Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indian Grey Wolf
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The recent sighting of an endangered Indian grey wolf within the vast expanse of the National Chambal Sanctuary in Etawah after 20 years has sparked immense excitement among wildlife enthusiasts and experts.
About Indian Grey Wolf
|
Conservation Status |
| Scientific Name |
Canis lupus pallipes |
| Adaptation to Climate |
Thrives in warmer conditions |
| Social Behavior |
Travels in smaller packs, less vocal |
| Physical Traits |
Size falls between Tibetan and Arabian wolves |
| Preferred Habitat |
Scrublands, grasslands, semi-arid regions |
| Wide Distribution |
Indian subcontinent to Israel, ~3,000 in India |
| IUCN Listing |
Least Concern |
| Legal Protection |
Schedule I of Wildlife Act, CITES Appendix I |
| Major Threats |
Habitat loss, prey population decline |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Humboldt's Enigma
Mains level: NA
Introduction
- The question of where biodiversity is concentrated has intrigued explorers and naturalists for centuries. Humboldt has tried to answer this question.
Humboldt’s Insights
- Alexander von Humboldt: A polymath of the 18th century, Humboldt recorded diverse natural observations, proposing a relationship between temperature, altitude, humidity, and species distribution.
- Mountain Exploration: During his exploration of South America, Humboldt studied plant distribution on mountains, noting variations with elevation.
- Chimborazo Mountain: Humboldt used Chimborazo Mountain in Ecuador as an example, illustrating the concept of mountain diversity.
What is Humboldt’s Enigma?
- Sun’s Energy: Tropical areas receive more solar energy, fostering greater primary productivity and biodiversity due to the availability of ecological niches.
- Mountain Exception: Mountains, despite being outside the tropics, have been an exception to the rule, posing Humboldt’s enigma.
Biodiversity Drivers
- Earth’s History, Geography, and Climate: These factors are the primary drivers of mountain diversity.
- Geological Processes: Mountains serve as ‘cradles’ for new species due to geological processes like uplifts, creating new habitats.
- Climatic Stability: Climatologically stable mountains act as ‘museums,’ preserving species over time.
- Coastal Tropical Sky Islands: Examples like the Shola Sky Islands in the Western Ghats exhibit both cradle and museum characteristics.
Eastern Himalaya: An Anomaly
- Diversity Beyond Tropics: Eastern Himalaya boasts exceptional diversity, challenging the conventional tropical biodiversity paradigm.
- Multiple Factors: Climate dissimilarity and geological heterogeneity contribute to high biodiversity.
- Climate Variability: Different temperature and rainfall levels on the same mountain support diverse biomes.
Unresolved Questions
- Complexity of Biodiversity: Numerous factors drive diversification and Humboldt’s enigma in different regions, leading to over a hundred hypotheses.
- Data Limitations: Fine-scale species occurrence data are lacking, hindering precise explanations.
- Call for Research: India’s under-studied areas need more extensive research, including the use of genetics, to understand true biodiversity.
- National Initiatives: Programs like the National Mission on Himalayan Studies and Biodiversity need strengthening to support basic research.
Conclusion
- Humboldt’s enigma represents one facet of mountain biodiversity, offering opportunities for study and insights into global climate and landscape change issues.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lab-Grown Fish
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI), headquartered in Kochi, collaborated with Neat Meatt Biotech, a private-sector start-up specializing in lab-grown meat technology.
- This Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) marks the first initiative of its kind in India.
Understanding Lab-Grown Fish
- Lab-Grown Fish Definition: Lab-grown fish, a type of cultivated or cultured meat, is seafood produced in a laboratory setting without the need to raise and slaughter animals.
- Production Process: Specific fish cells are isolated and grown in a controlled laboratory environment using animal-free media. The goal is to replicate the taste, texture, and nutritional qualities of traditional fish meat.
Roles of CMFRI and Neat Meatt
- CMFRI’s Responsibilities: Under the MoU, CMFRI will focus on genetic, biochemical, and analytical aspects of the project. Its cell culture lab will research early cell line development for high-value marine fish species, including pomfret, kingfish, and seerfish.
- Neat Meatt’s Expertise: Neat Meatt, with expertise in cell culture technology, will lead in optimizing cell growth media, developing scaffolds or microcarriers for cell attachment, and scaling up production via bioreactors. The company will also provide consumables, manpower, and additional equipment.
Addressing the Need for Lab-Grown Fish
- Growing Demand: The demand for seafood is increasing, creating pressure on wild resources.
- Overfishing Consequences: Overfishing has led to population declines in certain species and negatively impacted marine ecosystems.
- Environmental Benefits: Lab-grown fish meat can reduce the reliance on traditional fishing, offering antibiotic-free, contamination-free, and pollution-free alternatives.
Global Pioneers in Lab-Grown Fish
- Leading Nations: Several countries are advancing lab-grown fish technology. Israel is a frontrunner, followed by Singapore, the United States, and China.
- Recent Developments: Israel-based Forsea Foods successfully produced lab-grown freshwater eel meat. Israel’s Steakholder Foods, in collaboration with Umami Meats in Singapore, 3D printed the first-ever ready-to-cook fish fillet from laboratory-grown animal cells.
Bridging India’s Gap
- Accelerating Development: The CMFRI-Neat Meatt partnership aims to expedite India’s progress in lab-grown seafood to ensure it doesn’t lag behind countries like Singapore, Israel, and the USA.
- Leveraging Expertise: CMFRI’s marine research and Neat Meatt’s technological prowess form a collaboration that promises a sustainable future for seafood production in India.
- Timeline Expectation: Dr. Sandeep Sharma of Neat Meatt anticipates establishing the project’s proof of concept within a few months.
Expanding Lab-Grown Meat
- Wide Range: Beyond fish, lab-grown meat development encompasses chicken, pork, lamb, beef, and more.
- Global Industry Growth: The lab-grown meat industry has expanded to over 150 companies across six continents, with $2.6 billion in investments.
- US Regulatory Clearance: In June 2023, the US Department of Agriculture approved the sale of lab-grown chicken meat, allowing companies like Good Meat and Upside Foods to supply it to restaurants and supermarkets.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Deep Learning in Antibiotic Discovery
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The year 1944 witnessed the simultaneous emergence of artificial neural networks, laying the foundation for deep learning, and the discovery of streptomycin, the first aminoglycoside antibiotic.
- This historical synchrony ultimately connects deep learning and antibiotics.
Why in news?
- In December 2023, scientists introduced a groundbreaking alliance between deep learning and antibiotics by leveraging deep learning techniques to discover a new class of antibiotics, addressing a multi-decade gap in antibiotic development.
Deep Learning in Antibiotic Discovery
- Different Approach: Unlike previous applications of deep learning in drug discovery, this study focused on identifying chemical motifs or substructures used by the deep learning model to evaluate compounds for antibiotic potential, rendering the model “explainable”.
- Proven Efficacy: The research successfully demonstrated the effectiveness of two compounds from the newfound antibiotic class against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections, a major cause of human fatalities in 2019.
- Recognition and Expansion: Experts praised the study for its contributions to antibiotic research and its potential to enhance drug development strategies.
Understanding Deep Learning and Explainability
- Neural Networks: Deep learning relies on artificial neural networks, comprising layers of artificial “neurons” that process inputs and yield outputs through training and testing phases.
- Training and Testing: Deep learning networks are trained on large datasets with annotated inputs to learn specific tasks. During testing, they classify novel inputs based on their learned knowledge.
- The Black Box Issue: Most deep learning models lack transparency in explaining how they arrive at their conclusions, remaining “black boxes.”
- Explainable Deep Learning: In contrast, the study’s model was designed to be explainable, allowing it to not only predict antibiotic potential but also elucidate the substructures contributing to this property.
Journey to Novel Antibiotics
- Experimental Screening: The research began by screening over 39,000 compounds to inhibit S. aureus growth, shortlisting 512 active compounds.
- Graph Neural Network (GNN): A GNN was trained on the dataset, representing atoms as nodes and bonds as edges on a mathematical graph.
- Selecting Non-Toxic Compounds: To ensure safety, 306 compounds were identified that didn’t harm human cells, and other GNNs were trained to identify cytotoxic compounds.
- Identifying Potential Antibiotics: The GNNs evaluated a database of over 1.2 crore compounds, identifying 3,646 potential antibiotics based on substructures.
- Substructure Rationales: The study introduced “rationales” to explain the substructures that conferred antibiotic properties to molecules.
- Efficacy Against MRSA and VRE: Certain compounds, including N-[2-(2-chlorophenoxy)ethyl]aniline, exhibited inhibition of MRSA and vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE).
- Mouse Models: One compound effectively reduced MRSA-related skin and thigh infections in mouse models.
Significance and Ongoing Challenges
- Transparency in Drug Discovery: The study’s significance lies in rendering deep learning approaches to drug discovery more transparent and reproducible across drug categories.
- Future Exploration: Researchers are applying substructure rationales to design new antibiotics and explore applications in drugs targeting age-related disorders.
- Addressing a Lacuna: An identified shortcoming is that explainability analysis occurred after predicting antibiotic properties. Implicitly incorporating explainability in deep learning models is proposed as a more robust approach.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Modified PKC-ERCP Project
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- Rajasthan and MP have signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Union Ministry of Jal Shakti to execute the Modified Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal-ERCP (Modified PKC-ERCP) Link Project.
About Modified PKC-ERCP Project
- Inter-link: The Modified PKC-ERCP is an inter-state river linking project, with preparations underway for a Detailed Project Report (DPR).
- Integration Purpose: This project aims to integrate the long-pending PKC river link project with the Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project (ERCP) under the national perspective plan of the interlinking of rivers (ILR) program initiated by the Government of India.
- Update: This MoU will cover aspects such as water sharing, cost-benefit sharing, water exchange, and implementation mechanisms in the Chambal basin.
Understanding PKC Link Project
- Inclusion in National Plan: The Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal (PKC) link project is one of the 30 links listed in the National Perspectives Plan, established by the former Union Ministry of Irrigation (now Ministry of Water Resources) and the Central Water Commission in 1980.
- Historical Progress: The preliminary feasibility report for the Kalisindh-Chambal link canal project was prepared in 1991. It proposed diverting water from river Newaj and Kalisindh to the river Chambal, either at the Rana Pratap Sagar dam or the Gandhi Sagar dam.
- ERCP Proposal: Rajasthan introduced the Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project (ERCP) in 2019, aiming to optimize water resources.
- Merging of projects: Subsequently, the Task Force for Interlinking of Rivers (TFILR) explored merging the ERCP with the PKC link project, an integration approved by the Special Committee for Interlinking of Rivers in December 2022.
Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project (ERCP)
- Project Objective: The ERCP targets intra-basin water transfer within the Chambal basin. It utilizes surplus monsoon water from subbasins like Kalisindh, Parvati, Mej, and Chakan, diverting it to water-deficient sub-basins such as Banas, Gambhiri, Banganga, and Parbati.
- Beneficiary Regions: The ERCP provides drinking and industrial water to 13 districts in eastern Rajasthan, including Alwar, Bharatpur, Dholpur, Karauli, Sawai-Madhopur, Dausa, Jaipur, Ajmer, Tonk, Bundi, Kota, Baran, and Jhalawar.
Benefits of Modified Project
- Drinking and Industrial Water: The Modified PKC-ERCP project aims to provide drinking and industrial water to 13 eastern Rajasthan districts, Malwa, and Chambal regions of Madhya Pradesh.
- Irrigation: It also supports irrigation across a significant area in both states, totalling 5.6 lakh hectares or more.
Need for the MoU
- Dependable Yield Norms: The project’s planning was initially based on 50% dependable yield, contrary to the prevailing norm of 75% dependable yield for inter-state river projects.
- Integration Proposal: In November 2019, the Task Force on Interlinking of Rivers proposed exploring the integration of ERCP with the PKC Link Canal Project, following deliberations and consensus between both states.
- Modified PKC Link Proposal: As a result of these discussions, a proposal for the Modified PKC link project was formulated, combining components from the Government of MP and ERCP, designed for 75% dependable water availability.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rajya Sabha Elections
Mains level: NA
Introduction
- The Election Commission notified elections to 56 Rajya Sabha seats that will be held on February 27.
Uniqueness of Rajya Sabha Elections
- Retirement Cycle: One-third of Rajya Sabha members from each State retire every two years, necessitating elections to fill vacancies.
- Eligible Voters: Only elected members of State Legislative Assemblies are eligible to vote in Rajya Sabha elections.
- Six-Year Term: Newly elected members serve a six-year term, with vacancies arising due to resignation, death, or disqualification filled through by-polls.
Election of Rajya Sabha Members
- Blocs and Elections: A group of MPs from one or more parties can elect a member if they possess the required numbers.
- Avoiding Majority Rule: This approach ensures that ruling party candidates do not monopolize elections.
- Union Territories Representation: Delhi and Puducherry Assemblies elect members to Rajya Sabha to represent the respective Union Territories.
Electoral Process
- Polling Condition: A Rajya Sabha election requires polling only when the number of candidates surpasses the available vacancies.
- Predictable Strength: Parties estimate their potential seats based on their strength in the Assembly.
- Contesting Candidates: Parties field candidates based on their strength; additional candidates trigger a contest.
- Candidate Nomination: Political party candidates must be proposed by at least 10 Assembly members or 10% of the party’s House strength, whichever is lower.
- Independent Candidates: Independents require 10 proposers, all Assembly members.
Voting Procedure
- Single Transferable Vote: Rajya Sabha elections employ the single transferable vote system, based on proportional representation.
- Preferences Voting: Electors can vote for multiple candidates in order of preference.
- Winning Requirement: Candidates need a specific number of first preference votes to win, with each first choice vote valued at 100 in the initial round.
- Qualification: To qualify, a candidate must secure one point more than the quotient obtained by dividing the total value of seats available in the election plus one.
Transparency in RS Elections
- Open Ballot System: Rajya Sabha elections employ an open ballot system with limited transparency.
- Preventing Cross-Voting: Showing marked ballots to the party’s authorized agent (Whip) is mandatory; not following this rule renders the vote invalid.
- Secrecy for Independents: Independent candidates are prohibited from showing their ballots to anyone.
- NOTA in Rajya Sabha: Initially, Rajya Sabha members had the option to use the NOTA (None of the Above) button during elections, as per circulars issued by the Election Commission.
- Supreme Court Ruling: However, in 2018, the Supreme Court ruled that NOTA is only applicable in general elections and cannot be used in indirect elections based on proportional representation.
Consequences of Cross-Voting
- Supreme Court’s Stand: The Supreme Court clarified that not voting for the party candidate in Rajya Sabha elections does not trigger disqualification under the anti-defection law.
- Legislators’ Freedom: MLAs retain the freedom to vote for a candidate of their choice.
- Party Action: Parties are free to take disciplinary action against legislators who vote against their candidate.
Voting Eligibility before Taking Oath
- Voting Without Oath: The Supreme Court ruled that members can participate in Rajya Sabha elections even before taking the oath as legislators.
- Non-Legislative Activity: Rajya Sabha voting is considered a non-legislative activity, allowing members to vote without taking the oath.
- Membership Status: A person becomes a member as soon as the Election Commission notifies the list of elected members.
- Proposal Rights: Members can also propose a candidate before taking the oath of office.
Other facts
- Limited Union Territories (UTs): Only two Union Territories participate in Rajya Sabha elections, not all of them.
- Conditional Polling: Polling occurs only if the number of candidates exceeds the available vacancies.
- Independent Members: Independent candidates can also be elected to Rajya Sabha.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AISHE Survey
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) captures student enrollment across eight levels, including undergraduate, postgraduate, PhD, MPhil, diploma, PG diploma, certificate, and integrated programs.
- The survey received responses from 10,576 standalone institutions, 42,825 colleges, and 1,162 universities/university-level institutions.
About AISHE
- AISHE is a report published by the Ministry of Education since 2011.
- Aim: Portray the status of higher education in the country.
- Survey covers all institutions in India providing higher education.
- Data collected on parameters like teachers, student enrollment, programs, exam results, education finance, and infrastructure.
- Indicators calculated: Institution Density, Gross Enrolment Ratio, Pupil-teacher ratio, Gender Parity Index, Per Student Expenditure.
- Higher Education defined as education obtained after completing 12 years of schooling or equivalent.
Key Takeaways:
[1] Enrollment Trends: Female Dominance
- Rising Female Enrollment: The AISHE report reveals a consistent increase in female enrollment in higher education institutions.
- 2014-15 to 2021-22: Female enrollment grew by 32%, from 1.5 crore in 2014-15 to 2.07 crores in 2021-22. In the last five years, it increased by 18.7% from 1.74 crore in 2017-18.
- PhD Enrollment Surge: The most significant growth was observed at the PhD level, with 98,636 women enrolled in 2021-22, compared to only 47,717 eight years ago.
- Proportion of Women: Among the additional 91 lakh students joining higher education in 2021-22 compared to 2014-15, 55% were women. The postgraduate level saw the highest proportion of female students, with 55.4%.
[2] Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) and Gender Parity
- GER Insights: The estimated GER for the age group 18-23 years in India is 28.4, based on 2011 census data.
- State-wise GER: States with the highest GER include Chandigarh (64.8%), Puducherry (61.5%), Delhi (49%), and Tamil Nadu (47%).
- Gender Parity Index (GPI): GPI measures the ratio of female GER to male GER. In 26 states and Union Territories, GER favors women. At the national level, the GPI is 1.01, and for SC and ST categories, it is 1.01 and 0.98, respectively.
[3] Academic Discipline Enrollment
- UG Enrollment by Discipline: The Bachelor of Arts (BA) program holds the highest enrollment with 1.13 crore students, constituting 34.2% of total undergraduate enrollment. Overall, 3.41 crore students are enrolled in UG programs.
- UG Discipline Preferences: UG enrollment distribution in 2021-22 is led by Arts (34.2%), followed by Science (14.8%), Commerce (13.3%), and Engineering & Technology (11.8%). BA(Hons) accounts for 6.2%.
- PG Enrollment: Social science has the highest number of postgraduate students with 10.8 lakh. The Master of Arts (MA) program leads with 20.9 lakh students, constituting 40.7% of total postgraduate enrollment.
- PhD Discipline: In the PhD category, social sciences rank third after engineering and science. While 52,748 students pursue a PhD in engineering and 45,324 in science, 26,057 opt for PhD in social sciences.
[4] Preference for Government Institutions
- Government vs. Private: Surprisingly, 73.7% of all students attend government universities, which constitute only 58.6% of all universities.
- Government Sector Enrollment: State public universities hold the largest share of enrolment, accounting for around 31% of total university enrolment.
- Private Universities: In terms of numbers, government-owned universities enroll 71.06 lakh students, while privately managed universities enroll 25.32 lakh students. Students show a preference for government educational institutions.
[5] Demographics of Graduates
- Graduation Statistics: In the 2021-22 academic year, an estimated 1.07 crore students graduated from various programs, with 50.8% being women.
- Category-wise Graduates: Approximately 35% of graduates belong to Other Backward Classes (OBC), 13% are from Scheduled Caste (SC), and 5.7% are from Scheduled Tribe (ST) communities.
- Stream-wise Graduation: Arts and social sciences streams exhibit higher graduation rates. At the undergraduate level, BA degrees top the list with 24.16 lakh graduates. MA degrees dominate at the postgraduate level with 7.02 lakh graduates. In PhD programs, science leads with 7,408 graduates, followed by engineering and technology with 6,270 graduates.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CAA
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
Citizenship (Amendment) Act (CAA), 2019: Key Provisions
- Basic idea: CAA, 2019, aims to amend the Citizenship Act, 1955, to grant Indian citizenship to specific categories of illegal migrants.
- Eligible Religions: CAA targets Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian illegal migrants from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, making them eligible for Indian citizenship.
- Objective: The primary objective is to facilitate citizenship for non-Muslim immigrants from India’s three Muslim-majority neighboring countries.
- Residence Requirement: The Citizenship Act, 1955, normally requires 11 of the previous 14 years of residence in India as a condition for naturalization.
- Amendment: CAA reduces this requirement to 6 years for applicants belonging to the specified religions and countries.
- Exemption from Criminal Cases: Members of the designated communities are exempted from criminal cases under the Foreigners Act, 1946, and the Passport Act, 1920, if they entered India before December 31, 2014.
Defining Illegal Migrants
- Status Under Present Laws: Existing laws prohibit illegal migrants from acquiring Indian citizenship.
- CAA’s Definition: CAA classifies an illegal migrant as a foreigner who enters India without valid travel documents (passport and visa) or overstays beyond the allowed period.
- Penalties: Illegal migrants can face imprisonment or deportation under the Foreigners Act, 1946, and The Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920.
Exceptions under CAA
- Conditions for Exemption: CAA outlines four conditions that, if met, exempt certain individuals from being treated as illegal migrants:
- They belong to the specified religions (Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, or Christian).
- They hail from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, or Pakistan.
- They entered India on or before December 31, 2014.
- They are not in certain tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, or Tripura (Sixth Schedule) or “Inner Line” permit areas (Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, and Nagaland).
Controversies Surrounding CAA
- Country of Origin: CAA categorizes migrants based on their country of origin, specifically Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.
- Religious Exclusivity: It raises questions about why only six specified religious minorities have been considered in the Act.
- Omission of Rohingya: The Act doesn’t address the Rohingya Muslims from Myanmar, who have faced persecution.
- Entry Date Differentiation: The differential treatment of migrants based on their entry date, i.e., before or after December 31, 2014, has generated debate.
- Secularism Concerns: Critics argue that granting citizenship based on religion contradicts the secular principles of India’s Constitution, considered part of the unalterable basic structure.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Supreme Court of India
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The Prime Minister inaugurated the diamond jubilee year celebrations of the Supreme Court, marking an important milestone in India’s judicial history.
About Supreme Court of India
- Apex Judicial Body: The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial authority as per the Constitution of India.
- Constitutional Mandate: Article 124 of the Constitution stipulates the establishment of the Supreme Court.
- Birth of the Supreme Court: The Supreme Court came into being on January 26, 1950, coinciding with the commencement of the Indian Constitution.
- Inauguration: Two days after India became a Sovereign Democratic Republic, the Supreme Court was officially inaugurated on January 28, 1950.
- Initial Location: Initially, the Supreme Court operated from the old Parliament House until it relocated to its present site on Tilak Marg, New Delhi, in 1958.
- Inaugural Event: The inaugural ceremony of the current Supreme Court building was presided over by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India, on August 4, 1958.
Evolution of Judicial Bench Strength
- Changing Dynamics: The original 1950 Constitution envisioned a Supreme Court comprising a Chief Justice and 7 puisne Judges, allowing Parliament to alter this number.
- Progressive Growth: Over the years, the number of Judges increased to accommodate the growing workload: 8 in 1950, 11 in 1956, 14 in 1960, 18 in 1978, 26 in 1986, 31 in 2009, and the current strength of 34 Judges.
- Judicial Structure: Judges sit in panels of two or three and convene in larger benches of 5 or more, known as Constitution Benches, to resolve conflicting decisions between different Supreme Court benches or address significant constitutional interpretations.
- Official Language: Proceedings in the Supreme Court are conducted exclusively in English.
Powers and Jurisdiction
- Multifaceted Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court possesses original, appellate, and advisory jurisdiction.
- Final Arbiter: It serves as the ultimate court of appeal and the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution.
- Original Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court’s original jurisdiction extends to disputes involving the Government of India and one or more States, inter-State disputes, and issues related to Fundamental Rights.
- Writ Jurisdiction: Article 32 of the Constitution empowers the Supreme Court with extensive original jurisdiction to enforce Fundamental Rights by issuing writs like habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto, and certiorari.
- Inter-High Court Cases: The Supreme Court can direct the transfer of civil or criminal cases between High Courts.
- International Commercial Arbitration: Under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996, the Supreme Court can initiate International Commercial Arbitration.
- Appellate Authority: High Courts can grant certificates for appeals to the Supreme Court under Article 132(1), 133(1), or 134 in cases with substantial questions of constitutional interpretation.
- Certified Appeals: In civil cases, High Courts may certify that a case involves a significant question of general importance, warranting Supreme Court adjudication.
- Criminal Appeals: In criminal cases, appeals lie to the Supreme Court if the High Court has reversed an acquittal, sentenced an accused to death, imprisonment for life, or imprisonment for over 10 years, or if the High Court certifies the case’s suitability for Supreme Court appeal.
- Parliamentary Empowerment: Parliament can confer additional powers on the Supreme Court to hear appeals from High Courts in criminal proceedings.
- Special Leave to Appeal: Under Article 136, the Supreme Court may, at its discretion, grant special leave to appeal from any judgment, decree, or order passed by any Court or Tribunal in India.
- Advisory Role: The Supreme Court exercises advisory jurisdiction under Article 143, wherein the President of India can refer specific matters to the Court.
- Election Petitions: Part III of the Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952, allows direct filing of election petitions in the Supreme Court.
- Contempt Powers: Articles 129 and 142 empower the Supreme Court to punish for contempt of Court, including self-contempt.
- Curative Petitions: After dismissing a review petition, the Supreme Court can reconsider its final judgment through a curative petition on limited grounds.
- Binding Authority: As India’s highest court, its judgments are binding on all other courts in the country.
Location of the Supreme Court
- Article 130: Article 130 of the Constitution grants the Chief Justice of India the authority to choose the location of the Supreme Court, which can be in Delhi or any other place.
- CJI’s Discretion: The Article vests exclusive discretionary powers with the Chief Justice of India regarding the Supreme Court’s location.
- No External Compulsion: No external authority can compel the Chief Justice to act in a particular manner under this Article.
Advocating for Circuit Benches
- Law Commission Recommendation: The Law Commission’s 229th Report suggested establishing a Constitution Bench in New Delhi and four other benches in different regions of India.
- Diverging Views: However, this proposal did not garner favor among Supreme Court Judges.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mother’s Absolute Affection Programme
Mains level: addressing child stunting in India requires a multifaceted approach
Central Idea:
Early childhood stunting not only impacts a child’s height but also influences cognitive development, potentially leading to lower educational achievements. The article emphasizes the importance of understanding the underlying mechanisms of this impact, particularly in low- and middle-income countries like India. It discusses a recent study in Ethiopia and Peru, highlighting the negative correlation between stunting at age 5 and later cognitive skills, specifically executive functions. The findings underscore the critical role of early childhood nutrition in determining cognitive development and educational outcomes.
Key Highlights:
- Stunting at around age 5 is linked to lower executive functions, including working memory and inhibitory control, in later childhood.
- Traditional cognitive-achievement tests may not fully capture inherent cognitive skills, and stunting’s impact may extend beyond cognitive deficits to include behavioral factors like delayed school enrollment.
- The article highlights the need for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms through which stunting affects educational achievements, especially in the context of low- and middle-income countries.
Key Challenges:
- Existing research often focuses on specific cognitive-achievement test scores, making it challenging to fully understand the complex relationship between early human capital investments, such as nutrition, and cognitive development.
- Achieving a comprehensive assessment of cognitive skills is complicated by the interplay of cognitive abilities, educational access, and other behavioral factors.
- The article stresses the need to move beyond traditional cognitive-achievement tests and focus on a deeper understanding of the mechanisms linking early human capital investments to cognitive development.
Key Terms and Phrases:
- Early childhood stunting
- Cognitive development
- Executive functions
- Behavioral factors
- Household fixed effects
- Poshan Abhiyaan
- Integrated Child Development Services
- Jal Jeevan Mission
- Swachh Bharat Mission
- Mother’s Absolute Affection Programme
- Complementary feeding
- Anganwadi worker
Key Quotes:
- “Stunting at approximately age 5 is negatively related to executive functions measured years later.”
- “Empirical studies have shown that women’s height and educational attainment are strong predictors of child stunting in India.”
- “Improvements in sanitation reduce the incidence of diarrhoea and stunting.”
- “Promoting early breastfeeding, along with continued breastfeeding for two years, is essential for optimal child development.”
Key Statements:
- The study in Ethiopia and Peru establishes a negative correlation between stunting at age 5 and later cognitive skills, emphasizing the long-term impact of early childhood stunting.
- The article stresses the need to move beyond traditional cognitive-achievement tests and focus on a deeper understanding of the mechanisms linking early human capital investments to cognitive development.
Key Examples and References:
- Sánchez et al.’s study in ‘World Development’ linking early under-nutrition to executive functions in Ethiopia and Peru.
- The role of initiatives like Poshan Abhiyaan, Integrated Child Development Services, Jal Jeevan Mission, and Swachh Bharat Mission in addressing stunting in India.
Key Facts and Data:
- The study in Ethiopia and Peru provides evidence of the negative relationship between stunting at age 5 and executive functions.
- Empirical studies highlight the predictive role of women’s height and educational attainment in child stunting in India.
Critical Analysis:
The article effectively highlights the limitations of traditional cognitive-achievement tests in assessing the impact of early human capital investments on cognitive development. It emphasizes the need for a more nuanced understanding of the complex factors contributing to lower educational achievements, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. The study’s focus on executive functions and the link between stunting and cognitive skills adds valuable insights to the existing literature.
Way Forward:
- Expand initiatives like the Mother’s Absolute Affection Programme to provide comprehensive lactation support and create breastfeeding-friendly environments.
- Implement and scale up community-based complementary feeding programs to educate parents about the importance of a diverse diet for children.
- Consider adding an extra Anganwadi worker to each center to enhance preschool instructional time, potentially improving developmental outcomes and creating employment opportunities.
In summary, addressing child stunting in India requires a multifaceted approach, including comprehensive nutrition initiatives, sanitation improvements, and strategic investments in education and childcare services. The article underscores the need for evidence-based policies to enhance early childhood nutrition and cognitive development.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: importance of evidence-based decision-making and long-term goals in public health policies
Central Idea:
The article highlights the need for a shift in the approach to public health management in democratic setups, emphasizing the importance of prioritizing preventive measures over immediate, politically-driven responses. It advocates for a separation of health-care decision-making from short-term political goals to ensure sustainable health strategies that address both immediate and future health needs.
Key Highlights:
- Silent victories in preventing diseases often go unnoticed in the pursuit of tangible achievements.
- Immediate response-focused initiatives divert attention from critical areas like sanitation, disease surveillance, and public health education.
- The case of dengue exemplifies the prioritization of emergency relief over long-term prevention strategies.
- The article stresses the importance of evidence-based decision-making and long-term goals in public health policies.
- Gaps in public health education and the influence of the pharmaceutical industry are recognized challenges.
- Disparities in achieving health policy targets, especially in nutrition programs, reveal gaps in public health efforts.
- Socio-economic factors like poverty, sanitation, and overcrowding contribute to health disparities in diseases like tuberculosis.
Key Terms/Phrases:
- Preventive health measures
- Vector bionomics
- Public health education
- Pharmaceutical industry influence
- Socio-economic factors
- Health policy targets
- Separation of powers approach
Key Quotes:
- “In a democratic setup, leaders often chase tangible achievements and overlook vital preventive efforts.”
- “Public health decisions should be based on scientific evidence and long-term goals, not electoral cycles.”
- “Behavioural change is key to managing public health challenges.”
- “Effective public health management should encompass preventive measures, policy formulation, community health, and environmental health.”
Key Statements:
- “Health care will benefit from being separated from political processes.”
- “Investments in nutrition programs have far-reaching implications for health and productivity.”
- “Public health is not just about treating diseases but preventing them.”
Key Examples and References:
- Dengue as an example of prioritizing immediate relief over long-term prevention.
- Disparity in achieving targets in the Prime Minister’s Overarching Scheme For Holistic Nourishment (POSHAN) Abhiyan Scheme.
- Disparity in TB cases between India and the United States due to socio-economic factors.
Key Facts/Data:
- 35.5% of children under five were stunted, and 32.1% were underweight in 2019-21.
- 58.6% to 67.1% increase in prevalence of anaemic children aged 6-59 months.
- India reported 21.4 lakh TB cases in 2021, an 18% increase from 2020.
Critical Analysis:
- The article effectively highlights the drawbacks of immediate, politically-driven health initiatives.
- Emphasizes the importance of evidence-based decision-making and long-term planning in public health.
- Recognizes gaps in public health education and the impact of socio-economic factors on health outcomes.
Way Forward:
- Advocate for a separation of health-care decision-making from short-term political goals.
- Strengthen public health education and adopt a multidisciplinary approach.
- Emphasize evidence-based decision-making and prioritize long-term preventive measures.
- Address socio-economic factors influencing health outcomes.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: VIP Security
Mains level: NA
Introduction
- The Union Home Ministry has provided a Z+ category security cordon manned by Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) troopers around Kerala Governor Arif Mohammad Khan.
VIP Security Provisions in India
- In India, security is provided to high-risk individuals by the police and local government.
- The level of security needed by any individual is decided by the Ministry of Home Affairs, based on inputs received from intelligence agencies which include the IB and R&AW.
- Individuals such as PM, home minister, and other officials such as the National Security Advisor generally get security cover because of the positions they occupy.
- In addition to this, persons who are believed to be under threat also receive security cover.
What is Z+ Category Security?
In India, the category covers are X, Y, Y-plus, Z, Z-plus, and SPG (Special Protection Group).
- X Category: The protectee gets one gunman. Protectees in the Y category have one gunman for mobile security and one (plus four on rotation) for static security.
- Y Plus category: It receives the cover of two gunmen (plus four on rotation) for mobile security, and one (plus four on rotation) for residence security,
- Z Category: It has six gunmen for mobile security and two (plus 8) for residence security. They get 10 security personnel for mobile security, and two (plus 8) for residence security.
- Z Plus Category: It is provided by National Security Guard commandos whereas the other category of security is provided by the Delhi police or the ITBP or CRPF personnel.
What about Special Protection Group (SPG) Cover?
- The SPG cover is meant only for the PM and his immediate family.
- After Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her own security guards in 1984, the Rajiv Gandhi government decided to create a special cadre of security personnel for the PM.
- In March 1985, following the recommendations of a committee set up by the Home Ministry, a special unit was created for this purpose under the Cabinet Secretariat.
- This unit, initially called the Special Protection Unit, was renamed as Special Protection Group in April 1985.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ECOWAS
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The military regimes in Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger announced their immediate withdrawal from the West African bloc ECOWAS.
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
|
Details |
| Establishment |
Regional intergovernmental organization established in 1975. |
| Objectives |
Aims to foster economic integration, cooperation, and development among West African nations. |
| Headquarters |
Secretariat headquartered in Abuja, Nigeria. |
| Member States |
15 member states: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Cote d’ Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Senegal, and Togo. |
| Primary Goals & Objectives |
- Promoting economic integration among member states.
- Facilitating the free movement of people, goods, and services.
- Enhancing regional cooperation in various sectors.
- Fostering a borderless region governed by democratic principles and good governance.
- Addressing security and political challenges through collaboration and conflict resolution.
|
| Achievements & Initiatives |
- Establishment of ECOMOG peacekeeping force for conflict resolution.
- Launching the ECOWAS Single Currency Initiative for economic integration.
- Supporting efforts to combat terrorism, human trafficking, and organized crime.
|
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nitrogen Hypoxia
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- Alabama’s recent execution of a prisoner by nitrogen hypoxia has stirred debate and controversy, marking a historic shift in execution methods after four decades.
- While some argue for the method’s effectiveness, others condemn it as cruel and inhumane.
Science behind Nitrogen Hypoxia
- Nitrogen Inhalation: Smith, 58, underwent execution by inhaling pure nitrogen, depriving the body of oxygen needed for vital functions.
- NIOSH-Approved Respirator: The state of Alabama used an industrial-grade respirator, specifically a “NIOSH-approved Type-C full facepiece supplied air respirator,” delivering nitrogen to the inmate.
- Deprivation of Oxygen: While nitrogen is harmless in normal air composition, inhaling it exclusively leads to oxygen deprivation, causing eventual death.
Execution Duration
- Unexpected Prolongation: Despite claims that nitrogen gas would cause unconsciousness within seconds and death within minutes, Smith’s execution took approximately 22 minutes.
- Witness Accounts: Onlookers reported distressing scenes of Smith writhing, convulsing, and gasping for air during the extended execution.
Legal and Ethical Questions
- Constitutional Concerns: Smith’s lawyers attempted to halt the execution, arguing it violated the constitutional ban on cruel and unusual punishment.
- Experimental Execution Method: Critics contended that Smith was being used as a test subject for an untested method, highlighting the lack of adequate research and procedures.
- Federal Court Rulings: Despite legal challenges, federal courts, including the US Supreme Court, rejected attempts to block the execution, raising concerns about the state’s approach.
Death Penalty Landscape in the US
- Highly Charged Issue: The death penalty remains a polarizing political topic in the United States, drawing contrasting views on its justice, deterrence, and ethical considerations.
- Questionable Deterrence: Research indicates no conclusive evidence that capital punishment acts as a deterrent to crime, challenging one of its main justifications.
- Execution Methods’ Challenges: Lethal injection, the most common method, faces controversies, from botched executions to reliability issues.
- Racial and Economic Bias: Critics argue that capital punishment carries a risk of wrongful prosecution, with studies revealing racial and economic biases in its application.
Conclusion
- As the United States witnesses the first nitrogen hypoxia execution, the controversy surrounding the method raises broader questions about the ethics, constitutionality, and efficacy of capital punishment.
- With legal battles ongoing and public opinion divided, the execution of Kenneth Smith serves as a focal point for re-evaluating the nation’s approach to the death penalty and the methods employed.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ladakh, Gilgit Baltistan
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The socio-political landscape of Ladakh is witnessing ongoing dialogues and demands on Gilgit-Baltistan, primarily presented by the Leh Apex Body (LAB) and Kargil Democratic Alliance (KDA) to the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
- The demands encompass a range of issues, including territorial control expansion, restoration of statehood, special status under the Sixth Schedule and Article 371, and exclusive rights over recruitment.
Ladakh’s Current Status
- Formation as Union Territory: Ladakh, spanning 59,146 square kilometers, became a Union Territory on August 5, 2019, following the abrogation of Article 370.
- Governance: Unlike Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh does not have a legislature but is governed by two elected hill councils, LAHDC-Kargil and LAHDC-Leh.
- Population and Demographics: Ladakh, with a population of 2.74 lakh (2011 census), is a Muslim-majority UT, with Buddhists dominating Leh district and Shia Muslims in Kargil. The region witnessed varied reactions to the abrogation of Article 370, with Leh supporting UT status and Kargil expressing a desire for reunification with Kashmir.
Latest Demands of the Region
- Protests against UT Status: Over the past two years, both Leh and Kargil initiated protests against the UT status without a legislature, advocating for the restoration of statehood.
- Special Status under Sixth Schedule: There is a collective demand for special status under the Sixth Schedule and Article 371, similar to other northeastern states, to preserve the region’s ecological fragility and limit external influences.
- Exclusive Recruitment Rights: Ladakh seeks exclusive rights over recruitment, proposing the establishment of the Ladakh Public Service Commission for gazetted jobs and empowering hill councils for lower rung staff recruitment.
Territorial Control Expansion
- Historical Context: The memorandum underlines Ladakh’s historical connection to Gilgit-Baltistan, part of the pre-1947 Ladakh district now under Pakistan’s occupation.
- Territorial Control Demand: Ladakh demands an extension of territorial control up to Gilgit-Baltistan, advocating for attempts to include this area into Ladakh. Reservation of seats for Gilgit-Baltistan is sought once a legislature is granted.
- Strategic and Stability Considerations: The memorandum emphasizes that empowering locals will enhance stability in the region, especially in the context of Ladakh’s volatile Line of Actual Control (LAC) with China.
Centre’s Response and Committees Formed
- Committees Formed: In response to street protests, the Centre formed committees in 2022 and 2024, led by Ministers G. Kishan Reddy and Nityanand Rai, respectively, to engage with LAB and KDA members.
- Assurance and Ongoing Talks: The Centre assured finding appropriate solutions to language, culture, and land conservation issues in Ladakh. Ongoing talks are aimed at addressing the demands and fostering a structured dialogue between New Delhi and Ladakh.
Conclusion
- Ladakh’s socio-political dialogue continues, reflecting the diverse sentiments and demands of its residents.
- The region’s historical context, strategic considerations, and ecological concerns play a crucial role in shaping the ongoing negotiations.
- As Ladakh awaits resolutions to its demands, the dialogue remains a critical component in navigating the complex dynamics between the Centre and this unique Union Territory.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sovereign 'Guarantee'
Mains level: Not Much
Introduction
- A working group constituted by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has presented key recommendations to address challenges related to guarantees extended by State governments.
Understanding ‘Guarantee’
- A ‘guarantee’ involves a legal obligation for a State to make payments on behalf of a borrower, safeguarding investors/lenders from default risks.
- As defined by the Indian Contracts Act (1872), it is a contract involving three parties: the principal debtor, creditor, and surety (State government).
- The ‘guarantee’ acts as a safety net, ensuring payment in case of default by the borrower.
Purpose of ‘Guarantee’ at the State Level
- Sovereign Guarantee: Facilitates concessional loans from bilateral or multilateral agencies to public sector enterprises.
- Project Viability: Enhances project viability for activities with significant social and economic benefits.
- Resource Mobilization: Enables public sector enterprises to secure resources at favorable terms, contributing to lower interest charges.
Fiscal Risks and Working Group Recommendations
- Cash Outflows and Debt: While guarantees may not require upfront cash payments, they pose fiscal risks, leading to unanticipated cash outflows and increased debt during challenging times.
- Complex Estimation: Estimating the quantum and timing of potential costs/cash outflows is challenging due to triggers associated with guarantees.
Recommendations on ‘Guarantee’ Definition and Guidelines
- Broadened Definition: The term ‘guarantee’ should encompass all instruments creating obligations for the guarantor (State) to make future payments on behalf of the borrower.
- Guidelines for Accordance: Government guarantees should not substitute budgetary resources and should adhere to Government of India guidelines.
- Preconditions: Specify preconditions, including the period of guarantee, guarantee fee, government representation on the management board, and audit rights.
Risk Determination, Fee, and Ceiling
- Risk Weight Assignment: States should assign risk weights (high, medium, low) before extending guarantees, considering past defaults.
- Ceiling on Guarantees: A desirable ceiling for incremental guarantees during a year, limiting stress on state governments.
- Guarantee Fee Structure: Reflective of borrower’s project riskiness and activities, with a base fee of at least 2.5% per annum.
Disclosures and Honouring Commitments
- Credit Disclosure: Banks/NBFCs should disclose credit extended to State-owned entities backed by State guarantees for improved credibility.
- Database Establishment: Set up a state-level unit to track and consolidate all guarantees, ensuring proper data compilation.
- Timely Honouring: States must honor guarantees without delay, recognizing the reputational and legal risks associated with defaults.
Conclusion
- The RBI working group’s recommendations aim to fortify fiscal management by introducing standardized practices, enhancing risk assessment, and ensuring transparent disclosures.
- These measures, if implemented, can contribute to better fiscal discipline and mitigate potential risks associated with state government guarantees.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not Much
Mains level: Chinese inroads in Africa
Introduction
- China’s Minister of Foreign Affairs, Wang Yi, embarked on a diplomatic tour across four African nations—Egypt, Tunisia, Togo, and the Ivory Coast.
- Marking his 11th annual visit to Africa, Wang Yi’s trip aimed at bolstering economic and security cooperation, aligning with the outcomes of the China-Africa Leaders Dialogue and setting the stage for the ninth Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) in 2024.
China’s FM Visit: Key Objectives
- Implementation of Dialogue Outcomes: Execute initiatives from the China-Africa Leaders Dialogue, focusing on industrialization, agricultural modernization, and talent development support.
- Peace Mediation in Gaza: In Egypt, Wang Yi expressed China’s global mediation intentions, urging an “immediate and comprehensive ceasefire” in Gaza.
Historical Significance of Sino-African Relations
- Roots in Cold War Era: Sino-African relations date back to the 1950s, with China supporting African liberation movements during the Cold War.
- FOCAC Initiatives (2000): The first Forum on China-Africa Cooperation in 2000 marked a shift towards diplomacy, investment, and trade, evolving into a robust partnership.
- Belt and Road Initiative (2013): China’s Belt and Road Initiative strengthened ties with 52 African countries, making China Africa’s largest trading partner.
China’s Objectives in Africa
- Resource Access: Securing key resources, with Africa supplying 90% of global cobalt, platinum, and 75% of coltan, crucial for China’s tech industry.
- Geopolitical Influence: Leveraging Africa’s role as the largest bloc in the UN General Assembly to support China’s stances on issues like the South China Sea.
- Yuan Strengthening: Encouraging Africa to trade in the Chinese currency (RMB) for economic advantages and debt restructuring.
- Commercial Opportunities: Utilizing Africa’s markets for Chinese exports, benefiting from a young population and a cost-effective labor force.
Impact on Africa
- Investment, Trade, and Development Aid: Africa receives vital investment, trade benefits, and development aid from China, fostering a ‘win-win partnership.’
- Infrastructure Development: Chinese-built infrastructure and industrial parks contribute to employment opportunities, making ‘Made in Africa’ a reality.
- Agricultural Advancements: Chinese support in advancing hybrid crops enhances Africa’s agricultural sector.
- Non-Interference Approach: China’s non-interference policy in development aid garners trust, contrasting with Western practices and offering African nations autonomy.
Challenges and Controversies
- Debt Trap Concerns: Some view Chinese investments as potentially leading to debt traps, although not all African nations have poorly managed their debt.
- Authoritarian Leverage: China’s ‘non-interference’ stance may empower authoritarian regimes in Africa, raising concerns about governance and political stability.
Conclusion
- Wang Yi’s African tour signifies China’s commitment to strengthening its multifaceted partnership with the continent, addressing mutual concerns, and laying the groundwork for collaborative ventures in the years to come.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Encryption
Mains level: Not Much
Introduction
- In today’s digital age, information is invaluable, and encryption serves as a crucial means to protect it.
- Specifically, end-to-end (E2E) encryption has transformed how human rights organizations, law enforcement, and technology companies handle sensitive information.
What is Encryption?
- Encryption Definition: Encryption involves transforming consumable information into an unconsumable form based on specific rules. Different encryption methods exist, providing varying levels of security.
- Example of DES: The Data Encryption Standard (DES) encrypts text like “ice cream” to a garbled form with a specified key, such as “kite” or “motorcycle.”
- Key Importance: A key serves as the means to unlock (decrypt) encrypted text, ensuring that only authorized individuals can access the original information.
What is End-to-End Encryption (E2E)?
- E2E Encryption Defined: E2E encryption focuses on specific locations through which information travels. In a messaging app, for instance, E2E encryption ensures that messages are encrypted both during transmission and storage, only decrypted when received by the intended recipient.
- Protection in Transit and at Rest: E2E encryption safeguards information during transmission and while stored on servers, providing comprehensive protection.
Mechanisms of Information Encryption
(A) Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Encryption:
- Symmetric Encryption: The same key is used for both encryption and decryption. Examples include DES and Advanced Encryption Standard (AES).
- Asymmetric Encryption: Different keys are used for encryption and decryption. Public and private key pairs, such as Curve25519, exemplify asymmetric encryption.
(B) Hash Functions:
- Hash Function Properties: Hash functions encrypt messages with properties like non-reversibility, fixed-length output, and uniqueness for unique inputs.
- Example of DES Hash Function: DES uses a complex process, including S-boxes, to encrypt messages.
Can E2E Encryption Be ‘Cracked’?
- MITM Attacks: A man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack involves intercepting messages by acquiring encryption keys. Countermeasures include fingerprint comparison to detect tampering.
- Complacency Risks: Users may become complacent, assuming total security. However, malware and backdoors can compromise device security, allowing unauthorized access.
- Metadata Surveillance: While E2E encryption secures message content, surveillance can occur through metadata analysis, revealing information about message timing, recipients, and locations.
- Backdoor Risks: Companies implementing E2E encryption may install backdoors, enabling access for legal or illicit purposes. Examples, like the Snowden affair, highlight potential misuse.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: International Court of Justice (ICJ)
Mains level: NA
Introduction
- The recent interim ruling by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) regarding South Africa’s case against Israel has sparked global attention.
- While the court did not pass judgment on the core issue of whether Israel is committing genocide in Gaza, it did issue six provisional measures.
ICJ’s Interim Ruling: Six Provisional Measures Ordered
- Prevention of Genocidal Acts: A 15:2 majority mandated that Israel take all necessary steps to prevent acts defined under Article 2 of the Genocide Convention, encompassing actions with the intent to destroy a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group.
- Immediate Military Restraint: Israel was directed to prevent its military from committing any genocidal acts “with immediate effect.”
- Incitement to Genocide: Sixteen out of 17 judges ruled that Israel must prevent and punish direct and public incitement to commit genocide against Palestinians in the Gaza Strip.
- Humanitarian Assistance: The court instructed Israel to provide humanitarian aid and basic services to Palestinians in Gaza, recognizing them as a protected group under the Genocide Convention.
- Preservation of Evidence: Israel was entrusted with preserving evidence related to alleged acts under the Genocide Convention in Gaza.
- Reporting Requirement: By a 15:2 majority, Israel was asked to submit a report on measures taken to implement the ruling within one month.
Decision on Jurisdiction
- Jurisdiction Confirmed: The World Court clarified its jurisdiction, stating that there exists a prima facie dispute between the parties concerning the application of the Genocide Convention.
- Article 9 of Genocide Convention: Referring to Article 9, the court emphasized that South Africa’s concerns and Israel’s dismissal indicated a genuine dispute.
Comments on Israel’s Actions in Gaza
- Genocidal Acts: The court suggested that “at least some” of Israel’s acts and omissions may fall within the contours of the Genocide Convention.
- Impact of Military Operation: Israel’s large-scale military operation in Gaza, causing civilian casualties and displacement, was highlighted.
- Statements by Israeli Officials: The court pointed to concerning statements by senior Israeli officials, including orders for a “complete siege” of Gaza and dehumanizing remarks about troops.
- Humanitarian Concerns: Expressing deep concern, the court warned of a potential deterioration in the humanitarian situation before the final judgment.
No Call for Ceasefire
- Court’s Limitations: The ICJ refrained from ordering a ceasefire, with legal experts explaining that such an order could render Israel defenseless and fall outside the court’s purview.
- International Impact: While the court’s rulings are legally binding, enforcement is lacking. However, its opinions carry weight with the UN and other international institutions.
Also read:
ICJ: Doing Justice without power
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme
Mains level: Farm Loan
Introduction
- In the first nine months of the current fiscal year, farm loan disbursals have exceeded 90 percent of the Budget estimate, prompting expectations of a significant hike in the Interim Budget for the next fiscal year (2024-25).
- Finance Minister had set a target of ₹20 lakh crore for agriculture credit during the previous fiscal year (2023-24).
Budget Promises and Performance
- Credit Target Increase: Finance Minister Sitharaman had announced an agriculture credit target of ₹20 lakh crore for FY 2023-24. The current disbursement data indicates that this target is likely to be exceeded.
- Sectoral Focus: The Ministry reported that credit disbursed to the Animal Husbandry and Fisheries sector in FY 2023-24 reached ₹1,91,412 crore, constituting 65 percent of the ₹2.93 lakh crore target.
- Working Capital and Term Loans: Disbursements included over ₹77,000 crore as working capital and over ₹1.13 lakh crore as term loans.
Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme Impact
- Significant Growth: Agricultural credit has witnessed substantial growth from ₹7.3 lakh crore in FY 2013-14 to ₹21.55 lakh crore in FY 2022-23, driven by the success of the KCC scheme.
- Operative KCC Accounts: The KCC scheme, facilitating timely and hassle-free credit, boasts over 7.36 crore operative accounts as of the end of 2023.
- Interest Subvention: Concessional interest rates, with a 7 percent lending rate and a 1.5 percent per annum interest subvention, were offered for short-term crop and allied activity loans up to ₹3 lakh through KCC.
About Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme
|
Details |
| Objective |
To provide timely and flexible credit support to farmers for various agricultural and related needs. |
| Launch |
Introduced in 1998 to issue KCC to farmers, facilitating the purchase of agricultural inputs and cash withdrawals for production needs. |
| Credit Support |
- Short-term credit for crop cultivation.
- Post-harvest expenses and produce marketing loans.
- Household consumption needs.
- Working capital for farm assets maintenance and allied activities.
- Investment credit for agriculture and allied activities.
|
| Implementing Agencies |
Commercial Banks, Regional Rural Banks (RRBs), Small Finance Banks, and Cooperatives. |
| Eligible Farmers |
- Individual and joint borrowers who are owner cultivators.
- Tenant farmers, oral lessees, and sharecroppers.
- Self Help Groups (SHGs) or Joint Liability Groups (JLGs) of farmers, including tenant farmers and sharecroppers.
|
| Maximum Permissible Limit (MPL) |
The short-term loan limit for the 5th year, plus the estimated long-term loan requirement, determines the KCC limit. |
Regulatory Framework and Initiatives
- RBI Mandate: RBI mandates a priority sector lending target for banks, with a specific allocation of 18 percent for agriculture and a 10 percent sub-target for Small and Marginal Farmers (SMFs) for FY 2023-24.
- Prompt Repayment Incentive (PRI): An additional 3 percent PRI is provided for prompt and timely repayment, effectively reducing the interest rate to 4 percent per annum.
- Collateral-Free Agriculture Loans: RBI is set to raise the limit for collateral-free agriculture loans to ₹1.6 lakh from ₹1 lakh, aiming to enhance the coverage of small and marginal farmers.
- Streamlined Lending Practices: Banks have streamlined lending by eliminating ‘no dues’ certificates for small loans up to ₹50,000 and accepting alternative documentation or affidavits for loans to specific categories of farmers.
Financial Inclusion and NABARD Initiatives
- Joint Liability Groups (JLGs): NABARD’s creation of ‘Joint Liability Groups’ has facilitated lending without collateral to tenant/landless farmers and non-farm workers, fostering trust between banks and JLG members.
- JLGs Performance: By March 31, 2023, a total of 257.9 lakh JLGs had been formed and linked to credit, contributing to the broader financial inclusion agenda.
Conclusion
- The surge in farm loan disbursals indicates the success of various government initiatives, particularly the KCC scheme, in promoting financial inclusion and supporting the agricultural sector.
- The likely increase in the agriculture credit target in the upcoming Interim Budget underscores the continued commitment to rural financing and development.
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