From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UN Cybercrime Convention , Budapest Convention
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
The Union Home Ministry recently reviewed the draft of the UN Cyber Crime Convention.
The purpose of this review was to assess the necessary changes in India’s existing systems if the convention is signed and ratified by the country.
UN Cybercrime Convention (Draft)
Background
Under negotiation, aiming to reshape global criminal laws regarding cross-border access to personal data, surveillance, and international cooperation in cybercrime cases.
Timeline
The convention is scheduled for adoption in January 2024, with member states working towards consensus.
A vote may occur if consensus is not reached.
Content of Zero Draft
Zero draft outlines the convention’s scope, provisions, and areas of discussion.
Focus Areas of Concern
1. Scope of Cybercrimes: The draft narrows the list of cybercrimes but leaves room for expanding the scope through references to other international conventions.
2. Speech-Related Offenses: While removing certain content-related offenses, it reintroduces them by applying the convention to crimes established under other international conventions.
3. Surveillance Powers: The draft retains surveillance powers, raising concerns about the lack of consensus on legal safeguards.
4. Use of Budapest Convention Language: Some provisions in Chapter IV are based on the 2001 Budapest Convention but with weakened safeguards.
Recommendations
Groups advocate for strong safeguards, including the justification for surveillance powers, independent authorization, transparency, and enforcement mechanisms.
They propose authorizing international human rights bodies to oversee convention implementation.
Ongoing negotiations may lead to changes in the draft text, emphasizing the need to monitor developments regarding human rights and cybersecurity.
Why discuss this?
India enacted the Digital Personal Data Protection Act in August, ushering in a framework for personal data protection within the country.
This legislation allows personal data to be processed in the interest of India’s sovereignty, integrity, and state security while fulfilling legal obligations.
Notably, it also mandates that firms disclose to users the identity of other firms entrusted with their data for processing.
However, the Act explicitly exempts firms from disclosing or sharing data in the case of lawful interception of data.
India’s position on the Convention
India put forth several key positions:
Deleting Data Transfer Clause: India advocated for the deletion of a clause that encourages state parties to “establish bilateral or multilateral arrangements” to facilitate the transfer of personal data. This underscores India’s emphasis on the sovereignty of its data and its desire to maintain control over cross-border data transfers.
Authorization for Data Transfer: India expressed its agreement with the clause stating that state parties may transfer personal data to a third country or an international organization only with the prior written authorization of the original transferring state party, subject to effective and appropriate safeguards. This reflects India’s commitment to ensuring data security and responsible handling.
Designation of Points of Contact: The draft convention outlines that each state party should designate a point of contact available 24/7 to provide immediate assistance for investigations, prosecutions, or judicial proceedings related to cyber criminal offenses. This demonstrates India’s commitment to effective cooperation in addressing cybercrimes.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: El Niño, IOD, Climate change, Water stress
Mains level: Water and climate change crises in India and food, water, and ecological security
What’s the news?
Disruptive weather events, including El Niño and changing precipitation patterns, are impacting India’s agriculture, resulting in reduced crop yields, water stress, and rising food prices.
Central idea
India has experienced a series of disruptive weather and climate phenomena in recent times, highlighting the complexity of our precipitation system. This complexity poses significant challenges to the sustainability and resilience of development projects in the mountains and floodplains.
How do western disturbances influence India’s climate?
Origin: Western disturbances are weather systems that originate in the Mediterranean region and travel eastward towards South Asia, including India.
Winter and Spring Impact: During the winter and spring seasons, these disturbances bring much-needed moisture to the western Himalayan region and parts of northern India. This moisture contributes to rainfall and snowfall in these areas, which are essential for agriculture, water resources, and ecosystems.
Unusual Behavior: The Western disturbance typically follows a seasonal pattern, but in some years, it can exhibit unusual behavior. For example, it may persist late into the summer months, affecting weather patterns beyond its usual timeframe.
Impact on Southwest Monsoon: When a Western disturbance lingers into the summer, it can influence the southwest monsoon, which is crucial for India’s agriculture. The interaction between these weather systems can lead to unpredictable and sometimes extreme weather events, including heavy rainfall, landslides, and flooding.
Concerns: The unusual behavior of the Western disturbance can raise concerns about the sustainability and resilience of development projects in regions affected by these weather events, such as the western Himalayan region and northern India.
El Niño’s Influence on Monsoons
El Niño:
El Niño is a climate phenomenon characterized by the warming of sea surface temperatures in the eastern and central tropical Pacific Oceans.
This warming disrupts normal atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to significant climatic impacts worldwide.
Impact on the Southwest Monsoon:
El Niño events can influence the Indian Southwest Monsoon, which is responsible for the majority of India’s annual rainfall.
While not all El Niño events have adverse effects on the monsoon, their intensification can lead to drier conditions in some parts of India.
El Niño tends to weaken the monsoon, reducing the amount and distribution of rainfall.
Interaction with Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD):
The relationship between El Niño and the monsoon has evolved over time.
In some cases, when El Niño affects the monsoon, another climate phenomenon in the Indian Ocean, known as the positive-phase IOD, can balance the consequences.
The IOD can influence monsoon variability and rainfall patterns, either mitigating or exacerbating the impact of El Niño.
Predictive Value of Models:
Dynamic regression models have suggested that a significant portion of the inter-annual variability of the Southwest Monsoon can be attributed to the combined effects of El Niño and the IOD.
This indicates the predictive value of these models in understanding and forecasting monsoon behavior during El Niño events.
Food Security Implications:
El Niño’s influence on the monsoon has direct implications for food security in India.
Reduced monsoon rainfall can delay the onset of rains, affect crop sowing, and result in hot temperatures that negatively impact crop growth and soil moisture.
Crop yields, especially for water-intensive crops like rice and soybean, can be significantly affected during El Niño years, leading to food production challenges.
How are agriculture and water dependency intricately linked in India?
Two Types of Water for Agriculture:
Agriculture in India relies on two primary sources of water: green water and blue water.
Green water refers to rain-fed soil moisture that is utilized by crops and eventually transpires into the atmosphere.
Blue water includes the water found in rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and groundwater, which is essential for irrigation as well as drinking and industrial use.
Importance of Green Water:
Despite significant investments in dams, reservoirs, and irrigation systems, approximately half of the cultivated area in India depends on green water.
Green water is crucial for rainfed agriculture, as it provides moisture for crops and contributes to the overall water availability for agriculture.
Water Requirements for the Daily Diet:
The daily diet of individuals in India, from cooking oil to diverse foods, is associated with a substantial water footprint.
On average, an individual’s daily diet in India requires approximately 3,268 liters of water per day, subject to regional variability.
A significant portion (about 75%) of this water footprint is attributed to green water, highlighting the importance of rainfed agriculture to food and nutritional security.
Dependency on Green Water in Irrigated Areas:
Even in areas with access to irrigation, many dominant crops still depend on green water to varying degrees.
For example, during the kharif season, rice paddy under irrigation uses green water for about 35% of its water requirements.
Staple crops like tur dal, soybean, groundnut, and maize also rely considerably on green water, particularly during specific growing seasons.
Impact of Climate Phenomena on Green Water:
Climate phenomena like El Niño can disrupt the availability of green water by delaying the start of rains and affecting sowing schedules.
Higher temperatures during El Niño events may negatively influence plant growth and soil moisture, impacting crop yields.
Food Production Challenges:
During El Niño years, when green water availability may be compromised, crop production can be significantly affected.
For instance, there was a 28% decline in soybean production in India during the 2015–2016 El Niño year compared to the average
Central India’s vulnerability
Geographic Region:
Central India comprises 36 districts across the states of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra.
This region is characterized by diverse landscapes, including highlands and urban centers.
Climate Change Hotspot:
Central India is identified as a climate change hotspot due to its critical role in water, food, and ecological security.
The region includes headwaters for five of India’s 10 major river basins, making it crucial for water resources.
Water Stress:
Central India experiences significant and persistent water stress.
Water stress is driven primarily by the demand for irrigation, particularly during the rabi season, which relies on blue water sources such as rivers and reservoirs.
Extent of Water Stress:
Approximately 70–78% of the landscape in Central India experiences water stress for four or more months each year.
Among the 17 urban centers in the region, 11 face water stress for six to eight months, with Nagpur enduring water stress for the longest duration.
Changing precipitation patterns, including declining monsoon precipitation since the 1950s, have exacerbated water stress in Central India.
Adaptation Strategies
Diversifying Agro-Food Systems:
To adapt to changing precipitation patterns and water availability, there’s an emphasis on diversifying agro-food systems.
This includes shifting away from water-intensive crops to alternative, less water-dependent crops like millets.
Reducing Dependence on Water-Intensive Crops:
A key adaptation strategy is reducing dependence on water-intensive crops, particularly during periods of water stress.
Crop diversification may involve promoting the cultivation of millets and alternative varieties of dominant cereals.
Shorter growing cycles:
Advisories to farmers may include shifting to crops with shorter growing cycles.
Shorter growing cycles can help adapt to changing precipitation patterns and mitigate the risks associated with extended dry periods.
Improved Forecasting and Early Warning Systems:
Adaptation efforts are aided by advancements in short-term weather forecasting and early warning systems.
Timely weather forecasts and warnings for intense rain and dry spells can help farmers make informed decisions.
Enhancing Reservoir and Dam Management:
Given the risks associated with extreme rain events, adaptive strategies include improved management of dams and reservoirs.
Effective reservoir and dam management can reduce the risk of dam-based flood disasters.
Balancing Water Demands:
Sustainable water-sharing practices between humans and nature are crucial for adaptation.
Balancing the needs of agriculture, industry, and ecosystems while maintaining ecological flows in rivers is a priority.
Government Initiatives:
Both the central and state governments are involved in implementing adaptation strategies.
Government efforts may include policy support, incentives for farmers, and investments in infrastructure.
Conclusion
The water and climate change crises in India, intertwined with food, water, and ecological security, require a multifaceted response. Diversifying agro-food systems, reducing dependence on blue water, rejuvenating rivers, and sustainable water sharing between humans and nature are essential for the well-being of India’s 1.4 billion people.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: floodplains
Mains level: floodplains management, challenges and strategies
What’s the news?
Indian cities are projected to contribute significantly to the country’s GDP by 2030. Flooding in these urban centers has a substantial economic impact, underscoring the importance of effective flood management.
Central idea
The world is grappling with a dual challenge of water scarcity and excess as climate change intensifies. The frequency and intensity of floods are on the rise, with devastating consequences. The urgency of addressing this issue cannot be overstated.
Recent catastrophic floods
Last year, Pakistan witnessed catastrophic floods that claimed lives and affected millions.
India has faced its share of calamities, such as the 2013 Uttarakhand floods, the 2014 Kashmir Valley deluge, the 2015 Chennai floods, and the 2017 Gujarat floods.
This year, Himachal Pradesh experienced rain-induced floods and landslides.
Why is India prone to flooding?
Geographical Vulnerability: The article mentions that over 40 million hectares, which is nearly 12% of India’s total land area, are prone to floods, as indicated by the Geological Survey of India. This vulnerability is due to India’s diverse geography, including extensive river systems, coastal regions, and mountainous areas.
Climate Change: Floods are increasing in frequency and intensity, and this trend is expected to continue due to climate change. Extreme precipitation events are becoming more common, contributing to flooding.
Urbanization Challenges: Rapid and haphazard urbanization is one of the factors that makes Indian cities vulnerable to floods. The expansion of cities, often without proper consideration of natural topography, increases the risk of flooding in urban areas.
Inadequate Legal Framework: India primarily relies on the Disaster Management Act of 2005 for flood management, but this law is not specifically focused on flood risk management and assumes that disasters cannot be predicted, which may not be entirely accurate for floods.
Large-Scale Encroachments: India faces challenges due to extensive encroachments on floodplains, including illegal construction and mining activities. These encroachments reduce the natural capacity of rivers and floodplains to handle excess water during heavy rainfall.
Chennai Floods Example: The 2015 Chennai floods were attributed to these encroachments, and the Comptroller and Auditor General of India labeled it a man-made disaster.
Weak Enforcement of Environmental Laws: The environmental protection laws in India are often not effectively implemented. Central policies related to floodplain protection lack binding power over states, allowing encroachments to persist.
Flood Plains and their Significance
Flood plains adjacent to rivers serve as natural defences against inland flooding. Maintained without concrete encroachments, they absorb excess water, safeguarding other regions.
Properly managed flood plains also aid in recharging groundwater levels and maintaining the water table.
Key issues related to occupying floodplains and the challenges it poses in India
Reduced River Capacity: Illegal construction in floodplains diminishes the natural capacity of rivers to contain high water levels within their banks. This becomes especially problematic during periods of heavy rainfall when water from upper catchment areas flows downstream.
Neglect of Eco-Sensitive Areas: In Uttarakhand, there has been a disregard for eco-sensitive floodplains with the construction of guest houses and hotels along riverfronts to promote tourism and economic growth. This neglect has contributed to increased flood risks.
Regulatory Efforts: Following the massive floods in 2013, the National Green Tribunal issued a directive in 2015, essentially barring construction within 200 meters of the Ganga’s banks. However, attempts to bypass this directive have been made, raising questions about the proper implementation of environmental impact assessments.
Ineffective Legislation: The Uttaranchal River Valley (Development and Management) Act of 2005 was established to regulate mining and construction in river valleys. However, reports suggest rampant mining and construction activities with little consideration for environmental protection.
Weak Implementation of Environmental Laws: Despite having environmental protection laws in place, India faces issues with their implementation. Central policy measures to protect floodplains are often non-binding on states, and there is a lack of effective enforcement.
Strategies to preserve ecosystems
International Examples:
Examples from around the world include Germany’s Federal Water Act, which underwent a significant change in 1996 following a massive flood.
The law now prioritizes the protection of the original retention capacity of water bodies during reconstruction.
This change reflects the value of preserving floodplains and enhancing water retention as effective measures against flooding.
Cross-Sectoral Approach:
Climate change adaptation is described as a cross-sectoral issue that involves various areas of legislation, including land use, water body preservation, coastal regulations, and environmental impact assessment.
A comprehensive and integrated approach is necessary to address the complexities of climate change adaptation effectively.
Coherent Legal Framework:
To tackle climate change and its associated risks, it is crucial to integrate multiple laws into a coherent framework.
Passing climate-related legislation alone may not be sufficient if other laws related to land use and environmental protection are not aligned with climate goals.
Political Will:
Strong political will is identified as a critical factor in achieving effective climate change adaptation strategies.
Populist leaders may be hesitant to implement green policies, so there is a need for a shift in political priorities to prioritize environmental protection and climate resilience.
Conclusion
India’s approach to flood management must evolve to embrace integrated flood risk management, learning from global examples. By prioritizing ecosystem preservation and adopting a holistic approach to climate change adaptation, India can better safeguard lives, livelihoods, and infrastructure from the growing threat of floods.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Biofuels, Global Biofuels Alliance
Mains level: Biofuels, challenges in India, Sustainable Biofuels, and Global Biofuels Alliance
What’s the news?
In recent years, the rise of electric vehicles (EVs) has dominated discussions on decarbonizing the transportation sector.
Central idea
It is increasingly clear that there are no one-size-fits-all solutions in the race to reduce carbon emissions. While EV adoption has grown substantially, it is essential to recognize that effective decarbonization strategies require a balanced approach.
What are biofuels?
Biofuels are a type of renewable energy derived from organic materials, such as plants, crops, and agricultural waste.
They are considered an alternative to traditional fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, because they are produced from renewable biomass sources.
Types of biofuels
Ethanol: It is a biofuel produced by fermenting and distilling sugars or starches found in crops like corn, sugarcane, and wheat. It is commonly used as a blending component in gasoline and can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, known as E85 (85% ethanol and 15% gasoline).
Biodiesel: It is a renewable fuel made from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled cooking oils. It is typically used as a substitute for diesel fuel and can be blended with petroleum diesel or used in its pure form. Biodiesel has lower emissions of pollutants compared to petroleum diesel and can be used in conventional diesel engines without any modifications.
Biogas: It is produced through the anaerobic digestion of organic waste materials such as agricultural residues, food waste, and animal manure. It primarily consists of methane and carbon dioxide. Biogas can be used for heating, electricity generation, or as a vehicle fuel after purification.
What are sustainable biofuels?
Sustainable biofuels are those produced from crop residues and other waste materials. These biofuels have a lower environmental impact, including reduced water and greenhouse gas footprints, compared to traditional 1G ethanol derived from food crops.
Challenges related to biofuels in India
1G Ethanol Dominance: In India, biofuel production has largely revolved around first-generation (1G) ethanol, primarily sourced from food crops such as sugar cane and foodgrains. This dominance of 1G ethanol poses several challenges, including competition with food production, groundwater depletion due to sugar cane cultivation, and limited potential for scalability.
Groundwater Depletion: The cultivation of sugar cane, a primary source of 1G ethanol, has been associated with significant groundwater depletion. This poses a serious environmental concern and has long-term sustainability implications, especially in regions with water scarcity.
Food Security Concerns: Utilizing food crops for ethanol production, particularly in a country like India, raises concerns about food security. Diverting surplus food production toward energy production can lead to potential shortages and affect food prices.
Yield Stagnation and Global Warming: India’s crop yields have shown signs of stagnation, and the effects of global warming are expected to further reduce crop yields. This means that relying on surplus crop production to meet biofuel blending targets is an unsustainable strategy.
Greenhouse Gas(GHG)Emissions: Agriculture is one of the hardest sectors to abate in terms of direct GHG emissions. Increasing GHG emissions from the agricultural sector to produce biofuels for the transport sector can create a counterproductive loop, as it may lead to an overall increase in emissions.
Supply Chain Challenges for 2G Ethanol: Second-generation (2G) ethanol, which is made from crop wastes and residues, faces challenges related to feedstock supply chains and scaling up production. This can hinder the expansion of 2G ethanol as a sustainable alternative.
Economies of Scale vs. Biomass Collection: Balancing economies of scale with the energy needs and costs associated with collecting and transporting biomass over large distances is a major challenge. This is crucial for efficient biofuel production, especially in the case of decentralized 2G ethanol production units.
Promoting Sustainable Biofuels in India
Global Biofuels Alliance: The formation of the Global Biofuels Alliance at the G-20 Summit in New Delhi is seen as a significant step in promoting sustainable biofuels. This alliance is expected to strengthen the development of sustainable biofuels and promote ethanol uptake. It reflects India’s commitment to global cooperation in addressing climate change.
Diversification of Feedstock: Sustainable biofuels often rely on diversifying feedstock sources beyond food crops. 2G ethanol, which is made from crop wastes and residues, is considered a more sustainable option compared to 1G ethanol. India should focus on developing 2G ethanol production capabilities.
Prioritizing Sectors: The Energy Transitions Commission’s recommendation to prioritize biomass use in sectors with limited low-carbon alternatives is highlighted. Long-haul aviation and road freight segments, where electrification may take longer to achieve, are mentioned as sectors that could benefit from sustainable biofuels.
2030 Sustainability Targets: To achieve global net-zero emissions by 2050, sustainable biofuel production needs to triple by 2030. This underscores the urgency of developing and scaling up sustainable biofuel technologies and production methods.
Decentralized Production: For sustainable 2G ethanol production, a decentralized approach might be more effective. This means that crop residues do not have to be transported over long distances to central manufacturing plants.
Innovation and Technology Development: The Global Biofuels Alliance is expected to drive innovation and technology development by establishing an efficient biomass supply chain and smaller-scale decentralised biofuel production units. This is seen as a way to address the challenges associated with sustainable biofuel production.
Importance of distinguishing between sustainable and unsustainable biofuels
Resource Management: Using unsustainable biofuels, particularly those sourced from food crops like sugar cane and grains, can lead to resource depletion. This includes issues such as groundwater depletion and competition for arable land. Differentiating between the two categories helps with responsible resource management.
Food Security: Sustainable biofuels do not rely on food crops for production, reducing the risk of food security issues. When food crops are diverted for energy production, it can lead to food shortages and increased prices, which can be detrimental to vulnerable populations.
Climate Commitments: Distinguishing between sustainable and unsustainable biofuels aligns with global climate commitments. Many international agreements and initiatives emphasize the importance of sustainable bioenergy as a means to reduce carbon emissions and combat climate change effectively.
Efficiency and Cost: Sustainable biofuels often require fewer resources and have lower production costs compared to unsustainable options. This can lead to increased efficiency and long-term cost savings in biofuel production.
Public Awareness: Making a clear distinction helps inform the public and policymakers. It enables them to make informed choices, support environmentally responsible practices, and direct efforts towards sustainable biofuel solutions.
Innovation and Development: By identifying sustainable biofuels, it encourages innovation and technology development in the production of eco-friendly fuels. This, in turn, promotes the growth of a sustainable biofuel industry.
Complexity of Sustainability: Achieving true sustainability in biofuels is complex. Therefore, distinguishing between sustainable and unsustainable options is a crucial step to ensuring that biofuel strategies align with broader environmental and societal goals.
Conclusion
While electric vehicles have their place in the decarbonization journey, biofuels offer a viable and immediate option to reduce carbon emissions in sectors where electrification is more challenging. India’s commitment to sustainable biofuels through the Global Biofuels Alliance demonstrates a forward-looking approach to addressing the intricate challenges of decarbonization.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ITPGRFA
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
In a global seminar organized by the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), President of India underscored the importance of safeguarding farmers’ rights.
About ITPGRFA
Description
Objective
Conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.
Enactment Year
2001
Key Principles
Conservation, Access and Benefit-Sharing, Farmers’ Rights.
Coverage
Multilateral system covering 64 vital crop species.
Implementation
Encourages signatory countries to integrate treaty provisions into national legislation.
Monitoring
Establishes a system for monitoring treaty implementation and reporting.
Global Impact
Contributes to preserving agricultural biodiversity, sustainable agriculture, and equitable access to genetic resources.
India’s Role
India actively participates and supports the treaty, providing rights to farmers for unbranded seeds and registering their varieties, serving as a model for the world.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nipah Virus
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
The reappearance of Nipah infection in Kerala, with two confirmed deaths and two individuals under treatment, has raised concerns about this lethal viral disease.
Nipah, while not as contagious as COVID-19, is significantly more deadly, with a case fatality rate ranging from 40% to 75%.
What is Nipah Virus Infection?
Nipah is a zoonotic disease, meaning it is transmitted to humans through infected animals or contaminated food.
Direct person-to-person transmission through close contact with an infected individual is also possible.
Symptoms include fever, headache, cough, sore throat, difficulty in breathing, and vomiting.
In severe cases, Nipah infection can progress to disorientation, drowsiness, seizures, and encephalitis (brain swelling), ultimately leading to coma and death.
Transmission of Nipah Virus
Historical Outbreaks: The Nipah virus was first reported in Malaysia (1998) and Singapore (1999), deriving its name from a Malaysian village where it was first isolated. The primary mode of transmission from animals to humans is through the consumption of contaminated food. This can occur via the consumption of raw date palm sap or fruit contaminated with saliva or urine from infected bats.
Animal Host Reservoir: Fruit bats, commonly known as flying foxes, are the known hosts of the virus. They transmit it to other animals like pigs, dogs, cats, goats, horses, and sheep. Human infection usually occurs through direct contact with these animals or the consumption of food contaminated by their saliva or urine. Human-to-human transmission is also documented, particularly in families and healthcare settings.
Nipah Virus Spread and Mortality
Slow Spread: Unlike the rapid transmission of SARS-CoV-2, the Nipah virus spreads more slowly. However, its high mortality rate is a significant concern.
High Mortality: During outbreaks, Nipah has shown a mortality rate as high as 68-75%. For example, in the 2001 Siliguri outbreak, 45 of the 66 infected individuals succumbed to the virus. Similarly, during the 2018 Kerala outbreak, 17 of the 18 confirmed patients died.
Localized Outbreaks: Notably, Nipah outbreaks have remained localized and were contained relatively quickly. The virus’s limited infectiousness and low human-to-human transmission contribute to this containment.
Reproductive Number (R0): Studies indicate an R0 of about 0.48 for Nipah outbreaks, signifying a slow rate of transmission within the population. An R0 value below one suggests that an infected person does not infect more than one other individual, leading to a relatively rapid end to the outbreak.
High Death Rates Limit Transmission: The virus’s high death rates also play a role in restricting its transmission.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Megalithic Dolmens
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Recent archaeological explorations near Moodbidri in Dakshina Kannada have unveiled a fascinating array of terracotta figurines, offering insight into the megalithic culture of the region.
About Megalithic Dolmen Site
Megalithic Culture: The megalithic culture is renowned for its distinct burial practices and the use of iron in ancient India, with dolmens being a significant part of this culture.
Dolmen Features: Dolmens were characterized by the arrangement of colossal stone slabs known as orthostats, forming a square room. These chambers were sealed with another massive stone slab as a capstone. Typically, a round or U-shaped entrance, referred to as a port hole, was carved into the eastern slab.
Variety of Names: This intriguing architectural phenomenon was known by various names in South India, such as Kalmane, Pandavara Mane, Moriyara Mane, and Moriyara Betta, indicating its popularity among the local populace.
Key Findings at the Site
Dating to 800-700 BC: The unearthed figurines have been dated to approximately 800-700 BC, providing valuable insights into the historical timeline of the dolmen site.
Nine Dolmens: The Mudu Konaje site stands as one of the largest megalithic dolmen complexes, comprising nine dolmens situated on the slopes of a stone hill.
Terracotta Figurines found
Cow Bovines: Two cow bovines were identified among the figurines. One is a solid handmade representation with a bull’s head, measuring approximately 9 cm in height and 5 cm in width. This figurine exhibits distinct femininity, with attached breasts. It features applique ornamentation and a grove line from the right arm to the left side of the neck.
Peacocks: Two peacock figurines were discovered. One is a solid peacock, measuring about 11 cm in height and 7 cm in width, and is colored with red ochre.
Mother Goddess: A torso of a mother goddess was found, devoid of head, hands, and legs.
Significance
Chronology Determination: The cow bovine figurines discovered within the dolmens offer crucial insights into dating the dolmen structures.
Terracotta Insights: The terracotta artifacts found in megalithic burials provide valuable material for studying the Bhoota cult or Daiva Aradhane in coastal Karnataka.
Cultural Parallels: The cow bovines, especially the Cow goddess, draw parallels with megalithic terracotta figurines in Malampuzha, Kerala, and Egypt.
Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Values enshrined in Constitution
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
In the context of India’s independence struggle and the subsequent establishment of a constitutional democracy, the interplay of liberty, equality, and fraternity was deemed crucial for a diverse society on the brink of independence.
This essay delves into the historical origins of fraternity, its journey through different civilizations, and its significance in India’s socio-political landscape.
Understanding Fraternity
The concept of fraternity, often overshadowed by liberty and equality, plays a pivotal role in the realm of politics.
Philosopher Angel Puyol, in his book “Political Fraternity: Democracy beyond Freedom & Democracy,” argues that fraternity is central to the emancipation and empowerment of people.
Origins of the Concept
Ancient Greece: The roots of fraternity can be traced back to ancient Greece, where philosophers like Plato emphasized the importance of sharing knowledge and wisdom among individuals. This early discourse hinted at the notion of political fraternity.
Medieval Europe: In the Middle Ages, fraternity found expression primarily through religion, especially within the context of Christian society in Europe. It began to evolve from a religious concept to a political one.
French Revolution: The concept of fraternity gained prominence during the French Revolution of 1789, symbolized by the revolutionary triptych of ‘liberte, egalite, fraternite.’ Fraternity, in this context, became a fundamental principle of civic-political friendship.
Friendship among Equals
Integral Value System: Fraternity thrived within community ties, with a foundation built on integral values. It prioritized the collective over the individual, gradually giving way to religious morality and a ‘way of life.’
Shared History: For fraternity to flourish, individuals must share a harmonious past. This shared history should be amicable, free from ideological divisions rooted in social inequalities among different communities.
Fraternity in India’s Context
Unique Societal Landscape: India’s fraternal bonds face unique challenges due to its history of social hierarchies and caste divisions. The shared history is marred by the caste system, hindering the principles of equality and liberty.
Secular Conception: To foster fraternity in India, it must be rooted in politics, where caste privileges can be challenged. Fraternity should be cultivated through political conditioning, separate from moral considerations.
Role in Indian Constitution
Constitutional Objective: The Indian Constitution recognizes the significance of fraternity in a society marked by various hierarchical social inequalities. It considers fraternity, along with liberty and equality, as a foundational political objective.
Affirmative Actions: Measures like affirmative actions, including the reservation system, aim to establish equality among diverse social groups in terms of access to social and economic resources.
Limits to Fraternity
Ignoring Inequalities: Fraternity loses its meaning if it overlooks social inequalities and promotes social solidarity built on animosity towards others. Such solidarity often perpetuates the status quo and reinforces privilege at the expense of the marginalized.
Nationalism vs. Fraternity: Belligerent nationalism can replace the call for fraternity, casting religious minorities as enemies. This has historically led to social and political discrimination against religious minorities in India.
Fundamentalism’s Impact: Fundamentalism, in any form, contradicts the essence of fraternity, as fanaticism is incompatible with true fraternity.
Conclusion
In India, the coexistence of caste and political fraternity, given the prevailing social milieu, presents challenges. To foster political fraternity, it is imperative to address social inequalities and caste divisions.
The future of Indian politics will determine whether fraternity or caste consciousness prevails, as the two are often incompatible.
Achieving true political fraternity requires navigating these complexities while prioritizing the principles of equality, liberty, and solidarity across diverse social groups.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: 13th Amendment Provisions
Mains level: Tamil Minority issue in Sri Lanka
Central Idea
India has expressed its concerns about the slow progress made by Sri Lanka in fulfilling its commitments to address the aspirations of the Tamil community.
India’s representative at the UN Human Rights Council in Geneva emphasized the inadequacy of progress.
Tamil issue in Sri Lanka
Violent persecution against the Tamil population erupted in the form of the 1956, 1958, 1977, 1981, and 1983 anti-Tamil pogroms in Sri Lanka.
Over 13 years since the end of Sri Lanka’s civil war, in which tens of thousands of civilians were killed and disappeared, survivors continue demanding justice and accountability for war-time crimes.
In the post-war years, Sri Lanka’s human rights defenders have frequently flagged concerns over persisting militarisation, especially in the Tamil-majority north and east; repression, and the shrinking space for dissent.
Why discuss this?
Reconciliation and Human Rights: Despite the war’s conclusion, the country still faces challenges in reconciling its ethnic divisions and ensuring the protection of human rights.
Economic Crisis: In addition to its unresolved conflict, Sri Lanka has experienced a severe economic crisis that began in the previous year, leaving a significant portion of its population vulnerable. The crisis has led to increased poverty levels and food insecurity for many households.
UN Human Rights Council’s Concerns
Political and Democratic Reforms: The UN Deputy High Commissioner for Human Rights highlighted the delay in implementing political and democratic reforms, even a year after a significant protest movement.
Food Insecurity: UNHRC pointed out that approximately 37% of households in Sri Lanka face acute food insecurity, indicating the extent of the economic challenges.
Political Participation: Delays in holding local government elections and reconstituting Provincial Councils have limited citizens’ political participation and free expression.
Land Acquisition: The UN official raised concerns about escalating tensions in Sri Lanka’s north and east due to land acquisition for military installations, conservation efforts at Hindu or Muslim sites, and forestry protection.
India’s Position
Power Devolution: India reiterated its support for the aspirations of the Tamil community for equality, justice, dignity, and peace.
Limited sovereignty: It also emphasized its commitment to the unity, territorial integrity, and sovereignty of Sri Lanka by implementing the 13th Amendment.
UN Review and Sri Lanka’s Response
The UN Human Rights Council is currently reviewing Sri Lanka’s commitments, and there will be no vote on a resolution at this session.
While acknowledging Sri Lanka’s initiatives in truth-seeking and reconciliation, the High Commissioner’s report emphasized the need for urgent confidence-building measures for genuine reconciliation and transitional justice.
The Sri Lankan government rejected the report and labelled previous Council resolutions as intrusive and polarizing.
Conclusion
India’s call for Sri Lanka to fulfil its commitments to address Tamil aspirations reflects ongoing concerns about the progress of reconciliation and human rights in the country.
The economic crisis and delays in political reforms have further complicated the situation, necessitating meaningful actions to promote genuine reconciliation and transitional justice.
The review at the UN Human Rights Council serves as an important platform for monitoring Sri Lanka’s efforts in this regard.
Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: India’s Pushback against Diesel
Central diIdea
Recent remarks by Road Transport Minister have sparked discussions about India’s transition away from diesel-powered vehicles and the potential imposition of an additional 10% GST as a “pollution tax.”
While these remarks have stirred concerns in the automotive sector, the government’s commitment to reducing air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions remains a key driving force in this shift.
India’s Pushback against Diesel
Policy Shift: Minister’s comments align with a broader policy shift aimed at reducing India’s reliance on diesel. The government aims to produce 40% of the country’s electricity from renewables and achieve net-zero emissions by 2070.
Diesel Consumption: Diesel currently accounts for approximately 40% of India’s petroleum products consumption, with the transport sector being a significant consumer.
High Taxation: The government already imposes a 28% tax on diesel cars, coupled with additional cess based on engine capacity, resulting in a nearly 50% tax rate.
Impact on Diesel-Run Cars
Industry Response: Several automakers have scaled back their diesel portfolios. Maruti ceased diesel vehicle production in 2020, citing the high cost of upgrading to meet BS-VI emission norms.
Emissions Concerns: Diesel engines emit higher levels of oxides of nitrogen (NOx), contributing to environmental concerns. The Volkswagen scandal in 2015 further tarnished diesel’s reputation globally.
Fuel Economy: While diesel engines offer better fuel economy and torque, the price difference between diesel and petrol has diminished since the decontrol of fuel prices in 2014.
Reasons for Individual Diesel Preference
Fuel Efficiency: Diesel engines offer higher energy content per liter and inherent efficiency, making them preferred for heavy vehicles and haulage.
Cost Consideration: Historically, diesel was significantly cheaper than petrol, driving a preference for diesel-powered vehicles. However, this price gap has narrowed.
Reasons for Carmakers’ Retreat from Diesel
Emissions Challenges: Diesel engines tend to emit higher levels of oxides of nitrogen (NOx), making them environmentally less favourable compared to petrol engines.
Volkswagen Scandal: The 2015 Volkswagen emissions scandal, where the company manipulated emissions controls during lab tests, tarnished diesel’s reputation globally, affecting perceptions in India as well.
BS-VI Emission Norms: The rollout of the BS-VI emission norms from April 1, 2020, posed a significant challenge for diesel vehicles. Meeting these stringent standards required complex and costly upgrades.
Economic Viability: Upgrading diesel engines to comply with BS-VI norms involved installing three crucial components: a diesel particulate filter, a selective catalytic reduction system, and an LNT (Lean NOx trap). This technological overhaul resulted in high costs for car manufacturers, making diesel options economically unviable.
Impact on Diesel Buyers
Changing Economics: The historical price advantage of diesel over petrol has diminished since the decontrol of fuel prices in 2014. The price difference now stands at approximately Rs 7 per liter, significantly reducing the economic incentive for diesel vehicles.
Consumer Shift: Diesel cars, once preferred by Indian consumers, have seen their market share decline steadily, accounting for less than 20% of overall passenger vehicle sales in 2021-22.
Policy Implications
Phasing Out Diesel: Globally, many countries are moving towards phasing out diesel vehicles in alignment with environmental goals.
Challenges in India: Implementing a total ban on diesel vehicles in India poses challenges due to substantial investments made by carmakers and oil companies in transitioning to BS-VI standards. Additionally, the commercial vehicles segment heavily relies on diesel, making an immediate ban disruptive.
Alternative Fuels: Experts emphasize the importance of technology-agnostic policies that prioritize stringent operational standards, including emissions norms. Transitioning to alternative fuels like liquefied natural gas (LNG) and exploring electric vehicles (EVs) can play a pivotal role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Hydrogen Potential: The Energy Transition Advisory Committee report highlights the potential of hydrogen as a motive fuel, which could reduce emissions and transform the logistics market.
Environmental Initiatives: Oil marketing companies have taken steps to reduce the environmental footprint of diesel, including lowering sulphur levels and introducing biodiesel specifications.
Conclusion
India’s transition away from diesel is driven by environmental concerns, emissions reduction goals, and changing fuel economics.
While a pollution tax on diesel vehicles remains speculative, it reflects the government’s commitment to cleaner and greener alternatives.
This shift has implications for both the automotive industry and individual vehicle owners, emphasizing the need for cleaner and more sustainable transportation options.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Fraternity and other key concepts
What’s the news?
In his thought-provoking book Political Fraternity: Democracy Beyond Freedom and Democracy, philosopher Angel Puyol emphasizes the significance of fraternity in the realm of politics.
Central idea
Despite its historical roots dating back to Plato and its coexistence with liberty and equality in liberal political philosophy, fraternity often remains a neglected concept. However, India’s struggle for independence and the subsequent establishment of constitutional democracy underscored the importance of fraternity in a society marked by hierarchical social inequalities.
Origins of the Concept
Ancient Greece:
Plato: The concept of fraternity can be traced back to ancient Greece. In Plato’s Lysis, the philosopher introduces the term philia (love) in the context of a strong desire to pursue wisdom. It is suggested that love and friendship among individuals became more meaningful when they shared knowledge. This emphasis on the act of sharing provides an early glimpse into the discourse of fraternity in ancient Greece.
Aristotle: The emergence of the polis in Aristotle’s philosophy is noted, where the polis (city-state) was seen as the logical location for individuals who were primarily political beings. Within the polis, justice and friendship among citizens became enduring features, laying the foundation for the idea of political fraternity.
Medieval Christian Society: During the Middle Ages, the article suggests that fraternity found fertile ground within the context of Christian society in Europe. Fraternal bonds often developed within religious institutions and orders, reflecting the communal and moral values of the time.
The French Revolution:
The concept of fraternity found its entry into politics with the French Revolution of 1789.
It was during this revolutionary period that the triptych of liberté, égalité, and fraternité (liberty, equality, and fraternity) became a foundational slogan.
Fraternity took on a revolutionary dimension, emphasizing the solidarity of citizens in their pursuit of common goals.
How is fraternity in India different from the idea enshrined in the Constitution?
Caste-Based Divisions: The Constitution envisions fraternity as a means to bridge social divides and create unity among India’s diverse population. However, the deeply rooted caste system in India continues to influence social interactions, politics, and access to opportunities, making it challenging to achieve a fraternity that transcends these divisions.
Community vs. Individual: The Indian Constitution prioritizes individual rights and liberties, which can sometimes conflict with the communitarian approach underlying fraternity.
Social Inequalities: The constitutional concept of fraternity presupposes social and economic equality among citizens. However, India continues to grapple with significant economic disparities and enduring discrimination based on caste, gender, and other factors, hindering the development of genuine fraternity.
Communal Tensions: Religious and communal tensions in India have, at times, hindered the pursuit of fraternity. The constitutional vision of fraternity should extend across religious and communal boundaries to foster inclusivity. However, divisive politics occasionally exploits religious differences, undermining the spirit of fraternity.
The limits of fraternity in India
Caste-Based Divisions: The deeply ingrained caste system in India continues to influence social interactions and opportunities, posing a significant challenge to achieving fraternity that transcends these divisions.
Shared History and Ideological Differences: In India, historical and ideological differences rooted in social inequalities can hinder the development of fraternity. Ideological motivations can also hamper political fraternity between individuals, particularly when rooted in social inequalities among different communities.
Secular Conception of Fraternity: Given the communal nature of India’s traditional civic life and the predominance of communal ties, the article suggests that a secular conception of fraternity is necessary. To overcome the challenges posed by ideological and communal differences, fraternity in India needs to be rooted in politics, where caste privileges can be challenged.
Affirmative Actions and Equality: The introduction of affirmative action, including the reservation system, aimed to address inequality and promote fraternity. However, these policies have sometimes resulted in fraternity primarily within specific caste communities rather than fostering unity across caste lines.
Religious and Communal Tensions: Religious and communal tensions have, at times, overshadowed the pursuit of fraternity in India. Fraternity should ideally extend across religious and communal boundaries, but divisive politics can exploit religious differences and hinder the spirit of fraternity.
The role of equality as a prerequisite
Both Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and philosopher John Rawls stressed the importance of equality as a prerequisite for fraternity.
While affirmative actions, such as the reservation system, were introduced to address historical inequalities, they have often resulted in fraternity primarily within specific caste or community groups rather than fostering unity across these boundaries.
Conclusion
In India, the coexistence of caste and political fraternity is a challenging endeavor due to the country’s unique social landscape. Achieving political fraternity that transcends caste boundaries requires addressing these complex issues. The future of Indian politics will determine whether fraternity or caste prevails, and this choice will shape the country’s destiny.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: G20 and global missions
Mains level: Benefits of the AU's inclusion in the G20
What’s the news?
India’s 18th G20 Summit, held under the dynamic leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, made history by admitting the African Union (AU) into the G20.
Central idea
The addition of the African Union as the 21st member brings substantial weight to the G20. It significantly enhances the G20’s global economic and financial governance. With Africa’s representation, the G20 becomes a more inclusive and influential body, covering a vast portion of the world’s population, GDP, and trade.
Africa’s Stake and Strength
Stake in G20 Inclusion:
Representation: Africa’s inclusion in the G20 through the African Union (AU) provides the continent with a significant voice and presence in global economic and financial governance.
Global Economic Impact: Africa’s inclusion in the G20 is notable because it represents the continent’s growing economic influence. Africa possesses substantial resources, including agricultural land, minerals, metals (including rare earth minerals), and a young workforce.
Developmental Challenges: Africa faces numerous developmental challenges, including widespread poverty, conflict, political instability, climate stress, environmental degradation, and socioeconomic devastation from various crises. These challenges underscore the importance of Africa’s participation in the G20 for addressing global public goods (GPGs) and development issues.
Strengths Leveraged in the G20:
Resource Abundance: Africa’s wealth of natural resources positions it as a significant contributor to G20 discussions on resource utilization, sustainable development, and global economic growth.
Economic Integration: Africa’s ongoing economic and political integration, including initiatives like the African Free Trade Area and “Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want,” demonstrate its commitment to becoming an economic powerhouse.
Demographic Advantage: Africa’s large and youthful population presents opportunities for future global economic growth and trade partnerships.
Alignment with Global Goals: Africa’s role in achieving global goals, particularly the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), underscores its importance within the G20 for coordinated efforts to meet these goals.
Benefits of the AU’s inclusion in the G20
Enhanced Representation and Credibility: The AU’s inclusion makes the G20 more representative and enhances its credibility as a global decision-making body.
Effective Policy Implementation: AU’s participation is expected to improve the implementation of G20 policies, programs, measures, principles, and initiatives.
African Voice and Influence: The AU’s presence provides Africa with a voice, participation, and leadership role at the global high table, enabling African countries to influence the global agenda and priorities.
Cooperation and Leveraging Resources: The AU’s inclusion fosters cooperation within the G20 and allows for the mutual leveraging of Africa’s abundant resources for the benefit of all member nations.
Strategic Benefits for India
Deepened Partnerships: India can strengthen its strategic, political, economic, technological, trade, and people-to-people partnerships with African nations. AU’s inclusion provides India with a unique opportunity to foster deeper relationships across various sectors.
Regional and Sub-Regional Engagement: India can engage with African countries on both regional and sub-regional levels. This enables India to extend its influence and cooperation beyond individual nations and into larger African regions.
Collaboration with Like-Minded Partners: India can collaborate with like-minded partners from the North, such as Japan and the United States, to further its interests in Africa. These partnerships can lead to joint initiatives and investments in the continent.
Diplomatic Trust: Prime Minister Modi’s successful efforts to secure the AU’s inclusion in the G20 have earned the trust and gratitude of African nations. This trust can translate into diplomatic goodwill and cooperation on various global issues.
A Counterbalance: The AU’s presence in the G20 can serve as a counterbalance to China’s efforts to influence African countries, especially in matters related to UN Security Council reform. India’s alignment with African interests can bolster its position.
Economic Opportunities: Africa’s economic growth and integration present opportunities for Indian businesses to invest and trade in the region. India can leverage its participation in the G20 to facilitate economic engagement with African partners.
Global Influence: By actively engaging with African nations within the G20, India can enhance its global influence and stature as a country that promotes inclusive development and cooperation.
G20’s global mission
Conclusion Global Economic and Financial System: The G20 plays a pivotal role in shaping the global economic, financial, and monetary system. It strives to establish a framework that is fair and adheres to established rules and principles.
Providing Global Public Goods (GPGs): The G20 is committed to providing global public goods, which can encompass shared resources, technologies, and knowledge that benefit all nations. These may include international tax packages and initiatives in areas like digital health.
Addressing Global Public Bads (GPBs): Beyond providing public goods, the G20 addresses global public bads—issues and threats that transcend national borders. This involves taking concerted actions against challenges such as money laundering, counterterrorism financing, and other transnational risks.
Supporting Developing Countries:
A significant aspect of the G20’s mission is to create a level playing field for developing countries. It involves taking affirmative measures to assist those nations facing the most significant challenges.
Key areas of focus include reforming Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs), providing stimulus for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), financing initiatives related to green development and climate transition, issuing Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) during crises, and addressing food security and supply chain disruptions.
Conclusion
Admitting the African Union into the G20 during India’s presidency is a historic achievement that enhances the G20’s credibility and inclusivity. AU’s inclusion adds a valuable perspective to the G20’s discussions and decisions, making it a more powerful and representative body on the world stage.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: G20
Mains level: India in the G20: Analysis
What’s the news?
The 18th G20 Summit, hosted by India in New Delhi from September 9 to 10, revolved around the theme One Earth, One Family, One Future. This global forum convened to deliberate on crucial issues encompassing food security, climate change, energy, development, healthcare, and digitalization.
Central idea
The G20 Summit marked a successful conclusion as India transferred the G20 Presidency to Brazil. India’s performance across various socioeconomic metrics within the G20 context reveals a mixed picture of progress and challenges.
GDP per capita comparison (1970–2022)
1970: India’s GDP per capita was $111.97, ranking 18th out of 19 regions analyzed. India had one of the lowest GDP per capita figures among the group.
2022: By 2022, India’s GDP per capita had risen significantly to $2,388.62. However, despite this growth, India had moved to the last position among the 19 regions, indicating that other regions had experienced more substantial economic growth during this period.
Human Development Index (HDI) comparison (1990–2021)
1990: In 1990, India’s HDI stood at 0.43, indicating a relatively low level of human development. At that time, India ranked towards the lower end of the list among the 19 countries and regions analyzed.
2021: By 2021, India’s HDI had improved to 0.63, signifying significant progress in terms of human development over the decades. However, despite this improvement, India still ranked at the bottom of the list among the 19 regions, highlighting the need for further advancements in various aspects of human development, including life expectancy, education, and living standards.
Health Metrics Comparison
Life Expectancy (1990-2021):
In 1990, India had an average life expectancy of 45.22 years.
China, at the same time, had a lower average life expectancy of 33.27 years.
By 2021, India’s life expectancy had increased to 67.24 years.
Despite this improvement, India’s ranking remained the same, and China surpassed India in terms of life expectancy.
Infant Mortality Rate (1990-2021):
In 1990, India had an infant mortality rate of 88.8 per 1,000 live births, ranking it at the bottom of the 20 regions analyzed.
By 2021, India’s infant mortality rate had improved to 25.5 per 1,000 live births.
India’s ranking improved to 19th place, just ahead of South Africa (26.4), but it still lags behind many other regions in terms of infant mortality.
Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) Comparison (1990-2021-22)
1990:
In 1990, India’s LFPR for individuals above 15 years of age was 54.2%.
This LFPR ranking placed India at the 18th position among the 20 regions analyzed.
India was ahead of Italy (49.7%) and Saudi Arabia (53.3%) in LFPR.
2021-22:
By 2021-22, India’s LFPR had decreased to 49.5%.
This decline resulted in a slip in India’s ranking to 19th place.
India was now only ahead of Italy (49.4%) among the 20 regions in terms of LFPR.
Women’s Representation in Parliament (1998-2022)
1998:
In 1998, women constituted 8.1% of the Indian Parliament.
At that time, India ranked 15th out of the 19 regions analyzed in terms of women’s representation in Parliament.
While there were women in leadership positions, India’s representation was relatively low compared to some other regions.
2022:
By 2022, women’s representation in the Indian Parliament had nearly doubled to 14.9%.
However, despite this increase, India’s ranking had slipped to the 18th position among the 19 regions.
India was just ahead of Japan (9.9%) in terms of women’s representation in Parliament.
Environmental Progress
Carbon Emissions (1990 and 2020):
In 1990, India was the lowest emitter of CO2 among the 20 regions analyzed.
This demonstrated India’s relatively low carbon emissions at that time.
In 2020, India maintained its status as the lowest emitter of CO2 among the same regions, indicating a consistent trend of relatively low carbon emissions.
Renewable Energy Adoption (1990 and 2015):
In 1990, most G20 nations, excluding the U.S. and Mexico, generated less than 2% of their electricity from renewables.
By 2015, India had made some progress, with 5.36% of its electricity coming from renewable sources.
However, India’s ranking in this regard was 13th out of the 20 regions analyzed, suggesting relatively slow progress in adopting eco-friendly energy sources compared to some other G20 nations.
Conclusion
As India hands over the G20 Presidency to Brazil, there is an opportunity for the nation to build on its successes and address areas that require further attention to achieve a more balanced and equitable socioeconomic landscape
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Phanigiri Buddhist artefacts
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
The Phanigiri artefacts belonging to 200 BCE-400 CE are on display at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.
About Phanigiri
Phanigiri, which means “hillock of snake hood,” is a small village located around 150 km from Hyderabad.
A treasure trove of ancient Buddhist art was discovered in 1942, and it re-emerged into the world’s spotlight in 2003.
Phanigiri’s Artefacts
Stupa-like architecture: The discoveries at Phanigiri, particularly the thoranas (archways), have rewritten the narrative of Buddhism in southern India.
Presence of sects: These thoranas are among the earliest found south of Sanchi and provide evidence of both Mahayana and Hinayana schools of thought coexisting in Phanigiri.
Deification of Buddha: Phanigiri reveals a crucial transition in the perception of Buddha, from a historical and spiritual figure to a deity. This transformation is etched in the artifacts discovered here.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gold and Copper Sulfide Nanoparticles
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) have pioneered a novel approach with the potential to detect and eradicate cancer cells, particularly those forming solid tumour masses.
Gold and Copper Sulfide Nanoparticles
Innovative Nanoparticles: IISc scientists have engineered hybrid nanoparticles that blend gold and copper sulfide, resulting in multifunctional nanoparticles with promising implications for cancer detection and treatment.
Photothermal and Oxidative Properties: These nanoparticles exhibit photothermal capabilities, where they absorb light and convert it into heat, effectively killing cancer cells. Moreover, they produce singlet oxygen atoms, which further contribute to the cells’ toxicity.
Combining Mechanisms: The nanoparticles employ both photothermal and oxidative mechanisms to target and eliminate cancer cells effectively.
Revolutionizing Cancer Diagnosis
Ultrasound Waves: Beyond cancer treatment, these hybrid nanoparticles hold potential for cancer diagnosis. Their photoacoustic property enables them to absorb light and generate ultrasound waves.
High Contrast Detection: The ultrasound waves enhance the contrast for detecting cancer cells once the nanoparticles reach them. This method offers superior image resolution compared to traditional CT and MRI scans.
Clarity and Oxygen Saturation Measurement: Scans generated through ultrasound waves boast greater clarity and the ability to measure oxygen saturation within tumors, enhancing cancer detection accuracy.
Integration with Existing Systems: The nanoparticles can be seamlessly integrated with current detection and treatment systems. For instance, endoscopes used for cancer screening can trigger nanoparticle-induced heat generation with focused light.
Overcoming Size Limitations
Size Advantages: These hybrid nanoparticles, measuring less than 8 nm, possess a critical advantage in terms of mobility within tissues and their ability to reach tumors.
Potential Safe Elimination: Due to their diminutive size, researchers anticipate that these nanoparticles can exit the human body naturally without accumulating. However, extensive safety studies are essential to confirm their suitability for internal use.
Successful Lab Testing: In laboratory settings, the researchers conducted successful tests using these nanoparticles on lung and cervical cancer cell lines, demonstrating their potential.
Clinical Development: The promising outcomes from this study propel the nanoparticles closer to clinical development.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Picoflare Jets
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
A recent revelation from the Solar Orbiter Aircraft, a collaborative endeavour between the European Space Agency and NASA, has illuminated the Picoflare jets erupting from the sun’s outer atmosphere.
These jets, marked by their supersonic emergence and brief durations of 20 to 100 seconds, have captured the attention of scientists and space enthusiasts alike.
What are Picoflare Jets?
Picoflare jets, observed amidst emissions from the observed coronal hole, are diminutive in scale but pack a potent punch.
Their ephemeral existence belies their significance, as scientists have calculated that they contribute a substantial portion of the solar winds’ energy.
These solar emanations earned their name, “picoflare jets,” owing to their energy levels, which hover around one-trillionth of the solar flares’ immense energy potential.
Solar winds, driven by strong gusts, can not only craft auroras in Polar Regions but also disrupt Earth’s magnetic field and jeopardize electronic systems on satellites and terrestrial circuits.
About Solar Orbiter Aircraft
A Stellar Journey: Launched in 2020, the Solar Orbiter Aircraft embarks on a mission to capture unprecedented images of the Sun, propelling closer than any previous spacecraft.
Instrumentation Excellence: Equipped with six remote-sensing instruments and four sets of in situ instruments, the spacecraft is primed for comprehensive solar exploration.
Mission Objectives: The Solar Orbiter Aircraft carries two primary objectives: to scrutinize the Sun’s 11-year cycle of magnetic activity ebbs and flows and to delve into the mysteries of the solar corona, the upper echelon of the Sun’s atmosphere.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Reciprocity Principle
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Reciprocity, a fundamental principle of physics, dictates that if a signal can travel from Point A to Point B, it can also journey from Point B to Point A.
This intuitive concept holds significance in various aspects of daily life and serves as the basis for many technological breakthroughs and challenges.
Exploring Reciprocity
The Principle Defined: Reciprocity posits that a signal transmitted from a source (Point A) to a destination (Point B) can also travel in the reverse direction by merely swapping the positions of the source and destination.
Everyday Analogies: Familiar scenarios, such as shining a torchlight or observing an object under a streetlight, exemplify reciprocity in action.
Counterintuitive Instances: Some situations defy intuition, like interrogation scenes in movies where one party can see through a window while the other cannot, or observing someone walking in darkness.
Applications in Antennas and Beyond
Antennas: Reciprocity plays a pivotal role in antenna technology, enabling both the transmission and reception of signals. Engineers utilize reciprocity to assess antennas’ reception quality, simplifying testing processes for radar, sonar, seismic surveys, and MRI scanners.
Challenges in Spying: While reciprocity aids signal reception, it poses challenges in espionage, as it allows signals to be captured from an enemy base while potentially revealing one’s own location.
One-Way Traffic: To counteract reciprocity, scientists employ devices composed of components with specific properties. These devices break reciprocity, enabling signals to travel in one direction only.
Diverse Ways to Break Reciprocity
Magnet-Based Non-Reciprocity: Utilizing wave plates and Faraday rotators, this method disrupts reciprocity for electromagnetic waves.
Modulation: By continuously altering a medium’s parameters in time or space, modulation offers a means to control signal transmission.
Nonlinearity: Varying a medium’s properties based on signal strength and direction introduces nonlinearity, another avenue to break reciprocity.
Revolutionizing Technologies
Quantum Computing: Non-reciprocal devices find applications in quantum computing, where they amplify signals to detect quantum states effectively.
Miniaturization: The trend towards nanoscale and microscale devices includes non-reciprocal components, some as small as a strand of hair divided by a thousand. These miniature devices promise contributions to fields like self-driving cars, where efficient signal monitoring is essential for safety.
Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gresham's Law
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
The law, named after English financier Thomas Gresham, came into play most recently during the economic crisis in Sri Lanka last year.
The Central Bank of Sri Lanka has fixed the exchange rate between the Sri Lankan rupee and the U.S. dollar
About Gresham’s Law
Thomas Gresham: The law is named after Thomas Gresham, an English financier who advised the English monarchy on financial matters. It extends beyond paper currencies and applies to commodity currencies and various goods.
Bad money drives out good: This maxim illustrates a phenomenon that occurs when government-fixed exchange rates diverge from market exchange rates, causing undervalued currency to be withdrawn from circulation.
Arbitrarily Fixed Prices: Gresham’s Law operates whenever governments arbitrarily set prices, causing a commodity to become undervalued compared to its market exchange rate. This undervaluation drives the commodity out of the formal market.
Black Market: In such scenarios, the only way to acquire the undervalued commodity is through the black market, as it is no longer available through official channels.
Goods Outflow: Countries can also experience the outflow of certain goods when their prices are forcibly undervalued by the government.
Application to Commodity Money
Gold and Silver Coins: Gresham’s Law is particularly evident when a government fixes the exchange rate of commodity money, like gold and silver coins, well below their market value. In response, people may hoard or melt these coins to obtain their intrinsic value, which is higher than the government-set rate.
Recent Example in Sri Lanka
Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka: Gresham’s Law was observed during the economic crisis in Sri Lanka, where the central bank fixed the exchange rate between the Sri Lankan rupee and the U.S. dollar.
Rupee Overvaluation: The government mandated that the price of the U.S. dollar should not exceed 200 Sri Lankan rupees, even though the black market rate indicated a higher value. This overvaluation of the rupee led to a decline in the supply of dollars and pushed the U.S. dollar out of the formal foreign exchange market.
Black Market Transactions: Individuals seeking U.S. dollars for foreign transactions were compelled to purchase them from the black market at rates exceeding 200 Sri Lankan rupees per dollar.
Conditions for Gresham’s Law to Apply
Government-Imposed Fixed Rates: Gresham’s Law operates when government authorities establish and enforce fixed exchange rates between currencies.
Effective Implementation: Effective enforcement of these rates by authorities is essential for the law to take effect.
Anti-thesis Concept: Thiers’ Law
“Good Money Drives Out Bad”: In the absence of government-imposed exchange rate fixes, the opposite phenomenon occurs. People tend to abandon currencies they perceive as of lower quality in favour of those they consider better, leading to the dominance of “good money.”
Thiers’ Law: This concept, known as Thiers’ Law and named after French politician Adolphe Thiers, complements Gresham’s Law.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Disaster Management
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
In the wake of natural disasters, states often request assistance from the central government.
Himachal Pradesh CM recently requested for a special disaster relief package and urged the designation of the calamity as a ‘national disaster.’
Natural Disaster Mitigation in States
Legal Framework: The 2005 Disaster Management Act provides the legal framework for addressing disasters, whether natural or man-made.
Defining disaster: It defines a “disaster” as an event causing substantial loss of life, human suffering, property damage, or environmental degradation beyond the community’s coping capacity.
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA): The Act established the NDMA, headed by the Prime Minister, and State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) led by Chief Ministers. These bodies, along with district-level authorities, form an integrated disaster management setup in India.
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF): The Act led to the creation of the NDRF, comprising several battalions or teams responsible for on-ground relief and rescue operations in various states.
Understanding the National Disaster Relief Fund (NDRF)
Mention in the Act: The NDRF is referenced in the 2005 Disaster Management Act and plays a crucial role in providing disaster relief.
State Disaster Relief Funds (SDRFs): States have their own SDRFs, which are the primary funds available for responding to notified disasters. The Central Government contributes 75% to SDRFs in general states and 90% in northeastern and Himalayan states.
Utilization of SDRFs: SDRFs are allocated for immediate relief efforts following notified calamities, including cyclones, droughts, earthquakes, fires, floods, tsunamis, and more.
Central Assistance: In the event of a severe calamity where state SDRF funds are insufficient, additional central assistance can be provided by the National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF).
Who determines a Severe Calamity?
Procedure: States follow a specific procedure to classify a calamity as “severe.” This involves submitting a memorandum detailing sector-wise damage and fund requirements. An inter-ministerial central team assesses the damage on-site.
Committee Approval: Specific committees review these assessments and submit reports. A High-Level Committee must approve the immediate relief amount to be released from the NDRF.
Criteria: The classification of a calamity as “severe” considers factors such as intensity, magnitude, assistance needs, and more.
Additional Funds for Disaster Mitigation
Funds Allocation: Funds for NDRF and SDRFs, allocated for preparedness, mitigation, and reconstruction, are part of budgetary allocations.
Financing mechanism: The 15th Finance Commission introduced a new methodology for state-wise allocations, considering factors like past expenditure, risk exposure, hazard, and vulnerability.
Utilization: NDRF and SDRF funds are released in two equal instalments, typically with requirements like Utilization Certificates. However, in urgent situations, these requirements can be waived.
State Disaster Mitigation Fund (SDMF): This fund supports activities such as forest restoration and public awareness. It received an allocation of Rs 32,030 crore from the 15th Finance Commission.
National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF): The NDMF, amounting to Rs 13,693 crore, is dedicated to national disaster mitigation efforts.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ancient India-Europe Maritime Trade Route, Port of Muziris
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor, announced at the G20 Summit, traces its historical roots to an ancient maritime trade route connecting the Indian subcontinent and the Europe.
India- Europe: Glimpse into Historical Trade Route
Early Discoveries: The trade between Rome and India during antiquity was established by early excavations. Sir Mortimer Wheeler’s work at Arikamedu in the 1930s and 40s confirmed the existence of Indo-Roman trade in the 1st century CE.
Recent excavations: Ongoing archaeological excavations, such as those at Muziris in Kerala and Berenike in Egypt, continue to yield new evidence.
Revised Understanding: However, early interpretations often overlooked the agency of Indian merchants and ship owners in this trade. Recent discoveries have expanded and corrected our understanding of this ancient trade network.
Staggering Scale: Recent estimates, supported by the Muziris Papyrus, reveal the immense scale of the Red Sea trade. Custom taxes on goods from India, Persia, and Ethiopia possibly contributed up to one-third of the Roman exchequer’s income.
Details unveiled by Muziris Excavations
Custom Taxes: The Muziris Papyrus detailed a cargo’s value, highlighting its enormous worth, with one cargo alone being equivalent to the purchase of premium farmland in Egypt or a prestigious estate in central Italy.
Roman Revenue: The import tax collected on this cargo alone exceeded two million sesterces. Extrapolating from these figures, Indian imports into Egypt were likely worth over a billion sesterces annually, with tax authorities generating 270 million sesterces.
Comparative Significance: These revenues surpassed those of entire subject countries, emphasizing the pivotal role of this trade route in sustaining the Roman Empire’s vast conquests and legions.
Muziris Papyrus
Trade details
Peak Period: During the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, a maritime highway connected the Roman Empire and India through the Red Sea. This route witnessed hundreds of ships travelling in both directions annually.
Traded Goods: The Romans had a great demand for Indian luxuries, including perfumes, ivory, pearls, gemstones, and exotic animals like elephants and tigers. Pepper, India’s major export, was particularly sought after, finding its way into Roman cuisine.
Trade from Rome: The flow of goods from Rome to India was limited, with gold being a prominent export. Roman wine was one notable exception, appreciated by Indians.
Pre-Common Era Trade
Early Indian Diaspora: Evidence suggests the existence of an Indian diaspora in the Middle East during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300-1300 BCE). This early trade was coastal and involved smaller quantities of goods.
Roman Period Expansion: The trade expanded significantly during Roman times, facilitated by large cargo ships directly connecting the subcontinent and the Roman Empire. Romans played a key role in industrializing this trade.
Post-Conquest Peak: The conquest of Egypt by the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE opened up the route to India, leading to a substantial increase in trade.
Organization and Duration of Journeys
Highly Organized Trade: Contracts were established between Indian merchants in Kerala and shippers in Alexandria. Goods were transported in containers, similar to modern practices, with references to insurance.
Understanding Monsoons: Indians recognized the monsoon winds’ seasonal patterns, enabling them to navigate the route efficiently. The journey to Egypt took approximately six to eight weeks, depending on favorable wind conditions.
Extended Stays: Indian diaspora rented houses in Egyptian ports while waiting for wind patterns to shift, allowing for the integration of Indian culture into these regions.
Roles of Indians in the Trade
Indian Seafaring Culture: Evidence suggests that Indian dynasties were interested in seafaring, as depicted in Ajanta paintings and early Indian coin designs featuring ships.
Indian Sailors: Graffiti left by Indian sailors, primarily Gujaratis from Barigaza (modern-day Bharuch), has been discovered in the Hoq caves on the island of Socotra, emphasizing their active participation in the trade network.
Comparing with the Silk Road
Indian Centrality: The ancient economic and cultural hub of Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and its ports played a central role in maritime East-West exchange. The concept of the “Silk Road” is relatively recent and inaccurately portrays the ancient trade routes.
Historical Invisibility: The Silk Road concept was coined in the late 19th century and did not exist in ancient or medieval times. It gained popularity in the 20th century, fostering romanticized ideas about East-West connectivity.
Recent Politicization: Chinese President Xi Jinping’s Belt and Road Initiative has politicized the Silk Road, making it a central component of Chinese foreign policy.
