Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia
Why in the News
A rare freshwater crab species, Vela carli, found in Silent Valley National Park, has been discovered showing both male and female biological traits.
What was discovered?
Scientists found three crabs exhibiting dual sexual characteristics
The condition is called Gynandromorphy
Example in this case:
Some body parts had male reproductive organs
Others had female features (gonopores)
What is Gynandromorphy?
A rare biological condition where: An organism shows both male and female characteristics.
Usually caused by: Errors during cell division (chromosomal distribution).
Important distinction:
Not hermaphroditism (where both reproductive organs function normally)
Instead, it is a mosaic of male and female tissues
About Vela Carli
Vela carli is a freshwater crab species endemic to India, specifically found in the Central Western Ghats, one of the world’s richest biodiversity hotspots.
[2013] Consider the following pairs: National Park : River flowing through the Park Corbett National Park : Ganga Kaziranga National Park : Manas Silent Valley National Park : Kaveri Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 (d) None
The Government has approved 23 institutions to set up quantum teaching laboratories under the National Quantum Mission, with around 100 more proposals under evaluation.
About National Quantum Mission (NQM)
Approved in 2023 with an outlay of ₹6003.65 crore
Duration: 2023–2031
Aim: Position India as a global leader in quantum technologies
Develop: High-precision sensors (defence, navigation) and Advanced quantum materials.
What are Quantum Labs?
Teaching and research facilities in universities
Focus on:
Training students in quantum technologies
Building skilled manpower
Help bridge India’s quantum skill gap
Significance of the Move
Capacity Building: Creates a pipeline of skilled researchers and engineers
Strengthens India’s R&D ecosystem
Strategic Importance: Quantum tech has applications in:
Defence (secure communication)
Cybersecurity
Space & navigation
Helps India compete with:
United States
China
Economic Potential: Quantum technologies expected to drive: Next-gen computing and Innovation-led growth.
[2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned? (a) Cloud Services (b) Quantum Computing (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies (d) Wireless Communication Technologies
Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India
Why in the News
Iran has deployed the Sejjil missile in active combat for the first time during “Wave 54” strikes against U.S. and Israeli positions, marking a major escalation in the Iran–US-Israel conflict (2026).
What is the Sejjil Missile?
An indigenously developed, two-stage Medium-Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM)
Also known as Sajjil / Ashura
Represents Iran’s shift from liquid-fuel → solid-fuel missile technology.
Evasive Maneuverability
Nicknamed “dancing missile”
Capable of mid-course manoeuvres, making interception difficult for systems like: Iron Dome and Arrow Missile Defence System.
[2023] Consider the following statements: Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at sub-sonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Mains Paper 2: E-Governance, Government Scheme/Policies
Why in the News
The government has launched Sujal Gaon ID for digital mapping of rural water schemes.
Approved Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) 2.0 extension till Dec 2028.
Increased total outlay to ₹8.69 lakh crore.
What is Sujal Gaon ID?
A unique digital ID for every rural piped water supply scheme
Enables end-to-end mapping (source → infrastructure → service area)
Integrated under “Sujalam Bharat” digital platform
Key Facts
1.64 lakh Sujal Gaon IDs created
Linked to 67,000 Sujalam Bharat IDs
Covers 31 States/UTs
Aim: Real-time monitoring, transparency, and accountability
[2024] With reference to the Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme, consider the following statements: To implement the scheme, the Central Government provides 100% funding. Under the Scheme, Cadastral Maps are digitised. An initiative has been undertaken to transliterate the Records of Rights from local language to any of the languages recognized by the Constitution of India. Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India
Why in the News
India’s indigenous navigation system NavIC has been weakened after the failure of the last atomic clock onboard the satellite IRNSS-1F. This has reduced the number of fully functional satellites to below the required minimum, affecting navigation accuracy.
What is NavIC?
Developed by ISRO.
India’s regional alternative to GPS.
Provides Position, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) services.
Coverage: India + ~1500 km beyond its borders.
Role of Atomic Clocks
Atomic clocks provide extremely precise time signals.
Navigation works by measuring time delay of signals from satellites.
Even a tiny error in time → large error in location.
Hence, clock failure = loss of navigation capability.
What has happened?
The last working atomic clock on IRNSS-1F failed (March 2026).
Many earlier NavIC satellites had already lost their clocks.
Now:
Only 3 satellites are effectively usable
Minimum 4 satellites needed for reliable navigation
Why is this a Concern?
Weakens India’s GPS Alternative: NavIC is meant as a strategic backup to systems like GPS (Global Positioning System).
Failure reduces self-reliance in critical sectors.
Strategic & Security Implications: In conflicts, access to foreign systems may be restricted or denied.
Weak NavIC leads to vulnerability in defence navigation.
Impact on Civil Applications:
Transport and logistics
Disaster management
Timing systems (banking, telecom)
Causes of the Problem
Heavy reliance on imported atomic clocks (from foreign suppliers).
Earlier multiple clock failures across satellites.
Steps Taken by India
Indigenous Atomic Clocks: New satellites use indigenously developed rubidium atomic clocks. Example: NVS-01
Replacement Satellites: ISRO plans to launch at least 3 new satellites by 2026.
[2018] With reference to the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), consider the following statements: IRNSS has three satellites in geostationary and four satellites in geosynchronous orbits. IRNSS covers entire India and about 5500 sq. km beyond its borders. India will have its own satellite navigation system with full global coverage by the middle of 2019. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) None
Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India
Why in the News
Amid the ongoing Iran–US-Israel conflict (2026), major Gulf producers like Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain have invoked force majeure on oil and gas exports due to shipping disruptions and attacks on infrastructure.
What is Force Majeure?
Force majeure is a contractual clause that allows a party to suspend or cancel its obligations without penalty when extraordinary events make performance impossible.
Origin: French term meaning “superior force”
Common in international trade, energy contracts, and maritime law
Examples of Force Majeure Events
Wars and armed conflicts
Natural disasters (earthquakes, floods)
Pandemics (e.g., COVID-19)
Government actions or sanctions
[2024] Consider the following statements: Statement-I: Sumed pipeline is a strategic route for Persian Gulf oil and natural gas shipments to Europe. Statement-II: Sumed pipeline connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements? (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct
Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India
Why in the News
The United States launched airstrikes on military targets on Kharg Island during the ongoing US–Israel conflict with Iran. Although oil infrastructure was not targeted, the attack raises fears of disruption in global oil supply and a potential spike in crude prices.
What is Kharg Island?
A small 8-km-long coral island in the Persian Gulf.
Located about 50 km off Iran’s mainland coast.
Serves as Iran’s primary oil export hub.
Why Kharg Island is Strategically Important
Iran’s Main Oil Export Terminal: About 90% of Iran’s crude oil exports pass through Kharg Island. Pipelines from major Iranian oil fields terminate here before exports.
Massive Oil Infrastructure: Key facilities on the island include:
Falat Iran Oil Company producing around 500,000 barrels per day.
Kharg Petrochemical Company.
Large oil storage and LNG shipping facilities.
Suitable Geography for Large Tankers: Much of Iran’s coastline is too shallow for very large crude carriers (VLCCs). Kharg lies near deep waters, allowing large oil tankers to dock easily.
Oil Trade Through Kharg
Normally ≈1.5 million barrels of oil per day exported through the island.
Iran reportedly increased exports to ≈3 million barrels/day before the strike anticipating conflict.
About 18 million barrels of oil stored there as reserve capacity.
Why the Attack Matters
Impact on Oil Prices: If Kharg’s oil infrastructure were destroyed, 90% of Iran’s exports could stop. Global crude prices could surge towards $150 per barrel.
Strategic Signalling: The U.S. targeted military sites but avoided oil infrastructure, possibly to:
Avoid a major global energy shock.
Signal restraint while warning Iran against disrupting shipping.
Risk to Shipping Routes: The U.S. Navy plans to escort oil tankers through the Strait of Hormuz, which carries a large share of global oil trade.
[2012] To meet its rapidly growing energy demand, some opine that India should pursue research and development on thorium as the future fuel of nuclear energy. In this context, what advantage does thorium hold over uranium? Thorium is far more abundant in nature than uranium. On the basis of per unit mass of mined mineral, thorium can generate more energy compared to natural uranium. Thorium produces less harmful waste compared to uranium. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.
Why in the News
Experts have highlighted the importance of thorium-based nuclear energy in achieving India’s target of 100 gigawatts electric (GWe) nuclear power capacity by 2047, especially after the passage of the SHANTI Act 2025.
Why Thorium is Important for India
1. Largest Thorium Reserves
India possesses the world’s largest thorium reserves.
Thorium deposits are mainly found in monazite sands along the Indian coastline.
2. Energy Security
India’s current nuclear programme relies heavily on imported uranium because domestic uranium ores are low-grade.
A nuclear capacity of 100 GWe would require 18,000–20,000 tonnes of uranium annually, which may become difficult to secure globally.
3. Reduced Nuclear Proliferation Risk
Thorium fuel cycles produce less weapons-usable material, reducing proliferation risks compared to conventional uranium cycles.
India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme
The programme was designed to use India’s large thorium resources.
Stage 1: Thermal Reactors
Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor
Uses natural uranium as fuel.
Stage 2: Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs)
Convert plutonium and fertile materials into more fuel.
India’s Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (500 MWe) is nearing completion.
Stage 3: Thorium-Based Reactors
Thorium is converted into uranium-233, which becomes the main fuel.
Key Technologies for Thorium Deployment
Fast Breeder Reactors: Essential to generate uranium-233 from thorium.
Thorium Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR): Advanced reactors designed for thorium fuel cycles.
Small Modular Reactors (SMRs): Compact reactors that can produce electricity and green hydrogen.
HALEU Fuel: High-Assay Low-Enriched Uranium
Can be combined with thorium in existing reactors to accelerate the thorium fuel cycle.
Role of Nuclear Fuel Recycling
Nuclear recycling can increase the energy potential of fuel 50–100 times.
Countries such as France, Russia, and India already use such technologies
[2012] To meet its rapidly growing energy demand, some opine that India should pursue research and development on thorium as the future fuel of nuclear energy. In this context, what advantage does thorium hold over uranium? Thorium is far more abundant in nature than uranium. On the basis of per unit mass of mined mineral, thorium can generate more energy compared to natural uranium. Thorium produces less harmful waste compared to uranium. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India
Why in the News
The Government of India has introduced calibrated changes to its Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) policy for Land Bordering Countries (LBCs) to boost investment in key manufacturing sectors such as electronics components and rare earth magnets.
Background: Press Note 3 (PN3) – 2020
In April 2020, India introduced Press Note 3 (2020).
It mandated prior government approval for investments from countries sharing land borders with India.
Countries Covered
China
Pakistan
Bangladesh
Nepal
Myanmar
Bhutan
Afghanistan
Reason: Prevent opportunistic takeovers of Indian companies during the COVID-19 economic slowdown, particularly by Chinese investors.
Key Changes in the FDI Policy (2026)
Automatic Route for Small Indirect Ownership: Investments will be allowed under the automatic route if beneficial ownership from LBCs is below 10%.
This mainly benefits global private equity and venture capital funds with minor Chinese stakes.
Faster Approval Process: Investment proposals from LBCs in certain sectors must now be processed within 60 days.
Investment in “Specified Sectors”: Allowed sectors include:
Electronic components manufacturing
Electronic capital goods
Polysilicon and wafer manufacturing
Advanced battery components
Rare earth magnets and processing.
However, these investments must ensure Indian majority ownership (at least 51%).
Pakistan Exception: Investments from Pakistan will continue to require government approval and remain restricted.
Why the Policy Was Relaxed
The change follows recommendations from: NITI Aayog and Economic Survey 2023-24.
These reports argued that Chinese capital and technology could help India strengthen export competitiveness, particularly in electronics manufacturing.
Who Benefits?
Global Investment Funds: Funds like private equity and venture capital firms with minor Chinese ownership can invest without lengthy approvals.
Manufacturing Sector: Industries that depend on imported inputs such as: Electronics components, Rare earth magnets, and Semiconductor materials.
Indian Firms: Joint ventures with foreign companies while maintaining majority Indian control.
[2021] Consider the following: Foreign currency convertible bonds Foreign institutional investment with certain conditions Global depository receipts Non-resident external deposits Which of the above can be included in Foreign Direct Investments? (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy, Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.
Why in the News
Recent data from the Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell shows that although India has over 34 crore LPG consumers, the average household consumption is only about half a cylinder per month, especially in rural areas.
Key Data Highlights
LPG Consumers in India
Total LPG consumers: ≈33.37 crore households
Connections under Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana: 10.56 crore
Growth in LPG Consumption
LPG consumption increased six-fold: 446 TMT in 1998–99 and 2,754 TMT in 2025–26
Major growth occurred during the 2000s and 2010s (8–11% annually).
A sharp rise happened in 2016–17 after the launch of PMUY.
Household Consumption Pattern
Average LPG Use per Household
Delhi (mostly urban): ~ 11.4 kg per month
Bihar (mostly rural): ~ 6.7 kg per month
Uttar Pradesh: ~ 7.7 kg per month
States with Highest LPG Consumers
Uttar Pradesh – 4.87 crore consumers (highest)
Maharashtra – 3.2 crore
West Bengal – 2.72 crore
Tamil Nadu – 2.4 crore
Bihar – 2.33 crore
Key Insight
Urban households rely almost entirely on LPG, leading to higher monthly usage.
Rural households often combine LPG with traditional fuels, resulting in lower consumption despite having connections.
[2009] With which one of the following has the B.K. Chaturvedi Committee dealt? (a) Review of Centre-States relation (b) Review of Delimitation Act (c) Tax reforms and measures to increase revenues (d) Price reforms in the oil sector
