India–U.K. Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), especially its Chapter 12 on Digital Trade, marks a shift from cautious digital policy to strategic global engagement. It brings major trade gains, but also sparks debate on data sovereignty and oversight. Chapter 12 of India–U.K. CETA exchanges some regulatory control for greater digital market access. Gains include mutual recognition of e-signatures, duty-free digital exports, and innovation-friendly provisions, while concerns focus on limited source-code checks and voluntary data sharing.
Digital Gains from the Agreement
- Recognition of Electronic Signatures and Contracts: Both nations commit to mutual recognition, reducing paperwork for SaaS firms and lowering entry barriers for SMEs.
- Paperless Trade & E-Invoicing: Eases cross-border documentation and payments, enhancing trade efficiency.
- Zero Customs Duties on Electronic Transmissions: Preserves a Commerce Ministry–estimated $30 billion software export pipeline.
- Regulatory Sandboxes for Data Innovation: Encourages pilot projects that allow payments and data-driven firms to test tools under supervision, boosting credibility abroad.
- Duty-Free Access for Indian Merchandise: Nearly 99% of exports could enter the U.K. duty-free; textile tariffs dropping from 12% to zero will aid hubs like Tiruppur and Ludhiana.
- Openings in British Public Procurement: Expands market opportunities for Indian IT suppliers.
- Social Security Waivers: Reduces payroll costs for short-term assignments abroad by about 20%.
Digital Costs and Concerns
- Source-Code Inspection Restrictions: Ban on routine checks; regulators can only demand access in investigations or court cases.
- Voluntary Government Data Sharing: No binding obligation; India decides what data to release, and in what format.
- No Automatic MFN for Data Flows: Only a forward review mechanism exists if stricter data rules appear in other agreements.
- Review Timelines: First formal review in 5 years; critics suggest 3-year reviews to match rapid AI developments.
- Domestic Readiness Gap: Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 rules are pending notification; absence of clear internal processes could weaken negotiation leverage.
Balancing Sovereignty and Openness
- Security Exceptions Preserved: National supervision over critical infrastructure like power grids and payment systems remains intact.
- Good Governance Safeguards: Prevents disguised restrictions on trade under the guise of regulation.
- Trusted Labs Proposal: Accrediting secure labs to review sensitive code could bridge the trust gap.
- Audit Trails for Cross-Border Data Flows: Ensures accountability follows the data.
- Institutionalised Consultations: Open, pre-negotiation dialogue to anticipate and address stakeholder concerns.
Steps for Future Digital Treaties
- Integrate market openness with regulatory oversight
- Set three-year review cycles to adapt to technological change
- Develop domestic readiness before external commitments
- Maintain a balance between security and trade facilitation
Conclusion
The India–U.K. digital trade compact is both a leap and a litmus test. It affirms India’s readiness to engage strategically in global digital commerce while underscoring the necessity of robust domestic regulation. The real challenge is not in signing such pacts but in ensuring that sovereignty, security, and innovation move forward together.
Value Addition
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Reports / Data
- Commerce Ministry (2024): India’s software exports via electronic transmissions valued at $30 billion annually.
- UNCTAD Report on Digital Economy (2023): India among top 5 global economies in digital services exports.
- NASSCOM 2023: Digital public infrastructure (UPI, Aadhaar, DigiLocker) key enablers of India’s digital leap.
Case Studies / Examples
- UPI in G20 (2023): India pushing UPI internationalisation – similar to how digital trade pacts expand India’s reach.
- Singapore & Australia FTAs: Precedent for including digital trade rules, but U.K. CETA is India’s first binding digital chapter.
- Textile exports from Tiruppur/Ludhiana: Example of how tariff elimination + digital facilitation = trade gains.
Concepts & Theories
- WTO-plus Agreements: Regional/bilateral pacts that go beyond WTO commitments (like CETA’s Chapter 12).
- Data Sovereignty vs Digital Openness: Core tension between national control over data and global free flows.
- Regulatory Sandboxes: Innovation-friendly regulatory spaces balancing innovation & oversight.
Quotes for Enrichment
- Nandan Nilekani: “India has built digital public goods at population scale, something no other democracy has attempted.”
- UNCTAD: “The digital economy is now the fastest growing trade frontier, but also the most contested.”
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PYQ Relevance
| Though there is no direct PYQ, the digital trade compact can be used in many questions like
[UPSC 2023] What is the status of digitalization in the Indian Economy? Examine the problems faced in this regard and suggest improvement.
Linkage: The India–U.K. CETA’s digital trade provisions—like e-signatures, paperless trade, and zero customs duty—highlight India’s progress in integrating digitalization into global commerce. At the same time, issues like restricted source-code access, weak data protection readiness, and voluntary data sharing mirror the broader problems of digitalization in India. Thus, the pact underlines both India’s digital gains and the urgent need for domestic reforms and safeguards to fully leverage such agreements. |
Mapping Micro Themes
- GS-2: Trade diplomacy, sovereignty.
- GS-3: Digital trade, AI regulation, cybersecurity.
- GS-4: Transparency, public trust.
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Why in the News?
In August 2025, the Supreme Court intervened twice to prevent the misuse of criminal proceedings in essentially civil disputes.
About Civil and Criminal Cases:
- Civil cases involve disputes between individuals or organisations and are mostly governed by Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (CPC). The aim is to resolve rights and duties, usually through compensation (damages) or injunctions. Examples: property disputes, contract breaches, divorce, custody, money recovery.
- Criminal cases involve offences against the state or society. The objective is punishment and deterrence. Initiated by the state prosecutor. Examples: theft, cheating, assault, murder.
- Burden of proof:
- Civil cases: Decided on a preponderance of probabilities (more likely than not).
- Criminal cases: Guilt must be proven beyond reasonable doubt.
- Dual Cases: Some acts can give rise to both civil and criminal liability. For dual proceedings, there must be proof of criminal intent before entering the commercial or personal relationship.
- Timelines: Data from the National Judicial Data Grid (2025) shows civil cases are slower (avg. 4.91 years) compared to many criminal cases (70% disposed within a year).
Recent Supreme Court Actions:
- Rajasthan plywood dispute case (Aug 13, 2025): SC held there was no criminal breach of trust in a simple sale transaction. Denial of pre-arrest bail by the High Court was overturned.
- Allahabad HC case (Aug 4, 2025): SC criticised a judge for allowing criminal proceedings in a business transaction dispute, calling it a “mockery of justice”. The judge was temporarily barred from handling criminal cases, later reinstated after CJI intervention.
- The SC clarified that civil disputes cannot be turned into criminal prosecutions unless fraud or criminal intent is clearly shown.
| [UPSC 2016] With reference to the ‘Gram Nyayalaya Act’, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. As per the Act, Gram Nyayalayas can hear only civil cases and not criminal cases.
2. The Act allows local social activists as mediators/reconciliators.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The British conquest of Sindh in the 1840s was a key step in colonial expansion, reminding us that regions like Sindh, Punjab, and Bengal came under British rule long before the 1947 partition of India and Pakistan.
British Conquest of Sindh:
- Sindh was annexed by the British in 1843 after the battles of Miani and Dubbo.
- The resistance was led by Hosh Muhammad Sheedi, a general of the Talpur army and member of the African-origin Siddi community.
- His defiance symbolised the first major armed resistance to British expansion in northwest India.
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Political Background in Sindh:
- Kalhora Dynasty (1701–1779): Founded by Mian Yar Muhammad Kalhoro, recognised by Mughals; ruled northern and central Sindh. Prosperous period but weakened by internal disputes.
- Talpur Dynasty (1779–1843): Baloch Talpurs overthrew Kalhoras; consolidated Sindh under clan rule at Hyderabad and Khairpur.
- Geopolitical Context: Sindh lay at the crossroads of British–French–Russian rivalry (The Great Game). Britain feared Russian advances through Iran and Afghanistan.
- British Entry: East India Company forced treaties on Talpurs; captured Karachi (1839) after bombarding Manora fort.
British Advance and the Fall of Sindh:
- Battle of Miani (17 Feb 1843): British under Sir Charles Napier defeated Mir Nasir Khan Talpur near Hyderabad.
- Battle of Dubbo (24 Mar 1843): Hosh Muhammad Sheedi allied with Mir Sher Muhammad Talpur of Mirpur Khas. Sheedi raised the war cry “Marvesoon par Sindh na desoon” (I may die but will not give up Sindh). He was killed in action.
- British Annexation: After Dubbo, Sindh was annexed into the Bombay Presidency. Talpur rule ended.
- Aftermath: Within a decade, Punjab too was annexed (1849), bringing all of northwest India under British rule.
Legacy of Hosh Muhammad Sheedi:
- Born into the household of Talpur rulers; of African-Siddi descent.
- Valour acknowledged by both Indian and British chroniclers.
- Became a folk hero of Sindh, remembered by Hindus and Muslims alike.
- His legacy is central to the cultural memory of Sindh and highlights the role of the Siddi community in resisting colonialism.
| [UPSC 2007] The ruler of which one of the following States was removed from power by the British on the pretext of misgovernance?
Options: (a) Awadh* (b) Jhansi (c) French (d) Satara |
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Why in the News?
The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (Amendment) Bill, 2025 was introduced in the Lok Sabha by Finance Minister to streamline insolvency, cut tribunal delays, and add new tools like creditor-led resolution and cross-border insolvency.
About the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), 2016:
- IBC is India’s bankruptcy law, covering corporate persons, partnership firms, and individuals.
- Insolvency: Liabilities exceed assets; entity cannot meet obligations.
- Bankruptcy: Legal declaration of inability to pay debts.
- Objective: Time-bound, creditor-driven resolution to improve recovery and business confidence.
- Regulating Authority: Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI), a statutory body with members from Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Corporate Affairs, and Reserve Bank of India.
- Adjudicating Authority:
- National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) for companies/LLPs.
- Debt Recovery Tribunal (DRT) for individuals and partnership firms.
Key Amendments Proposed in IBC (2025):
- Creditor-Initiated Insolvency Resolution Process (CIIRP): Out-of-court creditor resolutions with NCLT approval; faster timelines and promoter involvement.
- Group Insolvency: Joint proceedings for related companies to preserve asset value and cut costs (e.g., Videocon Group case).
- Cross-Border Insolvency: Framework to handle overseas assets and debts, allowing Indian lenders access to foreign assets.
- Pre-Packaged Insolvency (PPIRP): Faster, affordable restructuring route for Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) while operations continue.
- Other Reforms: Segregated asset sales, more NCLT benches (now 16), extended claim timelines, sector-specific provisions, and debtor audits.
Achievements of IBC:
- Debt Resolution: Resolved ₹3.16 lakh crore in 808 cases since 2016 (CRISIL data).
- Recovery Rate: Average recovery of 32% of admitted claims, 169% of liquidation value.
- Comparison: Outperformed earlier mechanisms (DRT, SARFAESI Act, Lok Adalat) which achieved only 5–20% recovery.
- Deterrence: Borrowers pre-settled ₹9 lakh crore debt to avoid IBC proceedings.
- Large NPAs: Addressed RBI’s “Dirty Dozen” cases like Bhushan Steel, Essar Steel, Jaypee Infratech.
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| [UPSC 2017] Which of the following statements best describes the term ‘Scheme for Sustainable Structuring of Stressed Assets (S4A)’, recently seen in the news?
Options: (a) It is a procedure for considering ecological costs of developmental schemes formulated by the Government.
(b) It is a scheme of RBI for reworking the financial structure of big corporate entities facing genuine difficulties.
(c) It is a disinvestment plan of the Government regarding Central Public Sector Undertakings.
(d) It is an important provision in ‘The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code’ recently implemented by the Government. * |
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Why in the News?
On August 15, 2025, Prime Minister delivered the longest Independence Day speech (103 minutes) from the Red Fort, continuing a tradition started by Jawaharlal Nehru in 1947.
The fort’s choice as the venue reflects its historic role as Delhi’s seat of power and symbol of sovereignty.
About the Red Fort:
- Construction: Built in 1648 by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as the palace fort of Shahjahanabad, his new capital.
- Material: Enclosed by massive red sandstone walls with royal pavilions and apartments.
- Water Feature: Contained the Nahr-i-Behisht (“Stream of Paradise”), a continuous water channel.
- Architectural Value: Prime example of Mughal architecture, blending Islamic traditions with Indian craftsmanship.
- Recognition: Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007.
Historical Significance of Delhi and Red Fort:
- Delhi’s Role: Seat of power for nearly a thousand years, regarded as “capital of all Hindustan” by Babur.
- Shahjahanabad: Inaugurated in 1648 with the Red Fort at its centre.
- Symbol of Sovereignty: Even after Mughal decline, Delhi remained central; East India Company minted coins in the emperor’s name.
1857 Revolt and British Authority:
- Revolt Centre: Bahadur Shah Zafar was declared leader by sepoys in Delhi.
- Aftermath: Fall of Delhi ended Mughal rule; Zafar was exiled.
- Fort Damage: British converted Red Fort into a military garrison, destroying ~80% of interiors.
- Imperial Authority: Delhi Durbars (1877, 1903, 1911) asserted British control before capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911.
Significance of Red Fort for Independence Day:
- INA Trials: Held in Red Fort in 1946, igniting nationalist fervour.
- 1947 Ceremony: Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the national flag on 15 August 1947 and gave the first Independence Day address.
- Tradition: Since then, every Prime Minister hoists the flag and addresses the nation from its ramparts.
- Symbolism: Site once stamped with colonial dominance, now reclaimed as a symbol of India’s sovereignty.
| [UPSC 2021] What was the exact constitutional status of India on 26th January, 1950?
Options: (a) A democratic Republic (b) A Sovereign Democratic Republic* (c) A Sovereign Secular Democratic Republic (d) A Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic |
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Why in the News?
United States President Donald Trump and his Russian counterpart Vladimir Putin are set to meet in Anchorage, Alaska to discuss how to end the war in Ukraine.
About Alaska:
- Acquisition: Largest U.S. state; Purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million.
- Mountains: Includes Alaska Range with Mount Denali (20,310 ft), the highest peak in North America.
- Geography: Brooks Range separates central Alaska from the Arctic far north.
- Tundra: Northern regions feature vast tundra, permafrost, and Arctic coastal plains.
- Glaciers: Hosts 100,000+ glaciers, including Bering Glacier, the largest in North America.
- Forests: About 5% glacier ice, with extensive boreal and temperate rainforests in the south.
- Volcanoes: More than 70 active volcanoes in Aleutians and Alaska Peninsula.
- Seismic Activity: Located on the circum-Pacific seismic belt, prone to powerful quakes (e.g., 1964 Alaska earthquake).
- Water Resources: Contains 3 million+ lakes and 3,000+ rivers, among the most water-rich regions globally.
- Peninsulas: Includes Alaska Peninsula, Kenai Peninsula, and Seward Peninsula (linked to ancient Bering land bridge).
Why did Russia sell Alaska to the US?
- After the Crimean War (1853–56), Russia was financially strained and needed funds.
- Alaska was seen as a remote, unprofitable liability with declining fur trade.
- Russia feared Britain might seize Alaska easily from nearby Canada in a future war.
- Selling it to the United States ensured goodwill and balanced British power.
- The $7.2 million sale (1867) turned a weakly defended outpost into cash for reforms.
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Geopolitical Significance of Alaska:
- Natural Resources: Rich in oil, gas (e.g., Prudhoe Bay discovery, 1968), fisheries, and minerals vital for U.S. energy security.
- Shipping Routes: Offers access to Arctic Sea routes, increasingly navigable due to climate change.
- Strategic Gateway: Provides access to the Arctic and Pacific, enhancing U.S. naval and air capabilities.
- Defense Value: Proximity to Russia made it critical in the Cold War and remains vital in Arctic competition.
- Military Presence: Hosts major U.S. bases and radar systems for missile defense and surveillance.
- Arctic Council Role: Strengthens U.S. claims in polar governance and Arctic Council negotiations.
- Scientific Hub: Serves as a center for climate, seismic, and polar ecosystem research.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. Anadyr in Siberia and Nome in Alaska are a few kilometers from each other, but when people are waking up and getting set for breakfast in these cities, it would be different days.
II. When it is Monday in Anadyr, it is Tuesday in Nome.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) I only * (b) II only (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II |
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PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2014] Should the premier institutes like IITs/IIMs be allowed to retain premier status, allowed more academic independence in designing courses and also decide mode/criteria of selection of students? Discuss in light of the growing challenges.
Linkage: This PYQ directly links to the article’s core theme of academic autonomy by addressing whether premier institutions should have greater freedom in curriculum design, student selection, and governance. The article highlights how over-regulation, political interference, and funding control erode such freedoms across Indian universities. Answering this PYQ can draw on the article’s arguments for institutional autonomy, diversity, and the dangers of one-size-fits-all regulation. |
Mentor’s Comment
Academic freedom is central to nurturing innovation, fostering critical thought, and sustaining democratic accountability in higher education. It ensures that universities remain spaces for questioning, debate, and independent research, free from undue political or bureaucratic interference. In the Indian context, constitutional guarantees under Articles 19(1)(a) and 21, along with policy frameworks like the NEP 2020, lay a foundation for such autonomy, yet over-regulation and ideological pressures often undermine it. This article illustrates these challenges vividly, linking them to global patterns and emphasising the need for reforms that safeguard autonomy while ensuring institutional accountability.
Introduction
Academic freedom is the lifeblood of higher education, enabling questioning, debate, and independent thought. Any restriction on this freedom undermines knowledge creation, weakens the teaching–learning process, and, in the long run, hampers the nation’s intellectual, social, and economic progress.
Core Arguments in Favour of Academic Freedom in Universities
- Universities as Centres of Critical Inquiry:
- Universities must be spaces where students and faculty can challenge existing ideas, debate openly, and explore new perspectives.
- Questioning is not rebellion, it is the foundation of knowledge development.
- Freedom for Students & Faculty: Students need the right to ask questions without fear. Faculty must have autonomy to challenge conventional wisdom in their fields.
- Institutional Autonomy:
- Universities must independently decide curriculum and pedagogy.
- External political or bureaucratic interference in academic content dilutes intellectual rigour.
- Universities contribute ideas for science, technology, economic policy, and social reform.
- Act as “conscience-keepers” through public intellectual engagement.
- Autonomy fosters accountability but accountability should be through transparent institutional mechanisms, not political intervention
- Rankings, despite flaws, can help ensure performance-based accountability
- Impact on Innovation & Society:
- Restricting academic discourse narrows creativity in research and stifles innovation.
- Over time, the economy, society, and polity bear the cost through diminished problem-solving capacity.
- Open Intellectual Spaces:
- Universities should freely invite diverse voices and speakers.
- Restricting platforms for dialogue harms learning outcomes and social progress.
Erosion of Academic Autonomy: Challenges and Way Forward
- Freedom in Research:
- Universities and faculty must set research priorities and agendas free from political or ideological bias.
- Funding should be based on peer review, not prejudice or preference.
- Fundamental research needs time, resources, and tolerance for dissenting views.
- Lack of such an environment partly explains why Indian universities have not produced Nobel laureates in recent decades.
- The Indian Reality:
- Curricula are regulated and straitjacketed; reading lists are often politically vetted.
- Promising non-mainstream research, especially in humanities and social sciences, is discouraged.
- Government-controlled funding bodies can indirectly dictate research themes.
- Even private universities self-censor to avoid antagonising political authorities.
- Regulation and Autonomy:
- UGC Act, 1956 grants regulation powers but often centralises control.
- NEP 2020 proposes Higher Education Commission of India to streamline governance but risks uniformity over diversity.
- Autonomy must be administrative, financial, and academic with accountability ensured via transparent governance systems, not political directives.
Case in Point – Academic Freedom Under Strain in India
- JNU Reading List Controversy (2019): Certain texts removed from syllabi for “ideological bias.”
- IIT-Madras Student Group Derecognition (2015): Suspension after alleged criticism of government policies.
- Ashoka University Resignations (2021 & 2023): Faculty exits over lack of institutional support for academic freedom.
- UGC Advisory (2022): Urged avoidance of events critical of government policies.
Global Context
- Restrictions in democracies (Argentina, Hungary, Türkiye) and authoritarian states (China, Russia, Vietnam).
- The US faced funding cuts under the Trump administration, risking erosion of its innovation edge.
- China limits social sciences freedom but maintains merit-based appointments in top institutions.
Conclusion
Academic freedom is not a privilege, it is a necessity for national growth. Curtailing it is an attack on the very roots of innovation, democratic engagement, and societal advancement.
Value Addition
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India’s Academic Freedom Snapshot
- Academic Freedom Index 2023: Low score; declining trend since 2013
- QS World University Rankings – Few Indian universities in global top 200; autonomy cited as a factor
- NAAC Accreditation: Less than 35% of HEIs accredited
- UGC Autonomy Regulations: 82 universities granted autonomy (2018–2023)
- Global Comparison: US, UK, Germany ranked significantly higher in academic freedom
Regulation of Indian Universities
- University Grants Commission (UGC) Act, 1956: regulates standards, allocates funds, recognises institutions.
- AICTE: governs technical education institutions
- NAAC: accredits higher education institutions
- National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 proposes:
- Higher Education Commission of India (single regulator)
- Academic, administrative, and financial autonomy
- Flexibility in curriculum and interdisciplinarity
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- Political interference in appointments and syllabus
- Over-centralisation vs. institutional diversity
- Risk of self-censorship in private institutions
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Mapping Micro Themes
| GS Paper |
Topic/Theme |
Micro Theme |
Example |
| GS Paper II |
Education & Rights |
Academic freedom as a democratic necessity |
Art. 19(1)(a) & 21 protecting campus speech |
| GS Paper II |
Higher Education Regulation |
UGC, NEP 2020, institutional autonomy |
IIT autonomy reforms |
| GS Paper III |
Innovation & R&D |
Freedom boosting research productivity |
Correlation between autonomy and patents |
Practice Mains Question
Essay: “The quest for uniformity is the worst enemy of creativity.”
- Evaluate the relationship between academic freedom and democratic accountability in India.
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The Union Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has told the J&K High Court that the Lieutenant-Governor (L-G) can nominate five Assembly members without the “aid and advice” of the elected government. This position has sparked a constitutional debate over democratic accountability in a politically sensitive Union Territory where such nominations could alter the balance of power. This is significant because these nominations could decide the majority in a 119-member House, potentially overturning the people’s electoral verdict. The High Court is examining whether this undermines the Constitution’s basic structure.
Core issues before the J&K High Court
- Constitutional question: Whether the 2023 amendments to the J&K Reorganisation Act, allowing the L-G to nominate five members, violate the Constitution’s basic structure.
- Potential impact: These five voting members could “convert a minority government into a majority government and vice versa,” influencing governance stability.
- Judicial scope: Goes beyond statutory interpretation into democratic essence.
Provisions of the 2023 amendments
- Sections 15A & 15B of the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019: Allows nomination of two Kashmiri migrants (including one woman) and one from Pakistan-occupied J&K, in addition to two women if inadequately represented.
- Total seats: Creates five nominated members in the 119-member Assembly.
- Voting rights: These nominees have full voting powers.
Centre’s justification of this power
- MHA’s submission: Nominations fall outside the elected government’s remit, citing K. Lakshminarayanan vs Union of India (Puducherry).
- Legal references: Invokes “sanctioned strength” concept, including elected + nominated members, and Section 12 of the 1963 Union Territories Act on voting procedures.
- Approach: Focuses on legal technicalities rather than broader constitutional implications.
Concerns over democratic implications
- Risk of mandate distortion: In a tight Assembly, nominees could decide government stability.
- Precedent in Puducherry: In 2021, nominated members plus defectors contributed to the collapse of the Congress-led government.
- UT context: J&K’s downgrade from State to UT in 2019 happened without consultation with elected representatives, making accountability critical.
Supreme Court jurisprudence on L-G’s powers
- Delhi Services Cases (Government of NCT of Delhi vs. Union of India (2018), Government of NCT of Delhi vs. Union of India & Anr. (2023)): SC held that the L-G should act on the “aid and advice” of the elected government, with discretion as the exception.
- Contradiction: MHA’s stance that nominations lie outside the elected government’s domain runs counter to this jurisprudence.
Conclusion
The J&K nominations issue highlights the tension between administrative authority and the democratic mandate. In politically sensitive regions, bypassing elected governments in decisions that can shift Assembly majorities risks undermining public trust and the constitutional promise of representative governance.
Value Addition
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- Basic Structure Doctrine: It evolved through landmark cases such as Kesavananda Bharati vs State of Kerala (1973), which holds that Parliament cannot amend the Constitution in a way that damages its essential features. Representative democracy and federalism are recognised as part of this basic structure.
- Lakshminarayanan Case (2019): In K. Lakshminarayanan vs Union of India, the Supreme Court upheld the Centre’s power to nominate MLAs in Puducherry without consulting the elected government. While constitutionally valid, the aftermath showed that nominated members could be politically aligned with the Centre, leading to destabilisation of the elected government. This precedent is now central to the J&K dispute, as similar powers are being exercised by the L-G.
- Delhi vs L-G Jurisprudence: Through Government of NCT of Delhi vs Union of India (2018) and Government of NCT of Delhi vs Union of India & Anr. (2023), the Supreme Court emphasised that the L-G should act on the “aid and advice” of the elected Council of Ministers, except in explicitly stated matters of discretion. This jurisprudence reinforces the principle that administrative authority should not override the electoral mandate, making the MHA’s argument in J&K appear contrary to evolving constitutional norms.
- Union Territory Governance Model: Union Territories with legislatures (like Delhi, Puducherry, and now J&K) operate under a hybrid governance system where the Centre retains significant control while local governments have legislative powers. This model inherently contains tensions between central authority and local democratic accountability. In politically sensitive UTs like J&K, such tensions are magnified, especially when powers like nominations can shift legislative majorities.
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Mapping Micro Themes for GS Paper II
| Topic |
Micro Theme |
Example |
| Centre–State Relations |
Constitutional role of L-G in UTs & states |
J&K L-G nominations without elected govt’s aid and advice |
| Electoral Process Integrity |
Impact of nominated members on Assembly majority |
Puducherry 2021 govt collapse case |
| Basic Structure Doctrine |
Threat to democratic accountability |
HC challenge to J&K Reorganisation Act amendments |
| Comparative Jurisprudence |
Lakshminarayanan vs Union of India precedent |
Puducherry nominated MLAs case |
| Federalism in Special Regions |
J&K statehood restoration debate |
SC acknowledgement & public demand |
PYQ RELEVANCE
| [UPSC 2016] Discuss the essentials of the 69th Constitutional Amendment Act and the controversies regarding the powers of the Lieutenant Governor vis-à-vis the elected government in the NCT of Delhi.
Linkage: The 69th Constitutional Amendment Act created a legislative assembly for Delhi and defined the relationship between the L-G and the elected government, leading to recurring disputes over whether the L-G must act on the “aid and advice” of the Council of Ministers.
The J&K nominations case mirrors this constitutional tension—while Delhi’s dispute involved administrative control and services, J&K’s controversy centres on the L-G’s power to nominate voting members without elected government concurrence. Both situations raise a common constitutional question: Can the L-G exercise discretionary powers in a manner that can override or alter the democratic mandate? This makes Delhi’s precedent and Supreme Court rulings directly relevant to interpreting J&K’s case. |
Practice Mains Question
Discuss the constitutional implications of granting the Lieutenant-Governor of Jammu & Kashmir the power to nominate Assembly members without the aid and advice of the elected government. In your answer, examine its impact on the democratic process in light of Supreme Court jurisprudence.
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For two decades, China has led Africa’s mining sector, securing vast stakes in cobalt, lithium, copper, and iron ore. Now, African governments and civil society are challenging opaque contracts, environmental damage, and lack of value addition. The old “raw resources for infrastructure” model is giving way to demands for local processing, transparency, and economic sovereignty.
Significance
For the first time in decades, China’s unchallenged hold on African mining is weakening. Nations like the DRC, Namibia, and Zimbabwe are renegotiating deals, banning raw mineral exports, and holding Chinese firms accountable for environmental and labour violations. The scale is significant, in 2024 alone, DRC lost $132 million due to tax exemptions for Chinese companies. These actions could reshape global cobalt and lithium supply chains essential for the green economy.
China’s Long-standing Dominance in Africa’s Mining
- Control over critical minerals: DRC produces 80% of the world’s cobalt; China controls ~80% of that output via deals like Sicomines.
- Infrastructure-for-resources model: Chinese firms exchanged infrastructure for mining rights, but local benefits have been minimal.
Drivers of the Pushback Against Chinese Projects
- Civil society pressure: Groups like Congo Is Not for Sale exposed $132 million revenue loss in 2024.
- Market-linked risks: Contracts tied to commodity prices risk leaving nations with no investment in downturns.
- Government renegotiations: DRC raising stake in joint venture with Sinohydro & China Railway Group from 32% to 70%.
African Nations Taking Assertive Measures
- DRC: Cancelled Chemaf Resources’ sale to China’s Norin Mining after state miner Gecamines’ opposition.
- Namibia: Alleged $50 million bribe by Xinfeng Investments; failure to build promised processing facilities.
- Zimbabwe: $300 million Huayou Cobalt lithium plant; benefits may flow back to China without safeguards.
Environmental and Social Concerns from Chinese Mining
- Pollution incidents: Acid spill in Zambia contaminated the Kafue River.
- Biodiversity protection: Hwange National Park coal permit blocked for ecological reasons.
- Community and heritage impacts: Cameroon’s Lobé-Kribi Iron Ore Project opposed by NGOs over health and cultural threats.
Policy Shifts for Economic Sovereignty
- Export bans: Zimbabwe (2022) and Namibia (2023) banned unprocessed lithium exports to promote local beneficiation.
- Retention of value: Policy aims to strengthen domestic processing, but risk of elite capture remains without broader reforms.
Conclusion
China remains Africa’s largest mining partner, but African nations are increasingly asserting control through renegotiations, environmental enforcement, and value addition. If sustained, these actions could reposition Africa from a raw material supplier to an active player in global green economy supply chains.
Value Addition
|
China’s Role in Mining in Africa (2000–2024)
Scale of Presence
- Largest external mining partner: Operates in over 15 African countries.
- Dominance in cobalt & lithium: Controls ~80% of DRC’s cobalt output; major stakes in lithium mines in Zimbabwe, Namibia.
Investment Model
- Infrastructure-for-resources deals: e.g., Sicomines agreement in DRC (mining rights in exchange for roads, hospitals, railways).
- High-value acquisitions: Purchase of mining stakes from global and local firms to secure long-term supply chains.
Strategic Objectives
- Securing supply for EV & battery industries: Critical minerals channelled to Chinese manufacturing hubs.
- Vertical integration: Ownership from extraction to processing facilities (mostly located in China).
Criticism & Concerns
- Limited local benefits: Minimal skills transfer, inadequate job creation.
- Environmental damage: Incidents like Zambia’s Kafue River acid spill.
- Opaque contracts: Alleged bribery (Namibia) and lack of transparency in revenue flows.
Shifts & Resistance
- Renegotiations and policy pushback: DRC increasing state stake in ventures; export bans in Zimbabwe and Namibia.
- Civil society pressure: Activist coalitions exposing revenue losses and demanding fairer contracts.
Critical Minerals Geopolitics
- Strategic importance: Minerals like cobalt, lithium, and copper are essential for EV batteries, renewable energy storage, and electronics manufacturing.
- Global competition: Control over their supply chains influences technological dominance in the clean energy transition.
- China’s leverage: By securing ~80% of DRC’s cobalt and significant lithium reserves, China holds a strategic advantage over rivals such as the US, EU, and Japan.
- UPSC linkage – Relevant for GS II (International Relations) and GS III (Economy, Technology), particularly in questions on energy security and global trade politics.
Resource Nationalism
- Definition: A policy stance where nations assert control over natural resources to maximise domestic benefit and reduce foreign dependency.
- African examples: Zimbabwe and Namibia banning export of unprocessed lithium; DRC renegotiating mining contracts to increase state ownership.
- Implications: Can boost domestic processing industries but may deter foreign investment if not paired with stable policy frameworks.
|
Mapping Micro Themes
| GS Paper |
Theme/Topic |
Micro Theme |
Example |
| GS Paper II |
International Relations |
South-South cooperation & friction |
China-Africa mining ties |
| GS Paper II |
Governance |
Resource nationalism |
DRC renegotiation of Sicomines |
| GS Paper III |
Environment |
Ecological threats from mining |
Hwange NP permit denial, Kafue River spill |
PYQ Relevance
| [UPSC 2021] “The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain
Linkage: While the question is US–China centric, Africa’s mining sector is a key arena of US–China competition. China’s dominance over Africa’s critical minerals gives it strategic leverage in global supply chains, posing long-term geopolitical and economic challenges to the US, a dimension comparable to Cold War-era resource and influence battles. |
Practice Mains Question
Examine how Africa’s policy shift in mineral governance could alter global supply chains for critical minerals.
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court has recently called returning sterilised stray dogs to the streets under the Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program as “unreasonable and absurd” and ordered they be moved to shelters.
About Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program:
- Purpose: Humane, scientifically proven method to control stray dog populations and reduce rabies.
- Legal Basis: First under Animal Birth Control (Dogs) Rules, 2001 (under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960); updated as Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023.
- Development: Created with support from the World Health Organization (WHO).
- Core Method: “Catch–sterilise–vaccinate–release” model; prohibits relocation or culling.
- Implementation: Managed by municipalities, municipal corporations, and panchayats.
- Authorisation: Only organisations recognised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) can conduct programs.
- Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023:
- Implemented to comply with Supreme Court guidelines in Writ Petition No. 691 of 2009.
- Assigns responsibility to local bodies (municipalities, corporations, panchayats) to conduct ABC programs for sterilisation and immunisation of stray dogs.
- Prohibits relocation of stray dogs as a means of population control; instead, they must be sterilised and returned to the same area.
- Only organisations recognised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) can conduct ABC programs.
Key Features:
- Sterilisation Target: Minimum 70% of stray dogs in an area within one reproductive cycle (~6 months).
- Focus: Female sterilisation at a 70:30 female-to-male ratio.
- Rabies Control: Mandatory rabies vaccination (ABC–ARV) for every sterilised dog.
- Infrastructure: Kennels, veterinary facilities, vehicles, and hygienic shelters required.
- Recordkeeping: Detailed records for catching, surgery, vaccination, and release.
- Monitoring: State and local committees ensure compliance and handle complaints.
- Legal Protection: Mass relocation or killing prohibited under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PCA) Act, 1960.
| [UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:
1. Every individual in the population is equally susceptible host for Swine Flu.
2. Antibiotics have no role in the primary treatment of Swine Flu
3. To prevent the future spread of Swine Flu in the epidemic area, the swine (pigs) must all be culled.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Parliament has passed the Income-tax Bill, 2025, replacing the 1961 law with a leaner, simpler version free of redundant provisions and archaic language, effective April 1, 2026.
About New Income Tax Bill, 2025:
- Purpose: Replaces the Income Tax Act, 1961 after more than 60 years to simplify the law, remove redundant provisions, and modernise tax administration.
- Effective Date: Comes into effect from April 1, 2026.
- Structural Changes: Sections reduced from 819 to 536; chapters from 47 to 23.
- Conciseness: Word count cut from 5.12 lakh to 2.6 lakh, with 39 tables and 40 formulas for clarity.
- New Concept: Introduces “tax year” defined as April 1 to March 31.
Key Features:
- Refunds: Restores refund claims on belated returns by removing the earlier restriction.
- Tax Collected at Source (TCS) Clarity: Nil TCS for Liberalised Remittance Scheme (LRS) remittances for education funded by financial institutions.
- Corporate Tax: Corrects errors in inter-corporate dividend deduction for companies opting for concessional tax rates.
- Alternate Minimum Tax (AMT) Alignment: Aligns AMT provisions for Limited Liability Partnerships (LLPs) with existing rates.
- Nil-Tax Deducted at Source (TDS) Certificate: Permits taxpayers with no liability to obtain a nil-TDS certificate.
- Transfer Pricing: Clarifies transfer pricing provisions, set-off of losses, and alignment with Section 79 on “beneficial owner.”
- Non-Profit Organisation (NPO) Benefit: Expands exemption to 5% of total donations, instead of only anonymous donations.
- House Property Income: Clarifies 30% standard deduction after municipal taxes.
- Search Definition: Retains “virtual digital space” definition to include cloud storage, email, and social media accounts.
- Data Handling: Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) to be issued for handling personal digital data seized in searches.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements: Statement I: In India, income from allied agricultural activities like poultry farming and wool rearing in rural areas is exempted from any tax. Statement II: In India, rural agricultural land is not considered a capital asset under the provisions of the Income-tax Act, 1961.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
(a) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement II explains Statement I
(b) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct but Statement II does not explain Statement I*
(c) Statement I is correct but Statement II is not correct
(d) Statement I is not correct but Statement II is correct |
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Why in the News?
75 years ago on August 15, 1950, a magnitude 8.6 earthquake — the strongest recorded on land — struck Northeast India and surrounding regions.
About the Earthquake:
- Magnitude: 8.6, the strongest recorded earthquake on land.
- Impact Area: Tremors lasted 4–8 minutes, felt over 3 million sq. km in India, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Tibet, and South China.
- Casualties: Over 1,500 deaths in India and 4,000+ in Tibet; heavy livestock losses and infrastructure destruction.
- Secondary Disasters: Triggered landslides blocking rivers, followed by devastating flash floods.
Geological and Tectonic Setting:
- Epicentre: 40 km west of Rima (Zayu), near India–Tibet border in the Mishmi Hills.
- Tectonic Context: Located on Indian–Eurasian Plate boundary within Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis (EHS), influenced by the Sunda Plate.
- Fault Type: Strike-slip motion with thrust faulting — atypical for Himalayan quakes.
- Plate Convergence: Eastern Himalayas converge at 10–38 mm/year vs. ~20 mm/year elsewhere.
- Aftershocks: Indicated activation of multiple faults from the Syntaxial bend to Himalayan thrust faults in Arunachal Pradesh.
Lessons and Future Risks:
- Magnitude Potential: Confirms Himalayan segments can produce ≥8.6 magnitude events.
- Central Himalayan Risk: Identified as likely site for similar future quake.
- Vulnerability Today: Increased due to urbanisation and large infrastructure in seismic zones.
- Infrastructure Safety: Necessitates strict norms for dams and high-risk projects in Eastern Himalayas.
- Preparedness: Highlights need for seismic hazard mapping and disaster readiness.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
1. In a seismograph, P waves are recorded earlier than S waves.
2. In P waves, the individual particles vibrate to and fro in the direction of waves propogation whereas in S waves, the particles vibrate up and down at right angles to the direction of wave propagation. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The Trump administration seeks to end two NASA missions under the Orbiting Carbon Observatories (OCO) program, which monitor global carbon dioxide emissions and plant health.
About Orbiting Carbon Observatories (OCO) Program:
- Overview: A NASA Earth remote sensing initiative dedicated to monitoring atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) from space.
- Objective: Designed to enhance understanding of climate change by precisely tracking CO₂ sources and sinks.
- Comprises three missions:
- OCO-1: Launched in 2009 but failed shortly after launch.
- OCO-2: Launched in July 2014 as a replacement.
- OCO-3: Installed on the International Space Station in May 2019.
Key Features:
- Precision Measurement: Provides high-resolution global CO₂ data and maps of plant photosynthesis.
- Dual Capability: Measures CO₂ levels and solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence to assess photosynthesis.
- Applications: Detects drought, forecasts food shortages, identifies carbon sinks/sources, supports crop planning.
- Global Reach: Tracks CO₂ distribution over continents, oceans, and remote ecosystems like Amazon and boreal forests.
- Major Discoveries: Amazon rainforest now emits more CO₂ than it absorbs; boreal forests identified as major carbon sinks.
- Policy Relevance: Supplies key data for climate treaties and greenhouse gas reporting.
| [UPSC 2019] For the measurement/estimation of which of the following are satellite images/remote sensing data used?
1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location
2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location
3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
A women farmers’ collective from Karnataka has been recognised among the ten global winners of the United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP) Equator Prize 2025.
About UNDP Equator Initiative Award:
- Overview: Presented under the Equator Initiative of the UNDP.
- Awarded biennially: To community-led initiatives reducing poverty through biodiversity conservation and sustainable use.
- Significance: Often called the “Nobel Prize for Biodiversity Conservation”.
- Award: Includes a cash prize of $10,000.
- Eligibility:
- Initiative must have existed for at least three years.
- Must be a community-based group in a rural area of a UNDP-supported country, or an Indigenous Peoples’ community in a rural area.
- Actions must be nature-based and benefit two or more SDGs.
Back2Basics: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP):
- Established: 1966 by the UN General Assembly; Headquarters: New York, USA.
- Mission: End poverty, promote democratic governance, rule of law, and inclusive institutions.
- Focus Areas:
- Sustainable development.
- Democratic governance and peacebuilding.
- Climate and disaster resilience.
- Funding: Entirely from voluntary contributions of member states.
- Role: Advocates for change, connects countries to knowledge, resources, and expertise for sustainable human development.
- Key initiatives:
- Human Development Index (HDI).
- Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Reports.
- Gender Inequality Index (GII).
| [UPSC 2012] The Multi-dimensional Poverty Index developed by Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative with UNDP support covers which of the following?
1. Deprivation of education, health, assets and services at household level
2. Purchasing power parity at national level
3. Extent of budget deficit and GDP growth rate at national level
Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2018] Appropriate local community level healthcare intervention is a prerequisite to achieve ‘Health for All’ in India. Explain.
Linkage: Organ donation supports “Health for All” by requiring grassroots awareness, local leader engagement, and trained counsellors at PHCs to address myths and secure consent. Integrating it into programmes like Ayushman Bharat ensures equitable access to life-saving transplants beyond metros. |
Mentor’s Comment:
Organ transplantation is one of modern medicine’s greatest achievements, yet India’s deceased donor rate is among the lowest globally. This editorial breaks myths, outlines systemic gaps, and suggests awareness and policy measures, crucial for UPSC aspirants studying public health, ethics, and governance.
Introduction
On World Organ Donation Day (August 13), India’s organ shortage stands out starkly. Annual transplants rose from 4,990 in 2013 to 18,378 in 2023, but only 1,099 came from deceased donors. The donation rate remains just 0.8 per million, far behind Spain’s 45+, causing over half a million preventable deaths each year. Myths, misinformation, and mistrust worsen the crisis, making awareness drives, medical transparency, and strong policy reforms urgent.
Scale of India’s Organ Donation Gap
- High fatalities: 5 lakh+ deaths yearly due to organ shortage
- PYQ LinkageLow deceased donor rate: 0.8/million vs Spain’s 45+/million
- Growing numbers, limited impact: 18,378 transplants in 2023 but majority from living donors.
Prevailing Myths and Misconceptions
- Body disfigurement fear: Retrieval preserves appearance for rites
- Religious objections: All major faiths endorse donation as compassion
- Brain death mistrust: Legal safeguards under Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994 ensure ethical process
Eligibility Beyond Young Accident Victims
- Older donors viable: Kidneys, liver segments, lungs, corneas possible from natural deaths
- Tissue donations are valuable: Bone, skin, heart valves save/improve lives
Strengthening Awareness and Trust
- Community workshops: Address myths, explain medical protocols
- Education integration: Include donation ethics in schools/colleges
- Media storytelling: Use real donor-recipient cases to inspire
- Medical leadership: Train healthcare staff for sensitive family outreach
Policy Measures for Closing the Gap
- Presumed consent model: Opt-out system like Spain, Croatia
- Family support systems: Ensure transparency, grievance redressal
- Dedicated coordination teams: Guide families with empathy
Conclusion
India stands at a moral and medical crossroads. Organ donation must shift from being a rare, heroic act to a societal norm supported by robust legal safeguards and empathetic outreach. Busting myths, embedding awareness into education, and exploring bold policy innovations like presumed consent could ensure no Indian dies for want of an organ. On World Organ Donation Day, the call is clear: pledge, register, and respect the choice to give life.
Value Addition
|
- Ethical dimension: Organ donation as a moral responsibility and act of altruism (GS4)
- Comparative policy analysis: Presumed consent systems in Europe (Spain, Croatia)
- Health policy reforms: Strengthening National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organisation (NOTTO) functioning
- Behavioral change models: Role of social proof, cultural integration, and trust-building in public health campaigns.
Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act (THOTA), 1994
- Provides a legal framework for removal, storage, and transplantation of human organs/tissues for therapeutic purposes.
- Recognizes brain death as a legal definition of death, enabling cadaver organ donation.
- Regulates hospitals, mandates authorization committees to approve donations (esp. for unrelated donors).
- Prohibits commercial trading of organs; penalizes violations with imprisonment and fines.
- Amended in 2011 to include tissues (e.g., cornea, skin) and strengthen enforcement.
National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organization (NOTTO): Apex body under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare.
- Maintains the National Waiting List & Organ Allocation Registry
- Coordinates procurement, distribution, and transplantation at the national level
- Provides training, guidelines, and awareness campaigns
- Oversees ROTTOs (Regional) and SOTTOs (State) for decentralized coordination
Current Affairs Linkage
- The National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organization (NOTTO) has issued a landmark advisory recommending priority in organ transplants for women patients and relatives of deceased donors, a direct attempt to correct a deep-seated gender imbalance in organ transplantation.
- This is significant because, despite women making up 63% of living organ donors in 2023, they represented only 24% to 47% of beneficiaries across organ categories.
Ethical challenges/dilemmas related to organ donation for GS-IV:
- Informed Consent & Autonomy: Ensuring the donor (or family) fully understands the implications and voluntarily agrees, without coercion.
- Equitable Allocation: Distributing organs fairly, avoiding favoritism, wealth or influence-based bias.
- Transparency vs. Privacy: Balancing public accountability with the donor’s and recipient’s confidentiality.
- Cultural & Religious Sensitivities: Respecting diverse beliefs while promoting organ donation awareness.
- Prevention of Commercialization & Exploitation: Safeguarding against organ trade, coercion of vulnerable groups, and unethical incentives.
|
Micro Theme Mapping
| GS Paper |
Topic |
Micro Themes |
Example |
| GS Paper II |
Health |
Organ donation rates & public health policy |
India’s 0.8 donors/million vs Spain’s 45/million |
| GS Paper II |
Governance |
Legal safeguards in brain death declaration |
Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994 |
| GS Paper II |
Education |
Health awareness through curriculum |
Introducing organ donation in schools/colleges |
| GS Paper IV |
Ethics |
Compassion and altruism in health decisions |
Faith leaders endorsing organ donation |
Practice Mains Questions:
“In India, organ donation is more a matter of societal will than medical capacity.” Critically examine, suggesting measures to improve donation rates. (250 words)
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Why in the News:
Elon Musk’s Starlink will soon launch in India, promising high-speed internet access in regions beyond the reach of ground-based networks. This is significant as it can bridge rural-urban gaps, improve disaster resilience, and strengthen defence capabilities. Globally, satellite internet has been a lifeline during Hurricane Harvey and a tactical tool in the Russia-Ukraine war. For India, it represents both a technological leap and a strategic necessity.
Introduction:
In today’s digitised and interconnected world, internet access is as vital as electricity or transport. Traditional cable and tower-based networks excel in cities but falter in remote terrains. Satellite internet, powered by mega-constellations like Starlink, offers a borderless, high-resilience alternative that operates irrespective of geography.
Why are ground-based internet networks economically unviable in certain regions?
- Physical Infrastructure Limits: Cables and towers are uneconomical for sparsely populated or remote regions
- Disaster Vulnerability: Infrastructure can be wiped out during floods, earthquakes, or storms
- On-the-Go Connectivity Gap: Mobile and temporary operations (airplanes, ships, oil rigs) often remain underserved
How does satellite internet overcome these challenges?
- Global Coverage: Operates regardless of terrain or terrestrial infrastructure
- Rapid Deployment: Can be set up quickly to meet sudden demand surges
- Mobility Advantage: Supports moving platforms and remote sites
- Dual-Use Potential: Functions for both civil and military purposes (e.g., Ukrainian defence, Siachen Glacier operations)
What makes the new wave of satellite internet significant?
- Mega-Constellations: Networks like Starlink have thousands of satellites in Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
- Disaster Response Role: Viasat aided Hurricane Harvey operations when 70% of cell towers failed.
- Defence Integration: Ukrainian drones fitted with Starlink to bypass Russian jamming; Indian Army use in high-altitude conflict zones
- Security Concerns: Smuggled Starlink devices used by insurgent groups and drug cartels
Working of satellite internet:
- Two Segments: Space segment (satellites) and ground segment (user terminals, gateways).
- Service Life: Satellites operate for 5–20 years depending on design.
- Orbits:
- GEO (35,786 km): Wide coverage, high latency; unsuitable for real-time apps. Example: Viasat GX.
- MEO (2,000–35,786 km): Medium latency, requires constellations. Example: O3b.
- LEO (<2,000 km): Low latency, small coverage; requires mega-constellations. Example: Starlink’s 7,000+ satellites.
Key Differences between satellites in GEO, MEO AND LEO:
| Feature |
Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) |
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) |
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) |
| Altitude |
35,786 km above equator |
2,000 – 35,786 km |
Below 2,000 km |
| Relative Motion |
Stationary relative to a point on Earth |
Moves relative to Earth |
Moves quickly relative to Earth |
| Coverage |
~1/3 of Earth (no polar coverage) |
Larger than LEO, smaller than GEO; needs constellation for global coverage |
Small footprint; single satellite covers area like an Indian metro city |
| Satellite Size |
Large |
Large |
Smaller, often table-sized |
| Cost & Deployment |
Expensive, long deployment |
Expensive, smaller constellations |
Cheaper, quicker to deploy |
| Latency |
High (unsuitable for time-sensitive apps) |
Medium (lower than GEO but still limits real-time use) |
Very low (good for real-time use) |
| Example |
Viasat Global Xpress (GX) |
O3b constellation (20 satellites) |
Starlink (7,000+ satellites, aiming for 42,000) |
| Key Drawback |
High delay due to distance |
Still costly, latency not ideal for all uses |
Needs thousands of satellites for global coverage |
How do LEO mega-constellations maintain connectivity?
- On-Board Processing: Improves efficiency and reduces terminal complexity
- Optical Inter-Satellite Links: Satellites communicate directly in space for faster routing
- Seamless Handoff: Steerable antennas track multiple satellites to maintain uninterrupted service
What are the key applications of satellite internet?
- Civil Connectivity: Rural broadband, IoE (Internet of Everything)
- Transportation: Navigation, self-driving cars, logistics optimisation
- Public Administration: Smart cities, disaster warnings, rescue coordination
- Healthcare: Telemedicine, remote diagnostics
- Agriculture: Precision farming, crop health monitoring
- Defence & Security: Real-time communication in conflict zones, strategic surveillance
Conclusion
Satellite internet represents not just a technological upgrade but a strategic asset in the digital era. For India, it offers a pathway to bridge the digital divide, enhance national resilience, and project influence in the global communications domain. However, its dual-use nature demands strong regulatory frameworks to balance innovation, accessibility, and security.
Value Addition
|
Key Terms & Phrases Explained
- Satellite Internet: A communication service where internet connectivity is provided through satellites orbiting the Earth, rather than terrestrial cables/towers. It enables access in remote, disaster-hit, or mobile scenarios.
- Mega-Constellation: A large network of hundreds or thousands of satellites, often in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), working in coordination to provide continuous coverage. Example: Starlink (planned 42,000 satellites).
- Latency: Time taken for a signal to travel from sender to receiver; critical for real-time applications like video conferencing or online gaming.
- Optical Inter-Satellite Links (OISL): Laser-based connections between satellites, enabling direct space-to-space data transfer without routing through ground stations, reducing delays and congestion.
- Dual-Use Technology: A technology with both civilian and military applications. In satellite internet, the same network can support remote learning and healthcare or battlefield communication and drone operations.
- Digital Divide: The socio-economic gap between those with access to modern digital technologies (internet, computing) and those without.
- International Telecommunication Union (ITU): A UN agency responsible for coordinating global telecom networks, including orbital slot and spectrum allocation for satellites.
- On-Board Processing: Satellite’s ability to process data directly in orbit, improving signal quality, speed, and reducing complexity of user terminals.
- Seamless Handoff: Automatic switching of user connection from one satellite to another as satellites move, ensuring uninterrupted service.
- Internet of Everything (IoE): An extension of IoT where not only devices, but also data, processes, and people are interconnected via the internet.
|
Mapping Micro Themes
| Paper |
Macro Theme |
Micro Themes |
Sub-Micro / Example |
| GS Paper III |
Types of Orbits |
GEO (Geostationary) |
INSAT series, GSAT satellites |
| MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) |
O3b constellation for broadband |
| LEO (Low Earth Orbit) |
Starlink, OneWeb |
| GS Paper III |
Application in Navigation |
GNSS Variants |
GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (EU), IRNSS/NavIC (India) |
| LEO & MEO in Navigation |
Faster signals, better coverage |
| GS Paper II |
Policy & Governance |
India’s Space Policy 2023 |
PPP in satellite communication |
| International Coordination |
ITU spectrum allocation |
Practice Mains Question:
Discuss the potential of satellite internet in bridging the digital divide in India. Examine the associated security and regulatory challenges.
PYQ Linkage:
| [UPSC 2018] Why is the Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System [IRNSS] needed? How does it help in navigation?
Linkage: IRNSS (also called NavIC) is India’s indigenous satellite-based navigation system providing accurate position information over India and surrounding regions.
Just like IRNSS uses satellites for positioning, satellite internet uses similar orbital infrastructure for data connectivity. Understanding satellite orbits, latency, and ground segments from this topic directly aids in explaining IRNSS’s working, advantages, and strategic value in navigation. |
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Why in the News?
The government has recently approved the Employment Linked Incentive (ELI) Scheme as one of the largest fiscal commitments towards employment generation in recent years. The scale of underemployment in India is striking, over 53% of graduates are working in semi-skilled jobs and 46% of low-skill workers earn less than ₹1 lakh a year raising questions about whether such a scheme can genuinely address unemployment or will deepen structural inequalities.
Significance of ELI Scheme:
- Government Approval: Cleared on July 1, 2025, with ₹99,446 crore outlay.
- Primary Aim: Provide fiscal incentives to employers for job creation, especially in manufacturing.
- Significance: Represents one of the largest government-led employment incentive packages in India.
Issues with the ELI Scheme’s design:
- Employer-Centric Approach: Focuses on incentivising employers rather than directly empowering workers.
- Capital-Labour Asymmetry: Risks strengthening employer bargaining power while leaving workers vulnerable.
- Exclusion of Informal Sector: 90% of India’s workforce, largely informal, is excluded as the scheme prioritises EPFO-registered firms.
- Underprepared Workforce: Only 4.9% of youth have received formal vocational training, creating a mismatch between jobs and skills.
Skill Mismatch and Underemployment Trends in India:
- Low Skill Utilisation: Only 8.25% of graduates work in jobs matching their qualifications.
- High Underemployment: 53% of graduates and 36% of postgraduates in semi-skilled or elementary roles.
- Wage Disparity: 46% of low-skilled workers earn < ₹1 lakh/year, while only 4.2% of specialised graduates earn ₹4–8 lakh/year.
- Inefficient Education-to-Employment Pipeline: Shows systemic disconnect between education system and industry needs.
Sectoral Imbalance and Employment Implications:
- Manufacturing Bias: Targets manufacturing despite its declining employment elasticity.
- Employment Share: Manufacturing employs <13% of total workforce, while agriculture and services employ ~70%.
- Potential Marginalisation: Rural youth, women, and informal workers, largely in low-skill services/agriculture, risk being left out.
- Automation Pressure: Capital-intensive manufacturing growth reduces labour absorption.
Risks to Job Quality and Employment Sustainability:
- Disguised Unemployment: May encourage enterprises to relabel old jobs as new to claim subsidies.
- Structural Inequality: Channels fiscal benefits to already formalised enterprises.
- Bypassing Informal Workforce: Misses the majority of new labour market entrants in the informal sector.
- Stagnant Productivity: Without skill investment, job creation may remain low-quality.
Policy Alternatives for Equitable Employment Generation:
- Investment in Skilling: Strengthen vocational training to prepare low-skilled workers
- Education Reforms: Align curricula with industry demands
- Social Security Inclusion: Extend benefits to informal workers for equity
- Shift to Long-Term Strategy: Focus on productivity, job quality, and labour rights rather than short-term headcount increases.
Conclusion
The ELI Scheme reflects a high-investment, employer-focused strategy that risks deepening existing inequalities in India’s labour market. Without addressing the skill mismatch, informal sector exclusion, and sectoral imbalances, the scheme may generate headcount without creating sustainable livelihoods. A shift towards worker-centric, skill-driven, and socially inclusive employment policies is essential to ensure equitable economic growth.
Value Addition
|
Economic Survey 2024–25
- Key Insight: Reveals that only 8.25% of graduates are in jobs matching their qualifications, with 53% of graduates underemployed in semi-skilled or elementary roles.
- Relevance: Strengthens arguments on the education–employment disconnect and the urgent need for targeted skilling reforms.
- Application: Can be quoted in answers on unemployment, skill development, or human capital formation.
Dual Labour Market Theory
- Concept: The labour market is split into two segments, formal (primary) with stable jobs, better wages, and benefits; and informal (secondary) with insecure, low-paid work and no social protection.
- Relevance to ELI Scheme: The scheme’s EPFO-based targeting inherently supports the formal sector while neglecting the 90% informal workforce, deepening this divide.
- Application: Useful in analysing structural inequality in employment policies.
Employment Elasticity
- Definition: The responsiveness of employment growth to GDP growth.
- India’s Case: Manufacturing’s employment elasticity is declining due to automation and capital-intensive processes.
- Relevance to ELI Scheme: Explains why heavy focus on manufacturing may not yield proportional employment gains.
- Application: Adds depth when evaluating sectoral choices in employment policy.
ILO’s “Decent Work” Agenda
- Framework: Promotes productive employment, rights at work, social protection, and social dialogue.
- Relevance: The ELI Scheme lacks strong components on worker rights, social protection for informal workers, or job quality improvement — thereby falling short of ILO’s standards.
- Application: Ideal for international comparison in labour policy answers.
Disguised Unemployment
- Definition: A situation where more workers are employed than necessary, resulting in negligible or zero marginal productivity.
- Indian Context: Common in agriculture and informal services.
- Relevance to ELI Scheme: Risk of enterprises relabeling existing jobs as new to claim subsidies, creating apparent employment without productivity gains.
- Application: Can be linked to inefficiencies in job creation schemes and low productivity traps.
|
Mapping Microthemes:
| GS Paper |
Theme |
Micro Theme |
Example from Article |
| GS Paper III |
Economy |
Employment generation policies |
₹99,446 crore ELI Scheme |
| GS Paper III |
Economy |
Formal–informal sector divide |
90% informal workforce excluded |
| GS Paper III |
Economy |
Skill mismatch & underemployment |
8.25% graduates in matching jobs |
| GS Paper III |
Economy |
Sectoral imbalance |
Manufacturing bias despite low share in jobs |
| GS Paper II |
Governance |
Policy design flaws |
Employer-centric incentives |
Practice Mains Question
- Critically evaluate the Employment Linked Incentive (ELI) Scheme in the context of India’s structural labour market challenges. Suggest policy measures to ensure equitable and sustainable employment growth. (250 words)
PYQ Linkage:
| [UPSC 2014] “While we flaunt India’s demographic dividend, we ignore the dropping rates of employability.” What are we missing while doing so? Where will the jobs that India desperately needs come from? Explain.
Linkage: Address the role of skilling in tackling unemployment, evaluate gaps in current initiatives, and connect with how ELI Scheme mirrors or misses these elements. The PMKVY question emphasises the necessity of industry-relevant skills for employment generation. The ELI Scheme, while aiming at job creation, lacks a robust skilling component, risking the same shortcomings seen in earlier programmes like PMKVY. |
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Why in the News?
Lok Sabha Speaker has initiated removal proceedings against a Judge of the Allahabad High Court by admitting a motion signed by 146 members and forming a three-member inquiry committee.
About Appointment of High Court Judges:
- Constitutional Basis: Article 217 of the Constitution of India.
- Appointing Authority: President of India, in consultation with the Chief Justice of India (CJI), Governor of the concerned State, and Chief Justice of the concerned High Court.
- Collegium System: The proposal is initiated by the High Court’s Chief Justice, forwarded through the Chief Minister and Governor, and decided by the CJI along with the two senior-most judges of the Supreme Court.
- Chief Justice Posting Policy: Chief Justices are appointed from outside the State to ensure impartiality.
- Transfers: The CJI and senior-most judges of the Supreme Court decide transfers to maintain judicial independence.
Removal Process:
- Grounds: Proved misbehaviour or incapacity.
- Procedure: Impeachment process under Articles 124(4) and 217, and Section 3(2) of the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968.
- Initiation: Motion signed by at least 100 Lok Sabha MPs or 50 Rajya Sabha MPs.
- Inquiry: 3-member committee comprising a Supreme Court judge, a Chief Justice of a High Court, and a distinguished jurist investigates the charges.
- Voting Requirement: Two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament for removal.
- In-House Mechanism: CJI can initiate internal inquiries and advise resignation in serious cases.
Other Notable Cases:
- Justice V. Ramaswami (1993): Faced impeachment for financial misconduct; motion failed in Lok Sabha.
- Justice Soumitra Sen (2011): Resigned after Rajya Sabha voted for removal over fund misappropriation.
- Justice K. Veeraswamy: Corruption case remained unresolved until his death.
- Justice Shamit Mukherjee (2003), Justice Nirmal Yadav (2008), Justice S.N. Shukla (2017): Faced criminal charges for corruption after in-house inquiries.
| [UPSC 2007] Consider the following statements:
1. The mode of removal of a Judge of a High Court in India is the same as that of the removal of a Judge of the Supreme Court.
2. After retirement from office, a permanent Judge of a High Court cannot plead or act in any court or before any authority in India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
Many legislators of the Goa Assembly across party lines demanded the legalisation of Dhiri Bull Fighting in Goa.
About Dhiri Bull Fighting:
- Overview: Goan sport where two bulls lock horns in paddy fields or grounds.
- Cultural Link: Associated with post-harvest feasts and church celebrations.
- Nature of Contest: Bulls push until one retreats; no matadors or killing involved.
- Event: Bulls given unique names, treated like local icons.
- Betting: High-stakes wagers involve locals and Goan diaspora.
Recent Controversy:
- Legal Ban: Banned in 1997 under Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act after a fatality.
- Judicial Position: Supreme Court upheld the ban; events continue secretly.
- Political Push: Lawmakers (2024–25) seek legalisation for cultural/tourism value.
- Proposed Model: Advocates want regulated events, citing Jallikattu’s example.
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Why in the News?
The Union Health Ministry has launched the State Health Regulatory Excellence Index (SHRESTH), a first-of-its-kind national framework to benchmark and strengthen state drug regulatory systems.
About State Health Regulatory Excellence Index (SHRESTH):
- Purpose: National initiative by Union Health Ministry to benchmark and strengthen state drug regulatory systems.
- Developer: Designed by Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO).
- Objective: To benchmark and improve the performance of state-level drug regulatory authorities across India through a transparent, data-driven framework.
- Method: Uses a transparent, data-driven framework and acts as a virtual gap assessment tool for maturity certification.
Key Features:
- State Categories: Manufacturing states assessed on 27 indices; distribution-focused states/UTs assessed on 23 indices.
- Evaluation Themes: Human resources, infrastructure, licensing, surveillance, and responsiveness.
- Data Submission: Monthly metric data submitted by the 25th; scores shared on the 1st of the next month.
- Performance Benchmarking: Rankings encourage cross-learning and adoption of best practices.
- Capacity Building: Workshops, joint trainings, and regulatory audits to strengthen state systems.
- Digital Integration: Dashboards like Not of Standard Quality (NSQ) for real-time monitoring.
- Global Standards: Supports India’s goal to meet WHO-equivalent medicine quality norms, building on WHO Maturity Level-3 vaccine status.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
Statement-I: India’s public sector health care system largely focuses on curative care with limited preventive, promotive and rehabiliative care.
Statement-II: Under India’s decentralized approach to health care delivery, the States are primarily responsible for organizing health services.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I *
(c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
(d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct |
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