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Type: Prelims Only

  • Air Pollution

    Greenhouse Gases Emissions Intensity (GEI) Targets

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The Environment Ministry has released the Draft Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensity (GEI) Target Rules, 2025, as part of the government’s efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) from energy-intensive sectors.

    About Greenhouse Gases Emissions Intensity (GEI):

    • GHGs trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, contributing to global warming.
    • Major GHGs include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and synthetic fluorinated gases (CFCs, HCFCs).
    • GEI measures the amount of GHGs emitted per unit of output (e.g., per tonne of product like cement or aluminium).
    • It uses tCO2e (tonnes of CO2 equivalent) to account for the impact of all GHGs.
    • Reducing GEI is vital to mitigate climate change, promoting the use of cleaner technologies in industries to lower environmental footprints.

    Key Provisions of Draft GEI Target Rules, 2025:

    • Target Setting for Industries: Specific emission intensity reduction targets are set for energy-intensive sectors like aluminium, cement, and pulp and paper, for the periods 2025-26 and 2026-27.
    • Baseline Emissions & Gradual Reduction: Baseline GHG emissions for 2023-24 are established, with targets for gradual reduction over time.
    • Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS): Industries meeting GEI targets will earn carbon credits that can be traded on India’s carbon market. Those failing to meet targets will need to buy credits or face penalties.
    • Sector-Specific Applicability: Targets apply to 13 aluminium plants, 186 cement plants, 53 pulp and paper plants, and 30 chlor-alkali plants.
    • Penalties & Incentives: Non-compliant industries must buy carbon credits or face penalties. The rules encourage clean technologies, like using biomass instead of coal in production.
    • Alignment with Paris Agreement: The rules support India’s climate commitments, aiming for a 45% reduction in emissions intensity of GDP by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.
    • Monitoring & Compliance: The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) will oversee the carbon credit market, ensuring compliance through regular progress reports from industries.
    [UPSC 2022] Climate Action Tracker’ which monitors the emission reduction pledges of different countries is a:

    Options: (a) Database is created by coalition of research organisations* (b) Wing of “International Panel of Climate Change” (c) Committee under “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change” (d) Agency promoted and financed by United Nations Environment Programme and World Bank

     

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  • Corporate Social Responsibility: Issues & Development

    CSR Spending in India

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

    Why in the News?

    In 2023-24, India’s listed companies spent Rs 17,967 crore on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), 16% higher than Rs 15,524 crore in 2022-23.

    As per the PRIME Database report, this increase was due to an 18% rise in the companies’ net profits.

    CSR Spending in India

    About Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Obligations Under It

    • CSR is a self-regulating business model through which companies become socially accountable to themselves, stakeholders, and the public.
    • It includes initiatives that assess and take responsibility for the company’s social and environmental impact.
    • India is the first country to mandate CSR spending w.e.f. April 1, 2014, through Section 135 of the Companies Act, 2013.
    • It provides a structured framework for CSR activities.
    • CSR provisions apply to companies that, in the preceding financial year, have:
      • Net worth ≥ ₹500 crore, or
      • Turnover ≥ ₹1,000 crore, or
      • Net profit ≥ ₹5 crore
    • CSR Spending Obligation:
      • Companies must spend at least 2% of their average net profits of the last 3 financial years on CSR.
      • Newly incorporated companies should calculate it based on profits of previous years.
    • Eligible CSR Activities:
      1. Eradicating hunger and poverty
      2. Promoting education, gender equality
      3. Combating diseases (e.g., HIV/AIDS)
      4. Environmental sustainability
      5. Contributions to relief funds (e.g., PM CARES, PM Relief Fund)
      6. Welfare of disadvantaged groups
    • If CSR spend > ₹50 lakh, companies must constitute a CSR committee with at least three board members, one being independent.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements with reference to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) rules in India:

    1. CSR rules specify that expenditures that benefit the company directly or its employees will not be considered as CSR activities.

    2. CSR rules do not specify minimum spending on CSR activities.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 or 2

     

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  • Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

    [pib] River Cities Alliance (RCA)

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) has approved an annual master plan for the River Cities Alliance (RCA), aimed at scaling up sustainable urban river rejuvenation.

    What is the River Cities Alliance (RCA)?

    • The RCA launched in 2021, promotes sustainable urban river management across India.
    • It is a joint initiative by the Ministry of Jal Shakti and the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs to integrate river-sensitive urban planning within cities.
    • It aims to strengthen institutional capacities, foster collaboration, and support the creation of Urban River Management Plans (URMPs).
    • As of 2025, 145 cities are part of the alliance, sharing best practices for river conservation.
    • Key activities include promoting river-sensitive planning, peer-to-peer learning, and training for urban local bodies (ULBs).

    About National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG):

    • The NMCG is a flagship initiative to rejuvenate the Ganga River through pollution abatement, ecological restoration, and community involvement.
    • Established in 2011, it implements the Namami Gange Program.
    • It was launched with a ₹20,000 crore budget, covering over 288 projects.
    • It focuses on pollution abatement and maintaining the ecological flow of the Ganga.
    • It operates under a five-tier framework, including the National Ganga Council and state/district committees.
    • Key Initiatives: Includes sewage treatment, riverfront development, real-time monitoring, and public awareness campaigns.
    • It also addresses floods, droughts, and waterlogging in the Ganga basin.
    [UPSC 2021] Which of the following are the key features of ‘National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA)?

    1. River basin is the unit of planning and management.

    2. It spearheads the river conservation efforts at the national level.

    3. One of the Chief Ministers of the States through which the Ganga flows becomes the Chairman of NGRBA on rotation basis.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only  (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • In news: Haji Pir Pass

    National Parks/WSPrelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the News?

    The recent Pahalgam terror attack has revived debates on India’s 1966 decision to surrender the Haji Pir Pass to Pakistan during Tashkent Agreement of 1966.

    This move is compared to the Soviet Union’s 1954 transfer of Crimea, which created lasting security challenges.

    About Haji Pir Pass:

    • The Haji Pir Pass is located in the Pir Panjal Range of Jammu and Kashmir, at an altitude of 2,637 meters (8,652 feet).
    • It connects Poonch in India to Rawalakot in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).
    • Historically, it was a vital route for connecting Jammu to the Kashmir Valley before 1947, making it an essential part of India’s transportation network.
    • Post-partition, it became part of PoK and, during the 1965 Indo-Pak War, India recaptured it under Operation Bakshi.
    • However, it was returned to Pakistan following the Tashkent Agreement in 1966, a decision criticized by many experts.

    How Haji Pir Pass is a Chokepoint?

    • Strategic Military Route: The pass provides Pakistan with the ability to control and monitor the Kashmir Valley from a high-altitude position, serving as a key route for military logistics and infiltration.
    • Gateway for Infiltration: Historically, it has been used for militant infiltration into India, fuelling insurgency and instability in Kashmir.
    • Shortened Military Access: Retaining the pass would have reduced the distance between Poonch and Uri from 282 km to 56 km, improving India’s military logistics and rapid deployment.
    • Control over Key Terrain: Controlling the pass enables domination of the surrounding hills, limiting Pakistan’s ability to sustain military pressure and infiltration.
    [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around in the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?

    (a) Chang La (b) Jara La (c) Nathu La* (d) Shipki La

     

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  • Banking Sector Reforms

    RBI Launches ‘.bank.in’ Domain to Combat Digital Payment Frauds

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Why in the News?

    To tackle the increasing number of digital payment frauds, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has introduced the exclusive ‘.bank.in’ domain for Indian banks.

    About the ‘.bank.in’ Domain

    • The ‘.bank.in’ domain was introduced in February 2025 to provide Indian banks with a unique online address, reducing the risk of fraudulent websites mimicking bank domains.
    • It will be operationalised by the Institute for Development and Research in Banking Technology (IDRBT), under National Internet Exchange of India (NIXI) oversight.
    • The ‘.in’ Code Top-Level Domain (ccTLD) is India’s national identifier on the internet.
    • This domain adds an extra layer of trust, distinguishing legitimate banks from fraudulent entities.
    • The IDRBT, operating under MeitY, has been authorised as the exclusive registrar for this domain.
    • All banks in India must transition to this by October 31, 2025, with both old and new domains likely in use during the transition period.
    [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements: The Reserve Bank of India’s recent directives relating to ‘Storage of Payment System Data’, popularly known as data diktat, command the payment system providers that

    1. they shall ensure that entire data relating to payment systems operated by them are stored in a system only in India

    2. they shall ensure that the systems are owned and operated by public sector enterprises

    3. they shall submit the consolidated system audit report to the Comptroller and Auditor General of India by the end of the calendar

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-United States

    India raises Continental Shelf claim in Arabian Sea Region

    Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood – Relations

    Why in the News?

    India has recently expanded its claim in the Central Arabian Sea by nearly 10,000 square kilometers as part of its ‘extended continental shelf,’ modifying an earlier claim to resolve a dispute with Pakistan.

    India raises Continental-Shelf claim in Arabian Sea Region

    About Extended Continental Shelf (ECS):

    • ECS refers to the area beyond 200 nautical miles that countries can claim by submitting geological and geophysical evidence to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS).
    • These claims allow countries to explore resources like oil, gas, and minerals on and beneath the seabed.
    • Coastal states have rights to an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) up to 200 nautical miles from their coastline.
    • However, such States can claim additional seabed area beyond this limit if they prove scientifically that the continental shelf extends naturally from their landmass.

    Back2Basics: Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS)

    • The CLCS estd. In 1997, is a UN body under the UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea) that helps states determine the outer limits of their continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles.
    • The CLCS reviews the scientific data provided by states and makes binding recommendations on the extent of the outer shelf limits.
    • The commission comprises 21 experts from geology, geophysics, and hydrography, ensuring legal compliance and peaceful boundary resolution.

    India’s Modified Claims and Pakistan:

    • India first submitted a claim in 2009 for an extended shelf in the Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean, and Arabian Sea, claiming an additional 1.2 million square kilometers.
    • After Pakistan’s objections, India modified its claim, splitting it into two parts to resolve disputes and ensure uncontroversial areas in the Central Arabian Sea.
    • India also increased its claim by 10,000 square kilometers using new scientific data.
    • The Sir Creek area, a disputed waterway between India and Pakistan, remains a point of contention, but India’s modification aims for peaceful resolution.
    • India’s claim overlaps with Oman’s shelf, but the two countries have an agreement to keep the delimitation open without conflict.
    [UPSC 2022] With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements:

    1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention.

    2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea.

    3. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    New RNA-Based Approach to Combat Plant Viruses

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Recently, a team of scientists from Germany reported a breakthrough in combating the cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) through an innovative RNA-based antiviral agent.

    About Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV):

    • CMV is one of the most widespread and destructive plant viruses, affecting over 1,200 plant species, including important food crops such as cucumbers, melons, and cereals.
    • The virus is transmitted by aphids, tiny insects that spread the virus as they feed on plants, making outbreaks difficult to control.
    • In India, CMV causes significant yield losses in crops like bananas, pumpkins, and cucumbers, leading to mosaic discoloration, stunted growth, and unviable fruits.
    • The economic impact of CMV includes both direct financial losses from reduced crop yields and the indirect costs of pest management.

    RNA Silencing Methods discussed (HIGS vs SIGS): 

    RNA silencing is a natural defense mechanism that plants use to protect themselves from viral infections.

    Two RNA-based technologies, Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS) and Spray-Induced Gene Silencing (SIGS), have been developed to enhance plant immunity against diseases like CMV.

    [1] Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS):

    • HIGS involves genetically modifying plants to produce dsRNA, which activates the plant’s immune system to fight off the virus.
    • This method provides continuous protection and long-term immunity throughout the plant’s lifecycle.
    • However, it faces challenges such as regulatory issues, high production costs, and the potential for viruses to evolve resistance over time.

    [2] Spray-Induced Gene Silencing (SIGS):

    • SIGS, unlike HIGS, does not require genetic modification. Instead, plants are treated with RNA sprays containing dsRNA that targets specific viruses.
    • This method is cost-effective, non-GMO, and can be applied to a variety of crops.
    • However, SIGS provides short-term protection, may be ineffective due to random RNA mixtures, and its effectiveness can be reduced by environmental factors such as sunlight, rain, and soil microbes.
    [UPSC 2019] RNA interference (RNAi)’ technology has gained popularity in the last few years. Why?

    1. It is used in developing gene silencing therapies.

    2. It can be used in developing therapies for-the treatment of cancer.

    3. It can be used to develop hormone replacement therapies.

    4. It can be used to produce crop plants that are resistant to viral pathogens.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 4* (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 and 4 only

     

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    “Revive Our Ocean” Initiative

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    A new global initiative called ‘Revive Our Ocean’ was launched with the goal of scaling up effective, community-led marine protected areas (MPAs) to boost marine conservation efforts.

    About the Revive Our Ocean Initiative:

    • It is a global effort to enhance marine ecosystem protection through community-led Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).
    • It was launched by David Attenborough, Dynamic Planet, and National Geographic’s Pristine Seas to scale up MPAs, empowering coastal communities to lead conservation efforts.
    • The goal is to protect 30% of the world’s oceans by 2030, aligning with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF).
    • Initially focused on 7 countries: UK, Portugal, Greece, Turkey, Philippines, Indonesia, and Mexico, using successful MPA models.
    • It emphasizes economic benefits of MPAs, such as generating €16 million annually from diving tourism in Medes Island, Spain.

    Back2Basics: Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF)

    • KMGBF was adopted in December 2022, the KMGBF aims to halt biodiversity loss by 2030 and ensure human-nature harmony by 2050.
    • It replaces the Aichi Biodiversity Targets and is often referred to as the “Paris Agreement for Nature“, with 196 countries adopting it.
    • The framework sets a 30×30 target, aiming to protect 30% of global land and marine areas by 2030 and restore ecosystems.
    • It focuses on halting species extinction, reducing pollution, and promoting sustainable agriculture, forestry, and fisheries.
    • Other targets include reducing pesticide and nutrient pollution, minimising harmful waste, and promoting urban green spaces.

     

    [UPSC 2012] The acidification of oceans is increasing. Why is this phenomenon a cause of concern?

    1. The growth and survival of calcareous phytoplankton will be adversely affected.

    2. The growth and survival of coral reefs will be adversely affected.

    3. The survival of some animals that have phytoplanktonic larvae will be adversely affected.

    4. The cloud seeding and formation of clouds will be adversely affected.

    Which among the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only* (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

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  • Indian Missile Program Updates

    DRDO achieves milestone in Scramjet Hypersonic Engine Development

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Why in the News?

    The DRDO Laboratory (DRDL), located in Hyderabad, successfully demonstrated long-duration Active Cooled Scramjet Subscale Combustor ground testing for over 1,000 seconds.

    About Hypersonic Cruise Missiles:

    • Hypersonic cruise missiles are advanced weapons capable of travelling at speeds greater than Mach 5 (approximately 6,100 km/h), making them 5x faster than the speed of sound.
    • These missiles use Scramjets (Supersonic Combustion Ramjets) powered by atmospheric oxygen, making them more efficient for long-duration travel compared to traditional missiles that carry their own oxidizers.
    • They maintain high speeds and are highly manoeuvrable, making them difficult to intercept by current missile defense systems.
    • They can strike targets at long ranges with minimal warning and penetrate advanced defense shields.

    DRDO’s Achievement:

    • The DRDO successfully conducted long-duration Active Cooled Scramjet Subscale Combustor ground testing for over 1,000 seconds.
    • This test advances India’s capability to develop hypersonic cruise missiles, validating the design of the scramjet combustor and the test facility, both crucial for developing air-breathing propulsion systems.
    • This paves the way for full-scale flight-worthy combustor testing, bringing India closer to developing functional hypersonic missiles and enhancing its defense capabilities.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.

    2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

     

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    Places in News: Sea of Marmara

    Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

    Why in the News?

    A powerful earthquake with a magnitude of 6.2 struck Istanbul and surrounding areas with its epicenter located beneath the Sea of Marmara.

    About the Sea of Marmara

    • The Sea of Marmara is a small but significant inland sea in Turkey, acting as a transition zone between the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea.
    • It holds geographical, ecological, and cultural importance, separating Asia and Europe within Turkey.
    • It spans 11,350 km², it is 280 km long and 80 km wide.
    • It is connected to the Black Sea in the northeast via the Bosphorus Strait and to the Aegean Sea in the southwest via the Dardanelles Strait.
    • It receives cold, fresh water from the Black Sea and warmer, saltier water from the Mediterranean, creating a unique fresh-to-salty water transition.
    • The region experiences a humid subtropical climate with hot summers and cold, wet winters, influencing the marine ecosystem.
    • The North Anatolian Fault runs beneath the sea, causing significant earthquake risks, including the recent 6.2 magnitude earthquake near Istanbul.
    • It is home to several islands, including Marmara Island (the largest) and Prince Islands.
    • The city of Istanbul lies along its coastline.
    [UPSC 2014] Turkey is located between:

    Options: (a) Black Sea and Caspian Sea (b) Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea (c) Gulf of Suez and Mediterranean Sea (d) Gulf of Aqaba and Dead Sea

     

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