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J&K – The issues around the state

[3rd October 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Should Ladakh get statehood?

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to strengthen federalism.

Linkage: Ladakh’s case reflects the Union’s increasing control over border UTs, where administrative powers lie with the LG and Centre, marginalising local bodies — a recent trend in Centre-State/UT relations. Strengthening federalism requires constitutional safeguards (Sixth Schedule/statehood) and greater devolution of powers and finances to elected institutions.

Mentor’s Comment

The debate on Ladakh’s statehood is not merely about administrative restructuring, it is about the soul of Indian federalism. It combines questions of representation, tribal identity, border security, and constitutional safeguards. This issue is now a case study in balancing national interests with local aspirations.

Introduction

Ladakh, separated from Jammu & Kashmir in 2019 and designated a Union Territory (UT), was expected to gain autonomy and focused development. Instead, it has witnessed deepening resentment. The recent violence in Leh (September 24, 2025), which left four dead and led to the arrest of climate activist Sonam Wangchuck under the NSA, highlights the widening trust deficit. Civil society platforms like the Leh Apex Body (LAB) and the Kargil Democratic Alliance (KDA) demand statehood, inclusion under the Sixth Schedule, a Public Service Commission, and separate Lok Sabha representation.

Why in the News?

This is the first major violent episode in Ladakh since its conversion to a UT, bringing the region’s discontent into national focus. While the Centre insists that measures like reservations and recruitment drives are underway, locals argue these are executive orders, not constitutional guarantees. The clash exposes the failure of the UT model in ensuring democratic accountability, despite Ladakh’s strategic importance on the China–Pakistan frontier.

Democratic Deficit in Ladakh

  1. Loss of Voice: Earlier part of J&K Assembly; now Ladakhis cannot influence laws or leadership.
  2. Dominance of Bureaucrats: Short-term officials override local voices, bypassing elected Hill Councils.
  3. Recruitment Vacuum: No Public Service Commission; six years without gazetted officer recruitments.

Tribal and Land Safeguards at Risk

  1. Earlier Protection: Article 370 & 35A guaranteed land and job protections.
  2. Post-2019 Vacuum: Absence of safeguards raises fears of demographic change.
  3. Constitutional Demands: LAB & KDA demand Sixth Schedule — protection for tribal culture, language, land rights, beyond mere executive orders.

Sixth Schedule vs Statehood

  1. Government Stance: Argues Sixth Schedule inclusion is a logical first step before statehood.
  2. Counter View: Sajjad Kargili stresses that Sixth Schedule alone is insufficient; democracy needs statehood.
  3. Delhi Model Analogy: UTs with legislatures (Delhi) show friction with LGs — raising doubts about partial arrangements.

Population and Statehood Question

  1. Centre’s Hesitation: Population (~3.5 lakh) too small for statehood.
  2. Rebuttal: Sikkim (similar population) became a State in 1975; Goa in 1987.
  3. Fragmented Governance: Ladakh’s five new districts have micro-populations (5,000–7,000), making local governance difficult without a state-level structure.

Federalism and Centre-State Relations

  1. Supreme Court Endorsement: Upheld bifurcation of J&K into UTs.
  2. Federal Concerns: Raises questions about top-down imposition of governance models in sensitive areas.
  3. Centre vs Local Bodies: ₹6,000 crore annual budget, but only ₹600 crore devolved to Hill Councils; rest controlled by LG & bureaucrats.

Security Dimensions and Border Considerations

  1. Centre’s Argument: Border sensitivity justifies UT status.
  2. Counterpoint: Punjab, Sikkim, Uttarakhand are border states yet enjoy full statehood.
  3. Chinese Incursion 2020: Occurred post-UT status, undermining the security rationale.

Civil Society Demands and Distrust

  1. Four Core Demands: Statehood, Sixth Schedule, Public Service Commission, dual Lok Sabha seats (Leh & Kargil).
  2. Distrust of MHA: LAB & KDA halted talks, citing cosmetic concessions (women’s reservation, ST reservation) that miss the core demands.
  3. Governance Paralysis: Hill Councils reduced to ceremonial bodies; LG ignores their inputs.

Nationalism vs Allegations of “Anti-national”

  1. Local Sentiment: Ladakhis argue they are patriotic, sacrificing lives to defend frontiers.
  2. Mistrust Campaign: Trolls label them pro-China/pro-Pakistan, deepening alienation.
  3. Identity Politics: Perceived delegitimisation fuels separatist tendencies — dangerous for a border region.

Comparative Perspectives

  1. Delhi & Puducherry: UTs with legislatures — persistent Centre-LG tussle.
  2. North-East Sixth Schedule States: Despite safeguards, autonomy diluted by weak implementation.
  3. Statehood as Trust-Building: Granting Ladakh statehood could mirror past steps where integration was strengthened by empowerment (Sikkim, Mizoram).

Conclusion

The Ladakh case underscores that federalism is not only about administrative convenience but about trust-building. Sixth Schedule inclusion may provide interim safeguards, but without democratic statehood, Ladakh risks remaining voiceless. The challenge before India is to ensure that Ladakhis, guardians of a strategic frontier, feel like equal partners in the Union, not subjects of bureaucratic rule.

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Waste Management – SWM Rules, EWM Rules, etc

Cost of convenience, health hazards a a side effect of using digital tools

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

India’s embrace of the digital revolution has been rapid and transformative. From smartphones to smart homes, electronics have become integral to urban living. However, this transformation carries a dark underbelly: the mounting crisis of e-waste. In 2025, India generated 2.2 million tonnes of e-waste, becoming the third-largest generator globally, after China and the United States. Despite having a formal recycling capacity of over 2.2 million MT, more than half of India’s e-waste is still processed informally, exposing millions to toxic substances. The issue is not just environmental but also a public health catastrophe, disproportionately affecting the poor and marginalised.

Why is e-waste in the news?

India’s e-waste problem is no longer a distant warning but an immediate crisis. The country has seen a 150% surge in e-waste since 2017–18 (0.71 MT to 2.2 MT in 2025), with projections of doubling by 2030. Cities like Seelampur (Delhi), Moradabad (UP), and Bhiwandi (Maharashtra) have emerged as hotspots of informal recycling, where toxic fumes and crude dismantling methods poison both workers and residents. Despite 322 formal recycling units, informal handlers dominate the sector, creating one of the sharpest contrasts between policy design and ground reality.

The Escalating Burden of E-Waste

  1. Third-largest generator: India stands only behind China and the U.S., producing 2.2 MT of e-waste in 2025.
  2. Rapid growth: A 150% surge in seven years, expected to double by 2030.
  3. Urban hotspots: Over 60% of e-waste originates from just 65 cities; major hubs include Seelampur, Mustafabad, Moradabad, and Bhiwandi.

Why informal recycling is a ticking time bomb

  1. Crude methods: Manual dismantling, open burning, and acid leaching without protective equipment.
  2. Toxic substances: Release of over 1,000 hazardous chemicals, including heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury, chromium), POPs (dioxins, furans), and fine particulate matter (PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀).
  3. Alarming air quality: PM₂.₅ levels in Seelampur exceed 300 µg/m³ — over 12 times higher than WHO’s safe limit of 25 µg/m³.

How does e-waste impact human health?

  1. Respiratory illnesses: Workers show 76–80% prevalence of chronic bronchitis, asthma, persistent coughing (MDPI Applied Sciences, 2025).
  2. Neurological damage: Lead exposure linked to cognitive impairment, reduced IQ, attention deficits. WHO warns millions of children are at risk.
  3. Skin & ocular disorders: Rashes, burns, dermatitis; in Guiyu (China), exposure linked to miscarriages and preterm births.
  4. Genetic and systemic effects: DNA damage, oxidative stress, altered immune functions; children show higher vulnerability.
  5. Syndemic environment: E-waste risks compound poverty, malnutrition, and unsafe housing, worsening outcomes for urban poor.

Policy response: Progress and gaps

  1. E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022: Strengthened Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), mandatory registration, incentives for formalisation.
  2. Weak enforcement: As of 2023–24, only 43% of e-waste was officially processed.
  3. Legal hurdles: Capping of EPR credit prices led to legal disputes with manufacturers.
  4. Gap: Informal handlers still dominate, undermining scientific recycling capacity.

The Way Forward

  1. Formalise the informal: Integrate kabadiwalas through skill certification, PPE provision, healthcare, social security.
  2. Strengthen enforcement: Empower Pollution Control Boards, mandate digital tracking & audits.
  3. Expand medical surveillance: Health camps and long-term studies, especially on children in hotspots.
  4. Foster innovation: Promote local recycling technologies, decentralised treatment hubs.
  5. Raise awareness: Mass campaigns and school-level education on e-waste.

Conclusion

India’s digital empowerment cannot come at the cost of environmental collapse and human suffering. The e-waste crisis is not only a question of waste management but also of justice and public health. Unless India formalises its informal sector, strengthens enforcement, invests in technology, and raises awareness, the cost of convenience will continue to erode both ecosystems and human dignity.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] What are the impediments in disposing the huge quantities of discarded solid wastes which are continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment?

Linkage: The article on e-waste directly links to this PYQ as it highlights impediments like dominance of informal recycling, weak enforcement of E-Waste Rules, and lack of awareness, while also suggesting safe disposal measures such as formalisation, digital tracking, PPE use, decentralised hubs, and scientific recycling methods.

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US policy wise : Visa, Free Trade and WTO

Can diaspora please stand up

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Indian Diaspora

Introduction

The Indian-American diaspora is often hailed as one of the most successful immigrant groups in the United States, with the highest median household income among all ethnicities, six Fortune 500 CEOs, governors, Congress members, and leaders in federal agencies like the CDC and FBI. However, recent U.S. policy shifts, such as increased tariffs on Indian goods, restrictions on H-1B visas, and sanctions affecting India’s strategic infrastructure, have highlighted the limits of diaspora influence. Despite its success, the community faces a pressing question: will it remain silent, or rise to defend India’s interests when challenged abroad?

Why is this in the news?

In recent months, the Trump administration unleashed a series of punitive measures: slapping 50% tariffs on Indian goods, imposing a $100,000 fee on H-1B visa applications (of which Indians receive 70%), restricting student visas, and sanctioning India’s strategic infrastructure projects like the Chabahar port. These measures directly affect Indian professionals, businesses, and students in the U.S. Surprisingly, the celebrated Indian-American diaspora has responded with muted or absent voices, raising serious concerns about the costs of silence. This marks a sharp contrast: while India has celebrated its diaspora as “soft power champions,” their political engagement on issues of consequence appears weak.

What makes the Indian-American diaspora so influential?

  1. High economic success: Highest median household income among ethnic groups, concentration of CEOs, professionals, and leaders in U.S. politics and administration.
  2. Symbol of integration: From Bollywood films to biryani, diaspora blends nostalgia with modern influence.
  3. Strategic assets: Strong presence in STEM, academia, corporate America, and policymaking.

Why is the diaspora silent on anti-India measures?

  1. Fear of backlash: Second-generation Indian-Americans feel their American identity questioned if they oppose U.S. policy too strongly.
  2. Fragmentation: Divided by region, religion, political orientation; no unified lobbying voice.
  3. Political caution: Many supported Trump for pro-business stance or Hindu nationalist sentiment but hesitated to confront his administration.
  4. Practical concerns: Rising costs for H-1B visas, employment restrictions on STEM graduates, yet little public opposition.

What are the consequences of this silence?

  1. Weakening of India’s strategic position: If diaspora fails to defend against hostile U.S. measures, it undermines India’s global partnerships.
  2. Loss of moral voice: Diaspora loses legitimacy as defenders of India’s interests.
  3. Encouragement of further punitive actions: Silence signals complicity, emboldening further sanctions and restrictions.
  4. Cultural reductionism: Diaspora risks being seen as only symbolic carriers of Bollywood, biryani, and Bharatanatyam rather than political actors.

What should be the role of the diaspora?

  1. Bridge-builder: Act as advocates for India when U.S. policies hurt strategic ties.
  2. Political engagement: Use lobbying capacity, financial resources, and media influence to defend India’s interests.
  3. Principled advocacy: Support India not just through nostalgia or identity politics but through substantive action.
  4. Moral responsibility: As beneficiaries of U.S. democracy, they must speak truth to power, not remain bystanders.

Conclusion

The Indian-American diaspora stands at a crossroads: to remain silent and symbolic or to act as a true strategic partner for India. Its wealth, numbers, and influence offer immense potential to shape narratives in Washington, but silence risks rendering it irrelevant. For India, the diaspora must be more than a cultural soft-power asset, it must become a political and moral force that safeguards India’s interests globally.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2020] Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America and European Countries. Comment with examples.

Linkage: The article highlights how the Indian-American diaspora, despite its economic and political clout, has remained largely silent on hostile U.S. measures like tariffs and H-1B restrictions. This directly links to the PYQ as it shows both the potential role of diaspora in shaping politics and economy abroad, and the limits of its current influence when it fails to actively advocate for India.

Value Addition

Size and Spread

  1. Largest diaspora in the world – 18 million (UN DESA, 2021).
  2. Major hubs – USA (4.8 mn), UAE (3.5 mn), Saudi Arabia (2.5 mn), UK (1.6 mn), Canada (1.7 mn), Australia (0.7 mn).

Economic Role

  1. Remittances – India received $125 billion in 2023 (World Bank), highest globally.
  2. Investment channels – NRI deposits (over $141 billion in Indian banks).
  3. Entrepreneurship – Indian-Americans own ~80,000 businesses in the US, employing ~200,000 people.

Diplomatic and Strategic Role

  1. Lobbying in the US – India Caucus in US Congress, among the largest country caucuses.
  2. Strengthening bilateral ties – Diaspora played a role in the US–India nuclear deal (2008).
  3. Community mobilisation – Helped India’s COVID-19 vaccine diplomacy; strong mobilisation for relief during natural disasters (Kerala floods, Nepal earthquake).

Cultural and Soft Power Influence

  1. Bollywood & cuisine – Bollywood films rank in top 10 foreign releases in Gulf and US theatres; Indian food chains like Patel Brothers in US are cultural hubs.
  2. International Day of Yoga (21st June) – Promoted by diaspora across 170+ countries.
  3. Cricket diplomacy – Popularised Indian Premier League abroad; diaspora support in stadiums gives visibility.

Challenges and Criticism

  1. Brain drain vs. brain gain – Loss of skilled talent, though remittances compensate.
  2. Fragmentation – Religious, regional, and political divides weaken unified lobbying.
  3. Political caution – Reluctance to challenge host-country policies that hurt India.
  4. Exploitation in Gulf – Migrant workers face poor labour conditions and weak legal recourse.

Initiatives by India

  1. Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD) – Celebrated biennially since 2003.
  2. Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) – Allows lifelong visa, parity with NRIs in most fields (except politics & purchase of agricultural land).
  3. Scholarship Program for Diaspora Children (SPDC) – Assists NRI/PIO children studying in India.
  4. Madad Portal & e-Migrate – For welfare and grievance redressal of emigrants.

Comparative Diaspora Roles in Other Countries

  1. China – Chinese diaspora heavily invests in home-country infrastructure, strong lobbying in US.
  2. Israel – Jewish diaspora played a decisive role in US foreign policy.
  3. Ireland – Irish-American lobby influenced US policy on Northern Ireland.

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Mother and Child Health – Immunization Program, BPBB, PMJSY, PMMSY, etc.

50 years of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme

Schemes | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Why in the News?

The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme, launched on 2 October 1975 by then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, has completed 50 years in 2025.

50 years of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme

What is Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme?

  • Launched: 2nd October 1975 by PM Indira Gandhi.
  • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Women and Child Development (MoWCD).
  • Nature: Flagship centrally sponsored scheme and world’s largest community-based outreach programme for early childhood care.
  • Beneficiaries: Children (0–6 years), pregnant women, lactating mothers, and adolescent girls (under extensions).
  • Objectives:
    • Improve nutritional and health status of 0–6 year children.
    • Lay foundation for physical, psychological, and social development.
    • Reduce mortality, morbidity, malnutrition, and school dropouts.
    • Provide non-formal pre-school education.
    • Enhance maternal health & nutrition awareness.

About Umbrella ICDS Scheme:

  • Origin: The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme was restructured and renamed as the Umbrella ICDS scheme in 2016–17.
  • Aim: Strengthen child nutrition, early childhood care, adolescent girl support, and child protection services.
  • Key Feature: Convergence model – Anganwadi Centres serve as hubs delivering integrated health, nutrition, and education.
  • Funding Pattern:
    • General States: 60:40 (Centre: State).
    • Supplementary Nutrition: 50:50.
    • NE & Himalayan States: 90:10.
    • UTs without legislatures: 100% Centre.

Key Components and Their Features

  1. Anganwadi Services

  • Core ICDS component.
  • Provides six services: supplementary nutrition, pre-school non-formal education, health check-ups, immunization, referral services, and nutrition/health education.
  • Nutrition support: Take-Home Rations (THR), Hot Cooked Meals, snacks.

  1. Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY)

  • Conditional cash transfer scheme for pregnant and lactating women.
  • Provides ₹5,000 in three instalments for wage loss, nutrition, and healthcare.
  • Delivered through Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT).

  1. National Creche Scheme

  • Day-care facilities for children (6 months–6 years) of working women.
  • Services include supplementary nutrition, early childcare education, health check-ups, and sleeping facilities.
  • Functions 7.5 hours/day, 26 days/month.

  1. Scheme for Adolescent Girls (SAG – SABLA)

  • Focus on out-of-school girls (11–14 years).
  • Nutrition support: 600 kcal/day, 18–20 g protein.
  • Non-nutrition support: life skills, home management, health & hygiene awareness, educational and skill training.
  • Encourages mainstreaming into formal education and skill development.

  1. Child Protection Services (CPS)

  • Ensures care, protection, and rehabilitation of children in difficult situations.
  • Prevents abuse, exploitation, neglect, and family separation.
  • Runs child care institutions, helplines, adoption and foster care systems.

  1. POSHAN Abhiyaan (National Nutrition Mission)

  • Launched in 2018 to reduce stunting, anaemia, and low birth weight.
  • Uses Poshan Tracker (ICT-based real-time monitoring).
  • Promotes inter-ministerial convergence and community participation via Poshan Maah and Poshan Pakhwada.
[UPSC 2013] Consider the following statements in relation to Janani Suraksha Yojna:

1. It is safe motherhood intervention of the State Health Departments.

2. Its objective is to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality among poor pregnant women.

3. It aims to promote institutional delivery among poor pregnant women.

4. Its objective includes providing public health facilities to sick infants up to one year of age.

How many of the statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four

 

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

What are Flying Rivers/ Atmospheric Rivers?

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

Why in the News?

Droughts and fires in South America highlight the importance of “flying rivers” — rain-bearing vapor streams disrupted by Amazon deforestation.

What are Atmospheric Rivers?

  • Overview: Long, narrow bands of concentrated water vapour in the lower atmosphere, often termed “rivers in the sky.”
  • Dimensions: Typically 2,000–5,000 km long, 400–500 km wide, and about 3 km deep.
  • Water Transport: Carry nearly 90% of water vapour across Earth’s mid-latitudes — almost double the Amazon River’s flow.
  • Formation: Warm tropical seawater evaporates, and winds transport this moisture; upon encountering land or mountains, vapour condenses into heavy rainfall or snow.
  • Role: Unlike short-term weather systems, Atmospheric Rivers (ARs) shape long-term hydrological cycles and trigger extreme precipitation events.

Global Impacts of Atmospheric Rivers:

  • Flooding & Extreme Weather: Cause 80% of flood-related damages along the US West Coast; also linked to devastating floods in Europe, Africa, South America, and Australia.
  • South America: Amazon’s “flying rivers” disrupted by deforestation, leading to droughts in Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador; threatens Amazon rainforest’s survival and risks savannisation.
  • East Asia: Up to 80% of heavy rainfall events in China, Korea, and Japan during early monsoon linked to ARs.
  • Climate Connection: Warming oceans are making ARs longer, wider, and more intense, increasing risks of catastrophic floods and landslides.
  • Positive Role: Contribute 30–50% of annual precipitation in some regions (e.g., US West Coast) and help end 33–74% of droughts.

Atmospheric Rivers in India’s Context:

  • Interaction: ARs combine with cyclonic circulations and the Himalayan ranges, causing extreme rainfall and flash floods.
  • Case Studies:
    • 2010 Leh cloudburst (Ladakh) – flash floods and mudslides.
    • 2011 Kupwara floods (J&K) – severe AR-driven rainfall.
  • Study (1951–2020): Identified 574 AR events during the monsoon season in India.
  • Recent Trends: Nearly 80% of India’s most severe floods (1985–2020) linked to AR activity.
  • Cause: Rapid Indian Ocean warming intensifies evaporation, moisture transport, and AR-driven floods.
  • Impact: Leads to short, intense rainfall spells, landslides, flash floods, crop loss, and mass displacement of communities.
[UPSC 2024] With reference to “water vapour,” which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. It is a gas, the amount of which decreases with altitude.

2. Its percentage is maximum at the poles.

Select the answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 and 2

 

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Climate Models and Their Accuracy

| Geography | Mains Paper 1: Salient Features Of World'S Physical Geography

Why in the News?

The US President Donald Trump called climate change the “greatest con job ever,” disgusted with the predictions based on climate models central to climate science.

Climate Models and Their Accuracy

What are Climate Models?

  • Overview: Climate models are computer simulations using mathematical equations to represent the Earth’s climate system, including the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice.
  • Basis: Built on physics, chemistry, and biology, they simulate interactions among Earth’s components.
  • Purpose: Forecast temperature, rainfall, humidity, sea-level rise, and extreme weather under scenarios like high greenhouse gas emissions.
  • Difference from Weather Models: Weather models predict short-term local events, while climate models analyze long-term regional and global patterns.

How do Climate Models work?

  • Grid System: Earth divided into a 3D grid of cells across land, atmosphere, and oceans.
  • Equations: Each cell governed by equations on energy movement, air, ice, and land processes.
  • Data Input: Observational data (greenhouse gases, ocean conditions, land use) fed into the model.
  • Interactions: Equations simulate changes in each cell and their effects on neighboring cells.
  • Outputs: Provide projections for temperature, precipitation, sea levels, ice cover, and extreme climate events.

Evolution of Climate Models:

Model Type What is it? Strengths Limitations
Energy Balance Models (EBMs) 

(1960s)
  • The earliest climate models.
  • They treat Earth like a single box system, calculating surface temperature by balancing incoming solar radiation vs outgoing infrared radiation.
  • Essentially, they answer: “How warm should Earth be if X amount of energy comes in and Y amount goes out?”
  • Very simple; first to link CO₂ emissions with global warming.
  • Computationally inexpensive.
  • Oversimplified — ignores atmosphere, oceans, and circulation.
  • Cannot simulate rainfall, winds, or regional climate.
Radiative Convective Models (RCMs) 

(1960s–70s)
  • Introduced the vertical structure of the atmosphere.
  • They divide the atmosphere into layers and simulate how radiation (solar + infrared) and convection move heat upward and downward.
  • Show how greenhouse gases trap heat and alter temperatures at different heights.
  • Capture greenhouse effect more realistically;
  • Explain vertical temperature profiles;
  • Useful for studying stratospheric cooling.
  • Still ignore oceans and global circulation;
  • Cannot project regional variations or weather patterns.
General Circulation Models (GCMs) (Global Climate Models)

(1970s onwards)
  • The first 3D models of Earth’s climate.
  • Divide the planet into grid cells (100–250 km), each with equations for atmosphere, oceans, ice, and land.
  • Simulate winds, currents, rainfall, temperature, and pressure by solving physical equations of motion, energy, and mass.
  • Comprehensive representation of climate;
  • Simulate monsoon, El Niño, ocean currents; reproduce past climate trends.
  • Very resource-intensive; grid too coarse to capture local detail (cities, villages);
  • Uncertainty in clouds and aerosols.
Earth System Models (ESMs)

(1990s–present)
  • Advanced GCMs that integrate biogeochemical cycles (carbon cycle, vegetation, ocean chemistry, aerosols, land-use changes).
  • Show how human activities (deforestation, fossil fuels, pollution) interact with natural systems, feedback loops, and long-term climate.
  • Holistic view of climate–biosphere interactions;
  • Essential for IPCC reports and policy projections.
  • Extremely complex;
  • Uncertainties in carbon feedbacks, aerosols, and long-term ecological processes.
Regional Climate Models (RCMs)

(1990s–present)
  • High-resolution versions of GCMs, zoomed into specific regions (25–50 km grids).
  • Use downscaling techniques to provide localised forecasts of rainfall, temperature, droughts, and monsoons.
  • Useful for city- or country-level policy (flood risk, agriculture, urban heat);
  • Capture Indian monsoon and Himalayan glaciers better.
  • Dependent on GCM input;
  • Projections limited to chosen region;
  • Computationally intensive.

How accurate are Climate Models?

  • Strengths: Modern models predict sea-level rise, polar ice loss, temperature increases, and rainfall trends with high accuracy.
  • Validation: Predictions are compared with historical climate records to confirm reliability.

  • Limitations:

    • Lack of precise data on clouds, volcanic activity, El Niño events.
    • Limited accuracy for regional variations (e.g., urban floods, Indian monsoon extremes).
    • Less accuracy in Global South due to data scarcity and complex climate systems.
    • Grid resolution (100–250 km per cell) causes oversimplification of land–atmosphere interactions.
[UPSC 2025] The World Bank warned that India could become one of the first places where wet-bulb temperatures routinely exceed 35°C. Which of the following statements best reflect(s) the implication of the above-said report?

I. Peninsular India will most likely suffer from flooding, tropical cyclones and droughts.

II. The survival of animals including humans will be affected as shedding of their body heat through perspiration becomes difficult.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) I only      (b) II only      (c) Both I and II      (d) Neither I nor II

 

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Pulses Production – Subramanian Committee, Eco Survey, etc.

[pib] Centre approves National Pulses Mission

Prelims OnlySchemes | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

Why in the News?

The Union Minister for Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare and Rural Development has approved the National Pulses Mission (Mission for Atmanirbharta in Pulses).

About the National Pulses Mission:

  • Launch (2025): Approved by the Union Minister for Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare and Rural Development to achieve self-sufficiency in pulses by 2030–31, improve nutrition, and raise farmer incomes.
  • Targets: Production to rise from 24.2 MT (2024–25) to 35 MT (2030–31); acreage 310 lakh ha, yield 1,130 kg/ha.
  • Coverage: 416 districts, with focus on rice fallows, improved seeds, intercropping, irrigation, and market linkages.
  • MSP Procurement: 100% assured for Tur, Urad, Masoor for four years under PM-AASHA Price Support Scheme, via NAFED/NCCF.
  • Framework: Under National Food Security Mission (NFSM); combines ICAR-led R&D with private sector inputs, processing, and storage.
  • Budget: ₹11,440 crore outlay up to 2030–31 for multi-year implementation.
  • Outcomes: Improved nutrition, soil fertility (nitrogen-fixing), stable prices, climate resilience, and rural employment.

Key Features:

  • Cluster-Based Approach: Targets high-potential regions, diversifies beyond traditional belts, reduces risks.
  • Market Infrastructure: 1,000 post-harvest units (dal mills, grading, packaging) with subsidies up to ₹25 lakh/unit.
  • Research & Extension: New high-yield, climate-resilient varieties; farmer training on nutrient, pest, and water management.
  • Risk Cover: Subsidies, insurance, and credit to reduce cultivation risks.
  • Market Reforms: Direct sales linkages, transparent logistics, MSP-backed procurement.
[UPSC 2020] With reference to pulse production in India, consider the following statements:

1. Black gram can be cultivated as both kharif and rabi crop.

2. Green-gram alone accounts for nearly half of pulse production.

3. In the last three decades, while the production of kharif pulses has increased, the production of rabi pulses has decreased.

(a) 1 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Roads, Highways, Cargo, Air-Cargo and Logistics infrastructure – Bharatmala, LEEP, SetuBharatam, etc.

[pib] BRO Project Swastik marks 65 years of service

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

Border Roads Organisation (BRO) Project Swastik celebrated its 65th Raising Day on October 01, 2025.

About Project Swastik:

  • Origin: Established in 1960 as Project DRAGON, renamed Project Swastik on 1 October 1963.
  • Organisation: A flagship initiative of the Border Roads Organisation (BRO) under the Ministry of Defence.
  • Mandate: Construction and maintenance of strategic roads, bridges, and tunnels in the high-altitude Himalayan terrain.
  • Area of Responsibility: Covers North and East Sikkim up to forward border areas, also parts of North Bengal. The region is prone to landslides, fragile geology (Phyllites, Schists), and extreme weather conditions.
  • Strategic Role: Provides vital support for Armed Forces mobility, disaster relief operations, and socio-economic connectivity for remote communities.

Major Accomplishments:

  • Road & Bridge Network: Built and maintained over 1,412 km of roads and 80 major bridges since inception.
  • Recent Achievements: In the last decade, completed 350 km of new roads, 26 bridges, and 1 tunnel, ensuring year-round access to forward areas.
  • Key Road Links: Developed lifelines like the Gangtok–Chungthang and Gangtok–Nathula roads, critical for defence and civilian movement.
  • Disaster Response: Effectively restored connectivity after Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), cloudbursts, and Teesta River floods. Widely praised during the 2023 Sikkim flash floods.

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Promoting Science and Technology – Missions,Policies & Schemes

SARAL tool to simplify Scientific Research Papers

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: S&T - Applications In Everyday Life

Why in the News?

The Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF), India’s newest science funding agency, has launched a digital tool called SARAL (Simplified and Automated Research Amplification and Learning) to make scientific research more accessible.

What is Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF)?

  • Establishment: Created under the ANRF Act, 2023, replacing the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB).
  • Nature: Acts as India’s apex science funding and policy-making body.

  • Mission & Objectives: 

    • Raise India’s R&D spending from 0.7% to 2% of GDP by 2030.
    • Mobilise 70% private sector participation in research funding.
    • Promote interdisciplinary research across sciences, technology, health, agriculture, humanities, and social sciences.
    • Align research with Viksit Bharat 2047 and the National Education Policy (NEP).

  • Structure:

    • Chairperson: Prime Minister of India (ex-officio).
    • Vice Presidents: Union Ministers of Science & Technology and Education.
    • Member Secretary: Principal Scientific Advisor.
    • Guided by a Governing Council and Executive Council for policy and funding.

About SARAL:

  • Developer: Created by IIIT Hyderabad under the guidance of the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF).
  • Purpose: Designed to make complex research papers accessible to students, professionals, and the general public.
  • AI Use: Generates summaries in multiple formats such as slides, videos, posters, and podcasts.
  • Language Support: Available in 11 Indian languages, ensuring wider inclusivity in science communication.
  • Workflow: Users upload research papers (LaTeX, arXiv links, PDFs); AI divides into sections (Introduction, Methodology, Results, Discussion, Conclusion); it produces editable slides and video summaries.
  • Significance:
    • Democratises science by converting research into layman-friendly outputs.
    • Enhances science communication and outreach.
    • Builds awareness of cutting-edge research across disciplines.
[UPSC 2015] Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding National Innovation Foundation-India (NIF)?

1. NIF is an autonomous body of the Department of Science and Technology under the Central Government.

2. NIF is an initiative to strengthen the highly advanced scientific research in India’s premier scientific institutions in collaboration with highly advanced foreign scientific institutions.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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[1st October 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: A 100-year journey as the guardian of meritocracy

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) has a very vital role to play. Explain how this is reflected in the method and terms of his appointment as well as the range of powers he can exercise.

Linkage: Such constitutional bodies, like UPSC, completing 100 years, are often asked in exams, similar to questions on CAG’s appointment, tenure, and powers, highlighting the significance of understanding their independence and functions.

Mentor’s Comment

On October 1, the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) completed a century of its establishment. From its inception under colonial rule to its present role as the guardian of meritocracy in independent India, the Commission has stood as a symbol of fairness, trust, and integrity in governance. As aspirants preparing for UPSC Civil Services Examination (CSE), understanding the history, philosophy, challenges, and reforms of this institution is vital — not just as knowledge, but also as inspiration for your own journey.

Introduction

The UPSC is more than an examining body; it is an institution that embodies the idea of equal opportunity, fairness, and trust in public life. Established in 1926, it has evolved through colonial, constitutional, and modern phases, transforming into one of the most complex yet respected recruitment agencies in the world. Conducting one of the toughest examinations with lakhs of aspirants each year, it ensures that merit alone decides entry into the highest echelons of governance. As the UPSC turns 100, this milestone is both a celebration of its legacy and a reflection on the road ahead.

The Historical Foundations of UPSC

  1. Colonial beginnings (1926): Set up as the Public Service Commission following the Lee Commission’s recommendations (1924), initially with limited powers.
  2. Government of India Act 1935: Elevated to Federal Public Service Commission, giving Indians a greater role.
  3. Constitutional status (1950): Became UPSC, enshrined in the Constitution as an independent institution to safeguard meritocracy.

What makes UPSC a Pillar of Fairness and Trust?

  1. Trust: Millions of aspirants rely on its transparency and impartiality; success depends solely on merit.
  2. Integrity: UPSC has remained insulated from political/external pressures, maintaining confidentiality and resisting malpractice.
  3. Fairness: Provides a level playing field — urban/rural, rich/poor, English/non-English — ensuring inclusivity in a diverse nation.
  4. Philosophy: Embodies the spirit of the Bhagavad Gītā — performing duty with rigor and detachment from outcomes.

Why is the UPSC Examination Unique Globally?

  1. Scale: From 10–12 lakh prelim applicants annually to final merit lists through multi-stage filtering.
  2. Diversity: 48 optional subjects, 22 languages, making it the world’s most sophisticated competitive exam.
  3. Logistics: Prelims across 2,500+ venues; complex distribution for Mains subject papers across the country.
  4. Equity: Special arrangements for differently-abled candidates.
  5. Resilience: Seamless functioning even during COVID-19.

How Has UPSC Expanded the ‘Indian Dream’?

  1. Democratization: Once elite-centric, now aspirants come from remotest districts and underprivileged regions.
  2. Opportunity: UPSC embodies the idea that talent + hard work can overcome barriers.
  3. Nation-building: Its selected civil servants have steered India through crises, reforms, environmental challenges, and growth.

Who are the Unsung Heroes Behind UPSC?

  1. Paper-setters and evaluators: Finest academics and experts, anonymous contributors ensuring fairness.
  2. Role: Guarantee quality, unbiased assessment, and rigorous standards, remaining away from recognition.

What Reforms Define UPSC’s Future-readiness?

  1. Digital modernization: Online application portal, face-recognition tech to prevent impersonation.
  2. PRATIBHA Setu initiative: Creates job opportunities for those who clear interview but miss the final list.
  3. Use of AI: To enhance efficiency and transparency without compromising integrity.
  4. Commitment: Adaptation to global disruptions in governance while preserving fairness.

Conclusion

The UPSC is not merely an examining authority; it is the guardian of meritocracy and a living institution embodying India’s faith in fairness and justice. As it celebrates its centenary, the challenge lies in preserving its values while adapting to a rapidly transforming world. For aspirants, the story of UPSC is not only an institutional history but also a guiding philosophy — to work with perseverance, detachment, and integrity.

Value Addition 

Constitutional Framework of UPSC (Articles 315–323)

Establishment (Art. 315)

  1. UPSC for the Union and State Public Service Commissions (SPSC) for each state.
  2. Ensures independent and impartial recruitment of civil servants.

Appointment of Members and Chairman (Art. 316)

  1. Chairman appointed by the President of India.
  2. Members appointed by the President.
  3. Qualifications: Not specified; expected to have experience in administration, academics, or law.

Removal and Suspension (Art. 317)

  • Chairman or members can only be removed by President on:
    1. Proven misbehavior (after Supreme Court inquiry)
    2. Incapacity
    3. Protection ensures independence from political pressure.

Conditions of Service (Art. 318)

  1. President regulates terms of service, pay, allowances, and pensions of chairman and members.
  2. Members can resign with prior notice.

Cessation of Office (Art. 319): Member ceases to hold office on:

  1. Completion of tenure
  2. Resignation
  3. Removal under Art. 317

Functions of UPSC (Art. 320)

  1. Recruitment: Conduct examinations for All India and Group A & B services.
  2. Promotions and Transfers: Advises government on appointments, promotions, and transfers.
  3. Disciplinary Matters: Advises on punishment or removal of civil servants.
  4. Advisory Role: Any service-related matters referred by the government.

Extension of Functions (Art. 321)

  1. Parliament or State Legislature can expand UPSC’s functions.

Budgetary Provisions (Art. 322)

  1. Expenses of UPSC charged on Consolidated Fund of India — ensures financial autonomy.

Reporting to President/Parliament (Art. 323)

  1. Annual and special reports submitted to President.
  2. President places them before Parliament along with comments.

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Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

The transformation of girls education

Explained | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Introduction

“Beti padhegi toh kya karegi?” — a once common phrase in Indian households, captures the deep-rooted gender bias against girls’ education. In sharp contrast, India today is witnessing a remarkable transformation where girls’ education is not only improving literacy rates but also shaping health, fertility, workforce participation, and leadership outcomes. This transformation, spearheaded by initiatives like Kanya Kelavani in Gujarat and later Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) at the national level, represents a structural and cultural shift in Indian society.

Why is this transformation in the news?

Girls’ education in India is witnessing measurable improvements backed by accountability and systemic policy pushes. The nationwide BBBP initiative, initially launched in 100 gender-critical districts, has led to a visible improvement in sex ratio at birth (919 in 2015-16 to 929 in 2019-21), reduced female dropout rates, and higher female literacy in states like Gujarat. These achievements are striking because they stand in contrast to decades of entrenched female foeticide, poor infrastructure for girls, and deep social stigma. For the first time, policy, leadership, and public movements have converged to change mindsets at scale, making this one of the most significant social transformations of contemporary India.

The Gujarat Model of Change

  1. Multi-pronged approach: Tackled female foeticide and illiteracy not just with laws but also through perception change, infrastructure, and incentives.
  2. Kanya Kelavani Campaign (2003): Focused on awareness, provision of toilets for girls (a major dropout factor), and community participation.
  3. Striking impact: Female literacy rate in Gujarat rose to 70% (above national average of 64%); dropout rates reduced by 90% in targeted districts.
  4. Symbolic leadership: PM Modi auctioned personal gifts raising ₹19 crore for girls’ education, alongside a personal donation of ₹21 lakh, signalling public ownership of the movement.

Scaling Success Nationwide: Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao

  1. Launched in 2015: Nationwide expansion of Gujarat’s lessons to prevent female foeticide and promote education.
  2. Inter-ministerial coordination: Involved Women and Child Development, Health, and Education ministries for an integrated push.

  • Impact:

    1. Sex ratio at birth: Improved from 919 (2015-16) to 929 (2019-21).
    2. Wider coverage: Expanded beyond the initial 100 critical districts to pan-India.
    3. 20 out of 30 States/UTs performing better than national average sex ratio (930).

The Ripple and Multiplier Effects of Educated Girls

  1. Demographic shift: Educated women marry later, have fewer children; Total Fertility Rate fell to 2.0 (below replacement).
  2. Health outcomes: More likely to seek institutional deliveries and prenatal care; Infant Mortality Rate reduced from 49 (2014) to 33 (2020).
  3. Economic participation: Rising visibility in healthcare, STEM, education, entrepreneurship, armed forces, and tech leadership.
  4. Intergenerational impact: Children of educated mothers perform better in school, with healthier outcomes.
  5. Changing mindsets: In Madhya Pradesh, 89.5% aware of BBBP, and 63.2% credited it with motivating families to send daughters to school.

Challenges Ahead

  1. Labour force participation: Despite progress, overall female labour participation remains low.
  2. Regional disparities: Some states and districts lag significantly in sex ratio and enrollment.
  3. Cultural inertia: Early marriages, dowry, and gendered household expectations still restrict education gains.

Conclusion

The transformation in girls’ education marks one of the most profound social revolutions in India. From Gujarat’s Kanya Kelavani to the nationwide BBBP, the shift is not only about literacy but about empowering women to be leaders, professionals, and change-makers. As the article highlights, when you educate a girl, you transform a society. Sustaining this momentum will be crucial for India’s journey towards equity, development, and inclusive growth.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Though women in post-Independent India have excelled in various fields, the social attitude towards women and feminist movement has been patriarchal.” Apart from women education and women empowerment schemes, what interventions can help change this milieu?

Linkage: The article shows that while education and schemes like BBBP have triggered change, sustained mindset shifts through community engagement, legal safeguards, and leadership-driven social movements are equally vital to challenge India’s patriarchal milieu.

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Labour, Jobs and Employment – Harmonization of labour laws, gender gap, unemployment, etc.

More Women join the labour force, but are they really employed?

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Issues relating growth and development, employment

Introduction

The female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) is often viewed as a proxy for gender equality and economic dynamism. India’s FLFPR dropped from 31.2% in 2011-12 to 23.3% in 2017-18 but has dramatically risen to 41.7% in 2023-24. At first glance, this looks like a success story. However, closer scrutiny reveals that most women are being absorbed into agriculture, unpaid household enterprises, and low-paying self-employment, rather than formal or secure wage jobs. The paradox is clear: more women are being “counted” in the labour market, but their earnings and economic independence remain stagnant or declining.

Why is female labour force participation in the news?

  1. Sharp rise in FLFPR: Jumped from 23.3% in 2017-18 to 41.7% in 2023-24.
  2. First-time reversal: After years of decline, the participation rate is rising again.
  3. Underlying concern: Despite more women “working,” earnings have fallen, and secure wage jobs remain elusive.
  4. Contradiction: Participation has grown, but instead of diversifying into services/industry, women are moving back into agriculture.

What explains the rise in female participation?

  1. Rural women as drivers: Most of the rise is accounted for by women in rural India.
  2. Shift from domestic duties: Share of women reporting “domestic duties” fell from 57.8% (2017-18) to 35.7% (2023-24).
  3. Rise in unpaid helpers: Share of “helpers in household enterprises” rose from 9.1% to 19.6%.
  4. Self-employment increase: “Own account workers and employers” rose from 4.5% to 14.6%.

Are women moving to better jobs?

  1. Agriculture dominance: Share of rural women in agriculture rose from 71.1% (2018-19) to 76.9% (2023-24).
  2. Decline in other sectors: Women’s share in both secondary (industry) and tertiary (services) sectors has fallen.
  3. Blurring boundaries: Women’s unpaid household work overlaps with helper roles in household enterprises, making it questionable whether this should count as “employment.”

What about earnings and job quality?

  1. Declining real earnings: Except for casual workers, earnings have declined across categories—self-employed, salaried, and even employers.
  2. Vulnerability of self-employment: More women are reporting self-employment, but this has not translated into higher income.
  3. No wage expansion: Growth in FLFPR has not been accompanied by secure wage-based jobs.

Why does this matter for India’s economy and gender equality?

  1. False signal of empowerment: Higher FLFPR without earnings security reflects distress-driven participation, not genuine empowerment.
  2. Economic vulnerability: Rising unpaid and low-paid work lowers household resilience and women’s autonomy.
  3. Policy challenge: Employment growth is not keeping pace with women’s entry into the workforce, pointing to structural issues in India’s labour market.

Conclusion

The sharp rise in India’s female labour force participation hides more than it reveals. Women are being pushed into unpaid or poorly paid work, especially in agriculture and household enterprises, while real earnings are falling. This suggests that India’s growth story is not translating into dignified employment for women. For true gender equality, the focus must shift from mere participation numbers to quality, security, and remuneration of women’s work. Only then will women’s economic empowerment become a reality.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Distinguish between ‘care economy’ and ‘monetized economy’. How can the care economy be brought into a monetized economy through women empowerment?

Linkage: The article highlights women’s shift from domestic duties to unpaid helper roles, directly linking the care economy to the challenge of integrating it into the monetized economy through women’s empowerment.

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Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

[pib] India re-elected to Part II of ICAO Council

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

During the 42nd International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Assembly in Montreal, India was re-elected to Part II of the ICAO Council.

About the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO):

  • Overview: Specialized UN agency created in 1944 through the Chicago Convention (signed 7 December 1944).
  • Headquarters: Montreal, Canada; Membership: 193 states (virtually every UN member).
  • Objectives: Ensure safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation; Standardize aviation rules and regulations across nations.

  • Functions:

    • Formulates Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) for global aviation.
    • Promotes air safety, security, efficiency, and environmental protection.
    • Resolves aviation disputes between states.
    • Monitors compliance with international aviation norms.
    • Coordinates global air traffic management and accident investigation standards.

  • Structure:

    • Assembly: Sovereign body, meets every 3 years, includes all 193 members.
    • Secretariat: Headed by Secretary-General.
    • Council: 36 elected members serving 3-year terms; key decision-making body.
    • Bureaus: Air Navigation, Air Transport, Technical Co-operation, Legal, Administration & Services.

ICAO and India:

  • Membership: Founder member since 1944, uninterrupted presence on ICAO Council for 81 years.
  • Nodal Agency: Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA).
  • Performance: India rated above global average for airworthiness in 2022 ICAO audit.
  • Contributions: Active in policy development, international standards, harmonized and sustainable aviation frameworks.
  • Aviation Growth: One of the fastest-growing markets globally, attracting investments in aircraft manufacturing, MRO (Maintenance, Repair & Overhaul), and skill development.
  • Cultural Role: India hosts International Civil Aviation Day annually (first observed 1994; UN recognition 1996).

India’s Re-Election to ICAO Council (2025–2028):

  • Significance: Elected to Part II of ICAO Council (states making largest contribution to civil air navigation facilities); India positioned itself as a global aviation hub.
  • Priorities for 2025–2028 Term:
    • Strengthening aviation safety, security, and sustainability.
    • Promoting equitable growth in air connectivity.
    • Advancing technology and innovation in aviation.
    • Supporting ICAO’s “No Country Left Behind” initiative.

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Trade Sector Updates – Falling Exports, TIES, MEIS, Foreign Trade Policy, etc.

Remission of Duties and Taxes on Exported Products (RoDTEP) Scheme

Schemes | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

Why in the News?

The Government has extended the Remission of Duties and Taxes on Exported Products (RoDTEP) Scheme until March 31, 2026, providing relief and policy certainty to exporters.

About the RoDTEP Scheme:

  • Launch & Context: Introduced on 1 January 2021 under the Foreign Trade Policy 2015–20, replacing the Merchandise Exports from India Scheme (MEIS) after India lost a case at the World Trade Organisation (WTO).
  • Administration: Managed by the Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance, and implemented via the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC).
  • Objective: Refund hidden domestic taxes/duties on exports to ensure goods leave the country free of embedded levies, enhancing competitiveness and ensuring WTO compliance.
  • Coverage: Applicable to all Indian exporters (manufacturers and merchants) including SEZs, Export Oriented Units (EOUs), Advance Authorisation (AA) holders, and Domestic Tariff Area (DTA) units.
  • Timeline: Initially valid till 5 February 2025, restored in May 2025 for AA, EOU, and SEZ exports after industry lobbying, and now extended till 31 March 2026.

Key Features:

  • Hidden Taxes Covered: Refunds duties such as electricity duty, mandi tax, fuel charges in transport, and local cesses.
  • Rebate Mechanism: Calculated as a percentage of the Free on Board (FOB) value of exports.
  • Refund Mode: Benefits disbursed as electronic scrips (e-scrips), stored in CBIC’s digital ledger.
  • Use of E-Scrips: Can be utilised to pay basic customs duty or transferred to other importers.
  • Sectoral Priority: Focus on labour-intensive industries like textiles, handicrafts, leather, etc.
  • Exclusion: Re-exported goods are not eligible under RoDTEP.
  • Budgetary Control: Operates strictly within annual budget allocations, as clarified by DGFT.
  • Policy Certainty: Extension till 2026 ensures stability for exporters facing global trade headwinds.
[UPSC 2020] With reference to the international trade of India at present, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1.  India’s merchandise exports are less than its merchandise imports.

2. India’s imports of iron and steel, chemicals, fertilizers and machinery have decreased in recent years.

3. India’s exports of services are more than its imports of services.

4. India suffers from an overall trade/current account deficit.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only  (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 3 and 4 only*

 

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

Geoengineering Proposals for Polar Regions found flawed

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

A University of Exeter study found five major polar geoengineering methods ineffective and risky, failing criteria for responsible climate intervention.

Geoengineering in Polar Regions: Study Findings

Method Description Intended Benefit Key Findings & Limitations
Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI) Artificially releasing aerosols (SO₂, sulphur particles, TiO₂, CaCO₃) into the stratosphere to reflect sunlight. Reduce surface temperatures by blocking solar radiation.
  • Ineffective in polar winters (no sunlight) and of limited use in summers (ice already highly reflective).
  • Sudden termination can cause “termination shock” with rapid global warming.
  • Potential to disrupt global weather cycles, harming food and water security.
  • No global governance on costs or liability. Estimated cost: $55M/year per country (if 30 nations share).
Sea Curtains / Sea Walls Massive buoyant barriers anchored to seafloor to block warm currents from reaching ice sheets. Slow melting of glaciers by insulating them from warm water.
  • Technically near-impossible in remote seas like Amundsen (Antarctica).
  • Extremely high costs — >$1 billion/km.
  • Threatens marine circulation, fish migration, and nutrient cycles.
  • Installation in harsh polar seas only possible for few months a year; requires custom-built ships.
  • Risk of toxic materials leaching into ocean.
Sea Ice Management (Microbeads) Sprinkling glass microbeads over sea ice to increase albedo (reflectivity) and thicken ice. Preserve summer ice, slow down warming.
  • Requires 360M tonnes of beads annually — equal to world’s plastic production.
  • Major logistical and emissions challenges.
  • Beads dissolve quickly, reducing effectiveness.
  • Some studies show beads absorb sunlight, causing net warming.
  • Costly: $500B/year for Arctic deployment; requires 100M pumps, huge energy draw.
Basal Water Removal Pumping subglacial meltwater from under Antarctic glaciers. Reduce glacier sliding, thus slowing sea-level rise.
  • Flawed logic: subglacial water is constantly replenished by frictional/geothermal heating.
  • Highly emissions-intensive and energy-consuming.
  • Requires continuous monitoring, maintenance, and heavy infrastructure.
  • Long-term sustainability questioned.
Ocean Fertilisation Adding nutrients (e.g., iron) to stimulate phytoplankton growth, enhancing CO₂ absorption. Sequester more carbon in oceans.
  • No control over which phytoplankton species dominate, creating food chain imbalances. 
  • Could harm marine biodiversity and alter global nutrient cycles.
  • Needs deployment at massive, impractical scale.
  • Risk of side-effects outweighs uncertain benefits.

 

[UPSC 2020] Consider the following activities:

1. Spreading finely ground basalt rock extensively on farmlands

2. Increasing the alkalinity of oceans by adding lime

3. Capturing carbon dioxide released by various industries and pumping it into abandoned subterranean mines in the form of carbonated waters

How many of the above activities are often considered and discussed for carbon capture and sequestration?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three* (d) None

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

NASA’s Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP)

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

NASA has recently launched the Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP) aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from Kennedy Space Centre, Florida.

About IMAP Mission:

  • Context: Operates under NASA’s Solar Terrestrial Probes Program, following missions like STEREO and IBEX.
  • Objective: To map the heliosphere boundary, study energetic particle acceleration, and understand how the solar wind interacts with the interstellar medium.
  • Location: Positioned at Sun–Earth Lagrange Point 1 (L1), ~1.5 million km from Earth, ensuring continuous solar observation.

NASA’s Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP)

Back2Basics: Heliosphere

  • The heliosphere is a vast bubble-like region around the Sun created by the flow of solar wind (charged particles emitted by the Sun).
  • It extends well beyond Pluto and acts as a shield, protecting the solar system from much of the harmful cosmic radiation from interstellar space.
  • Its outer boundary, called the heliopause, marks where solar wind pressure balances with interstellar medium pressure.

Key Features:

  • Scientific Payload: 10 instruments including- Energetic Neutral Atom Detectors; Charged Particle Detectors and Magnetic & Dust Sensors.
  • Real-Time Alerts: Equipped with I-ALiRT (Active Link for Real-Time) to broadcast space weather data and provide ~30 minutes’ warning of harmful solar radiation.
  • Spacecraft Design: Spin-stabilized, in a Lissajous orbit around L1, ensuring Sun-facing stability.
  • Enhanced Sensitivity: Higher resolution compared to ACE and IBEX, enabling detection of faint cosmic signals.

Significance:

  • Scientific: Creates the most detailed maps of the heliosphere boundary, improves understanding of solar wind, cosmic rays, and space weather.
  • Technological: Strengthens space weather forecasting, safeguarding satellites, GPS systems, and power grids.
  • Human Spaceflight: Critical for Artemis and future deep-space missions, informing radiation shielding and safe travel routes.
  • Global Collaboration: Complements missions like NASA–ESA’s Solar Orbiter and the upcoming LISA mission, boosting multi-messenger space science.
  • Habitability Research: Provides insights into how heliospheres shield planets, vital for studying Earth’s resilience and exoplanet habitability.
[UPSC 2016] What is ‘Greased Lightning-10 (GL-10)’, recently in the news?

Options: (a) Electric plane tested by NASA *

(b) Solar-powered two-seater aircraft designed by Japan

(c) Space observatory launched by China

(d) Reusable rocket designed by ISRO

 

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NGOs vs. GoI: The Conflicts and Scrutinies

Centre directs NGOs to seek FCRA renewal 4 months before expiry

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has instructed NGOs to submit their Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA), 2010 renewal applications at least four months before expiry.

About the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA):

  • Origin: First enacted in 1976 during the Emergency to regulate inflow of foreign funds.
  • FCRA, 2010: Replaced the 1976 Act to strengthen regulation and ensure foreign funds are used for legitimate purposes without compromising sovereignty, security, or national interest.
  • Coverage: Applies to individuals, associations, and organizations receiving foreign contributions.
  • Administration: Managed by the Ministry of Home Affairs.
  • Objectives:
    • Ensure foreign funds are used responsibly.
    • Prevent undue foreign influence on Indian politics, civil society, and governance.
    • Safeguard sovereignty, integrity, and harmony.

Key Provisions of FCRA, 2010:

  • Registration: Only organizations with definite cultural, social, economic, educational, or religious objectives can apply.
  • Validity: Registration valid for 5 years; renewal required 6 months before expiry.
  • Designated Bank Account: NGOs must open an exclusive FCRA account in SBI, New Delhi.
  • Annual Reporting:
    • Receipts and utilization must be reported annually.
    • Accounts must be audited by a Chartered Accountant.
    • Banks must report foreign fund receipts to MHA.
  • Administrative Expenses: NGOs can use a maximum of 20% of foreign funds for admin costs (earlier 50%).
  • Special Provisions:
    • NGOs can spend up to ₹25 lakh annually outside their constituency/state for projects promoting national unity.
    • In severe natural calamities, MPs/NGOs may allocate up to ₹1 crore for relief anywhere in India.
  • Prohibited Recipients: Foreign funds cannot go to election candidates, journalists, media houses, judges, government servants, political parties or office bearers, or organizations of political nature.
  • Prohibited Activities: NGOs cannot:
    • Represent fictitious entities.
    • Engage in religious conversions.
    • Have records of communal tension, disharmony, or sedition.

Amendments to FCRA:

FCRA Amendment Act, 2020

  • Suspension: Government can suspend registration for up to 360 days.
  • Mandatory Aadhaar: All office bearers, directors, and key functionaries must provide Aadhaar.
  • Prohibition on Sub-Granting: NGOs cannot transfer foreign contributions to other NGOs/entities.
  • Reduced Admin Cap: Admin expenses limited to 20% (earlier 50%).
  • Designated SBI Account: All foreign funds must be received only in an FCRA account at SBI, New Delhi.
  • Bar on Public Servants: Public servants prohibited from receiving foreign contributions.
  • Renewal Scrutiny: Renewal applications can be examined for misuse, fictitious status, or rule violations.
  • Surrender of Certificate: NGOs can surrender registration with government approval.

FCRA Rules, 2022:

  • Raised the annual limit for money received from relatives abroad to ₹10 lakh (earlier ₹1 lakh) without notifying MHA.
  • Strengthened safeguards against harmful foreign contributions.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

[30th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: SSTC is more than a diplomatic phrase

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] If the last few decades were of Asia’s growth story, the next few are expected to be of Africa’s.” In the light of this statement, examine India’s influence in Africa in recent years.

Linkage: South-South Cooperation is the foundation of India–Africa engagement. India’s role in Africa through capacity building (ITEC), concessional credit, food security projects, and the India-UN Development Partnership Fund reflects SSTC principles of mutual respect, replicability, and shared growth, positioning India as a partner in Africa’s expected rise.

Mentor’s Comment

With only a fraction of time left to achieve the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, the global community is exploring new models of partnership. South-South and Triangular Cooperation (SSTC) has emerged as a vital mechanism, providing frugal, replicable, and contextually relevant solutions. India, rooted in the philosophy of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, has positioned itself as a leader in this space, particularly in food security, digital transformation, and inclusive growth. This article unpacks the significance of SSTC, India’s role, and why this cooperative model is central to a more equitable world order.

Introduction

The United Nations Day for South-South and Triangular Cooperation (September 12) commemorates the 1978 Buenos Aires Plan of Action (BAPA), which laid the foundation for solidarity-based cooperation among developing nations. Far from being a mere diplomatic phrase, SSTC today is a lifeline for billions, offering cost-effective, innovative, and scalable models of development at a time when traditional aid flows are shrinking. India, with its rich developmental experience and global outreach, is shaping the SSTC discourse through initiatives like the India-UN Development Partnership Fund, Voice of the Global South Summits, and collaboration with the World Food Programme (WFP).

Why in the News?

SSTC has gained renewed significance as the world approaches the 2030 deadline for SDGs with urgency, amid declining international aid and mounting challenges like climate change, conflict, and inequality. For the first time, SSTC is being recognised not merely as supplemental but as a core pathway to equitable and sustainable global development. India’s leadership — from digital public infrastructure exports to food system innovations like Grain ATMs and rice fortification, has transformed it into a hub of replicable global solutions. The 2025 UN Day theme, “New Opportunities and Innovation through SSTC”, underscores this transition, making the issue both timely and transformative.

India’s Role and Philosophy of Cooperation

  1. Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam: India’s developmental philosophy sees the world as one family, placing emphasis on sovereignty, equality, and mutual respect.
  2. Transition to food surplus: Once a food-deficit nation, India now runs one of the world’s largest food safety nets, offering models for the Global South.
  3. Global leadership: From hosting the Voice of the Global South Summits to securing AU’s membership in the G20, India promotes inclusivity in global governance.

What is the Relevance of SSTC Today?

  1. Cost-effectiveness: SSTC provides better returns on investment at a time when funding for humanitarian and development sectors is shrinking.
  2. Replicability and relevance: Local innovations like India’s food distribution optimisation or UPI have global application.
  3. Solidarity-based model: Unlike traditional aid, SSTC is grounded in mutual respect and shared learning, crucial for trust-building in the Global South.

How Has India Contributed to SSTC?

  1. Institutional frameworks: India set up the Development Partnership Administration in its Foreign Ministry to coordinate development partnerships.
  2. Capacity-building: Through the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme, India has trained professionals in 160+ countries.
  3. India-UN Development Partnership Fund: Established in 2017, it has financed 75 transformative projects across 56 developing countries, especially LDCs and SIDS.
  4. Digital diplomacy: Export of Aadhaar, UPI, and digital infrastructure models as low-cost, inclusive tools.

What Role Has the India-WFP Partnership Played?

  1. Testing ground for innovations: Over 60 years, India served as a laboratory for WFP to pilot globally relevant solutions.
  2. Grain ATMs (Annapurti): Automated grain dispensing machines ensuring efficient access to food.
  3. Supply chain optimisation: Strengthened the PDS through digitalisation.
  4. Women-led Take-Home Ration programme: Empowering communities while tackling malnutrition.
  5. Rice fortification: India’s national initiative to enhance nutrition replicated in countries like Nepal and Laos.

How Does Triangular Cooperation Add Value?

  1. Linking South-South with North-South: Brings in traditional donors, amplifying resources and best practices.
  2. Inclusive partnerships: Extends beyond governments to involve civil society, private sector, and grassroots communities.
  3. UN Fund contributions: Over the last three decades, 47 governments have funded projects in 70+ countries, benefiting people in 155 nations.

Conclusion

SSTC embodies a renewed spirit of partnership, rooted in equality, mutual respect, and innovation. For countries of the Global South, it is not merely a diplomatic mechanism but a pathway to resilience and empowerment. India’s leadership in digital public goods, food security, and inclusive governance has given SSTC tangible models of success. As the 2030 deadline looms, scaling such innovations and ensuring triangular cooperation will be crucial for achieving a sustainable and equitable world order.

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Terrorism and Challenges Related To It

An anti-terror role that defies logic

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Introduction

The global fight against terrorism is rooted in credibility, trust, and collective responsibility. Yet, the United Nations’ recent decision to entrust Pakistan with leadership positions in the Taliban Sanctions Committee and as Vice-Chair of the UNSC Counter-Terrorism Committee has sparked disbelief. For a country long accused of sheltering terrorists, from Osama bin Laden to Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad, this appointment is not just ironic but deeply unsettling. Coupled with financial support such as the IMF’s billion-dollar loan to Pakistan despite concerns of terror financing, these developments expose critical vulnerabilities in the UN system. For India, which continues to suffer from cross-border terrorism, this represents a significant diplomatic and security challenge.

Why is this in the news?

Pakistan, accused for decades of harbouring terrorists and backing attacks on Indian soil, has been elevated to leadership in global counter-terrorism mechanisms. The timing is striking: the move came just weeks after the April 2025 Pahalgam attack where terrorists killed Indian tourists, followed by India’s Operation Sindoor against terror launchpads. To add to the irony, Pakistan also assumed the UNSC Presidency in July 2025. This is not the first time the UN has made such questionable appointments (Libya on Human Rights, Saudi Arabia on Women’s Rights), but Pakistan’s case is especially alarming given its record of state-sponsored terror. The decision casts doubt on the UN’s integrity, raises questions about its vetting process, and undermines India’s global campaign to expose Pakistan as a terror sponsor.

How has Pakistan’s role in terrorism been established?

  1. Osama bin Laden Shelter: Found in Abbottabad, near Pakistan’s military academy.
  2. Cross-border attacks: From the 2008 Mumbai attacks to the 2019 Pulwama bombing and the 2025 Pahalgam attack, evidence points to Pakistan-backed groups.
  3. Terror groups supported: Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM), and networks across Afghanistan and Balochistan.
  4. Public protection of terrorists: Hafiz Saeed, despite being a UN-designated terrorist, continues to appear at PoK launchpads and public events under the watch of Pakistan’s security forces.

Why is Pakistan’s UN role a paradox?

  1. Contradiction with objectives: Pakistan’s terror links directly undermine the goals of the Counter-Terrorism Committee.
  2. FATF leniency: Removal from the FATF grey list in 2022 despite unresolved financing concerns highlights weak vetting.
  3. Geopolitical trade-offs: Powerful nations enable Pakistan’s elevation to secure their own strategic and economic interests.
  4. Dangerous precedent: It signals that state-sponsored terror can be diplomatically whitewashed.

What loopholes in the UN system does this expose?

  1. Selection flaws: No stringent vetting for compliance with counter-terrorism standards.
  2. Inconsistent moral compass: Earlier cases include Libya chairing the UNHRC and Saudi Arabia heading UN Women’s Rights Commission.
  3. Financial contradictions: IMF’s $1 billion loan in May 2025, just after the Pahalgam attack, raises ethical red flags.
  4. Rewarding duplicity: Pakistan even announced ₹14 crore compensation to families of terrorists, including kin of JeM chief Masood Azhar.

How does this affect India’s security and diplomacy?

  1. Narrative war: Pakistan may use its position to shift blame for regional instability onto India.
  2. UNSC power play: As vice-chair, Pakistan can obstruct India’s efforts to sanction Pakistan-based terrorists.
  3. Taliban equation: Pakistan could derail India’s outreach to the Taliban regime.
  4. Increased threats: Likely escalation of infiltration, asymmetric warfare, and cyber-attacks on India.

What counter-measures can India adopt?

  1. Diplomatic alliances: Leverage partnerships with UNSC members to balance Pakistan’s influence.
  2. Narrative building: Intensify global campaigns via media, academia, and diaspora to expose Pakistan’s duplicity.
  3. Engage Taliban directly: Humanitarian missions in Kabul to weaken Pakistan’s monopoly.
  4. Security strengthening: Bolster intelligence and counter-infiltration mechanisms.
  5. Push for accountability: Advocate for periodic reviews and performance audits of UN counter-terrorism bodies.

Conclusion

The UN’s decision to entrust Pakistan with counter-terrorism roles is more than a diplomatic anomaly, it is a strategic failure with global repercussions. For India, it signifies a heightened threat environment, a greater diplomatic challenge, and a call for proactive global engagement. What begins as “a seat at the table” could soon translate into control over the agenda. The real danger is not Pakistan’s presence in UN committees but the global community pretending it does not matter.

UPSC Relevance

[UPSC 2015] Terrorist activities and mutual distrust have clouded India-Pakistan relations. To what extent the use of soft power like sports and cultural exchanges could help generate goodwill between the two countries? Discuss with suitable examples.

Linkage: Pakistan’s elevation to UN counter-terrorism roles despite its proven terror links deepens mutual distrust with India, underscoring why soft power avenues like sports and cultural exchanges remain fragile yet essential tools to rebuild limited goodwill.

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

More Women employed in agriculture, but half of them are unpaid

Explained | Agriculture | Mains Paper 1: Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sector Industries In Various Parts Of The World

Introduction

Women-led development is increasingly recognised as a structural game-changer for India’s economic ambitions. Nowhere is this more urgent than in agriculture, which not only sustains livelihoods but also employs the largest share of India’s female workforce. However, while women’s participation in farming has risen sharply due to men shifting to non-farm jobs, their contributions remain largely invisible, unpaid, and undervalued. This contradiction calls for a deeper exploration of systemic inequities and emerging opportunities to turn agriculture into a vehicle for women’s empowerment and national growth.

The Feminisation of Agriculture: Numbers Behind the Shift

  1. Surge in women workers: Women’s employment in agriculture rose by 135% in a decade, now accounting for 42% of the agricultural workforce.
  2. Unpaid work: The number of women as unpaid family workers increased 2.5 times, from 23.6 million in 2017–18 to 59.1 million in 2023–24 (PLFS).
  3. Regional inequities: In States like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, over 80% of women workers are in agriculture, and more than half receive no wages.
  4. National picture: Today, one in three working women in India is unpaid.

Why Women’s Work in Agriculture Remains Invisible

  1. Lack of recognition: Women are not officially recognised as farmers despite constituting a large share of labour.
  2. Skewed land ownership: Only 13–14% of land holdings are in women’s names, limiting access to credit, insurance, and government support.
  3. Wage gap: Women earn 20–30% less than men for equivalent agricultural tasks.
  4. Concentration in low-value work: Women are locked into subsistence farming and low-margin tasks without decision-making power.
  5. Macro impact: Despite higher participation, agriculture’s share in GVA fell from 15.3% (2017–18) to 14.4% (2024–25), reinforcing inequities instead of enabling empowerment.

Global Trade Trends as an Opportunity

  1. India–U.K. FTA: Expected to boost agricultural exports by 20% within three years, covering 95% of agricultural and processed food products duty-free.
  2. Export-oriented crops: Women already have strong representation in spices, tea, millets, rice, dairy- sectors poised for expansion.
  3. From labourers to entrepreneurs: With training, credit access, and market linkages, women could transition to income-generating entrepreneurs in value-added exports.

Technology as a Game-Changer

  1. Digital agriculture: Platforms like e-NAM, mobile advisory services, precision tools connect women to markets and pricing systems.
  2. Language and literacy gap: Women face low digital literacy, language barriers, and lack of devices, restricting adoption.
  3. Promising models:
    1. BHASHINI platform and Microsoft–AI4Bharat’s Jugalbandi provide multilingual, voice-first government access.
    2. L&T Finance’s Digital Sakhi programme has built digital and financial literacy among rural women in seven States.
    3. Odisha’s Swayam Sampurna FPOs and Jhalawari Mahila Kisan Producer Company (Rajasthan) leverage digital tools for branding and exports.

Structural Reforms Needed

  1. Land reforms: Promote joint or individual land ownership to strengthen women’s eligibility for formal support.
  2. Labour reforms: Recognise women as independent farmers to ensure fair wages, rights, and credit.
  3. Value chain inclusion: Shift women into higher-margin activities like processing, branding, packaging, and exporting.
  4. Institutional support: Scale multi-stakeholder programs (government, NGOs, FPOs) to dismantle structural inequities.

Conclusion

The feminisation of agriculture in India highlights a double-edged reality: while women have become indispensable to the sector, their economic contributions remain unrecognised and unpaid. With global trade shifts, digital innovations, and land-labour reforms, India now stands at a crossroads. Whether women remain invisible labourers or emerge as empowered entrepreneurs will depend on how decisively policymakers, private actors, and civil society act to bridge systemic inequities. Women’s empowerment in agriculture is not just a gender issue, it is central to India’s economic transformation.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation?

Linkage: The question probes the conceptual clarity between equality, equity, and empowerment while testing their application in real policy frameworks. It aligns with the article as the feminisation of agriculture highlights how ignoring gender concerns in land, labour, and trade programmes perpetuates invisibility of women’s work, whereas equity-driven reforms can transform participation into genuine empowerment.

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