Why in the News?
In the latest State of India’s Birds (SoIB) 2025 report and IUCN assessment, four bird species dependent on these ecosystems have been uplisted, reflecting alarming habitat loss and population decline.
Bird Species Uplisted by IUCN:
- Indian Courser (Cursorius coromandelicus):
- Endemic to the Indian Subcontinent.
- Uplisted from Least Concern → Near Threatened due to loss of grasslands and fallow land.
- Indian Roller (Coracias benghalensis): Uplisted to Near Threatened; impacted by habitat conversion and electrocution from power lines.
- Rufous-tailed Lark (Ammomanes phoenicura): Uplisted to Near Threatened; declining due to intensive agriculture and land-use change.
- Long-billed Grasshopper-Warbler (Locustella major): Uplisted to Endangered; severely impacted by loss of reedbeds and open scrub habitat.
About State of India’s Birds (SoIB) Assessment:
- Overview: SoIB is conducted by the State of India’s Birds Partnership, a consortium of 13 government and non-government institutions, including BNHS, WII, ZSI, SACON, WTI, WWF-India, ATREE, NCF, FES, Wetlands International – South Asia, NCBS, and NBA.
- Coverage: Of 1,360 bird species assessed globally, 12 species were from India.
- Findings:
- 8 species downlisted (showing improved conservation trends).
- 4 species uplisted, highlighting heightened risk of extinction.
- The report underscores the fragility of India’s open-country habitats, which support a unique but shrinking avifaunal diversity.
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Why in the News?
The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is developing an extended-range variant of the Astra Mark 2 beyond-visual-range (BVR) air-to-air missile.
Astra Mark 2 Missile:
- Overview: An indigenously developed Beyond Visual Range (BVR) air-to-air missile by the DRDO, enhancing the Indian Air Force’s long-range interception capability.
- Lineage: Successor to Astra Mark 1 (range ~100 km); marks a leap in India’s self-reliance in advanced air combat systems.
- Integration: Compatible with Su-30 MKI and LCA Tejas, with future integration planned for Rafale, AMCA, and TEDBF.
- Industry Collaboration: Co-developed with over 50 industries, including Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) and Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL).
Key Features:
- Dual-Pulse Propulsion: Incorporates dual-pulse solid rocket motor (vs. single-pulse in Mk-1) for sustained thrust and high terminal energy.
- Range & Speed: Operational range of 150–200+ km, speed up to Mach 4.5, enabling engagement of fast aerial targets.
- Guidance & Seeker: Equipped with indigenous RF seeker and Electronic Counter-Countermeasures (ECCM) for precision and survivability.
- All-Weather & Agile: Works in day/night, adverse conditions; supports off-boresight targeting and mid-course data-link updates.
- Stealth & Safety: Uses smokeless propulsion for reduced detectability during launch.
Recent Upgrade:
- Extended Range Variant: DRDO developing version exceeding 200 km, beyond initial 160 km design.
- Strategic Parity: Comparable to Chinese PL-15 and US AIM-120D AMRAAM, reinforcing India’s deterrence capability.
- Future Roadmap: Forms baseline for Astra Mark 3, featuring solid-fuel ducted ramjet propulsion, under Atmanirbhar Bharat in advanced missile systems.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements
1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of fight.
2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 * |
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Why in the News?
The Naying Hydroelectric Project (1000 MW), proposed on the Siyom (Yomgo) River in Shi-Yomi district, Arunachal Pradesh, represents a major addition to India’s clean energy expansion under the Decade of Hydro Power (2025–35).
About Siyom (Yomgo) River:
- Geography: A right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra, flowing entirely within Arunachal Pradesh.
- Origin & Course: Arises in West Siang, travels ~170 km, and joins the Brahmaputra near Assam.
- Ecology: Basin supports rich biodiversity, agro-pastoral livelihoods, and lies within the Eastern Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot.
- Protected Areas: Mouling National Park lies on its eastern bank, part of the Dibang–Siang biosphere landscape.
- Hydrological Role: Ensures irrigation, microclimate regulation, and provides run-of-the-river potential for clean energy, though demanding careful ecosystem balance.
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About Naying Hydroelectric Project:
- Overview: A proposed 1,000 MW (4×250 MW) run-of-the-river project located in Shi-Yomi district, Arunachal Pradesh.
- Developers: Jointly undertaken by North Eastern Electric Power Corporation (NEEPCO) and Arunachal Pradesh Hydropower Corporation Ltd (APHCL).
- Design & Output: Features a concrete dam, underground powerhouse, and diversion tunnels, expected to generate 4,966.77 GWh annually.
- Regulatory Approval: Received Central Electricity Authority (CEA) concurrence in 2013; progress slowed by environmental and social concerns.
- Public Consultation: Environmental hearing scheduled for 12 November 2025 at Yapik Community Hall to assess ecological and community impacts.
- Timeline: Construction targeted to start by 2028, with commissioning by 2032.
- Policy Context: Forms part of the state’s Decade of Hydro Power (2025–2035), aiming for 19 GW capacity addition to support India’s net-zero goals.
- Regional Linkages: Among five key hydel projects in the region – Heo (240 MW), Hirong (500 MW), Tato-I (186 MW), and Tato-II (700 MW).
| [UPSC 2022] Consider the following pairs:
Reservoirs – States
1. Ghataprabha — Telangana
2. Gandhi Sagar — Madhya Pradesh
3. Indira Sagar — Andhra Pradesh
4. Maithon —Chhattisgarh
Options:
(a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs” |
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PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2022] Clean energy is the order of the day. Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics.
Linkage: The India–Australia Renewable Energy Partnership (REP) exemplifies India’s evolving climate diplomacy — shifting from being a climate “follower” to a global clean energy collaborator. It reflects how India aligns geopolitical strategy with green transition, using partnerships like REP to ensure both sustainability and supply chain autonomy. |
Mentor’s Comment
At a time when the world is rethinking its clean energy priorities amidst climate vulnerabilities and geopolitical flux, the Australia–India Renewable Energy Partnership (REP) emerges as a beacon of cooperative strength. This article examines how two Indo-Pacific democracies can forge a resilient, balanced, and future-ready clean energy ecosystem — turning climate ambition into implementable strategy.
Introduction
In a decade defined by climate urgency and energy transition, India and Australia are deepening collaboration in renewable energy to reduce carbon footprints and diversify critical supply chains. With Australia’s Climate Change and Energy Minister Chris Bowen visiting New Delhi, both nations are poised to convert their shared climate vision into tangible outcomes under the India–Australia Renewable Energy Partnership (REP). The partnership arrives at a pivotal moment when the Indo-Pacific region is reeling under frequent climate disasters and when overdependence on China for clean energy inputs threatens energy security.
Why This Is Big News
The India–Australia clean energy partnership represents a strategic shift from bilateral intent to operational collaboration. It marks the first large-scale joint response by the two democracies to build resilient, China-independent supply chains for renewable technologies.
This is significant because the Indo-Pacific averages nearly 10 climate disasters per month, and projections show up to 89 million climate refugees by 2050. Both countries now aim not merely for targets but for structural autonomy in critical minerals, hydrogen, and solar ecosystems — signalling a new phase of climate diplomacy.
A Climate-Vulnerable Region
- Harshest impacts: The Indo-Pacific region witnesses some of the world’s most severe climate consequences, with recurring floods, cyclones, and droughts.
- Alarming projections: Between 1970–2022, it averaged 10 climate-related disasters monthly; by 2050, 89 million people may be displaced.
- India’s leadership: India targets 500 GW of non-fossil electricity by 2030 (with 280 GW solar) and has achieved 50% non-fossil capacity already — five years ahead of schedule.
- Australia’s climate push: It has raised its emission-reduction ambition to 62–70% below 2005 levels by 2035, aligning with its net-zero goal.
The Supply Chain Challenge
- Dependence on China: China refines 90% of rare earth elements and manufactures 80% of global solar modules, giving it near-monopoly power.
- India’s dilemma: Faces import dependence for rare earth magnets and battery materials, affecting EV and wind sectors.
- Australia’s gap: Despite being rich in lithium, cobalt, and rare earths, it lacks refining and downstream industries.
- Pandemic exposure: The COVID-19 crisis exposed global supply fragility; China’s export restrictions further underlined the danger of single-country dependence.
- Industry impact: Example, an Indian EV manufacturer’s production halved in July due to component shortages.
What the Renewable Energy Partnership (REP) Offers
- Comprehensive framework: REP spans eight key areas, solar PV, green hydrogen, energy storage, circular economy, solar supply chains, two-way investments, and capacity building.
- Collaborative platforms: Introduces a Track 1.5 Dialogue, connecting policy, industry, and academia to translate ideas into pilot projects.
- Focus areas: Promotes joint R&D, investment in refining, hydrogen economy, and cross-training of skilled personnel.
- Strategic significance: Seeks to create an Indo-Pacific clean energy hub resilient to geopolitical shocks.
Complementary Strengths: Why Collaboration Works
Australia’s edge:
- Critical mineral base — rich in lithium, rare earths.
- Stable regulations and a focus on green jobs under its Net Zero Jobs Plan.
India’s advantage:
- Demographic dividend — 65% population below 35 years.
- PLI schemes and Skill India fostering clean-tech manufacturing.
- Expanding domestic demand for solar, hydrogen, and battery systems.
Synergistic model: Together, they can integrate Australia’s minerals with India’s manufacturing and labour pool, creating a regional clean energy ecosystem that is both inclusive and secure.
Why This Partnership Matters for the Indo-Pacific
- Climate resilience: Joint efforts show that democracies can lead energy transitions without autocratic dependencies.
- Geopolitical signalling: It strengthens Quad cooperation (India–Australia–Japan–US) by aligning clean energy goals.
- Economic dividends: Builds green value chains that can generate jobs and diversify trade beyond fossil fuels.
Conclusion
The Australia–India Renewable Energy Partnership is more than a bilateral initiative, it is a climate-security compact for the Indo-Pacific. By combining Australia’s resource advantage with India’s innovation and manpower, both nations can anchor a sustainable energy future independent of geopolitical coercion. In doing so, they not only contribute to global net-zero targets but also demonstrate how democratic collaboration can address shared vulnerabilities with foresight and resilience.
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Introduction
The 2025 Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded to Joel Mokyr, Philippe Aghion, and Peter Howitt for “explaining innovation-driven economic growth.” Their research collectively answers one of the most fundamental economic puzzles — how nations sustain growth over centuries, not decades.
Why in the News
The Nobel Committee’s decision is significant because it celebrates innovation as the engine of sustained prosperity at a time when economies face stagnation despite technological abundance. It also marks a historical synthesis, combining Mokyr’s economic history with Aghion and Howitt’s modern growth models, to offer a unified vision of why the last two centuries broke free from millennia of stagnation. This award underscores that knowledge creation and openness to change are as critical to a nation’s future as natural resources or fiscal policy.
Understanding the Foundations of Innovation-Driven Growth
What did Joel Mokyr’s research reveal about sustained growth?
- Useful Knowledge: Mokyr argued that long-term growth depends on a constant flow of useful knowledge, divided into propositional (theoretical understanding) and prescriptive (practical implementation) forms.
- Before Industrial Revolution: Innovators understood why things worked (propositional) but lacked the technical ability to make them work (prescriptive).
- Scientific Revolution Impact: The 16th–17th centuries brought controlled experiments and reproducibility — transforming knowledge from abstract to applicable.
- Policy Implication: Nations must ensure technical education and skill development, as ideas alone cannot yield growth without implementation.
How did Mokyr link innovation to social openness?
- Openness to Change: Innovation often disrupts existing systems and creates losers; societies resistant to change stifle progress.
- Historical Example: Britain’s sustained growth stemmed from skilled artisans and engineers who translated scientific ideas into industrial applications.
- Policy Lesson: Governments must create inclusive ecosystems that accept change, retrain workers, and redistribute gains from innovation.
What is the Theory of Creative Destruction?
- Conceptual Core: Originally introduced by Schumpeter, “creative destruction” describes how innovation replaces older technologies and firms, creating both winners and losers.
- Aghion & Howitt’s Contribution: They formalized this process mathematically, showing how technological progress leads to sustained long-term growth.
- Dynamic Equilibrium: Innovation raises productivity but simultaneously displaces outdated industries — a perpetual cycle that fuels development.
How much should a country invest in Research and Development (R&D)?
- Balancing Act: Aghion and Howitt’s model shows two opposing trends:
- Trend 1 — Underinvestment: Since society benefits from outdated technologies even after firms lose profits, R&D should be subsidized to ensure social spillovers.
- Trend 2 — Overinvestment: When incremental innovations capture disproportionate profits, R&D may be excessive and distort competition.
- Optimal Level: There is no universal ideal investment, but the model provides tools to identify an economy-specific optimum that maximizes welfare without creating monopolistic inefficiencies.
Why does this Nobel matter for developing economies like India?
- Knowledge Ecosystem: The laureates’ findings emphasise that growth requires not just innovation, but translation — turning ideas into scalable realities through skills, entrepreneurship, and openness.
- India’s Imperative: Investments in R&D (currently ~0.7% of GDP), vocational skilling, and ease of doing business are crucial to realize the demographic dividend.
- Policy Relevance: The Economic Survey and NITI Aayog’s “Innovation Index” already underline similar principles — this Nobel reinforces India’s need to build a “knowledge economy.”
Conclusion
The 2025 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences reaffirms that innovation, knowledge, and societal openness are the real engines of prosperity. Economic success is no longer a product of mere capital or labor, but of the synergy between imagination and execution. For India and other developing nations, the message is clear: sustained growth depends on nurturing human capital, research ecosystems, and tolerance for disruption. As Mokyr’s and Aghion–Howitt’s work shows, societies that embrace change, skill their people, and invest in ideas will lead the next chapter of human progress.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2015] What are the areas of prohibitive labour that can be sustainably managed by robots? Discuss the initiatives that can propel the research in premier research institutes for substantive and gainful innovation.
Linkage: This PYQ aligns with the 2025 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences as both emphasize how technological innovation transforms labour structures—echoing Aghion and Howitt’s theory of creative destruction, where automation replaces old forms of work while driving new productivity.
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Introduction
The exclusion of women journalists from Taliban press conferences in New Delhi was not an accident, it was symbolic of a deeper issue: legitimizing a regime whose ideology is built on the deliberate erasure of women’s existence. As Afghan women face persecution, violence, and disappearance from every public sphere, the silence of democratic nations like India risks validating gender apartheid.
Why is this issue in the news?
The controversy erupted when India hosted two Taliban press conferences in New Delhi, where female journalists were initially excluded. The event coincided with a People’s Tribunal on the Women of Afghanistan in Madrid, where survivors testified to the Taliban’s gender-based persecution, recognized as a crime against humanity. The contrast between India’s engagement and the global condemnation of Taliban policies underscores a moral and diplomatic crisis.
How has the Taliban institutionalized the erasure of women?
- Systematic exclusion: Since their 2021 return, the Taliban banned women from most public-sector jobs, secondary schools, and universities.
- Legalized oppression: The 2024 Propagation of Virtue and Prevention of Vice Law formally declared women’s voices “forbidden” in public.
- Economic silencing: A 2025 Afghanistan Media Support Organisation survey found that 93% of women journalists lost their jobs, with more than 42% leaving journalism altogether.
- Violence and fear: Women activists are detained, beaten, and their husbands tortured, part of a deliberate campaign to erase their visibility and livelihood.
Why is India’s stance seen as complicit rather than diplomatic?
- Normalization of misogyny: Hosting Taliban officials while Afghan women pleaded for recognition signals tacit acceptance of their regime.
- Moral inconsistency: While democracies like Spain and Canada host tribunals condemning Taliban atrocities, India’s diplomatic outreach stands in stark contrast.
- Diplomatic short-sightedness: By engaging the Taliban without human rights conditionalities, India risks legitimizing gender apartheid as a form of governance.
What does this reveal about the global response to women’s rights?
- Erosion of feminist diplomacy: Nations increasingly prioritize geopolitical pragmatism over gender justice.
- Media complicity: Even in New Delhi, the Taliban’s media interaction mirrored their exclusionary ethos, showing that patriarchal silencing transcends borders.
- Selective outrage: While Western nations condemn the Taliban, many still negotiate covertly for strategic or security reasons, diluting international accountability.
What lessons does this hold for India’s foreign policy and democracy?
- Moral leadership deficit: India’s silence undermines its self-image as the voice of the Global South and defender of democratic rights.
- Gender and diplomacy linkage: True diplomacy must integrate gender-sensitive ethics, ensuring no engagement legitimizes systemic violence.
- Internal reflection: A democracy’s foreign policy mirrors its domestic respect for women’s agency. India’s global credibility depends on aligning words with action.
Conclusion
India’s engagement with the Taliban marks a dangerous shift from moral diplomacy to moral compromise. As Afghan women’s rights are being erased, India’s silence echoes complicity, not neutrality. True diplomacy must speak truth to power, not share its platform. Democracies cannot afford to normalize gender apartheid; silence here is not strategy, it is surrender.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2013] The proposed withdrawal of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) from Afghanistan in 2014 is fraught with major security implications for the countries of the region. Examine in light of the fact that India is faced with a plethora of challenges and needs to safeguard its own strategic interests.
Linkage: India’s current engagement with the Taliban reflects the security vacuum created after the ISAF withdrawal, forcing New Delhi to balance strategic interests with moral responsibility. As the article shows, this has turned India’s Afghan policy from cautious realism into a test of its ethical diplomacy and regional credibility.
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Why in the News?
The Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) has invoked Stage I of the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) across the Delhi–NCR as air quality slipped into the ‘poor’ category (AQI 211) after more than three months.
What is Air Quality Index (AQI)?
- Purpose: Quantifies pollution levels and health impact using major pollutants — PM₂․₅, PM₁₀, SO₂, NO₂, CO, O₃, NH₃, Pb.
- Scale:
-
- 0–50 = Good
- 51–100 = Satisfactory
- 101–200 = Moderate
- 201–300 = Poor
- 301–400 = Very Poor
- 401–450 = Severe
- >450 = Severe Plus
- Interpretation: Higher AQI ⇒ greater exposure risk, particularly for children, elderly, and respiratory patients.
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About Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP):
- Objective: To ensure anticipatory, graded, and region-wide responses that reduce PM₂․₅ and PM₁₀ concentrations, controlling emissions from vehicles, dust, and industries.
- Coverage: Applies across Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and other NCR districts, ensuring uniform regional implementation.
- Legal Mandate: Issued under Section 5 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, binding on all NCR states and agencies.
- Genesis: Approved by the Supreme Court in 2016 (M.C. Mehta vs. Union of India) and notified in Jan 2017 by MoEFCC under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
- Implementation: Initially enforced by EPCA (till 2020); now implemented by the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) established via ordinance in Oct 2020.
- Functioning: CAQM works with CPCB, IMD, and IITM Pune, which provide forecast-based modelling for pre-emptive action.
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- Stage I (Poor: 201–300): Road sweeping, water sprinkling, dust control at sites, solid-waste removal, old-vehicle enforcement.
- Stage II (Very Poor: 301–400): Hotspot regulation, DG set restrictions, enhanced public transport.
- Stage III (Severe: 401–450): Ban on BS-III petrol & BS-IV diesel cars, construction halt, school closures.
- Stage IV (Severe+ >450): Complete construction ban, truck entry restriction (essentials exempted), curbs on non-essential vehicles.
| [UPSC 2024] According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which one of the following is the largest source of sulphur dioxide emissions?
Options: (a) Locomotives using fossil fuels
(b) Ships using fossil fuels
(c) Extraction of metals from ores
(d) Power plants using fossil fuels* |
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Why in the News?
The Department of Legal Affairs, Ministry of Law and Justice, inaugurated the “Live Cases” Dashboard under the Legal Information Management and Briefing System (LIMBS) at Shastri Bhawan, New Delhi.
About LIMBS Portal:
- Overview: A centralised, web-based litigation management platform developed by the Department of Legal Affairs, Ministry of Law & Justice, under the Digital India initiative.
- Purpose: Enables real-time monitoring, coordination, and analysis of court cases involving the Union of India, covering all ministries, PSUs, and autonomous bodies.
- Design & Function: Serves as a single digital interface connecting nodal officers, legal cells, and advocates for streamlined case management and reduced duplication.
- Policy Alignment: Implements the Prime Minister’s directive to minimise government litigation, improve inter-ministerial coordination, and enhance transparency and efficiency.
- Scale (2025): Tracks 7.23 lakh live cases from 53 ministries/departments; over 13,000 ministry users and 18,000 advocates actively update records.
- Integration: Linked with national judicial databases for automated case updates and status tracking.
Key Features:
- Dashboard Monitoring: Real-time visual dashboard showing ministry-wise pending, disposed, and contempt cases for trend analysis.
- Court Connectivity: Integration with the Supreme Court, 25 High Courts, District Courts, and 9 Tribunals for live order retrieval.
- Advanced Search: Multi-parameter filtering by court, advocate, ministry, judgment date, or financial value.
- User Hierarchy: Tiered access for Nodal Officers, Admins, and Advocates ensuring accountability and data integrity.
- Document & Fee Management: Digital upload of pleadings, notices, and advocate bills for secure, paperless workflow.
- Accessibility & Security: 24×7 open-source platform with cybersecurity compliance and uninterrupted access.
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Why in the News?
The Crew Escape System is ISRO’s most critical safety innovation for Gaganyaan. This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.
Back2Basics: Gaganyaan Mission:
- Overview: India’s first human spaceflight mission, initiated in 2007, to send 3 astronauts into Low Earth Orbit (400 km) for 3 days, followed by Arabian Sea splashdown.
- Rocket: Human-Rated LVM3 (HLVM3), adapted from GSLV Mk3, certified in 2025 for safe human use.
- Significance: India to become the 4th nation (after US, Russia, China) with crewed spaceflight capability.
- Latest Timeline (as of Sept 2025):
- Dec 2025: First uncrewed mission (G1) with humanoid Vyommitra.
- 2026: Two more uncrewed flights for life-support, avionics, and escape tests.
- Early 2027: First crewed mission – 3 astronauts in orbit for 3 days.
- Progress so far:
- 80–85% development complete: avionics, parachutes, crew safety systems validated.
- Integrated Air Drop Test (Aug 2025): Confirmed crew module deceleration.
- Crew Escape System: Multiple ground and flight tests successful.
- Recovery: Indian Navy and Australian Space Agency conducting splashdown drills.
- Four IAF test pilots shortlisted: Shubhanshu Shukla, Prasanth Balakrishnan Nair, Angad Pratap, Ajit Krishnan.
- All trained in Russia, now in advanced Indian training. Final crew of three will be chosen for maiden flight.
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What is Crew Escape System (CES)?
- Purpose: A critical safety mechanism in ISRO’s Gaganyaan Mission, enabling astronaut rescue in case of launch vehicle failure during the atmospheric ascent phase.
- Placement & Function: Mounted atop the Human-Rated LVM3 (HLVM3) rocket; rapidly separates the crew module and propels it to safety using high-thrust solid motors.
- Performance: Escape motors generate acceleration up to 10 g, using high burn-rate propellants for faster thrust than the launcher. Astronauts withstand this briefly in a “child-in-cradle” posture.
- Safety Systems: Incorporates redundant subsystems, heritage-based design, and real-time health monitoring through the Integrated Vehicle Health Management (IVHM) network for millisecond-level response.
- Types of CES:
-
- Puller-Type: Used in Gaganyaan; solid-fuel motors pull the crew module away. Also adopted by Russia’s Soyuz, China’s Long March, and US Saturn V missions.
- Pusher-Type: Used in SpaceX Crew Dragon (Falcon 9); liquid-fuel thrusters push the capsule away.
- Comparison: Puller systems suit high-thrust, short-duration extractions; pusher systems integrate better with reusable modules.
Operational Sequence & Recovery:
- Automatic Activation: On anomaly detection, IVHM triggers CES instantly; escape motors fire, propelling the crew module clear of the rocket.
- Separation & Descent: After reaching safe distance, CES detaches and the module descends under multistage parachutes, drogue, main, and reserve, ensuring controlled speed and stability.
- Splashdown & Safety: The module lands in the sea, impact forces within safe physiological limits, allowing quick recovery.
- Significance: Serves as the core life-saving system of India’s human spaceflight programme, ensuring crew survival during catastrophic launch failures.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following space missions:
I. Axiom-4 II. SpaDeX III. Gaganyaan
How many of the space missions given above encourage and support microgravity research?
(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three* (d) None |
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Why in the News?
The Global Tipping Points Report (2025), authored by 160 scientists from 23 countries, warns that warm-water coral reefs have already crossed their thermal tipping point, triggering irreversible dieback.
About Tipping Points:
- Overview: Tipping Points are critical thresholds in Earth’s natural and climate systems beyond which self-reinforcing and often irreversible changes occur.
- Mechanism: Once crossed, feedback loops accelerate transformation — e.g., melting permafrost releases methane, which increases warming and causes more melting.
- Irreversibility: Even if greenhouse gas emissions are later reduced, many systems cannot revert to their original stable state.
- Significance: Tipping Points determine long-term planetary stability, climate predictability, and biosphere resilience.
Important Definitions:
- Climate Tipping Point (IPCC): A critical threshold at which small changes in temperature or forcing cause a large, often irreversible shift in a climate subsystem.
- Feedback Loop: A process where an initial change triggers further effects that amplify the original disturbance (positive feedback).
- Hysteresis: The property of a system where reversing to its prior state requires conditions much different from those that caused the initial change.
- Cascade Effect: A phenomenon where crossing one tipping point triggers others in connected Earth systems, leading to compounded impacts.
- Thermal Tipping Point (for Coral Reefs): The temperature threshold (~1.2°C above pre-industrial) beyond which coral survival and recovery become impossible.
Key Global Tipping Points Identified:
- Ice Sheets: Collapse of Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, committing the planet to multi-metre sea-level rise.
- Coral Reefs: Permanent dieback of warm-water reefs due to ocean warming and acidification, destroying marine biodiversity.
- Amazon Rainforest: Shift toward a savannah ecosystem, reducing carbon storage and regional rainfall.
- Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC): Potential shutdown below 2°C, disrupting global heat distribution and monsoon patterns.
- Permafrost Thaw: Release of methane and CO₂, reinforcing global warming.
- Boreal Forests & Mountain Glaciers: Increased risk of widespread dieback and loss of freshwater reserves.
- Sub-Polar Gyre (SPG): Destabilization in North Atlantic circulation, altering marine ecosystems and heat flow.
Highlights from the Latest Reports (Global Tipping Points 2025):
- Study Scale: Conducted by 160 scientists from 23 countries, assessing multiple Earth-system thresholds.
- Coral Crisis: Since January 2023, 84.4% of coral reefs across 82 nations have suffered bleaching — marking the fourth global mass event, the worst on record.
- Temperature Thresholds: Exceeding 1.5°C global warming risks triggering multiple tipping points; 1.2°C already breached for warm-water reefs.
- AMOC Collapse Risk: Could occur below 2°C, potentially plunging northwest Europe into severe winters and disrupting global food and water systems.
- Amazon Dieback: Widespread collapse possible below 2°C, directly affecting 100+ million people dependent on its ecosystem.
- Interconnected Risk: Earth’s systems form a tipping network — crossing one threshold may accelerate others, creating a domino-like cascade.
- Policy Warning: Current Paris Agreement pledges and net-zero targets are inadequate to limit warming below 2°C.
| [UPSC 2024] One of the following regions has the world’s largest tropical peatland, which holds about three years’ worth of global carbon emissions from fossil fuels, and the possible destruction of which can exert a detrimental effect on the global climate.
Which one of the following denotes that region?
Options: (a) Amazon Basin (b) Congo Basin* (c) Kikori basin (d) Rio De La Plata Basin |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2020] Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above objective? Explain.
Linkage: The transition is inherently linked to climate change mitigation, conservation, and pollution control. Recent topics include CCUS, India’s updated climate commitments (NDCs), and balancing development with environmental protection. |
Why in the News?
The successful trial of India’s first hydrogen-powered coach at the Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Chennai, in July 2025 marks a critical milestone in the Indian Railways’ decarbonisation strategy.
Introduction:
With a target of achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2030, four decades ahead of India’s national goal, the Indian Railways is reshaping its energy, infrastructure, and financing architecture to become a global model for sustainable mobility.
Carrying over 24 million passengers and 3 million tonnes of freight daily, this transition directly supports India’s nationally determined contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.
India’s Energy Transition Context (2025):
- As of June 2025, over 50% of India’s installed power capacity (476 GW total) comes from non-fossil sources, five years ahead of its 2030 Paris target.
- Renewables: Solar (110.9 GW) and wind (51.3 GW) continue rapid expansion; nuclear capacity adds 8.8 GW.
- Electrification: 100% village electrification achieved, with household access nearing universality.
- Challenges:
- Fossil fuel reliance: Coal consumption rose to 21.98 EJ in 2023, up from 6.53 EJ in 1998, with petroleum demand increasing in agriculture.
- Energy equity gaps: Access to clean cooking fuel remains uneven; LPG adoption under PM Ujjwala Yojana suffers from affordability constraints.
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Green Transition and Decarbonisation Efforts in Railways:
- Network Electrification: Over the past decade, the Indian Railways has electrified nearly 45,000 km of its broad-gauge network, bringing 98% of routes under electrification. This has drastically reduced diesel use and greenhouse gas emissions, marking a major shift toward energy efficiency.
- Renewable Integration: Renewable power capacity has reached 756 MW (553 MW solar, 103 MW wind, 100 MW hybrid). Over 2,000 stations and offices are now powered by solar energy, reducing grid dependence and promoting clean traction power.
- Net-Zero Buildings: Several railway complexes and offices have received the “Shunya” Net-Zero label from the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) for achieving energy neutrality and carbon efficiency.
- Hydrogen for Heritage Initiative: This flagship programme aims to deploy 35 hydrogen-powered train units, with the first prototype hydrogen coach rolled out in 2025, representing a major milestone in green rail mobility.
- Freight and Efficiency Gains: Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) are projected to prevent 457 million tonnes of CO₂ emissions over the next 30 years. The goal is to increase the rail freight modal share from 27% to 45% by 2030, cutting road-sector emissions.
- Complementary Actions: Railways are also expanding biofuel blending, green building construction, and rolling stock modernisation with regenerative braking and energy-efficient locomotives.
Hydrogen Coach Technology and Innovation:
- Fuel-Cell Mechanism: The hydrogen coach uses fuel-cell technology to generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, producing only water vapour as the by-product, ensuring zero tailpipe emissions.
- Operational Context: Designed for non-electrified heritage routes where full electrification is uneconomical, these trains combine lightweight coach design, aerodynamic efficiency, and AI-based traction optimisation to minimise operational costs.
- Global Positioning: With this innovation, India joins the league of nations such as Germany and Japan that are pioneering hydrogen-based railway systems as part of a wider low-carbon transport transition.
Climate Finance and Institutional Architecture:
- Green Financing Framework: India has issued ₹58,000 crore worth of sovereign green bonds since FY2023, with ₹42,000 crore specifically allocated to electric locomotives, metros, and suburban rail projects.
- IRFC’s Role: The Indian Railway Finance Corporation (IRFC) pioneered a $500 million green bond in 2017 for refinancing electric locomotive projects, and in 2025 extended a ₹7,500 crore loan to NTPC Green Energy to support renewable generation for traction power.
- Multilateral Support: The World Bank’s $245 million Rail Logistics Project (2022) aims to decongest corridors and reduce transport-sector emissions through improved infrastructure efficiency.
- Institutional Integration: Together, these instruments embed climate goals into national capital budgeting, aligning transport infrastructure with India’s low-carbon growth pathway.
Policy and Operational Priorities:
- Renewable Power Procurement: Long-term contracts with solar and wind producers are critical to ensure that electrified routes are powered by green energy rather than coal-based electricity.
- Green Mobility Hubs: Major stations are being redesigned as multi-modal eco-hubs with integration of EV charging stations, e-buses, and bicycle-sharing systems.
- Freight Decarbonisation: Emphasis on electric, LNG, and hydrogen-fuelled trucks for last-mile logistics, reducing the carbon footprint beyond rail.
- Rolling Stock Modernisation: Accelerated adoption of lightweight aluminium coaches, regenerative braking, and energy-efficient locomotives.
- Behavioural Initiatives: Introduction of green certification for trains, carbon labelling of freight, and public awareness programmes to mainstream sustainability.
Projected Outcomes by 2030:
- Net-Zero Achievement: The Indian Railways aims to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2030, preventing an estimated 60 million tonnes of CO₂ annually, equivalent to removing 13 million cars from the roads.
- Economic Impact: Fuel cost savings from electrification and energy efficiency could exceed ₹1 lakh crore by 2030, freeing capital for further green infrastructure.
- Global Benchmark: The Indian Railways is positioned to become the world’s first large rail system to achieve net-zero operations, setting a global precedent for state-run low-carbon transport.
Conclusion:
- The hydrogen-powered coach exemplifies the synergy of technology, finance, and policy in achieving sustainable national mobility.
- The Railways’ green transformation is both an environmental necessity and a strategic innovation model for the developing world.
- Its successful execution will anchor India’s net-zero and green industrialisation vision, proving that scale and sustainability can coexist profitably.
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Why in the News?
The Delhi government has decided to declare 41 sq. km of the Southern Ridge as a reserved forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, following long-pending directions from the National Green Tribunal (NGT).
About Delhi Morphological Ridge:
- The Delhi Ridge is the northern extension of the ancient Aravalli Range, stretching approximately 35 km from Tughlaqabad to Wazirabad, along the Yamuna River.
- It is composed mainly of quartzite rock, is over 1.5 billion years old, and significantly older than the Himalayas.
- It functions as Delhi’s green lungs, aiding in carbon sequestration, temperature regulation, and air pollution reduction.
- It acts as a natural barrier against desert winds from Rajasthan and supports rich biodiversity, making Delhi one of the world’s most bird-rich capitals.
- It is divided into four zones: Northern Ridge, Central Ridge, South-Central Ridge, and Southern Ridge.
- Key conservation areas include the Northern Ridge Biodiversity Park and the Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary.
Land Use Regulation in the Ridge:
- Although the area shares ecological features with the Delhi Ridge, it is NOT officially notified as forest land, but it enjoys judicial protection.
- A 1966 directive prohibits any NON-forest use or encroachment without court approval.
- Any change in land use must be cleared by the Ridge Management Board (RMB) and the Supreme Court-appointed Central Empowered Committee (CEC).
- The area is mapped using data from the Delhi Forest Department and the 2006 Seismic Zonation Map.
- Formal notification as a Reserved Forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, is pending due to the absence of ground-truthing.
- In revenue records, it is often marked as “gair mumkin pahad”, meaning uncultivable rocky hill.
- The terrain is ecologically fragile, with shallow soil and rocky outcrops, making it unsuitable for construction.
| [UPSC 2001] The approximate age of the Aravalli range is-
Options: (a) 370 million years (b) 470 million years (c) 570 million years (d) 670 million years |
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Why in the News?
A new Stanford University-led study has revealed that the Snow Leopard has the lowest genetic diversity among all big cats, even lower than the Cheetah.
About Snow Leopard:
- Overview: Also called the “ghost of the mountains”; Belongs to the genus Panthera but genetically distinct from tigers and leopards, with unique adaptations for alpine life.
- Physical Features: Thick pale-gray fur with rosettes, powerful hind limbs, and a long, muscular tail that aids balance and warmth.
- Habitat: Found at altitudes between 3,000–5,500 metres, thriving in rugged, snow-covered mountain ranges and alpine meadows.
- Geographical Distribution:
- In India: Present in Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and parts of Jammu & Kashmir.
- Globally: Distributed across Central and South Asian mountain systems, including the Himalayas, Pamirs, and Tien Shan.
- Population Status:
- Global estimate: 4,500–7,500 individuals.
- India: Approximately 718 individuals, representing 10–15% of the global total.
- Conservation Status:
- IUCN Red List: Vulnerable
- CITES: Appendix I
- Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (India): Schedule I
- National Conservation Measures:
- Project Snow Leopard (2009): Integrates community participation in Himalayan conservation.
- SECURE Himalaya Project (GEF–UNDP): Focuses on sustainable ecosystem management.
- Himalaya Sanrakshak (2020): Enlists local guardians for high-altitude habitats.
- National Protocol on Population Assessment (2019): Ensures standardized monitoring.
Ecological Significance:
- Apex Predator Role: Serves as the top carnivore in the Himalayan and Central Asian alpine ecosystems, maintaining the balance between herbivores like blue sheep, ibex, and argali.
- Indicator of Ecosystem Health: Its presence reflects ecosystem integrity, as it thrives only in undisturbed, well-connected, prey-rich habitats.
- Climate Regulation: Snow leopard landscapes, glaciers, permafrost zones, and alpine grasslands, act as major carbon sinks and regulate water flows to nearly two billion people across Asia.
- Biodiversity Link: By controlling herbivore populations, it prevents overgrazing, thus preserving alpine vegetation and soil stability.
- Cultural and Economic Value: Revered in Himalayan folklore and central to eco-tourism-based livelihoods, symbolizing coexistence between humans and nature.
- Transboundary Importance: Its habitat spans across 12 range countries, making it a flagship species for international cooperation under the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Programme (GSLEP).
| [UPSC 2012] Consider the following:
1. Black-necked crane 2. Cheetah 3. Flying squirrel 4. Snow leopard
Which of the above are naturally found in India? Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only* (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
The 2025 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences (Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Memory of Alfred Nobel) was awarded to Joel Mokyr (Northwestern University, US), Philippe Aghion (Collège de France, INSEAD, LSE), and Peter Howitt (Brown University, US) for their pioneering explanations of innovation-driven economic growth.
What is the Nobel Economics Prize?
- Officially called the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, established in 1968.
- It is NOT part of the original Nobel Prizes created by Alfred Nobel in 1895.
- Created by the Swedish central bank to honor Alfred Nobel’s legacy.
- Although not an original Nobel Prize, it is presented alongside the other Nobel Prizes on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel’s death.
- Includes a diploma, gold medal, and a one-million-dollar prize for the laureates.
Who are the Nobel Laureates for 2025?
- Joel Mokyr (Northwestern University, USA): An economic historian, renowned for studying how scientific knowledge, cultural openness, and institutional change during the Enlightenment triggered the Industrial Revolution.
- Philippe Aghion (Collège de France, INSEAD, LSE): A leading growth theorist, known for advancing the Schumpeterian model of innovation-driven growth and the economics of creative destruction.
- Peter Howitt (Brown University, USA): Collaborator of Aghion, co-developer of the Aghion–Howitt growth model, integrating firm-level innovation dynamics into macroeconomic theory.
Their Contributions:
- Joel Mokyr:
- Demonstrated that before the 18th century, societies possessed “prescriptive knowledge” (how things worked) but lacked “propositional knowledge” (why they worked).
- Showed that the Scientific Revolution merged science with craftsmanship, turning discovery into applied innovation.
- Highlighted that the Enlightenment’s intellectual openness enabled acceptance of “creative destruction,” allowing new technologies to replace old ones without institutional backlash.
- Philippe Aghion & Peter Howitt:
- Developed the 1992 Schumpeterian Growth Model, mathematically linking innovation, competition, and economic growth.
- Explained that constant firm turnover—where new innovators replace old incumbents—creates long-term, stable growth.
- Introduced the idea of “general equilibrium in innovation”, connecting household savings, financial markets, R&D investment, and production into a single dynamic framework.
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Why in the News?
RBI Governor has unveiled the Unified Markets Interface (UMI) a next-generation financial market infrastructure developed by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
What is Unified Markets Interface (UMI)?
- Overview: The UMI is a next-generation financial market infrastructure conceptualized by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to tokenize financial assets and settlements using the wholesale Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC).
- Purpose: It aims to modernize India’s financial markets by enabling blockchain-based asset transactions, improving market transparency, and streamlining settlements through digital automation.
- Significance: The UMI represents India’s entry into asset tokenization, the conversion of real-world financial instruments into digital tokens, thereby integrating CBDC, smart contracts, and digital public infrastructure within a single interoperable ecosystem.
Features of UMI:
- CBDC-Enabled Settlement: Uses the wholesale Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) to execute high-value settlements instantly and securely.
- Asset Tokenization: Converts traditional financial assets into digital tokens on blockchain, allowing fractional ownership and seamless transferability.
- Unified Infrastructure: Creates an integrated, interoperable market interface linking banks, investors, and financial intermediaries on a single digital framework.
- Smart Contract Automation: Employs programmable contracts for real-time clearing, settlement, and compliance, reducing manual intervention.
- Transparency and Efficiency: Blockchain ensures immutable transaction records and enhances traceability, reducing fraud and settlement delays.
Back2Basics: Asset Tokenization
- Definition: The process of converting real-world assets, such as bonds, real estate, commodities, or equities, into digital tokens stored on blockchain networks.
- Mechanism: Each token represents fractional ownership, enabling smaller investors to participate in high-value assets traditionally limited to institutions.
- Technology Base: Built on blockchain and smart contracts, ensuring transparent, secure, and automated transactions.
- RBI’s Application: Tokenized financial assets under UMI will settle through wholesale CBDC, providing real-time, tamper-proof, and traceable transactions.
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Why in the News?
The National Book Trust has released a book on highlighting physicist Anna Mani’s pioneering ozone and pollution studies in Pune decades before “climate change” entered discourse.
Who was Anna Mani (1918–2001)?
- Overview: Indian physicist and meteorologist from Peermade, Kerala; pioneered India’s meteorological instrumentation and atmospheric science.
- Alma mater: Studied physics at Presidency College, Chennai (1939); trained at Imperial College, London; joined IISc Bengaluru under C.V. Raman, publishing five crystallography papers.
- Professional Career: Joined the India Meteorological Department (IMD) in 1948; later headed its Instruments Division; earned the title “Weather Woman of India.”
Key Contributions:
- Meteorological Instrumentation: Designed and standardized 100+ weather instruments, including India’s first pyranometers and sunshine recorders, ending dependence on imports. Established the Regional Instrumentation Centre, Pune, for nationwide calibration.
- Measurement Infrastructure: Created a national network of solar, wind, and radiation observatories; introduced WMO-grade calibration; data later used for India’s first Wind Energy Atlas.
- Ozone & Atmospheric Research: In 1964, developed India’s first ozonesonde balloon measuring ozone up to 35 km; integrated into the WMO Global Ozone Mapping Programme. Her studies on ground-level ozone and urban aerosols anticipated modern air-pollution science.
- Instrument Design & Ethics: Innovated with glass and Teflon components to remove chemical errors in ozonesondes; upheld the credo “wrong measurements are worse than none.” Her Pune lab became a model of scientific precision.
- Publications: Authored “Handbook for Solar Radiation Data for India” (1980) and “Wind Energy Resource Survey in India” (1992), both still reference standards for renewable-energy studies.
- Environmental Vision: Warned early about CFC emissions and ozone depletion; connected industrialization to atmospheric alteration, foreshadowing the Anthropocene concept.
- Legacy: Her datasets form India’s earliest continuous record of ozone, radiation, and aerosol change, anchoring present-day climate-model validation and policy research.
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Why in the News?
RTI activists across India marked 20 years since the Right to Information Act, 2005, came into effect.
About the Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005:
- Overview: Passed by Parliament in 2005, replacing the Freedom of Information Act, 2002.
- Objective: Empower citizens to access information freely from public authorities to promote openness and good governance.
- Scope: Applicable to Central, State, and Local Governments, public sector undertakings, and statutory bodies.
- Key Provision: Under Section 22, the RTI Act overrides all other laws that may restrict access to information.
- Constitutional Basis:
- It is derived from Article 19(1)(a), the Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression.
- The Supreme Court has recognized access to information as implicit in freedom of expression.
- Backed by Article 32 and Article 226, citizens can seek redress for violations through the Supreme Court and High Courts.
- RTI upholds constitutional principles of equality (Article 14) and personal liberty (Article 21) by ensuring informed citizen participation.
- Timeframe for Response:
- 30 days in general cases.
- 48 hours when life or liberty is involved.
- Exemptions from Disclosure:
- Section 8(1): Exempts disclosure of information that could compromise sovereignty, national security, strategic or economic interests, or affect foreign relations.
- Section 8(2): Allows disclosure if public interest outweighs potential harm to protected interests.
- Proactive Disclosure: Every public authority must digitize records and proactively publish information to minimize formal RTI requests.
- RTI (Amendment) Act, 2019:
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- The amendment removed fixed tenure (5 years) and salary parity with Election Commissioners.
- It vested powers in the Central Government to determine terms of service, tenure, and allowances for CIC and ICs.
- This was viewed as reducing the institutional autonomy of the RTI framework, raising concerns among transparency advocates.
Institutional Framework:
-
Central Information Commission (CIC)
- Composition: Chief Information Commissioner (CIC) + up to 10 Information Commissioners (ICs).
- Appointment: By the President on recommendation of a committee comprising the Prime Minister (Chairperson), Leader of Opposition (Lok Sabha), and a Union Cabinet Minister.
- Tenure: As prescribed by the Central Government or until 65 years of age, whichever is earlier.
- Functions:
- Inquire into complaints and appeals under RTI.
- Exercise civil court powers for summoning witnesses or documents.
- Conduct suo motu inquiries in cases of systemic non-compliance.
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State Information Commissions (SICs)
- Composition: State Chief Information Commissioner + up to 10 Information Commissioners.
- Appointment: By the Governor, based on recommendations from a committee chaired by the Chief Minister, along with the Leader of Opposition and a Cabinet Minister.
- Qualifications: Persons of eminence in public life, not affiliated with political parties or profit-making roles.
- Functions: Parallel to CIC at the state level, ensuring local compliance with RTI obligations.
| [UPSC 2019] There is a view that the Officials Secrets Act is an obstacle to the implementation of RTI Act. Do you agree with the view? Discuss.
[UPSC 2018] The Right to Information Act is not all about citizens’ empowerment alone, it essentially redefines the concept of accountability.” Discuss. |
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Why in the News?
The Raman Research Institute (RRI), Bengaluru team has mastered the Leggett–Garg Inequality (LGI)–based quantum randomness certification technique.
What is Quantum Randomness?
- Overview: Quantum randomness means true unpredictability, results that even nature or science cannot predetermine. They arise from the laws of quantum physics, not from computer programs or hidden causes.
- Ordinary Computers: In normal computers, random numbers come from formulas called pseudorandom generators. They look random but can be predicted if someone knows the starting point (the “seed”).
- Quantum Systems: In quantum physics, when you measure something tiny, like the spin of an electron or the path of a light particle (photon), the result is decided only at the moment of measurement. No one, not even nature, “knows” the answer before that.
- Why it Matters: True randomness is important for data security, safe online transactions, scientific research, and encryption, where predictability can lead to hacking or errors.
What has RRI achieved?
- Discovery: Scientists at the Raman Research Institute (RRI), Bengaluru, led by Prof. Urbasi Sinha, have found a way to create and verify true quantum randomness using a regular cloud-based IBM quantum computer.
- Why it’s Important: Earlier, proving quantum randomness needed expensive lab equipment. Now it can be done remotely and cheaply, accessible to anyone with internet and quantum cloud access.
- How it Works: The RRI team used just one qubit (the quantum version of a computer bit) to show that the randomness came from quantum effects, not from hardware noise or computer errors.
- Key Finding: This demonstrates that even imperfect quantum computers can still generate trustworthy and verifiable random numbers, a capability that classical computers cannot achieve.
What is the Leggett–Garg Inequality (LGI)–Based Test?
- Basic Idea: The Leggett–Garg Inequality (LGI) is a scientific test that checks whether something behaves like everyday objects (predictable) or like quantum systems (unpredictable).
- How it was Used: The RRI scientists measured one qubit at three different times to see if its behavior followed normal physics or quantum rules.
- Two Conditions Checked:
- LGI Violation – confirmed the qubit was behaving in a truly quantum way.
- No Signalling in Time – ensured that each measurement was independent and not influenced by the previous one.
- Result: Meeting both tests proved that the numbers generated were certified as truly random, coming purely from quantum physics, not from any background noise or interference.
Real-life Applications:
- Cybersecurity: Such randomness can make unbreakable encryption keys, protecting sensitive data from hackers.
- Cloud Computing: People using quantum computers online can now access trusted random numbers for research or secure systems anywhere in the world.
- Testing Quantum Machines: Helps scientists check the quality of quantum computers, since randomness shows how genuinely quantum the machine is.
- Better Science: Used in simulations, artificial intelligence, and data analysis where unpredictability makes results more reliable.
- Big Scientific Message: Confirms that the quantum world is truly uncertain, proving one of the most fascinating truths of modern science, that randomness is built into nature itself.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing.
II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS).
III. Deep learning is machine learning.
How many of the statements given above are correct?
(a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only * (d) I, II and III |
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Why in the News?
The Finance Ministry has approved the establishment of Maitri II, India’s newest Antarctic research station, to be built in eastern Antarctica by January 2029.
About Maitri II Research Station:
- Objective: Advance research in climatology, glaciology, seismology, biology, and atmospheric sciences while maintaining eco-compliance.
- Overview: India’s upcoming 4th Antarctic base, to be completed by January 2029 near Schirmacher Oasis, eastern Antarctica, replacing the aging Maitri (1989) which will operate as a summer camp.
- Implementing Agency: Executed by National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Goa under the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES); estimated cost ₹2,000 crore.
- Design & Technology: Features AI-enabled systems, automated sensors, solar and wind power, and upgraded modular accommodation with strict environmental standards.
- Construction Phases: Prefabrication in India → shipment via Cape Town → transport to Indian Barrier (120 km from Maitri) → on-site assembly during Antarctic summer.
Back2Basics: India’s Polar Programmes
- Antarctica Programme: Began in 1981; coordinated by NCPOR.
- Dakshin Gangotri (1983) – first base, now decommissioned.
- Maitri (1989) – inland station near Lake Priyadarshini.
- Bharati (2012) – modern coastal station 3,000 km east.
- Maitri II (2029) – to be India’s largest and greenest base.
- Research covers ice-core climate records, marine ecosystems, space weather, and climate modelling.
- Arctic Programme (2007): Also led by NCPOR; permanent station Himadri at Ny-Ålesund (Svalbard, Norway) studies Arctic warming, polar-monsoon linkages, biodiversity; India holds Observer Status in the Arctic Council (since 2013).
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Key Laws & Treaties governing Polar Expeditions:
- India Antarctica Act 2022: Implements the Antarctica Treaty (1959); creates Central Committee on Antarctica Governance; bans mining, nuclear activity, non-native species; introduces permit system and Antarctica Fund; severe penalties (up to 20 years).
- Antarctica Treaty (1959): 54 members (India joined 1983); ensures peaceful scientific use, bans territorial claims and military activity, upholds environmental cooperation.
- Madrid Protocol (1991): Declares Antarctica a “natural reserve for peace and science”; forbids mineral extraction; mandates Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA).
- Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR, 1982): Conserves Antarctic marine biodiversity, regulates fishing and resource use to maintain ecosystem balance.
| [UPSC 2015] The term ‘IndARC’, sometimes seen in the news, is the name of Options: (a) an indigenously developed radar system inducted into Indian Defence
(b) India’s satellite to provide services to the countries of Indian Ocean Rim
(c) a scientific establishment set up by India in Antartic region
(d) India’s underwater observatory to scientifically study the Arctic region * |
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Why in the News?
This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in the Indian Express.
About the Volga River:
- Overview: The longest river in Europe (about 3,500 km), originating in the Valdai Hills northwest of Moscow and flowing southeast to the Caspian Sea at Astrakhan.
- Drainage Basin: Covers around 1.35 million sq. km, among Europe’s largest river systems, with major tributaries, Kama, Oka, Vetluga, and Sura.
- Historical Role: Served as a critical front during the Battle of Stalingrad (World War II) and remains central to Russian historical and strategic narratives.
- Cultural Significance: Revered as “Mother Volga”, symbolising Russian unity, resilience, and identity, deeply embedded in folklore and national consciousness.
- Economic Importance: It contributes one-fourth of Russia’s agricultural output, supports industrial fishing, and sustains key industries, oil refining, shipbuilding, hydroelectric power.
- Navigation & Connectivity: Linked to the Baltic, Black, and Caspian Seas through an extensive network of canals and reservoirs, forming the backbone of Russia’s inland transport system.
- Urban & Industrial Corridor: Major cities like Kazan, Samara, Nizhny Novgorod, and Volgograd lie along its course, forming Russia’s industrial-agricultural heartland.
- Ecological Richness: Supports about 260 bird species and 70 fish species, making it a key biodiversity hotspot within Eurasia.
| [UPSC 2020] Consider the following pairs: River Flows into
1. Mekong: Andaman Sea
2. Thames: Irish Sea
3. Volga: Caspian Sea
4. Zambezi: Indian Ocean
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only * (d) 1, 2 and 4 only |
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