattle, wood (and derivatives) from being linked to deforestation.

  • Requirements:

    • Proof of production on non-deforested land (post-2020).
    • Mandatory due diligence statement with geo-coordinates.
  • Penalties: Non-compliance may attract fines up to 4% of EU turnover, seizure of products, and temporary bans.

About Coffee Board of India:

  • Establishment: In 1942 under the Coffee Act, Section 4; Functions under the Ministry of Commerce & Industry; Headquartered at Bengaluru, Karnataka.
  • Structure: A statutory organisation comprising 33 members, with the Chairperson/CEO appointed by the Government of India.
  • Focus areas: Research, Extension, Development, Market Intelligence, Export Promotion, Domestic Promotion.
  • Early years: Coffee marketing was under the pooling system until 1995, after which liberalisation shifted marketing to the private sector.
  • Initiatives: Runs promotional campaigns like India Coffee, Walk With Coffee, and awareness on EUDR compliance for exports.

Back2Basics: Coffee Cultivation in India:

  • Overview: Coffee introduced in 1600 AD by Baba Budan in Chikmagalur, Karnataka.
  • Geographical Spread: Grown in the Western Ghats (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) and in smaller areas of Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Northeast India.
  • Production Share: Karnataka ~ 70%, Kerala ~ 20%, Tamil Nadu ~ 7%.
  • Agro-climatic Conditions: Requires 16°–28°C temperature, 150–250 cm rainfall, and well-drained slopes; sensitive to frost, dry spells, and harsh sunlight.
  • Soil: Grows best in laterite soils of Karnataka and rich, well-drained loams.

  • Varieties:

    • Arabica: Mild aromatic flavour, high export value, but more susceptible to pests/diseases.
    • Robusta: Hardy, disease-resistant, stronger taste, higher yields.
    • Liberica:  Rare, niche cultivation.
  • Seasonality: Coffee exports peak during March–June.
  • Domestic Consumption: Rising gradually; Coffee Board promoting events like International Coffee Day (October 1) to increase per capita intake.

Production Statistics (2025-26):

  • India’s coffee production:  It is projected at a record 4.03 lakh tonnes in 2025 up 11% from last year’s 363,000 tonnes.
    • Arabica output forecast: 118,000 tonnes, up 12% year-on-year.
    • Robusta output forecast: 285,000 tonnes, up 9.5%.
  • Karnataka contributes ~70% of output, followed by Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
  • India is the world’s 7th largest producer and 5th largest exporter, contributing 3.5% of global production and 5% of global exports.
  • Exports: Reached $1.8 billion in 2024-25, a 125% growth over 11 years (from $800 million in 2014-15).
    • Around 70% of Indian coffee is exported, mainly to Europe (Italy, Germany, Belgium), the Middle East, Japan, and Korea.

 

[UPSC 2022] With reference to the “Tea Board” in India, consider the following statements :

1. The Tea Board is a statutory body.

2. It is a regulatory body attached to the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.

3. The Tea Board’s Head Office is situated in Bengaluru.

4. The Board has overseas offices at Dubai and Moscow.

Which of the statements given above are correct ?

Options: (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 *

 

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New Species of Plants and Animals Discovered

New species of finless Snake Eel named after Kanniyakumari

Species | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

ICAR- National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources (NBFGR) researchers in Kochi have discovered a new finless snake eel species, Apterichtus kanniyakumari, named after Kanniyakumari district.

New species of finless Snake Eel named after Kanniyakumari

About Finless Snake Eel (Apterichtus kanniyakumari):

  • Location: Discovered off the Colachel coast, Kanniyakumari (Tamil Nadu), at ~100 m depth during deep-sea trawling.
  • Etymology: Named kanniyakumari in honour of the district’s cultural, linguistic, historical, and geographical heritage.
  • Taxonomy: Belongs to the genus Apterichtus, family Ophichthidae, commonly known as finless snake eels.
  • Morphological traits: Golden-yellow body, pale white ventral head with yellow jaw lines, three black blotches (behind eyes, at rictus, behind rictus origin), conical uniserial teeth, 3 preopercular & 9 supratemporal pores.
  • Molecular confirmation: Mitochondrial CO1 gene analysis shows it as a distinct clade, closely related to Apterichtus nanjilnaduensis.
  • Significance: Marks the 16th new species described from the Indian coast by NBFGR; adds to India’s marine biodiversity records.
[UPSC 2016] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 meters and has orange coloured fruit pulp. In which part of India has it been discovered?

(a) Andaman Islands *

(b) Anaimalai Forests

(c) Maikala Hills

(d) Tropical rain forests of northeast

 

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Urban Floods

[25th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Follow the rains, not the calendar to fight floods

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2016] The frequency of urban floods due to high-intensity rainfall is increasing over the years. Discussing the reasons for urban floods, highlight the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the risk during such events.

Linkage: This PYQ is directly linked to the article as both focus on increasing urban floods due to high-intensity, untimely rainfall and the need for better preparedness. It is important for UPSC as it tests understanding of climate change impacts, urban governance, and disaster management, all of which the article highlights through outdated drainage design, rainfall compression, and the need to “follow the rains, not the calendar.

Mentor’s Comment

Urban floods are no longer seasonal accidents; they are recurring crises that expose the mismatch between traditional planning calendars and the realities of a changing climate. This article unpacks the failures of outdated urban flood management and suggests a roadmap for building resilient cities. Aspirants must note its direct relevance to GS 1 (urbanisation), GS 2 (governance), GS 3 (disaster management, environment), and GS 4 (ethics in governance).

Introduction

Every monsoon, India’s cities brace for floods with desilting of drains, deploying contractors, and activating emergency protocols. Yet, reality unfolds differently, roads submerge, homes flood, and transport grinds to a halt. The core problem lies not only in the intensity and unpredictability of rainfall but also in city systems designed for a climate that no longer exists. Urban resilience now demands shifting from “seasonal schedules” to real-time rainfall preparedness.

Why in the News?

This year, northern states like Punjab (all 23 districts), Delhi, and Gurugram witnessed severe floods in September, well beyond the traditional monsoon period. Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh saw frequent cloudbursts, while Kolkata faced torrential rains. Such untimely, intense, and regionally widespread flooding marks a sharp departure from past rainfall behaviour. With single floods now causing damages worth ₹8,700 crore, the urgency to rethink urban flood management cannot be overstated.

Understanding Changing Rainfall Patterns

  1. Shift in Timing: Mumbai recorded 135.4 mm rainfall in May (normally a pre-monsoon month), followed by 161.9 mm the next day. Delhi saw 81 mm fall in a few hours, overwhelming drains.
  2. Rise in Frequency: CEEW analysis shows 64% of tehsils across states like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Karnataka have seen heavy rainfall days increase by 1–15 days.
  3. Compression of Rainfall: Rainfall that earlier spanned a day is now compressed into hours, intensifying floods.

Why are Indian Cities Flooding so Frequently?

  1. Outdated Drainage Design: Systems still rely on seasonal averages rather than short-duration, high-intensity rain data.
  2. Unmanaged Waste: Plastic and debris block drains; even after desilting, poor waste collection leads to quick clogging.
  3. Poor Coordination: Storm water, sanitation, and municipal waste departments work in silos, creating gaps in preparedness.
  4. Static Planning: Drainage infrastructure often relies on rainfall data decades old, ignoring evolving IDF (Intensity-Duration-Frequency) curves.

What Solutions are Proposed?

  1. Sub-daily Rainfall Analysis: Municipalities must adopt rainfall data in smaller time frames (1–3 hours) to plan drainage.
  2. Drainage-Waste Synchronisation: Waste collection and drain cleaning must be coordinated; rainfall alerts should trigger joint drives.
  3. Updating IDF Curves: Curves must be revised every 5–10 years; new drainage should factor in topography and micro-catchments.
  4. Infrastructure Upgradation: Example – BMC’s plan to widen drains to handle 120 mm/hour rainfall and prepare a new drainage master plan.
  5. Separate Sewerage and Stormwater Networks: To prevent overload and improve efficiency.

Broader Implications for Urban Planning

  1. Disaster Management: Floods are now the leading cause of life and property loss among natural disasters in India.
  2. Economic Impact: Each major flood inflicts damages of nearly ₹8,700 crore.
  3. Climate Resilience: Cities must adapt to “rain already falling” instead of waiting for calendar-based monsoon onset.

Conclusion

India is not losing to rain, but to outdated assumptions about rain. The fight against urban floods requires breaking the illusion of a uniform monsoon season. By following the rain, not the calendar, cities can design adaptive infrastructure, improve inter-departmental coordination, and protect citizens’ lives and livelihoods.

Value Addition

Case Study: Vijayawada’s Monsoon Response Teams

  • Integrated approach: The city administration created special monsoon response teams that brought together officials from the sanitation, engineering, and planning departments to work in coordination during high-risk rainy periods.
  • Real-time action: Instead of relying on rigid seasonal schedules, these teams responded dynamically to rainfall alerts and forecasts, immediately conducting joint sanitation drives and drain inspections.
  • Drainage & waste sync: Garbage clearance and storm water drain cleaning were aligned, preventing freshly desilted drains from being blocked again by unmanaged waste.
  • Impact: This reduced waterlogging and urban flooding, improved road accessibility, and lessened health risks for residents during monsoons.
  • Learning: Vijayawada shows how inter-departmental coordination, proactive planning, and rainfall-triggered response systems can make cities more resilient to changing monsoon patterns.

Global Context in Urban Flood Management

Rotterdam, Netherlands – “Room for the River” approach

  • Idea: Instead of resisting water, the city creates water plazas that double as playgrounds during dry weather and hold excess rainwater during storms.
  • Infrastructure: Underground reservoirs, widened canals, and lowered floodplains to absorb water.
  • Learning: Shows the importance of adaptive urban design that accommodates rainfall variability.

Copenhagen, Denmark – Cloudburst Management Plan

  • Trigger: After a massive cloudburst in 2011 caused $1 billion in damages.
  • Action: Developed over 300 projects including green roofs, permeable pavements, detention basins, and blue-green corridors that store and channel stormwater.
  • Learning: Proactive planning with a mix of nature-based and engineered solutions.

New York City, USA – Green Infrastructure Plan

  • Focus: Reduce stormwater runoff that overwhelms combined sewer systems.
  • Measures: Rain gardens, bioswales, green roofs, permeable streets to capture rainfall locally.
  • Learning: Urban flooding is not just a drainage issue but requires land-use and design-based solutions.

Singapore – ABC Waters Programme (Active, Beautiful, Clean)

  • Approach: Transforms canals, rivers, and drains into multifunctional spaces.
  • Measures: Retention ponds, vegetated swales, rain gardens integrated with urban landscapes.
  • Learning: Integrates aesthetics, ecology, and flood management, showing flood resilience can coexist with urban beauty.

Tokyo, Japan – Underground Flood Tunnels (G-Cans Project)

  • Infrastructure: World’s largest underground floodwater diversion facility with 6.5 km tunnels and giant silos to store stormwater.
  • Impact: Protects Tokyo’s dense urban areas from typhoon rains and river overflow.
  • Learning: Mega-engineering projects can be effective in high-density megacities with extreme rainfall.

 

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Differentiated Banks – Payment Banks, Small Finance Banks, etc.

Swipe, Tap, Spend: How UPI is a decisive step towards formalization of Indian Economy

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Introduction

India’s journey towards a cash-lite economy has been marked by a staggering rise in UPI transactions, reflecting a decisive shift in household and business payment patterns. From groceries to loans, from investments to utility bills, UPI has emerged as the backbone of everyday economic life. This transformation is not merely technological but a structural change towards the formalisation of the economy, reducing cash-dependency while boosting transparency and traceability in transactions.

Why is UPI making news now?

  1. Staggering growth: In April–June 2025, 34.9 billion person-to-merchant transactions occurred through UPI, worth ₹20.4 lakh crore, equal to 40% of private final consumption expenditure, up from 24% two years ago.
  2. Shift from ATMs: Cash withdrawals, once dominant, have halved despite the economy doubling in size—falling from ₹2.6 lakh crore (2018) to ₹2.3 lakh crore (2025).
  3. Wider impact: UPI is now used not only for routine consumption but also for debt repayments, investments, and financial services, signalling a major step in economic formalisation.

How has household spending been transformed?

  1. Digital dominance: Household payments, earlier cash-heavy, are increasingly routed through UPI across income classes.
  2. Food & beverages: In April–June 2025, households spent ₹3.4 lakh crore on food and beverages via UPI—17% of all UPI transactions and 21% of household expenditure.
  3. Non-food items: Payments include utilities, medicines, petrol, taxi rides, and electronics, accounting for two-thirds of person-to-merchant transfers.

What about precautionary savings and cash usage?

  1. Decline in cash holdings: Household currency holdings fell from 12.5% of gross savings (2020–21) to just 3.4% in 2023–24.
  2. Changing behaviour: While cash remains important for land, gold, and election financing, its share in household savings has been on a consistent decline.

How is UPI impacting financial formalisation?

  1. Formalisation of firms and workers: Increased traceable transactions complement reforms like GST registrations and EPFO contributions, enhancing formalisation.
  2. Beyond consumption: UPI in July 2025 facilitated ₹93,857 crore debt repayments and ₹61,080 crore investments into securities—indicating a structural integration of households into formal financial markets.

What are the larger implications for the economy?

  1. Scaling up formal economy: Digital payments extend across small, medium, and big-ticket transactions, shrinking the space for the informal sector.
  2. Global context: Countries like Germany also have high cash usage despite digitisation—India’s transformation is striking in scale.
  3. Policy question: With the public currency-to-GDP ratio falling from 12.9% (2022) to 10.9% (2025), the debate is whether India has reached an inflection point towards becoming a sustained cash-lite economy.

Conclusion

UPI’s ascendancy reflects not just a technological success but a social and economic restructuring of India. By shifting transactions from cash to traceable platforms, it has enhanced formalisation, reduced leakages, and encouraged financial inclusion. The challenge ahead lies in ensuring this transformation is sustainable while safeguarding against risks like digital divides, cybersecurity threats, and over-dependence on electronic infrastructure.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2023] What is the status of digitalization in the Indian economy? Examine the problems faced in this regard and suggest improvements.

Linkage: This PYQ is important as UPSC often tests themes of digitalisation, financial inclusion, and formalisation of the economy under GS3. The article helps answer it by showing UPI’s role in reducing cash reliance and formalising payments, while also pointing to persisting challenges like cash use in land, gold, and elections.

Value Addition

Benefits of UPI

  • Digitalisation of the Economy: 
    1. UPI has made India the world’s largest real-time digital payments ecosystem (over 50% of global real-time transactions, as per the ACI Worldwide 2023 report).
    2. Strengthens transparency, traceability, and reduces black money circulation.
  • Financial Inclusion:
    1. UPI transactions span urban malls to rural kirana stores, enabling low-cost access for the unbanked.
    2. Integration with Aadhaar, Jan Dhan, and mobile numbers creates a seamless financial ecosystem.
  • Globalisation × Formal & Informal Economy:
    1. Shifts large segments from cash-heavy informal sector to traceable, formal payments.
    2. Helps MSMEs and street vendors gain access to credit as digital history substitutes collateral.
  • Economic Growth and Development:
    1. Boosts consumption visibility, enabling better policy targeting.
    2. Encourages formal lending and investments—e.g., ₹93,857 crore in debt repayments via UPI (article data).

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Right To Privacy

How are courts protecting personality rights?

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Introduction

Personality rights, the right to control one’s name, image, likeness, and voice, have become a critical issue in India’s courts. With AI enabling deepfakes, voice cloning, and digital impersonation, Bollywood celebrities like Aishwarya Rai Bachchan, Abhishek Bachchan, Anil Kapoor, and Jackie Shroff have approached courts to restrain unauthorised commercial exploitation of their persona. While these judicial interventions protect individual dignity and brand equity, they also raise complex questions about the balance between Article 21 (privacy and autonomy) and Article 19(1)(a) (freedom of speech and expression).

Why is this in the news?

The Delhi High Court recently issued orders protecting Aishwarya Rai Bachchan and Abhishek Bachchan from AI-generated misuse of their images and voices. This is significant because:

  1. Novel threat: It highlights how AI deepfakes and voice cloning are creating unprecedented risks for identity and privacy.
  2. Judicial trend: Courts are extending personality rights protections to celebrities such as Karan Johar, Amitabh Bachchan, Anil Kapoor, Jackie Shroff, and Arijit Singh.
  3. Big problem: Without regulation, AI-driven impersonation undermines trust, dilutes brand equity, and strips individuals of control over their identity.
  4. Turning point: Courts are now explicitly linking personality rights to Article 21 of the Constitution, signalling a constitutional recognition of digital dignity.

How are personality rights defined in India?

  1. Safeguards: Personality rights protect name, likeness, image, voice, signature, and other unique traits.
  2. Legal foundation: Rooted in common law doctrines of privacy, publicity, and defamation, supported by judicial precedents.

Statutory framework:

  1. Copyright Act, 1957: Sections 38A & 38B grant performers exclusive and moral rights over their performances.
  2. Trade Marks Act, 1999: Allows registration of names/signatures as trademarks (e.g., Shah Rukh Khan, Priyanka Chopra).
  3. Tort of Passing Off: Prevents misrepresentation of a celebrity’s persona as endorsement.

How have courts shaped personality rights?

  1. R. Rajagopal v. State of Tamil Nadu (1994): Supreme Court recognised the right to control one’s identity, grounding it in privacy under Article 21.
  2. Rajinikanth case (2015): Madras HC restrained unauthorised use of the actor’s persona in a film.
  3. Anil Kapoor case (2023): Delhi HC granted wide-ranging protection, clarifying that free speech covers parody/satire but not commercial misuse.
  4. Jackie Shroff case (2024): Court restrained misuse of his persona on e-commerce and AI platforms.
  5. Arijit Singh case (2024): Bombay HC recognised risks of voice cloning through AI.

Do personality rights restrict free expression?

Free speech scope: Article 19(1)(a) allows criticism, parody, satire, and lampooning of public figures.

Judicial caution:

  1. DM Entertainment v. Baby Gift House (2010): Caricatures and parodies do not usually infringe publicity rights.
  2. Digital Collectibles v. Galactus Funware (2023): Material already in the public domain may be used without implying endorsement.
  3. Balancing test: Courts strike a balance between creative freedom and protection of dignity/brand equity.

Why is regulation urgently needed?

  1. Fragmented protections: Enforcement is currently piecemeal, relying on case law.
  2. Digital threats: Generative AI expands risks of impersonation and deepfakes.
  3. Disproportionate impact: Ordinary citizens, especially women targeted through revenge porn, face greater harm.
  4. Policy need: Experts call for a comprehensive legislative framework to clearly define exceptions and ensure free speech is not chilled.

Conclusion

The judiciary is laying down crucial guardrails for personality rights in the digital age, particularly against AI-driven impersonation. However, without a clear legislative framework, judicial interventions remain reactive. The challenge lies in balancing dignity and privacy with freedom of speech, ensuring that protections do not turn into censorship while still safeguarding individuals, from Bollywood celebrities to ordinary citizens, against misuse of their identity.

[UPSC 2024] Right to privacy is intrinsic to life and personal liberty and is inherently protected under Article 21 of the constitution. Explain. In this reference discuss the law relating to D.N.A. testing of child in the womb to establish its paternity.

Linkage: The PYQ on Right to Privacy under Article 21 examines autonomy over personal identity, like in DNA testing. This article is relevant as it shows courts extending privacy into personality rights against AI misuse, with case laws and statutes providing examples to balance privacy and free speech in UPSC answers.

Value Addition

Global Context & Reports

  1. WIPO Intellectual Property Report (2022): Notes rapid rise of personality/IP litigation due to digital commerce.
  2. UNESCO Report on AI & Ethics (2021): Warns against deepfakes undermining democratic discourse and human dignity.
  3. US “Right of Publicity” Laws: Celebrities can sue for unauthorised commercial use of their persona, providing comparative perspective.
  4. EU GDPR (2018): Protects personal data, extending indirectly to digital identity misuse.

 

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Monsoon Updates

South-west Monsoon: Its Onset and Retreat

| Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

Why in the News?

According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD), the southwest monsoon began its earliest withdrawal in a decade on September 14 from western Rajasthan, three days before the usual date of September 17.

What is Monsoon? 

  • Overview: A seasonal reversal of winds, southwest winds (wet) in summer and northeast winds (dry) in winter.
  • Onset Date: Officially begins June 1 over Kerala, advances northwards, covering entire India by mid-July.
  • Importance: Accounts for ~75% of India’s annual rainfall, critical for Kharif crops, water storage, and ecosystems.

Mechanism of Monsoon Onset:

  • Differential Heating: Indian landmass heats faster than the Indian Ocean, creating low pressure over NW India that pulls in moist winds.
  • Mascarene Highs:
    • Located near Mascarene Islands (east of Madagascar).
    • Strengthen during May–June winter in Southern Hemisphere.
    • Push strong cross-equatorial winds from the SE Indian Ocean towards India.
  • Cross-Equatorial Flow:
    • Southeast trades from Mascarene High cross the equator.
    • Deflected by Coriolis, they become southwest monsoon winds, feeding both Arabian Sea branch and Bay of Bengal branch.
  • ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone) Shift: Moves northwards over Ganga plains, anchoring the monsoon trough.
  • Tibetan Plateau Heating: Acts as an elevated heat source, deepening low pressure.
  • Jet Stream Influence:
    • Subtropical Westerly Jet (STWJ) shifts north of Himalayas, allowing the monsoon trough.
    • Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) develops, enhancing moisture flow.
  • Local Triggers: Orographic uplift along Western Ghats, NE Hills, and Indo-Gangetic plains causes heavy rains.

What is Retreat/Withdrawal of Monsoon?

  • Earliest Withdrawal (2025): Began Sept 14 from western Rajasthan — earliest in a decade (normal = Sept 17).
  • Withdrawal Process: Gradual, completes by mid-October.
  • IMD Withdrawal Criteria:
    1. Development of anti-cyclonic circulation at lower troposphere.
    2. No rainfall for 5 consecutive days over the region.
    3. Prevalence of dry weather conditions.
  • Seasonal Marker: IMD fixes Sept 30 as the official end of SW monsoon.
  • Agricultural Role: Retreat moisture crucial for Rabi crop sowing.

Influencing Factors for Monsoon Retreat:

  • Seasonal Cooling: Reduced solar heating over land in September weakens low pressure.
  • Pressure Gradient Reversal: High pressure redevelops over NW India, collapsing SW winds.
  • ITCZ Shift: Moves back southwards towards the equator, reversing wind patterns.
  • Jet Stream Role: TEJ weakens, westerlies return, pushing out moist winds.
  • Topography & Seas: Coastal and mountainous regions (e.g., SE peninsula, Bay of Bengal) may still receive residual/post-monsoon showers.
  • Mascarene Highs: As SH winter ends, Mascarene highs weaken, cross-equatorial inflow diminishes, aiding withdrawal.

Climatic Phenomena affecting the Indian Monsoon:

1. ENSO (El Niño–Southern Oscillation):

  • ENSO originates in the equatorial Pacific Ocean and strongly influences the Pacific Walker Circulation (PWC).
    1. El Niño years: The eastern and central Pacific waters warm up. This weakens the Walker circulation and reduces the flow of moisture-laden winds from the Mascarene Highs towards India. As a result, the monsoon becomes weak or deficient, often leading to droughts.
    2. La Niña years: The opposite happens; Pacific waters cool, the Walker circulation strengthens, and strong cross-equatorial winds from the Mascarene Highs bring more moisture into India. Monsoon rainfall is usually above normal, sometimes leading to floods.
  • Key point: ENSO acts like a “remote controller” sitting in the Pacific but directly influencing the strength of the Indian monsoon winds.

2. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD):

  • The Indian Ocean itself has its own seesaw pattern of sea surface temperatures.
    • Positive IOD: Western Indian Ocean (near Africa) is warmer, and eastern Indian Ocean (near Indonesia) is cooler. This strengthens cross-equatorial winds from the Mascarene Highs, feeding more moisture into India. Result: Good rainfall, strong monsoon, even if El Niño is present.
    • Negative IOD: Western Indian Ocean is cooler, eastern side is warmer. This pulls away monsoon winds from India and weakens the rainfall.
  • Key point: IOD is a “local driver” sitting in the Indian Ocean, which can either amplify or cancel out ENSO’s effect.

3. ENSO–IOD Interaction:

  • Monsoon outcome is not decided by ENSO or IOD alone, but by how they combine:
    • El Niño + Positive IOD: IOD can cancel El Niño’s bad effect (1997 monsoon was near normal).
    • El Niño + Negative IOD: Worst-case combo, often brings severe droughts.
    • La Niña + Positive IOD: Both reinforce each other, leading to very heavy rainfall and flood risk.
    • ENSO Neutral + Positive/Negative IOD: IOD becomes the deciding factor.

The Big Picture:

  • Pacific Walker Circulation is the “conveyor belt” moving rising and sinking air across the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
    • When it shifts east (El Niño): India gets less rain.
    • When it strengthens west (La Niña): India gets more rain.
  • IOD modifies this system locally in the Indian Ocean-  it can either buffer or worsen ENSO’s impact.
  • The Mascarene Highs act as the main “engine room” for cross-equatorial winds, but the Walker circulation and IOD decide how strong that engine runs.
  • Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO): An eastward-moving pulse of cloud and rainfall that travels around the equator every 30–60 days.
    • MJO decides the intra-seasonal variability: when it rains heavily (active phase) and when dry breaks occur.

 

[UPSC 2012] Consider the following statements:

1. The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern India to northern India.

2. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 Only (b) 2 Only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

[UPSC 2017] With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. The IOD phenomenon is characterized by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.

2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only  (b) 2 only * (c) Both 1 and 2  (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

Konkan Geoglyphs may be 24,000 years old

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

The prehistoric geoglyphs of the Konkan coast may date back as far as 24,000 years, based on new stratigraphic evidence from Koloshi caves in Maharashtra.

Konkan Geoglyphs may be 24,000 years old

About Konkan Geoglyphs:

  • Overview: Prehistoric rock engravings (geoglyphs/petroglyphs) carved on laterite plateaus of the Konkan coast (Maharashtra, Goa, southern Karnataka).
  • Depictions: Humans, animals (elephants, tigers, rhinos, stingrays, turtles, peacocks), and abstract motifs.
  • Technique: Created by scooping, etching, pecking into laterite; grooves 3–5 cm deep, 3–4 cm wide.
  • Unique Feature: Unlike painted caves (e.g., Bhimbetka), these are open-air geoglyphs, rare in India.
  • Cultural Value: Provide insights into prehistoric ecology, rituals, and transition from hunter-gatherer to agrarian societies.

Important Sites:

  • Maharashtra (Ratnagiri–Sindhudurg): Ratnagiri alone hosts 1,500+ carvings across 210 sq. km.
    • Kasheli: Giant elephant (13×18 m), 125+ carvings of sharks, stingrays, rhinos (though locally absent), tigers.
    • Barsu: Human figure flanked by two tigers, resembling Harappan seals. Local are protesting a proposed oil refinery which might demolish this site.
    • Rundhye Tali: Concentric circles, abstract motifs, jellyfish/tiger outlines.
    • Devache Gothane: Standing human figure; linked to magnetic deflection anomaly.
    • Devi Hasol: Snake-like square design (8 m); still part of Aryadurga temple rituals.
    • Jambharun, Ukshi, Kudopi: Faunal + abstract petroglyphs.
  • Goa:
    • Usgalimal (Phansaymal): Bulls, deer, spirals, cup marks, grinding grooves.

History and Antiquity:

  • Dating: Traditionally ~10,000 years old; new excavations at Koloshi caves push age back to 24,000 years (cultural layers ~38,000 years).
  • Continuity: Geoglyph-making persisted till the early historic period, showing ritual and symbolic evolution.
  • Ecological Record: Depict species long extinct in Konkan (rhinoceros, hippopotamus), indicating Pleistocene fauna.
  • World Context: Compared with Nazca Lines (Peru), Atacama Giant (Chile), and Blythe Intaglios (US) — Konkan geoglyphs are smaller but more intricate and ecologically detailed.
  • UNESCO Status: On India’s Tentative List (2022); nomination under preparation for 2027–28 cycle.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:

1. Shantiniketan 2. Rani-ki-Vav 3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya

How many of the above properties were included in 2023?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four  

 

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