PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.
Linkage: The fundamental objective behind global shipping’s decarbonization efforts is to reduce the level of greenhouse gases (GHGs) to combat global warming. The shift to green fuels like green ammonia and e-methanol by the shipping industry represents a crucial “control measure” aimed at achieving this objective. |
Mentor’s Comment: India is positioning itself as a global hub for green marine fuels like green methanol and green ammonia, aligning with global shipping’s decarbonisation goals by 2040–2050. With strong policy support, India is accelerating electrolyser manufacturing, advancing carbon capture technologies, and reviving its shipbuilding sector. By promoting green fuel exports, the country aims to seize a strategic opportunity in the global transition to clean energy and assert its maritime leadership in the emerging green shipping economy.
Today’s editorial analyses the green fuels in shipping decarbonisation. This topic is important for GS Paper III (Environment) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, Global shipping is moving towards reducing carbon emissions by 2040–2050, which offers a major opportunity for India. Currently, most merchant ships run on fuels like Very Low Sulphur Fuel Oil (VLSFO), diesel, and liquefied methane gas.
What are green fuels?
- Green fuels are derived from green hydrogen, which is produced by electrolysis of water using renewable energy (e.g., solar, wind). Green ammonia is created by combining green hydrogen and nitrogen.
- Green methanol is produced from green hydrogen and CO₂ (captured from industrial sources). These fuels are carbon-neutral or low-carbon alternatives to conventional shipping fuels like VLSFO or LNG.
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How do green fuels aid in shipping decarbonisation?
- Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Green fuels like green methanol and green ammonia significantly reduce or eliminate CO₂ and GHG emissions compared to traditional fossil fuels such as VLSFO and LNG. Eg: Green methanol emits about 10% of CO₂ compared to VLSFO, while green ammonia emits virtually zero greenhouse gases.
- Compatibility with Existing Systems (for Transition): Green methanol is a suitable transitional fuel requiring minimal retrofitting of existing ship engines, supporting a smooth shift from fossil fuels. Eg: Over 360 methanol-capable ships are already in service or on order, including by global giants like Maersk and CMA CGM.
- Enables Compliance with Future Emission Norms: Adoption of green fuels ensures alignment with global decarbonisation goals and helps meet emission standards set for 2040–2050 by international maritime bodies. Eg: India’s initiative to build green fuel hubs at Tuticorin and Kandla supports compliance with IMO’s emission targets.
How can India become a global hub for marine green fuel production?
- Utilising Coastal Industrial Clusters for Integrated Green Fuel Zones: India can leverage existing coastal industrial zones to integrate green fuel production with port logistics, reducing supply chain costs and boosting efficiency. Eg: The Mumbai–Pune industrial corridor near the Jawaharlal Nehru Port can be developed into a green methanol hub with co-located renewable energy, CO₂ sources, and export terminals.
- Exporting Green Fuels Through Strategic Trade Partnerships: By forging long-term green energy export agreements with fuel-deficit countries, India can secure demand and scale up production. Eg: A partnership with the European Union’s FuelEU Maritime initiative could enable India to export green methanol to European ports aiming for carbon-neutral shipping.
- Establishing Research and Innovation Centers in Maritime States: Setting up marine green fuel R&D centres in states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, or Odisha can drive innovation in fuel production, storage, and engine retrofits. Eg: A dedicated Marine Energy Innovation Park in Visakhapatnam could support pilot projects for green ammonia engines and advanced electrolyser technology.
What are the challenges?
- High Capital Costs and Infrastructure Requirements: Transitioning to green fuels requires significant investments in retrofitting ships, building new vessels, and developing bunkering infrastructure. Eg: Installing methanol-compatible systems or ammonia handling setups onboard involves major design changes and safety adaptations, slowing adoption.
- Limited Availability and High Price of Green Fuels: Green fuels like e-methanol and green ammonia are still expensive and scarce due to high renewable electricity costsand limited production capacity. Eg: In February, e-methanol cost $1,950/tonne in Singapore, compared to $560/tonne for VLSFO, making the shift economically difficult.
What are the policy and financial tools that are key to scaling green methanol in India?
- Sovereign Guarantees and Off-take Assurance: Government-backed sovereign guarantees reduce investment risks and enable access to low-cost international finance, while off-take agreements ensure steady demand, improving project bankability.
- Production-Linked Incentives (PLI) and Domestic Manufacturing Support: PLI schemes for electrolyser manufacturing help reduce import dependence, lower production costs, and localise the green fuel value chain.
- Carbon Capture and CCUS Incentives: Policy incentives for Carbon Capture, Utilisation, and Storage (CCUS) make it viable to obtain CO₂ from industrial sources, which is essential for green methanol production using green hydrogen.
In what ways can green fuel shipbuilding boost India’s maritime sector?
- Revival of Domestic Shipyards through High-Value Orders: Building green fuel-compatible ships can generate consistent demand for Indian shipyards, modernising infrastructure and creating skilled employment. Eg: Reviving the Hindustan Shipyard Limited (HSL) in Andhra Pradesh with contracts for green ferries and coastal cargo vessels can reinvigorate domestic shipbuilding.
- Enhancing India’s Global Ship Export Potential: Developing expertise in green shipbuilding can position India as an exporter of eco-friendly vessels to emerging markets transitioning to low-emission fleets. Eg: India can export hybrid-electric and green methanol-compatible vessels to island nations in the Indian Ocean and Africa implementing IMO emission norms.
- Strengthening India’s Role in the Green Maritime Supply Chain: Green shipbuilding can attract global OEMs and technology partners, integrating India into the international green maritime supply chain. Eg: Setting up a Green Marine Innovation Cluster in Kochi with global collaboration could turn the region into a hub for next-gen ship components and propulsion systems.
Case study:
- Denmark – Green Methanol Leadership: Denmark, through Maersk, is leading the global shift to green methanol-powered shipping, with multiple vessels ordered and partnerships for fuel production. Government support and private sector collaboration have positioned Denmark as a model for green shipping innovation and sustainable maritime infrastructure.
- Japan – Advancing Green Ammonia Shipping: Japan is pioneering green ammonia as a marine fuel with state-backed funding, R&D, and prototype vessels under companies like NYK Line. Its investments in ammonia bunkering infrastructure and domestic shipbuilding are helping build a complete green maritime ecosystem.
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Way forward:
- Develop Integrated Green Maritime Ecosystems: India should establish green fuel production, bunkering, and shipbuilding hubs along key coastal regions by combining policy incentives, infrastructure investment, and private sector participation.
- Leverage Financial Tools and Global Partnerships: Use sovereign guarantees, PLI schemes, and international green financing to scale up green methanol projects, while forging strategic trade and technology alliances with global maritime leaders.
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court of India’s May 2025 judgment in Re: Right to Privacy of Adolescents has come into the spotlight due to its landmark stance on adolescent sexuality, criminal justice, and the limitations of the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act in dealing with consensual relationships involving minors.
What about the POCSO Act?
The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012 is a comprehensive law enacted by the Government of India to protect children (below 18 years) from sexual abuse, sexual harassment, and pornography. It ensures a child-friendly legal process and provides for special courts to conduct speedy trials. |
Why is reforming the age of consent under POCSO being debated?
- Criminalisation of Consensual Adolescent Relationships: The current age of consent (18 years) under the POCSO Act criminalises all sexual activity involving minors, even when it is consensual and non-exploitative. Eg: In the 2025 Supreme Court case from West Bengal, a 14-year-old girl in a consensual relationship faced legal action, despite her opposition to the punishment of her partner.
- Disconnect Between Law and Ground Realities: There is a gap between the legal framework and social realities, as many POCSO cases involve romantic relationships rather than abuse. Eg: An Enfold study (2016–2020) found that 24.3% of POCSO cases in Assam, Maharashtra, and West Bengal involved consensual romantic relationships, with 82% of victims refusing to testify against the accused.
- Need to Recognise Adolescent Agency with Safeguards: Critics argue that adolescents aged 16–18 are capable of giving informed consent under certain conditions, and blanket criminalisation undermines their agency. Eg: The UNCRC’s General Comment No. 20 recommends non-criminalisation of consensual acts between adolescents of similar age and calls for laws that address coercion, not curtail autonomy.
How does the 2025 Supreme Court judgment reflect a rights-based approach?
- Upholding the Right to Dignity and Autonomy (Article 21): The Court acknowledged the woman’s emotional and financial struggles, choosing not to impose a sentence on the accused to protect her well-being and dignity. This affirms the constitutional right to life with dignity and shifts focus from punitive justice to restorative justice.
- Prioritising the Voice of the Affected Individual: By forming an expert committee to assess the now-adult woman’s preferences before sentencing, the Court ensured her voice and agency were central to the legal outcome, a key tenet of rights-based jurisprudence.
- Recognising Systemic Failures and Suggesting Reforms: The Court acknowledged the collective failure of social and legal systems and directed the central government to consider reforms such as comprehensive sexuality education, life-skills training, and rehabilitation support — addressing structural rights violations beyond the courtroom.
Case study:
- Canada – Close-in-Age Exemption: Canada sets the age of consent at 16, but allows consensual sexual activity between adolescents through close-in-age exemptions (e.g., a 14-year-old can engage in consensual activity with someone less than 5 years older).
- South Africa – Teddy Bear Clinic Case (2013): The Constitutional Court ruled that criminalising consensual sex between adolescents aged 12–15 violates their rights to dignity and privacy.
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How can the law better balance adolescent protection with agency? (Way forward)
- Introduce a Close-in-Age Exemption: Laws can decriminalise consensual relationships between adolescents close in age (e.g., 16–18), while still penalising exploitation or coercion. Eg: Several countries (like Canada) apply a “close-in-age” defence to avoid criminalising consensual teenage relationships.
- Differentiate Between Exploitative and Non-Exploitative Acts: Legal provisions should recognise that not all sexual activity involving adolescents is exploitative. The law must distinguish abuse of power from mutual adolescent relationships. Eg: General Comment No. 20 under UNCRC urges states not to criminalise non-exploitative, consensual adolescent activity.
- Incorporate Adolescent Perspectives in Legal Processes
Courts should ensure that adolescents’ voices and choices are considered, especially in determining intent, coercion, and consent. Legal procedures should be sensitive to their evolving capacities. Eg: In Re: Right to Privacy of Adolescents (2025), the Supreme Court consulted the adolescent before deciding sentencing.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Right to privacy is intrinsic to life and personal liberty and is inherently protected under Article 21 of the Constitution. Explain. In this reference discuss the law relating to D.N.A. testing of a child in the womb to establish its paternity.
Linkage: The article talks about the right to privacy of young individuals, particularly in the context of their relationships and the subsequent legal interventions that deeply impact their lives. The Supreme Court’s revisiting of its stance and prioritizing the voice of the young person under Article 142 demonstrates the judiciary’s role in interpreting fundamental rights like privacy in complex social scenarios involving adolescents.
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Why in the News?
The 2025 BRICS Summit highlighted a significant shift in the global order, with the United States under Donald Trump bypassing multilateral institutions like the UN, promoting bilateralism, and weakening the Global South’s collective voice.
What does the decline of multilateralism mean for India?
- Reduced Collective Bargaining Power: With institutions like the United Nations (UN) being marginalised, India can no longer rely on multilateral forums to advocate for Global South interests. Eg: The BRICS 2025 Declaration failed to address the erosion of multilateralism or emphasize South-South cooperation.
- Shift Towards Bilateralism and Strategic Autonomy: India must engage through commerce-driven bilateral deals and assert strategic autonomy between global powers. Eg: India’s loss in the UNESCO Vice-Chair election to Pakistan underlines the need for stronger bilateral influence and independent foreign policy.
- Focus on Self-Reliance and Regional Partnerships: India should now concentrate on its own economic growth and build strong ties with nearby countries to reduce dependence on global powers. Eg: India linking trade deals with the U.S. to agreements with ASEAN nations shows a shift toward regional cooperation.
Why is South-South cooperation crucial for India now?
- Enhances Development Partnerships: South-South cooperation allows India to share low-cost technologies, development models, and capacity-building expertise with other developing countries. Eg: Through the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme, India trains professionals from over 160 countries in fields like IT, agriculture, and governance.
- Secures Access to Critical Resources: Collaboration with Global South nations helps India access vital natural resources and raw materials essential for its manufacturing and energy needs. Eg: India’s investment in lithium and cobalt mines in Africa supports its EV and battery manufacturing push under the Make in India initiative.
- Builds Resilience Against Western Dependency: Strengthening ties within the Global South reduces overreliance on Western economies and institutions, especially in times of geopolitical uncertainty or trade sanctions. Eg: The India-Brazil-South Africa (IBSA) Fund supports poverty alleviation and post-conflict reconstruction, demonstrating a collective southern-led approach.
How can India use its tech and industrial strengths globally?
- Exporting Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI): India can leverage its success in building scalable digital platforms to assist developing countries in digital governance and financial inclusion. Eg: India’s Modular Open-Source Identity Platform (MOSIP), modeled on Aadhaar, has been adopted by Philippines, Morocco, and Sri Lanka to develop their own digital ID systems.
- Promoting Green Industrial Innovation: India’s industrial base is increasingly oriented towards clean energy and sustainable manufacturing, which can be exported as part of global decarbonisation efforts. Eg: Indian companies like ReNew Power and Tata Power Solar are investing in solar and wind energy projects in Africa and Southeast Asia.
- Becoming a Global Hub for Frugal Innovation: India’s expertise in low-cost, high-impact technology (also known as frugal innovation) can benefit developing nations with limited resources. Eg: The Jaipur Foot, a low-cost prosthetic limb developed in India, is being distributed in countries like Rwanda and Honduras through international collaborations.
How can the 2026 BRICS Summit boost India’s leadership?
- Revitalising Global South Unity: India can use the Summit to reposition BRICS as a platform for South-South cooperation, shifting focus from collective bargaining in forums like G-77 to mutual prosperity and strategic autonomy among emerging economies.
- Showcasing Economic and Technological Strength: By highlighting its achievements in infrastructure, green energy, digital economy, and innovation (e.g. GenAI patents), India can project itself as a model for inclusive and sustainable growth, inspiring other developing nations.
- Shaping a Post-Multilateral Global Order: With declining trust in traditional multilateral institutions, India can steer BRICS toward new frameworks of trade, finance, and diplomacy, boosting its global influence and cementing leadership in a multipolar world.
What strategic shifts should guide India’s foreign policy? (Way forward)
- Reinforcing Strategic Autonomy: India must maintain a neutral stance amidst intensifying U.S.-China rivalry by prioritising core national interests over bloc politics. This includes independent voting in global forums and diversifying strategic partnerships beyond traditional allies.
- Pivot to the Global South: India should lead a rejuvenated South-South cooperation framework by promoting trade, technology, and development cooperation with developing countries, positioning itself as a voice and leader of emerging economies.
- Geo-Economic Realignment: Foreign policy should focus on economic diplomacy securing supply chains, signing bilateral trade pacts, and enhancing infrastructure and digital connectivity with the Indo-Pacific and ASEAN to counterbalance Western economic dependence.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples.
Linkage: The article talks about the U.S. is “engaging countries with strategic commerce-related bilateral deals that fragment the global order” and that its national interest now includes “containment of China’s influence”. This question directly reflects the shift in U.S. (part of “The West”) foreign policy as described in the article.
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Why in the News?
The Assam Forest Department is conducting DNA profiling of 2,500 rhino horns using the Rhino DNA Index System (RhODIS) to aid wildlife forensics and curb illegal trade.
What is Rhino DNA Index System (RhODIS)?
- Overview: It is a wildlife forensic tool designed to combat rhino poaching through DNA profiling.
- Development: It was originally developed by South Africa and later adapted for use in India.
- Working: The system helps build a genetic database of individual rhinos by collecting DNA from horns, tissues, dung, or blood samples.
- Utility: Each rhino has a unique DNA profile, making it possible to match confiscated horns with individual animals or poaching locations.
- Implementing Agency: In India, the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) is responsible for RhODIS genetic analysis under the RhODIS India program.
- Applications of RhODIS: The system plays a vital role in linking seized rhino horns to poaching incidents, providing admissible forensic evidence in court cases, tracking illegal wildlife trade routes and criminal networks, and monitoring genetic diversity and population health over time.
About One-Horned Rhinoceros:
- Overview: The Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) is a herbivorous megafauna species native to the Indian subcontinent.
- Distinctive Features: It is also called the Indian rhinoceros and is characterized by its single black horn and thick, armor-like skin.
- Conservation Status: It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, in Appendix I of CITES, and under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (India).
- Major Habitats in India: Its primary habitats include Kaziranga, Pobitora, Manas, and Orang National Parks in Assam; Jaldapara and Gorumara National Parks in West Bengal; and the Dudhwa Tiger Reserve in Uttar Pradesh.
- Population Growth: Its has increased from around 1,500 in the 1980s to over 4,000 in 2024, with Assam alone holding 80% of the global population. Kaziranga National Park houses the largest population, with 2,613 rhinos as per 2022 data.
- Primary Threats: Major threats include poaching for horns driven by illegal wildlife trade and false beliefs about medicinal value, as well as habitat degradation due to floods, encroachment, and climate change.
- Indian Rhino Vision 2020 (Project Rhino): It was launched in 2005, aimed to spread the rhino population across seven protected areas.
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:
1. Asiatic lion is naturally found In India only.
2. Double-humped camel is naturally found in India only.
3. One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only.
Which of the statements given above is / are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship launched a week-long celebration to commemorate 10 years of the Skill India Mission.
About Skill India Mission:
- Launch: It was launched in 2015 by the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE) to empower India’s youth with employable skills.
- Training Target: The mission aims to train 40 crore individuals by 2022 across various economic sectors and make them job-ready.
- Progress Achieved: Over 2.27 crore people have been trained under the programme, including rural youth, women, and marginalized communities.
- Standardization and Quality Assurance: All training and certifications are aligned with the National Skills Qualification Framework (NSQF), ensuring uniform standards and industry relevance.
- Digital Integration: The courses are digitally integrated with DigiLocker and the National Credit Framework (NCrF) for secure storage and seamless academic and career progression.
- Employment and Education Linkages: It promotes formal recognition of skills, enhances industry alignment, and ensures better linkages with employment and higher education.
Components of Skill India Mission:
[A] Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana 4.0 (PMKVY 4.0)
- Focus: It provides short-term training, reskilling, and upskilling opportunities for the youth.
- Target Age Group: The scheme targets individuals aged 15 to 59 years.
- Courses Offered: More than 400 new courses have been introduced in emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), 5G, cybersecurity, green hydrogen, and drones.
- Recognition and Mobility: It emphasizes international mobility and recognition of prior learning (RPL) to certify existing skills.
- Alignment with Flagship Missions: It is aligned with flagship government missions like PM Vishwakarma, Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana, and the National Green Hydrogen Mission.
[B] Pradhan Mantri National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme (PM-NAPS)
- Objective: PM-NAPS aims to promote apprenticeship training across industries by providing financial support.
- Incentive Structure: It offers 25% of the stipend (up to ₹1,500 per month) through Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) to apprentices.
- Sectoral Expansion: The scheme has expanded apprenticeship opportunities in sectors like AI, robotics, blockchain, green energy, and Industry 4.0.
- Special Focus Areas: It gives special attention to small establishments, MSMEs, Aspirational Districts, and the North-East region.
- Target Age Group: The scheme targets individuals in the age group of 14 to 35 years.
[C] Jan Shikshan Sansthan (JSS) Scheme
- About: It is a community-based vocational training initiative.
- Target Beneficiaries: It focuses on empowering women, rural youth, and economically weaker sections through low-cost, flexible skilling programmes.
- Target Age Group: The scheme is designed for individuals aged 15 to 45 years.
- Integration with National Initiatives: The scheme is integrated with inclusive national initiatives like PM JANMAN and ULLAS (Understanding of Lifelong Learning for All in Society).
| [UPSC 2018] With reference to Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana, consider the following statements:
1. It is the flagship scheme of the Ministry of Labour and Employment.
2. It, among other things, will also impart training in soft skills, entrepreneurship, financial and digital literacy.
3. It aims to align the competencies of the unregulated workforce of the country to the National Skill Qualification Framework.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) celebrated its 97th Foundation Day, marking nearly a century of contributions to Indian agriculture.
About ICAR:
- Overview: ICAR is an autonomous organization under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India.
- Establishment: It was established on 16 July 1929 as the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, following the recommendations of the Royal Commission on Agriculture.
- Legal Framework: It functions as a registered society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
- Headquarters: ICAR is headquartered in New Delhi and serves as the apex body for coordinating and managing agricultural research and education across the country.
- Structure: ICAR oversees a vast network of 113 research institutes and 74 agricultural universities, making it one of the largest national agricultural systems globally.
- Functions: It supports research in agriculture, horticulture, fisheries, animal sciences, and natural resource management.
Key Accomplishments of ICAR:
- Record Agricultural Production: India achieved record foodgrain production of 353.95 million tonnes in 2024–25. It became the largest global producer and exporter of rice and the top producer of milk (239.3 million tonnes), while ranking second in wheat, horticultural output, and fish production (18.42 million tonnes).
- Major Initiatives and Campaigns: It launched programmes such as One Scientist One Product, 100 Days 100 Varieties and Viksit Krishi Sankalp Abhiyan (reaching 1.35 crore farmers).
- Crop Science Research: Developed 679 field crop varieties, including 27 bio-fortified ones; introduced the world’s first genome-edited rice; improved varietal replacement in pulses and oilseeds; supported basmati rice exports worth ₹50,000 crore.
- Horticultural Innovation: Released 83 new varieties across fruits, vegetables, spices, flowers, and medicinal plants; distributed over 22 lakh high-quality planting materials; set up 9 Clean Plant Centres for disease-free germplasm.
- Fisheries Development: Implemented precision shrimp farming systems with high efficiency; developed low-carbon marine fish products and nutraceutical feeds; standardized breeding for 7 fish species.
- Natural Resource Management: Created a National Soil Spectral Library with 40,000 samples; developed 35 Good Agricultural Practices; promoted climate-resilient villages and crop diversification; reduced methane emissions in rice by 18% using microbial consortia.
- Livestock Sector Contributions: Registered 10 indigenous breeds; developed 5 vaccines and 7 diagnostic kits; distributed over 14.09 lakh poultry germplasm; introduced smart sensors for dairy quality monitoring.
- Major National Programmes: Launched the Global Centre of Excellence on Millets (Shree Anna), genome editing in 40 crops, the Second National Gene Bank, the MAHARISHI (Millets and Ancient Grains) Initiative, and national missions on edible oils, cotton, and emerging biotic threats.
| [UPSC 2018] With reference to the Genetically Modified mustard (GM mustard) developed in India, consider the following statements:
1. GM mustard has the genes of a soil bacterium that give the plant the property of pest-resistance to a wide variety of pests.
2. GM mustard has the genes that allow the plant cross-pollination and hybridization.
3. GM mustard has been developed jointly by the IARI and Punjab Agricultural University.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The 2022 Annual Report on the Protection of Civil Rights (PCR) Act, 1955, sheds light on the declining registration of untouchability-related offences and systemic inefficiencies in enforcing the law.
Key Highlights of the 2022 Annual Report:
- The report was released by Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
- Only 13 cases were registered under the PCR Act in 2022, showing a decline from previous years.
- No state or UT declared any area as “untouchability-prone.”
- Courts had 1,242 cases pending; out of 31 disposed, ONLY 1 led to conviction.
- In contrast, 62,501 cases were filed under the SC/ST Act, highlighting its growing use.
- 18,936 inter-caste marriage couples received financial incentives, but data from several major states was missing.
About Protection of Civil Rights (PCR) Act, 1955 and Its Provisions:
- Enacted under Article 35 to implement Article 17 and criminalize untouchability.
- Originally titled the Untouchability Offences Act, 1955, renamed and strengthened in 1976.
- Key Provisions:
- No provision for pardon; any conviction leads to disqualification from elections.
- Penalties: Up to 2 years imprisonment, ₹2000 fine, or both.
- Any right denied due to untouchability is considered a civil right under the Act.
- Preventive Measures under the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989:
- Aimed at curbing atrocities and providing victim protection and rehabilitation.
- Establishes special courts and police cells.
- In some cases, allows firearms for self-defense by vulnerable SC/ST individuals.
Understanding ‘Untouchability’ and Its Abolition:
- What is it: Untouchability refers to social discrimination based on caste, historically excluding certain communities from public, religious, and social spaces.
- Constitutional Safeguard: Article 17 of the Constitution of India abolishes untouchability and prohibits its practice in any form.
- Legal Status: Any disability arising from untouchability is declared a punishable offence under Article 17.
- Nature of the Right under Article 17: Article 17 is an absolute fundamental right with no exceptions, applicable to both state and private actors.
- Lack of Definition: The term “untouchability” is not explicitly defined in the Constitution or in related legislation but is understood as referring to caste-based social discrimination.
- Scope of Discrimination: Untouchability includes denial of access to public utilities, places of worship, public services, education, and market services.
Various Judgments Related to Untouchability:
- Devarajiah v. Padmanna (1961): This case reaffirmed that Article 17 is intended to eliminate inhuman treatment based on caste distinctions.
- State of Karnataka v. Appa Balu Ingale (1993): The judgment likened untouchability to slavery and held that the caste system must be eradicated for democracy and the rule of law to survive.
- Union of India v. People’s Union for Democratic Rights (1982): The Court ruled that violations of Article 17 by private individuals also warrant state intervention.
- Union of India v. Safai Karamchari Andolan (2014): The Court directed the implementation of the Manual Scavengers and Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993, and mandated rehabilitation, skill training, and compensation for families of victims of sewer deaths.
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| [UPSC 2020] Which one of the following categories of ‘Fundamental Rights incorporates against untouchability as a form of discrimination?
Options: (a) Right against Exploitation (b) Right to Freedom (c) Right to Constitutional Remedies (d) Right to Equality* |
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Why in the News?
A team of Indian conservationists has identified a new butterfly species, Zographetus mathewi, in the biologically rich Western Ghats.
About Zographetus mathewi
- Overview: Zographetus mathewi is a newly identified species of skipper butterfly.
- Taxonomic Classification: It belongs to the family Hesperiidae and the genus Zographetus Watson, 1893.
- Distribution: This species is endemic to the low-elevation forests of Kerala, Western Ghats.
- Genus: It is the 15th species in the Zographetus genus and the 5th recorded in India.
- Publication and Naming: Published in the journal Entomon, the butterfly was named in honour of George Mathew, a noted Indian entomologist.
Key Features of Zographetus mathewi
- Similarity with Other Species: It closely resembles Zographetus ogygia but differs in wing venation patterns and genitalia structure in both male and female butterflies.
- Species Group Traits: It belongs to the Zographetus satwa species-group, which is known for swollen forewing veins in males as a secondary sexual trait, a distinct basal hair tuft on the underside of the forewing, and yellow-ochre scaling on the hindwing underside.
| [UPSC 2025] Regarding Peacock tarantula (Gooty tarantula), consider the following statements :
I. It is an omnivorous crustacean.
II. Its natural habitat in India is only limited to some forest areas.
III. In its natural habitat, it is an arboreal species.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) I only (b) I and III (c) II only (d) II and III* |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2022] “Economic growth in the recent past has been led by increase in labour productivity.” Explain this statement. Suggest the growth pattern that will lead to creation of more jobs without compromising labour productivity.
Linkage: The article talks about the corporate investment in India has been lagging, with industrial production slowing down. This question touches on the nature of economic growth and job creation, which is directly linked to investment patterns and their ability to generate sufficient employment. |
Mentor’s Comment: India’s Index of Industrial Production (IIP) growth slowed to a nine-month low of 1.2%, raising concerns over sluggish corporate investment despite tax cuts, public capital expenditure, and monetary easing. This has reignited debate on the causes of low investment, drawing from Marxist economic theories by Luxemburg and Baranovsky, and highlighting the need for demand revival and effective government stimulus to reboot the economy.
Today’s editorial analyses the slow corporate investment in India. This topic is important for GS Paper III (Indian Economy) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, India’s industrial output growth dropped to a nine-month low of 1.2%, raising worries about slow corporate investment.
Why has corporate investment remained low despite tax cuts, capex, and rate cuts?
- Weak Consumer Demand: Despite tax cuts and improved corporate profits, investment remains low due to insufficient consumer demand in the economy. Eg: Even after the 2019 corporate tax cut (from 30% to 22%), private sector investment in machinery and intellectual property grew only 35% over four years (FY20–FY23), as noted in the 2024-25 Economic Survey.
- Excess Industrial Capacity: Many industries are operating at suboptimal capacity, making firms hesitant to invest in new production facilities. Eg: With underutilised factories post-COVID, private players see no incentive to expand despite low interest rates and high liquidity.
- Misreading of Profit-Investment Link: The assumption that higher profits lead to more investment is flawed. As per Michał Kalecki, investment determines profits, not the other way around. Eg: Without a revival in demand, businesses avoid investment regardless of profitability, due to uncertainty about returns.
About Rosa Luxemburg and Mikhail Tugan-Baranovsky:
- Rosa Luxemburg (1871–1919): A Polish-German Marxist economist and revolutionary, Luxemburg was known for her critique of capitalist accumulation.
- Mikhail Tugan-Baranovsky (1865–1919): A Russian economist and early Marxist thinker, Baranovsky challenged traditional Marxist views with his theories on industrial cycles.
What do Luxembourg and Baranovsky argue about investment in capitalism?
- Baranovsky’s View – Investment Generates Its Own Market: He argued that in capitalism, investment can sustain itself as long as there is a balanced ratio between the consumption and investment sectors. He believed that machines can produce more machines, and investment can occur even without final consumption demand.
- Luxemburg’s Counter–Investment Depends on Demand: Luxembourg disagreed, stating that individual capitalists base investment decisions on anticipated demand. If demand is weak and existing capacity underused, capitalists avoid new investments, making demand revival essential for capital accumulation.
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What limits the effectiveness of government capex in crowding in private investment?
Note: Government capex refers to the expenditure on creating long-term assets such as infrastructure (roads, railways, ports), schools, hospitals, and defence equipment.
- Gestation lags of infrastructure projects: Large public investments in infrastructure (like ports, highways, railways) take years to become operational. Until completed, they do not immediately enhance productivity or reduce logistics costs, thus delaying private sector response.
- High import content in capex: A significant portion of government capex may be spent on imported machinery or inputs, which leaks demandout of the domestic economy. This reduces the multiplier effect and fails to generate sufficient local demand for private sector goods and services.
- Low employment intensity of capex projects: Many infrastructure projects are capital-intensive but not labour-intensive, meaning they create few jobs. This limits income generation and consumer demand, reducing the incentive for private firms to expand production capacity.
Why is demand revival essential for boosting investment?
- Drives Capacity Utilisation: When consumer demand rises, existing production units approach their full capacity. This encourages private firms to invest in expanding their capacity to meet growing market needs.
- Reduces Investment Risk: Strong and predictable demand provides confidence to investors that they will earn returns on capital. Without sufficient demand, firms fear underutilisation of new assets and avoid fresh investments.
- Stimulates a Virtuous Economic Cycle: Higher demand leads to higher sales, which increases profits, employment, and further consumer spending. This self-reinforcing cycle sustains investment momentum and boosts overall economic growth.
What is the state’s role?
- Stimulating Demand through Public Spending: The state plays a counter-cyclical role by increasing government expenditure, especially during economic slowdowns. Eg: Large-scale infrastructure investments in roads, railways, and housing under PM Gati Shakti generate demand, jobs, and confidence in the private sector.
- Providing Exogenous Stimuli for Investment: The state acts as a catalyst by injecting external demand and resources into the economy when private demand is weak. Eg: PLI (Production-Linked Incentive) schemes offer incentives for capital expenditure in key sectors like electronics and pharma, attracting private investment.
- Ensuring Access to Affordable Finance: The state, through monetary and fiscal institutions, helps ensure easy credit availability and interest rate stability. Eg: The Reserve Bank of India’s rate cuts and liquidity measures during COVID-19 were aimed at making credit cheaper for industries to invest.
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Way forward:
- Focus on Demand Revival: The government must prioritize income support, especially for lower-income households, through targeted welfare schemes and employment guarantees. This will boost consumption, which is essential for stimulating private sector investment.
- Enhance the Multiplier Effect of Capex: Public capital expenditure should be labour-intensive, locally sourced, and designed to reduce import leakages. This will maximize domestic demand generation and strengthen the crowd-in effect on private investment.
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Why in the News?
Six out of the 14 Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) schemes, including textiles, solar modules, IT hardware, automobiles, advanced chemical cells (ACC), and speciality steel, are progressing at a relatively slower pace.
What are the primary reasons for the slow implementation of PLI schemes?
- Stringent Eligibility Norms: Many industries have reported that the eligibility criteria for participation in PLI schemes are too stringent, which limits the number of companies that can benefit from the incentives.
- Initial Setup Challenges: Establishing a domestic manufacturing base from scratch is a monumental task. Industries such as solar modules and advanced chemistry cells (ACC) require substantial time—ranging from one-and-a-half to three years—to set up manufacturing operations, delaying employment generation.
- Access to Resources: Companies face difficulties in accessing critical resources, including Chinese machinery and skilled technicians, which can hinder their ability to ramp up production quickly.
- Market Dependency: Some sectors remain heavily reliant on imports and have not yet transitioned to a self-sufficient manufacturing model, impacting their growth under the PLI framework.
- Slow Disbursement of Funds: The initial years of the scheme saw minimal disbursement of funds, with only a small percentage of the total incentive outlay being paid out in the first two years.
Which sectors are experiencing the most significant slowdowns, and why?
- Textiles: This sector is struggling due to high competition and stringent norms that have slowed down participation and growth.
- Solar Modules: Despite being a strategic sector for renewable energy, delays in establishing manufacturing capabilities have led to slow progress.
- As of June 2024, India’s solar module manufacturing capacity reached 77.2 GW, but the solar cell capacity was only 7.6 GW, leading to supply shortages that delayed projects.
- Automobiles: While some companies are making progress, the automobile sector overall is hindered by initial setup challenges and fluctuating market conditions.
- Factors such as rising raw material costs and shifts in consumer preferences towards electric vehicles are creating a complex environment for traditional automakers.
- Advanced Chemical Cells (ACC): Similar to solar modules, this sector faces long commissioning periods that delay employment outcomes. Because of the lengthy development timelines for manufacturing facilities and the need for substantial investment in technology are contributing to slower growth in this strategic area.
- IT Hardware: Although recently upgraded with increased funding, it still lags behind in implementation compared to more successful sectors like mobile manufacturing.
What measures can be taken to enhance the effectiveness of PLI schemes? (Way forward)
- Revising Eligibility Criteria: Simplifying the eligibility requirements could encourage more companies, especially smaller firms, to participate in the schemes and benefit from incentives.
- Increasing Support for Supply Chains: Establishing robust supply chains is crucial. The government could provide additional support to smaller suppliers who are essential for scaling up production across sectors.
- Streamlining Resource Access: Facilitating easier access to necessary machinery and skilled labor can help companies ramp up production more effectively and reduce dependency on imports.
- Regular Reviews and Adjustments: Continuous monitoring and adjustments based on sector performance can help identify bottlenecks early and allow for timely interventions.
- Encouraging Ancillary Industries: Promoting the establishment of ancillary industries around larger beneficiaries could create additional jobs and enhance local manufacturing capabilities.
Mains question for practice:
Q Evaluate the challenges in the implementation of the Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) schemes in India. Highlight the sectors experiencing significant slowdowns and suggest measures to enhance the effectiveness of these schemes. (250 words) 15M
Mains PYQ:
Q Can the strategy of regional-resource based manufacturing help in promoting employment in India?. (UPSC IAS/2019)
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Why in the News?
Despite China’s increasing involvement in financing and infrastructure development, India continues to hold a significant position as one of Nigeria’s key partners in West Africa.
What are the strategic objectives of India in West Africa?
- Strengthening Bilateral Relations: India aims to enhance its strategic partnership with Nigeria, which is pivotal as Nigeria is both the largest economy and democracy in Africa. This partnership is expected to extend beyond Nigeria, influencing broader regional dynamics in West Africa.
- Focus on Security Cooperation: Given the challenges of terrorism, piracy, and drug trafficking in Nigeria, India seeks to bolster security cooperation. This includes defence collaboration and joint efforts in counterterrorism operations against groups like Boko Haram.
- Development Partnerships: India positions itself as a development partner by providing concessional loans and capacity-building programs, demonstrating a commitment to supporting Nigeria’s socio-economic growth.
- Promotion of Global South Aspirations: Both India and Nigeria share common goals as leaders of the Global South, aiming to amplify their voices in international forums like the UN Security Council.
How does India plan to enhance its economic ties with West African countries?
- Diversifying Trade Relations: India plans to revitalize trade with Nigeria, which has seen a decline recently. Efforts include negotiating trade agreements such as the Economic Cooperation Agreement (ECA) and the Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) to facilitate investment and trade.
- Sectoral Collaboration: The focus areas for economic collaboration include defense, energy, technology, health, and education. India’s PM discussions with the President of Nigeria emphasized leveraging India’s expertise in these sectors to foster mutual growth.
- Infrastructure Development: India aims to support infrastructure development through concessional loans and technical assistance, building on existing projects that have benefited from Indian investment.
- Cultural and People-to-People Exchanges: Enhancing cultural ties and promoting exchanges between citizens are also part of India’s strategy to strengthen bilateral relations, fostering goodwill and mutual understanding.
What challenges does India face in its engagement with West Africa?
- Geopolitical Competition: India’s engagement is challenged by China’s significant presence in Nigeria, where Chinese companies dominate various sectors including infrastructure and telecommunications. This competition complicates India’s efforts to establish itself as a key partner.
- Economic Fluctuations: The decline in trade between India and Nigeria from $14.95 billion in 2021-22 to $7.89 billion in 2023-24 highlights vulnerabilities due to shifting global oil markets and increasing imports from other countries like Russia.
- Political Instability: The political landscape in Nigeria can be unpredictable, posing risks for long-term investments and cooperation initiatives that require stability for successful implementation.
- Capacity Constraints: While India offers developmental assistance, the effectiveness of these initiatives can be hindered by local capacity constraints in Nigeria, necessitating a tailored approach that considers local needs and capabilities.
Way forward:
- Deepen Strategic Collaboration: Strengthen defence and security partnerships, diversify trade, and enhance collaboration in sectors like energy, technology, and health to counter China’s growing influence and foster mutual growth.
- Focus on Regional Capacity Building: Expand developmental assistance with tailored initiatives addressing local needs, while supporting Nigeria’s stability through diplomatic engagement and joint Global South aspirations in international forums.
Mains question for practice:
Q Discuss the strategic objectives of India in West Africa, with a particular focus on its engagement with Nigeria. Highlight the challenges India faces in strengthening its ties in the region and suggest measures to address these challenges. (250 words) 15M
Mains PYQ:
Q Increasing interest of India in Africa has its pros and cons. Critically Examine. (UPSC IAS/2015)
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Why in the News?
Researchers at the Raman Research Institute (RRI) found that quantum noise—usually seen as a problem—can sometimes help connect particles in a special way called entanglement, which is important for future quantum technologies.
What is Quantum Noise?
- Overview: Quantum noise refers to random disturbances that affect quantum systems, often causing loss of coherence or decoherence.
- Traditional View: It is typically seen as harmful, especially for quantum entanglement, which is crucial for quantum computing and communication.
- Entanglement Concept: It is a phenomenon where particles are so correlated that the state of one instantly affects the state of another, even at a distance.
- Effect of Decoherence: Noise-induced decoherence breaks this entanglement, thereby reducing the efficiency of quantum technologies.
Key Findings:
- Observation: Found that quantum noise can generate or revive entanglement, contrary to its typical reputation as destructive.
- Focus Area: Studied intraparticle entanglement, which involves internal properties (like spin and path) of a single particle.
- Contrast with Interparticle Entanglement: Unlike interparticle entanglement (between separate particles), intraparticle entanglement showed resilience under noise.
- Types of Noise Studied:
- Amplitude Damping: Energy loss
- Phase Damping: Loss of phase information
- Depolarizing Noise: Random changes in quantum state
- Major Observation: Under amplitude damping, intraparticle entanglement showed delayed decay, revival, and even creation from unentangled states.
- Interparticle Comparison: In contrast, interparticle entanglement exhibited steady decay with no revival or generation.
Scientific Implications:
- New Perspective: Challenges the assumption that quantum noise is purely harmful, showing it can be a resource in certain contexts.
- Technological Potential: Intraparticle entanglement is more noise-resilient, making it valuable for stable quantum devices.
- Application Areas: Findings are relevant to quantum communication, QKD (quantum key distribution), quantum computing, and quantum sensing.
- Predictive Advantage: The new formula allows precise prediction of entanglement behavior, aiding the design of robust systems.
- Platform Independence: Results are platform-agnostic, applicable to photons, neutrons, trapped ions, etc.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing. II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS). III. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) I and only I (b) II and III only (c) I and III only * (d) I, II and III |
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Why in the News?
Researchers in China have discovered a method to curb locust swarming by manipulating their pheromones, paving the way for eco-friendly locust control.
What are Locust Swarms?
- Locusts are large grasshoppers capable of forming massive swarms, consuming up to their body weight in food daily, and travelling 150 km/day with favourable winds.
- They are highly destructive, stripping crops and threatening food security. A single swarm can consume food equivalent to the daily needs of 35,000 people.
- In India, Locust Control and Research (LC&R) oversees locust management.
- The Locust Warning Organisation (LWO), established in 1939, monitors and controls locust activity in states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana.
- The 2019-2022 desert locust outbreak was one of the worst in decades, devastating India, Pakistan, and East Africa, destroying over 200,000 hectares of crops.
- Despite existing control measures, locust outbreaks remain difficult to manage due to their rapid breeding capabilities.
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About Locust Pheromones:
- Locust Behavioural Phases: Locusts exhibit two behavioural phases—solitary (non-swarming) and gregarious (swarming). The shift to gregariousness leads to swarm formation.
- Key Pheromone – 4-Vinylanisole (4VA):
- Identified in 2020 by Chinese researchers.
- Released from locusts’ hind legs after feeding, especially due to the digestion of phenylalanine (a plant compound).
- Acts as an aggregation pheromone, attracting other locusts and triggering group behaviour.
- Biochemical Pathway:
- Enzymes 4VPMT1 (dominant) and 4VPMT2 convert a precursor molecule (4VP) into 4VA.
- This process is crucial in converting solitary locusts into swarm-forming gregarious ones.
Recent Breakthrough and Its Implication:
- Discovery: Researchers at the Chinese Academy of Sciences genetically blocked 4VPMT1, preventing locusts from producing 4VA and stopping swarm formation.
- Limitations: 4NP is toxic and environmentally persistent, raising concerns for large-scale deployment.
- Strategy Proposed: RNA interference (RNAi)-based biopesticides targeting 4VPMT genes to prevent 4VA production without toxicity.
- Wider Implications:
- Marks the first pollution-free molecular approach to locust control.
- Can reduce reliance on synthetic pesticides, protect crops, and support sustainable agriculture.
- Offers a precision pest control model based on insect behavioural biochemistry.
| [UPSC 2001] American multinational company, Monsanto has produced an insect-resistant cotton variety that is undergoing field- trials in India. A toxin gene from which ONE of the following bacteria has been transferred to this transgenic cotton ?
Options: (a) Bacillus subtilis (b) Bacillus thurigiensis* (c) Bacillus amyloliquifanciens (d) Bacillus globlii |
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Why in the News?
India’s inflation indicators have shown a significant downward trend, with the Consumer Price Index (CPI) dropping to a 77-month low of 2.1% in June 2025, and the Wholesale Price Index (WPI) contracting by -0.13%, marking its first decline in 20 months.
Key Highlights on Inflation (June 2025):
- Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation dropped to 2.1%, the lowest in 77 months (since January 2019).
- Wholesale Price Index (WPI) contracted by -0.13%, marking its first decline in 20 months.
- Food and Beverages (CPI component) registered deflation of 0.2%, after being at 8.4% in June 2024.
- WPI Food Articles saw a sharp fall of 3.75%, compared to 11.1% inflation in June 2024.
- Crude Petroleum and Natural Gas (WPI) prices contracted by 12.3%, the 10th straight month of decline.
- Inflation in Fuel and Light (CPI) eased to 2.55% (from 2.8% in May 2025).
- Housing inflation increased marginally to 3.24%, while Pan, Tobacco and Intoxicants stayed stable at 2.4%.
Back2Basics: Consumer Price Index (CPI) vs. Wholesale Price Index (WPI)
|
Consumer Price Index (CPI) |
Wholesale Price Index (WPI) |
| Definition |
Measures the change in retail prices of goods and services consumed by households |
Measures the change in wholesale prices of goods traded between businesses |
| Compiled By |
National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) |
Office of Economic Adviser, Ministry of Commerce and Industry |
| Base Year |
2012 (CPI-Industrial Workers has 2016 as base year) |
2011–12 |
| Coverage |
Goods and Services |
Only Goods |
| Data Collection |
Prices from 1,181 villages & 1,114 urban markets across India |
Prices collected from wholesale markets, factories, and mandis |
| Purpose/Use |
Measures retail inflation, used for the RBI’s inflation targeting and monetary policy decisions |
Measures producer-level inflation, used as a GDP deflator |
| Users |
Consumers, RBI, Government (for social welfare schemes like DA/DR) |
Policymakers, manufacturers, and financial markets |
| Publication Frequency |
Monthly |
Monthly |
| Number of Items |
299 items |
697 items |
| Components |
– Food & Beverages (45%)
– Housing (10%)
– Fuel & Light (6.8%)
– Miscellaneous (services, etc.) (28.3%)
– Clothing & Footwear (6.5%)
– Pan, Tobacco & Intoxicants (2.4%) |
– Primary Articles (22.6%)
– Fuel & Power (13.2%)
– Manufactured Products (64.2%) |
| Weight of Food Items |
High (~45%) |
Lower (~24.4%) |
| Impact on Economy |
Direct impact on consumer purchasing power and cost of living |
Indicates trends in production costs and supply chain |
| Volatility |
More volatile due to food and fuel price changes |
Less volatile due to base price considerations |
| Use in Policy |
Directly used by RBI for inflation targeting (e.g., 4% CPI target) |
Used for GDP deflation, price policy formation |
| Criticism |
May not reflect production-side price pressures |
Does not capture consumer-level inflation or services |
| Inflation Indicator |
Preferred indicator for common people |
More relevant to manufacturers and wholesale traders |
| [UPSC 2021] With reference to the Indian economy, demand-pull inflation can be caused or increased by which of the following:
1. Expansionary policies 2.Fiscal stimulus 3.Inflation-indexing of wages 4.Higher purchasing power 5.Rising interest rates
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2, and 4 only* (b) 3, 4, and 5 only (c) 1, 2, 3, and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 |
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Why in the News?
The Union Ministry of Power has launched a new national scheme — Assistance in Deploying Energy Efficient Technologies in Industries & Establishments (ADEETIE).
About ADEETIE Scheme:
- Launch: It was launched by the Ministry of Power through the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE).
- Objective: It aims to promote energy efficiency in Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) to cut energy consumption, reduce emissions, and enhance competitiveness.
- Background: It builds upon successful state-level pilots, such as decarbonisation projects in Andhra Pradesh’s MSME clusters.
- Climate Alignment: It supports India’s climate goals, including 45% emission intensity reduction by 2030 and achieving Net Zero by 2070.
- Budget Allocation: The scheme has a dedicated budget of ₹1,000 crore, with a focus on MSMEs, EXCLUDING large enterprises.
Key Features of ADEETIE Scheme:
- Interest Subsidy Support: MSMEs adopting energy-efficient tech will receive interest subsidies on loans:
- 5% for small enterprises
- 3% for medium enterprises
- Digital Portal Utility: The platform acts as a one-stop portal for financing, project development, and knowledge sharing on energy-efficient solutions.
- Supported Technologies: It promotes adoption of cutting-edge clean technologies, including:
- Automation and digital control systems
- Combustion control systems for boilers
- Methane capture technology
- Air-dyeing in textiles
- Collaboration: It fosters industry partnerships through MoUs with major MSME associations.
- Legal Backing: It aligns with the Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2022, which enables carbon markets and mandates clean energy usage.
| [UPSC 2016] On which of the following can you find the Bureau of Energy Efficiency Star Label?
1. Ceiling fans
2. Electric geysers
3. Tubular fluorescent lamps
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
This newscard highlights the role of Indian assistants in completing the Great Trigonometric Survey (GTS), which began in 1802 to map India’s geography.
About the Great Trigonometrical Survey (GTS):
- Launch and Objective: The GTS was a massive scientific and cartographic initiative launched in 1802 by the British to map India with unprecedented precision using trigonometry and geodesy.
- Initiator: It was conceptualised by William Lambton, a British army officer, and carried out under the East India Company.
- Purpose: It aimed to measure Earth’s curvature, create accurate maps, and support colonial administration, scientific research, and military planning.
- Survey Method: It used triangulation, involving a network of interconnected triangles built from a known baseline to calculate distances and angles over large areas.
- First Baseline: The initial baseline was measured in 1802 at St. Thomas Mount near Madras (Chennai) and extended over 2,600 km up to the Himalayas.
- Instruments Used: The survey used massive theodolites (weighing up to half a ton) and measuring chains, requiring large teams for operation and transport.
- Scientific Outcome: It led to the formulation of the Everest Spheroid, a geodetic reference model still used for mapping in South Asia.
- Duration and Leadership: Although planned to take 5 years, the project lasted nearly 70 years (until 1871) and was led by successors such as George Everest (after whom Mt. Everest was named), Andrew Scott Waugh, and James Walker.
How did the GTS led to the Mapping of India?
- First Accurate Maps: It provided scientific maps that corrected earlier errors, enabling modern geodetic frameworks for administration and infrastructure.
- Survey Range: It mapped from southern India to the Himalayas, supporting large-scale development and scientific measurement.
- Great Arc Measurement: It measured the Great Arc (Chennai to Dehradun), a significant geodetic arc that helped calculate Earth’s curvature.
- Himalayan Heights: Using triangulation data, the survey measured 79 Himalayan peaks, including Mount Everest, K2, and Kangchenjunga.
- Mount Everest Identification: In 1852, Peak XV was identified as the world’s highest mountain, later named Mount Everest in honour of George Everest.
- Latitude-Longitude System: It produced precise longitude and latitude coordinates, crucial for navigation, military logistics, and administration.
- Infrastructure Impact: Survey benchmarks supported railways, roads, canals, and earthquake studies, many of which remain relevant today.
Contribution of Indians to the GTS:
- Syed Mir Mohsin Husain: A jeweller from Arcot who repaired critical instruments and was later appointed as an instrument maker in the Surveyor General’s office.
- Radhanath Sikdar: An Indian mathematician who calculated the height of Mount Everest in 1852, confirming it as the tallest peak globally.
- Indian Field Workers: Thousands of Indian flagmen, khalasis, and labourers undertook challenging tasks like carrying heavy equipment, setting markers, and working in hazardous environments.
- Logistical Support: Indian artisans and technicians repaired, calibrated, and adapted instruments, making the project feasible under Indian conditions.
- Role of Pundits: Trained Indian “pundits” conducted secret surveys in Tibet and politically sensitive regions, where British officers were restricted.
| [UPSC 2018] Among the following cities, which one lies on a longitude closest to that of Delhi?
Options: (a) Bengaluru* (b) Hyderabad (c) Nagpur (d) Pune |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] Discuss India as a secular state and compare with the secular principles of the US Constitution.
Linkage: The article talks about the concept of secularism was deeply embedded in India’s foundational principles long before the word was explicitly added to the Constitution. The question directly asks for a discussion of India as a secular state and a comparison with the secular principles of the US Constitution. This necessitates an understanding of the fundamental nature and historical evolution of Indian secularism, which aligns perfectly with the theme of “implicit from day one, explicit in 1976.” |
Mentor’s Comment: Indian secularism is a core constitutional and civilizational value, not a foreign imposition. Secularism was always embedded in India’s political philosophy—rooted in Ashoka’s Dhamma, the freedom struggle, and Nehruvian ideals—long before the term was explicitly added to the Preamble in 1976.
Today’s editorial analyses the ongoing national debate on secularism in India. This topic is important for GS Paper II (Indian Polity) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, the ongoing national debate on secularism in India, especially in light of rising Hindutva narratives, political calls to re-examine or delete the word “secular” from the Constitution, and broader questions about the role of religion in Indian politics and governance.
What is the Indian model of secularism?
- Equal respect for all religions: Unlike strict separation models (like in France), Indian secularism does not oppose religion but ensures that the state maintains a principled distance and treats all religions equally.
- Religious autonomy with state neutrality: It protects religious communities from state interference, while also allowing the state to intervene in religious practices that violate fundamental rights (e.g., banning untouchability, regulating temple entry).
- Rooted in pluralism and history: It draws from India’s civilizational ethos, including Ashoka’s Dhamma, and the ideals of the freedom struggle, ensuring a harmonious coexistence of diverse faiths within a democratic framework.
Why did the Constitution’s framers reject a state religion for India?
- Commitment to Equality and Non-Discrimination: The framers believed the state must treat all religions equally to ensure religious freedom and equal citizenship, irrespective of faith. Eg: The 1928 Motilal Nehru Report and 1931 Karachi Resolution explicitly advocated for state neutrality in religious matters.
- Historical Legacy of Tolerance: India’s long tradition of religious pluralism, influenced by Ashokan edicts, emphasised coexistence and respect for all faiths, not state endorsement of one. Eg: Ashoka’s Rock Edict 7 promoted the idea that all religions should coexist peacefully.
- Avoidance of Theocracy and Communal Division: After witnessing Partition and its communal violence, the framers feared that endorsing a state religion would deepen sectarian divides and weaken national unity. Eg: Even Syama Prasad Mookerjee and the Hindu Mahasabha’s 1944 draft constitution did not support declaring Hinduism as the state religion.
What are the risks of redefining secularism in India’s current context?
- Erosion of Religious Neutrality of the State: Redefining secularism could weaken the state’s impartial stance in religious matters, leading to preferential treatment for the majority religion and marginalisation of minorities. Eg: The growing demand to formally declare India a Hindu Rashtra could alienate religious minorities and threaten inclusive governance.
- Undermining Constitutional Morality and Democratic Ideals: Secularism is part of the basic structure doctrine upheld by the Supreme Court. Altering it could compromise constitutional values like liberty, equality, and fraternity. Eg: The Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) affirmed secularism as an inviolable part of the Constitution.
- Increase in Communal Polarisation and Social Instability: Shifting away from secularism may embolden majoritarian narratives, intensify hate speech, and provoke inter-religious conflicts, disrupting national unity. Eg: The Ram Temple consecration in 2024, influenced more by political decisions than theological consensus, reflects state intrusion into religious space.
What can India learn from global models of religion–state relations?
- Balance between Symbolism and Equality: Countries like England and Greece recognize a dominant religion symbolically (e.g., Anglican Church or Greek Orthodox Church), yet uphold equal rights and religious freedom for all citizens through constitutional guarantees. India can maintain its spiritual heritage while ensuring non-discrimination and equality in law.
- Institutional Autonomy with Legal Safeguards: Ireland and Sri Lanka offer models where religion is acknowledged culturally, but the state cannot endow or control religious institutions, preserving religious autonomy and legal protection for minority practices. India can reinforce legal safeguards for all religions while maintaining a non-theocratic state.
- Flexible Jurisdictional Models: In Western Thrace (Greece) and Sri Lanka, minority religious communities have the option to resolve disputes through personal or religious laws, within constitutional limits. India can explore plural legal frameworks that respect cultural autonomy without compromising constitutional supremacy.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- Equal Treatment of All Religions: The state maintains neutrality in religious affairs — it does not promote or adopt any state religion, ensuring equal respect for all communities (e.g., no public funding for religious instruction in state-funded educational institutions).
- Minority Rights Protection: Through Articles 29 and 30, the government protects cultural and educational rights of religious and linguistic minorities, allowing them to establish and manage educational institutions of their choice.
- Personal Law Autonomy: The state allows different religious communities to follow their own personal laws in matters like marriage, divorce, and inheritance, reinforcing religious autonomy while also subjecting them to judicial review.
- Legal Actions Against Communalism: The government has enacted laws like the Religious Institutions (Prevention of Misuse) Act, Places of Worship Act, 1991, and anti-hate speech provisions to prevent communal violence, hate speech, and religious polarization.
- Representation and Inclusion: Reservation in educational institutions and government jobs for socially and educationally backward classes, including religious minorities, promotes inclusive development.
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Way forward:
- Strengthen Constitutional Literacy: Promote public awareness about secular values enshrined in the Constitution through education and civic outreach to counter misinformation and foster interfaith harmony.
- Ensure Political Neutrality in Religious Matters: Enforce strict separation between religion and politics, preventing the misuse of religion for electoral gains and ensuring the State remains neutral in matters of faith.
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Why in the News?
Recently the Environment Ministry of India has recently exempted most coal-fired power plants from installing Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) systems, reversing its 2015 mandate. This move weakens efforts to control sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emissions, a harmful air pollutant.
What is Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) system?
Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) systems are air pollution control technologies used in thermal power plants to remove sulphur dioxide (SO₂) from flue gases (the exhaust emitted when coal or oil is burned). |
Why has FGD installation been exempted for most coal plants?
- Low Sulphur Content in Indian Coal: Indian coal contains naturally low sulphur, reducing the urgency to control SO₂ emissions. Eg: The expert committee stated that SO₂ levels near plants using Indian coal were already below permissible limits.
- High Installation and Operational Costs: Installing FGD systems is capital-intensive and can increase electricity tariffs. Eg: Many private power producers cited cost constraints as a barrier to following the 2015 FGD mandate.
- Limited Vendor Capacity in India: There is a shortage of FGD equipment suppliers, causing delays in implementation. Eg: From 2015–2024, only 8% of 600 units installed FGDs, primarily by NTPC (a public sector company).
- Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic: The pandemic caused supply chain disruptions and delayed project execution timelines. Eg: The Environment Ministry cited COVID-related delays for missing 2024 FGD deadlines.
- Scientific Reassessment of SO₂ Effects: New studies suggest sulphates formed from SO₂ may have a climate-cooling effect, weakening the urgency of emission controls. Eg: The Power Ministry argued that reducing sulphates could actually worsen global warming.
How does SO₂ affect health and air quality?
- Respiratory Health Impacts: Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) irritates the respiratory tract, causing issues such as asthma, bronchitis, and shortness of breath, especially among vulnerable populations like children and the elderly. In Delhi, spikes in SO₂ levels have been linked to increased hospital visits for respiratory ailments during winter months.
- Formation of Particulate Matter (PM2.5): SO₂ reacts in the atmosphere to form sulphate aerosols, a major component of PM2.5, which penetrates deep into lungs and contributes to air pollution. Industrial belts like Singrauli in Madhya Pradesh record high levels of particulate pollution, partly due to emissions from coal-fired plants.
- Reduced Visibility and Environmental Damage: SO₂ contributes to acid rain and haze, damaging crops, soil, and water sources, and reducing visibility. Areas near thermal power plants, such as in Chhattisgarh, have reported acidic soil degradation, affecting agriculture.
What does selective FGD enforcement indicate about regulation?
- Location-Based Policy Inconsistency: The decision to mandate FGD installation only near NCR and urban hotspots suggests that environmental regulations are being applied selectively, not based on uniform scientific standards, but geographical and political considerations.
- Weak Enforcement and Shifting Priorities: Exempting most coal plants despite earlier commitments reflects regulatory dilution, raising concerns about policy backtracking and the government’s willingness to compromise on environmental health in favor of industrial or economic concerns.
- Undermining Scientific Credibility and Public Trust: Ignoring the original mandate without robust public debate weakens trust in evidence-based regulation, indicating that scientific advisories are not consistently followed in policy implementation.
Why is public debate vital before policy shifts on pollution?
- Ensures Transparency and Accountability: Open public debate creates transparency, compelling policymakers to justify decisions and remain accountable to citizens.
- Strengthens Scientific Rigor: Debate enables scientific scrutiny of environmental claims, ensuring that policy changes are based on credible evidenceand expert consultation.
- Safeguards Public Health and Democratic Rights: Inclusive discussions protect public health and uphold democratic values by allowing citizens to voice concerns over pollution-related policies.
Why is public debate vital before policy shifts on pollution?
- Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Scheme: Implemented by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), this market-based mechanism promotes energy efficiency in industries, indirectly reducing emissions.
- National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched in 2019, it aims for a 20–30% reduction in PM2.5 and PM10 levels by 2024 (now extended), and addresses urban air pollution through sector-specific mitigation plans.
- Retrofitting of Plants: Plants identified in pollution hotspots, those near NCR or million-plus cities, are required to install FGD by 2028, as per latest Environment Ministry directive.
- Promotion of Renewable Energy and Ujjwala Yojana: Transition towards cleaner energy sources (solar, wind) and LPG distribution under Ujjwala Yojana has reduced reliance on coal and biomass, indirectly curbing SO₂ emissions.
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Way forward:
- Revise FGD Policy Through Transparent Public Consultation: Any change in environmental regulation, especially exemptions, must involve scientific review, public debate, and stakeholder consultations to ensure credibility and protect public health.
- Strengthen Pollution Monitoring and Accountability: Enhance the real-time SO₂ monitoring network, enforce uniform emission standards, and link compliance with financial or operational incentives to promote cleaner technologies across all power plants.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue in India. Discuss the various mitigation measures to deal with this problem and also the government’s initiatives in this regard.
Linkage: The article talks about the Environment Ministry’s decision to exempt most coal-fired plants from mandatory Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) systems, which is a significant government initiative related to an environmental issue (sulphur dioxide emissions) and its mitigation. This is a direct and comprehensive question about environmental issues and the government’s initiatives and mitigation measures.
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Why in the News?
The Indian government recently set greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions intensity targets for key industrial sectors under its Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS). These targets apply to eight major industries, including steel, cement, aluminium, and textiles, and aim to reduce emissions per unit of production.
What is CCTS?
The Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) allows entities—such as factories, refineries, or power plants—that emit less than their permitted carbon limits to earn carbon credits. These credits can then be traded with other entities that have exceeded their emission limits. |
What is the importance of assessing carbon targets at the economy-wide level?
- Reflects true environmental impact: Evaluating targets at the economy-wide level ensures we understand the overall reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, which is the ultimate goal of climate action.
- Enables flexible compliance: It allows efficient entities to overachieve and trade credits with less efficient ones, reducing total emissions cost-effectively. Eg: In India’s PAT scheme, cement plants exceeding targets sold energy-saving certificates to aluminium units lagging behind.
- Aligns with national commitments: It supports the evaluation of whether India is on track to meet its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and net-zero targets, beyond fragmented sectoral views. Eg: India aims to reduce emissions intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 – a goal only visible through economy-wide analysis.
What is the PAT Scheme?
The PAT Scheme sets energy efficiency targets for large, energy-intensive industries. Companies that exceed their targets earn Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts), which they can trade with other companies that fail to meet their targets. |
How has the PAT scheme proven effective in reducing energy intensity?
- Encouraged market-based efficiency: The Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme allowed industries to meet energy targets using tradable efficiency certificates, creating a cost-effective compliance mechanism.
- Achieved aggregate reduction: Despite mixed results at the entity or sector level, overall energy intensity in India declined across PAT cycles, proving its system-wide impact. Eg: Between 2012–14, even as chlor-alkali sector’s intensity rose, combined data showed less energy used per unit of output.
- Enabled flexible transition: PAT helped industries adopt incremental improvements or buy credits instead of making costly in-house upgrades, ensuring participation without economic strain. Eg: Aluminium units improved production processes, while others chose certificate trading to meet targets.
Why are entity-level targets insufficient to assess emission reduction?
- Limited Scope of Impact: Targets at the entity level show progress in isolation and may miss the broader picture. For instance, even if some paper or chlor-alkali plants increase their energy use per unit of output, overall national emissions may still fall due to reductions in other sectors.
- Focus on Transactions, Not Outcomes: These targets often guide financial trades between companies rather than ensuring actual emissions reduction. A steel plant may meet its target not by cutting emissions but by buying efficiency certificates from another unit.
- Inconsistency Across Sectors: Emission reductions may vary widely across sectors. While cement and aluminium sectors may improve efficiency, others may lag. Solely relying on entity targets could misrepresent the real national decarbonisation progress.
What limits the comparison of CCTS targets with past and future benchmarks?
- Mismatch in Scope: The CCTS targets apply only to a part of India’s industrial base, making it difficult to compare them with economy-wide goals like the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). Eg. CCTS covers only 8 industrial sectors, while NDCs span all sectors including agriculture and transport.
- Changing Baselines and Ambition Levels: Past schemes like PAT Cycle I had relatively modest targets. Comparing them with current CCTS goals may underestimate the urgency for stronger action aligned with net-zero by 2070. Eg. A sector that achieved 1% reduction earlier may now require over 2.5% annual reduction to stay on track.
- Different Indicators Used: Past targets often focused on energy intensity, while future goals (like NDCs) emphasise emissions intensity per GDP or value added, making direct comparison methodologically inconsistent. Eg. Comparing energy saved per unit of production vs emissions per unit of GDP distorts true climate ambition.
How do CCTS targets align with India’s NDC and net-zero goals?
- Partial Alignment with Emission Intensity Reduction: The CCTS targets aim to reduce emissions intensity in key industrial sectors, contributing to India’s NDC goal of reducing emissions intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 (compared to 2005 levels). However, the annual reduction rateof ~1.68% in CCTS sectors is lower than the required pace for full alignment.
- Lag Behind Power Sector Decarbonisation: Compared to the power sector, which has low-cost mitigation options and a projected 3.44% annual decline in emissions intensity, the industrial sector’s slower pace (~2.53%) under CCTS may hinder the broader net-zero pathway.
- Need for Greater Sectoral Ambition: The current CCTS trajectory appears less aggressive than necessary for the 2070 net-zero target. Without scaling upambition across more sectors and tightening targets, CCTS alone cannot ensure full alignment with India’s long-term climate goals.
Way forward:
- Enhance Sectoral Ambition with Dynamic Targeting: Revise CCTS targets periodically based on economy-wide modelling aligned with India’s NDC and net-zero goals, ensuring progressively stringent emission intensity reductions across all major industrial sectors.
- Integrate Technology and Incentives: Promote adoption of clean technologies through financial incentives, carbon pricing, and capacity-building support to enable industries to decarbonize efficiently without compromising growth.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2014] Should the pursuit of carbon credit and clean development mechanism set up under UNFCCC be maintained even through there has been a massive slide in the value of carbon credit? Discuss with respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth.
Linkage: The article talks about the concept of “carbon credit,” which is a fundamental component of carbon trading schemes, including India’s Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) which is related to the demand of the question.
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Why in the News?
Recently astronomers using the ATLAS telescope in Chile discovered 3I/ATLAS, the third known interstellar object and possibly the oldest comet ever detected, estimated to be over 7 billion years old.
About 3I/ATLAS:
- Discovery: It was detected on July 1, 2025, by the ATLAS telescope in Río Hurtado, Chile; confirmed interstellar due to its hyperbolic orbit and high speed (57–68 km/s).
- Significance: It is likely the oldest comet ever observed — possibly 7.6–14 billion years old, older than our 4.5-billion-year-old solar system.
- Nature: It appeared like an interstellar comet, showing signs of activity including a coma (cloud of dust/ice) and likely a tail as it nears the Sun.
- Composition: Rich in water ice and complex organic compounds; has a reddish hue indicating ancient, primordial material.
- Size: Estimated nucleus diameter is 10–30 km — larger than previous interstellar objects like 1I/ʻOumuamua and 2I/Borisov.
- Trajectory:
- Closest to Earth: ~270 million km (no threat).
- Closest to Sun: ~210 million km (Oct 29–30, 2025).
- Will exit the solar system permanently after perihelion.
- Scientific Importance:
- It offers rare opportunity to study materials from another star system.
- It can reveal clues about the formation of the Milky Way, other solar systems, and early star formation processes.
Back2Basics: ATLAS Telescope
- ATLAS (Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System) is a NASA-funded early warning project for detecting small near-Earth objects (NEOs).
- It is developed and operated by the University of Hawaii’s Institute for Astronomy.
- As of 2025, ATLAS operates five telescopes in Hawaii, South Africa, Chile, and the Canary Islands.
- Each telescope has a 0.5-meter Wright-Schmidt design, a 1-meter focal length, and a 110 MP CCD detector with a 7.4° field of view.
- The system scans 20,000 square degrees of sky three times per night and provides 1–3 week warnings for asteroids 45–120 meters wide.
- In addition to asteroids, ATLAS also discovers supernovae, comets, dwarf planets, and variable stars.
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What are Interstellar Objects?
- Overview: Celestial bodies that originate outside the solar system and travel through it on open-ended (hyperbolic) orbits.
- Key Characteristics:
- Not gravitationally bound to the Sun.
- Travel at very high speeds, often unaffected by solar gravity.
- Do not return once they pass through the inner solar system.
- Known Interstellar Visitors:
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- 1I/ʻOumuamua (2017) – Asteroid-like, no coma or tail.
- 2I/Borisov (2019) – Active comet with typical cometary features.
- 3I/ATLAS (2025) – Discussed above.
- How are they Identified:
- Hyperbolic trajectory confirmed via orbital calculations.
- Speed at great distances exceeds gravitational escape velocity.
- Scientific Value:
- Provide direct clues about planetary formation beyond our solar system.
- Can reveal chemical signatures from other star systems.
- Allow us to study primordial matter from distant parts of the galaxy.
- Act as natural probes from unknown regions of the Milky Way.
| [UPSC 2011] What is the difference between asteroids and comets?
1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky and metallic material. 2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and mercury. 3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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