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  • Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

    In news: Sharavathi River

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the News?

    The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has directed the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and the mines and geology department to stop any unlawful/illegal sand mining in the Sharavathi River coastal zone.

    About National Green Tribunal (NGT)

    Description
    Establishment Formed in 2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act as a statutory body.
    Objective
    • To deal with cases related to environmental issues and ensure speedy implementation of decisions.
    • Responsible for giving many prominent decisions aimed at environmental protection, including addressing air pollution in Delhi and canceling coal block clearances.
    Composition
    • Headquartered in Delhi, chaired by a retired Supreme Court judge
    • Included Judicial Members and Expert Panel.
    Powers Empowered to decide on questions related to various environmental laws and hear civil cases concerning environmental issues:

    1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
    2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
    3. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
    4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
    5. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
    6. The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991;
    7. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
    Exceptions Prohibited to hear any issues which are covered under:

    1. The Indian Forest Act, 1927,
    2. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and
    3. Any other laws made by States which are related to protection of trees, forests, etc.
    Places
    • Principal bench in Delhi;
    • Additional benches in Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata, and Chennai.
    Governing Principles
    • Governed by principles of natural justice, not bound by Indian Evidence Act.
    • Applies principles of sustainable development, precautionary, and polluter pays.
    Review and Challenge
    • NGT orders can be reviewed as per Rule 22 of NGT Rules.
    • Can be challenged before the Supreme Court within 90 days.
    Jurisdiction
    • Jurisdiction over all civil cases involving a substantial question relating to environment.
    • Powers vested are the same as in a civil court under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908.
    • Decisions are binding.
    Disposal of Cases Disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of filing of the same.

    About Sharavathi River

    • It originates and flows entirely within Karnataka.
    • It is among the few westward-flowing rivers in the country and a significant part of its basin lies in the Western Ghats.
    • Origin: The river originates at Ambutheertha in the Thirthahalli taluk.
    • Legend: According to ancient legend, the god Rama shot an arrow (Ambu) into the ground to quench his wife Sita’s thirst. The water that poured out was named “Thirtha,” hence the river’s name “Sharavati,” with “Shara” meaning arrow.

    Geography and Length:

    • The river stretches about 128 km (80 mi) and joins the Arabian Sea at Honnavar in Uttara Kannada district.
    • Jog Falls, formed by the Sharavati River, is located approximately 25 km from Siddapura.

    Tributaries and Basin:

    • Major tributaries: Nandihole, Haridravathi, Mavinahole, Hilkunji, Yennehole, Hurlihole, and Nagodihole.
    • River basin: divided between Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts.
    • Pre-Cambrian rocks, including the Dharwar system and peninsular gneiss, dominate the basin.

    Soils and Agriculture:

    • Soils in the basin are predominantly lateritic and tend to be acidic, ranging from clay loamy to loamy.
    • Four soil orders are found: ultisols, alfisols, inceptisols, and entisols.

    Dams:

    • The Linganamakki Dam, constructed in 1964, spans the Sharavati River, with a catchment area of nearly 1,991.71 km2.
    • The Gerusoppa Dam, completed in 2002, primarily serves for electricity generation.

    Flora and Fauna:

    • The Sharavati Valley Wildlife Sanctuary declared in 1972, protects diverse ecosystems and endangered species.
    • The river basin is rich in biodiversity, home to rare species of flora and fauna.

    Regulation of Sand Mining in India:

    Mines and Minerals Act, 1957
    Definition of Sand as a Minor Mineral Sand is categorized as a minor mineral under section 3(e) of the MMDR Act.
    State Governments’ Role Section 15 empowers state governments to regulate mineral concessions for minor minerals, leading to the formulation of state-specific concession rules.
    Control of Illegal Mining Section 23C places the jurisdiction over controlling illegal mining under the purview of state governments.

    Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines, 2016
    Purpose Released by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, aims to promote scientific and environmentally friendly sand mining practices.
    Recommendations Emphasizes sustainable sand extraction, monitoring, and district-wise mapping of sand availability.

    Sand Mining Framework, 2018
    Issued by Released by the Ministry of Mines, provides states with guidance for policy formulation and combating illegal sand mining.
    Recommended Measures Suggests geo-fencing, GPS-enabled transportation tracking, price control, involvement of women’s self-help groups, and exploration of alternative sand sources.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] Which of the following is/are the possible consequence/s of heavy sand mining in riverbeds?

    1. Decreased salinity in the river
    2. Pollution of groundwater
    3. Lowering of the water-table

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

    [2019] With reference to the management of minor minerals in India, consider the following statements :

    1. Sand is a ‘minor mineral’ according to the prevailing law in the country.
    2. State governments have the power to grant mining leases of minor minerals, but the powers regarding the formation of rules related to the grant of minor minerals lie with the Central Government.
    3. State Governments have the power to frame rules to prevent illegal mining of minor minerals.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

    Why dal imports have hit a seven-year high?

    Explained | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

    Why in the News?

    Due to food inflation during an El Niño year and an election year, the country has lost the self-sufficiency it had achieved in pulses.

    Pulse Production in India:

    • India is the largest producer (25% of global production), consumer (27% of world consumption), and importer (14%) of pulses in the world.
    • They account for 20% of India’s total area under cultivation and provide 7-10% of the total food grains in the country.
    • India’s production has increased by 50% (from 18 million tonnes to 27 million tonnes) up till 2022. However, it has not increased in step with the population growth, per capita availability of pulses has declined from 22.1 kg per person in 1951 to 16.4 kg per person in 2022.
    • Though there is surplus production of Chana, the imperfect substitution among pulses and limited international availability put pressure on the prices of some pulses.

    Recent Decline in Domestic Production:

    • Total Production: Decreased from 27.30 million tonnes (mt) in 2021-22 to 23.44 mt in 2023-24.
    • Chana (Chickpea): Production fell from 13.54 mt in 2021-22 to an estimated 12.16 mt in 2023-24.
    • Arhar/Tur (Pigeon Pea): Output decreased from 4.22 mt in 2021-22 to an estimated 3.34 mt in 2023-24.

    Significance of Pulse Production:

    • Suitable for Drought Areas: Drought-resistant and deep-rooting species of pulses can supply groundwater to companion crops when planted in the intercropping pattern. Locally adapted pulse varieties can enhance production systems in dry environments.
    • Enhances Fertility of Land: The leguminous plants of pulse also help in nitrogen fixation, thus ensuring higher soil fertility.
    • High Nutritional Value: In a country like India, where many people are poor and vegetarian, pulses are an important and affordable source of protein.
    • Low food wastage footprints: Pulses can be stored longer without losing their nutritional value and minimizing loss.

    Imports have hit a seven-year high

    Cause of the Inflation in Pulses

    • Impact of EL Nino: El Niño-induced patchy monsoon and winter rain led to a decline in domestic pulse production from 27.30 million tonnes (mt) in 2021-22 to 23.44 mt in 2023-24, as per the Agriculture Ministry’s estimates.
    • Sharp Output Falls: Both chana and Arhar/tur, the pulses with the highest inflation experienced sharp output falls. Chana production decreased from 13.54 mt in 2021-22 to 12.16 mt in 2023-24, while Arhar/tur production dropped from 4.22 mt to 3.34 mt over the same period.
    • Impact of Irregular Rainfall: Poor crops in regions like Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana were attributed to irregular and deficient rainfall, leading to reduced planting area and lower yields.

    Effects of Inflation :

    • Increased Retail Prices: Significant annual retail inflation, particularly for pulses like Arhar/tur and chana.
    • Higher Import Costs: Surge in imports to meet domestic demand, leading to increased expenditure on foreign pulses.
    • Economic Burden: Higher prices in the open market strain household budgets, especially for low-income families who cannot rely on subsidized distribution for pulses.

    Challenges Ahead :

    • Monsoon Uncertainty: Future prices largely depend on the upcoming southwest monsoon; continued irregular weather patterns could sustain high inflation.
    • Import Dependency: Increased reliance on imports due to insufficient domestic production, especially for yellow/white peas and masoor.
    • Supply Position: Precarious domestic supply with minimal government procurement from recent crops, necessitating higher imports.

    Government initiatives as relief measures: The government has removed tariffs and quantitative restrictions by liberalizing imports on most pulses to boost supply and reduce prices like an extension of duty-free imports of Arhar/tur, urad, masoor, and desi chana till March 31, 2025.

    Conclusion: While the government has taken significant steps to mitigate the impact of high dal prices through import liberalization and policy adjustments, the actual relief to consumers will hinge on the performance of the upcoming monsoon and the global pulse market dynamics.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Mention the advantages of Cultivation of pulses because of which year 2016 was declared as the International year of Pulses By the United Nations. (UPSC IAS/2017)

     

    Q Food Security Bill is expected to eliminate hunger and malnutrition in India. Critically discuss various apprehensions in its effective implementation along with the concerns it has generated in WTO. (UPSC IAS/2013)

    Prelims PYQs:

    With reference to pulse production in India, consider the following statements:

    1) Black gram can be cultivated as both kharif and rahi crop.

    2) Green gram alone accounts for nearly half of pulse production.

    3) In the last three decades, while the production of Kharif pulses has increased, the production of rabi pulses has decreased.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 2 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

    Still no sign of the language of equity and inclusion

    Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Social Empowerment

    Why in the news?

    The ECI’s election announcement lacked sign language interpreters, highlighting the everyday exclusion of Deaf and Hard of Hearing (DHH) citizens.

    Present Issue:

    • India’s societal and structural framework often neglects the needs of Deaf and Hard of Hearing (DHH) citizens.
    • This exclusion is evident in various aspects of daily life, such as the absence of sign language interpreters during major public announcements and inadequate accessibility in public services.

    Sign Language versus Oralism

    • The Indian education system predominantly employs “oralism,” which emphasizes teaching deaf individuals to use their voices and lip-read, rather than using sign language.
    • This approach has been criticized for perpetuating social isolation and failing to remove barriers that hinder the integration of DHH individuals.
    • In contrast, using sign language has been shown to aid cognitive development and prevent linguistic deprivation.
    • Over 70 countries recognize their national sign languages legally, promoting accessibility and inclusion for deaf citizens.

    Present Scenario:

    • As per WHO estimates in India, there are approximately 63 million people, who are suffering from Significant Auditory Impairment; this places the estimated prevalence at 6.3% in the Indian population.
    • As per the NSSO survey, currently, 291 persons per one lakh population are suffering from severe to profound hearing loss (NSSO, 2001).
    • Of these, a large percentage are children between the ages of 0 to 14 years.

    What Does the 2011 Census Say?

    • The 2011 Census reported five million hearing-impaired individuals in India, while the National Association of the Deaf estimates 18 million.
    • Despite these large numbers, DHH individuals are often excluded from educational and employment opportunities. Only 5% of deaf children attend school, and they face prolonged graduation timelines due to oralist-focused curricula.
    • Government initiatives for employing the deaf are often ineffective, and there is a lack of ISL recognition, despite repeated demands and protests.

    The National Programme for Prevention and Control of Deafness

      • The program was initiated in the year 2007 in pilot mode in 25 districts of 11 States/UTs. It has been expanded to other districts too after the 12th five-year plan.
      • The Program was a 100% Centrally SponsoredScheme during the 11th Five-year plan. However, as per the 12th Five Year Plan, the Centre and the States will have to pool in resources financial norms of NHRM.
      • However, it falls short of addressing the quality of life for DHH individuals. This program has been expanded to 228 districts of 27 States / U.Ts in a phased manner.

    Objectives of the program:

    • To prevent avoidable hearing loss on account of disease or injury.
    • Early identification, diagnosis, and treatment of ear problems responsible for hearing loss and deafness.
    • To medically rehabilitate persons of all age groups, suffering from deafness.
    • To develop institutional capacity for ear care services by providing support for equipment and material and training personnel.

    Components of the Programme: 

    • Manpower Training & Development to grassroots level workers.
    • Service Provision Including Rehabilitation – Screening camps for early detection of hearing impairment and deafness.
    • Awareness Generation for early identification of the hearing impaired.
    • Monitoring and Evaluation.

    What Needs to be done?

    • Official Recognition of ISL: ISL should be recognized as an official language, and its use should be integrated into educational systems and public services. Teaching ISL in schools, colleges, and to the general public will promote inclusivity and fluency.
    • Inclusive Health Care: Health care systems need to be updated to ensure accessible communication for DHH patients. This includes training more ISL interpreters and reducing barriers for DHH individuals pursuing healthcare professions.
    • Media and Public Communication: Media channels should incorporate ISL interpretation and subtitles, especially in Hindi and regional languages. Government event announcements should have live ISL interpreters to ensure accessibility.
    • Employment Opportunities: Creating more employment opportunities for DHH individuals, beyond low-skilled jobs, is essential. This includes training and employing DHH individuals as ISL instructors and ensuring accessible workplaces.

    Conclusion: To ensure inclusivity for DHH citizens, India must officially recognise ISL, integrate it into education and public services, improve healthcare accessibility, and expand employment opportunities and mental health support.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q  How have digital initiatives in India contributed to the functioning of the education system in the country? Elaborate your answer. (UPSC IAS/2020)

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  • Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

    Explained: The challenges in curbing cultivation of a banned rice variety in Punjab

    Explained | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Major Crops & Cropping Patterns

    Why in the News?

    Punjab’s paddy farmers have begun sowing seeds for this year’s kharif season, despite the ban on variety PUSA-44 that was implemented last year.

    About the Cultivation of Paddy Varieties like PUSA-44:

    • Pusa-44 is a long-duration paddy variety bred by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) and has been a key contributor to stubble burning.
    • Its growth cycle of 155-160 days, from nursery sowing to harvesting, leads to late October maturity, leaving a short window for field preparation for the next crop.

    The Impact on Groundwater in Punjab as per “CGWA’s Groundwater Estimation Report 2020″

    • Severe over-extraction: 119 out of 138 blocks are over-exploited.Central and southern parts of Punjab (Patiala, Sangrur, Barnala, Mansa, Bathinda, Moga, Ludhiana, and Jalandhar) are most affected.
    • Water Table Depth: The average groundwater depth has crossed 70 meters (200 feet). In some southern areas, groundwater is unavailable even at 150-200 meters (450-600 feet).
    • Groundwater depletion vs. Demand: Punjab over-extracts 14 billion cubic meters (BCM) annually. Annual recharge is 20 BCM, but usage is 34 BCM.
    • Future Projections: Groundwater could drop below 300 meters in 18-20 years, making water highly contaminated and extraction costly. If the trend continues, Punjab may run out of groundwater for irrigation.

    Why are Farmers in several districts unwilling to stop their Cultivation?

    • Higher Income: Farmers receive a higher yield and guaranteed Minimum Support Price (MSP), leading to increased incomes.
    • Seed Availability: Farmers retain seeds from previous seasons, and many stores have already sold seeds to farmers.
    • Resistance to Change: Despite awareness of the adverse effects, many farmers continue to cultivate PUSA-44. Significant cultivation areas in districts like Barnala, Sangrur, and Moga rely heavily on PUSA-44, making immediate change difficult.
    • Time Required for Transition: Changing entrenched agricultural practices and mindsets in heavily reliant districts cannot be achieved quickly.

    Judicial Stand on the Cultivation of Paddy Varieties like PUSA-44:

    • The Supreme Court has emphasized the need to cease stubble burning in states like Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan, the discussion surrounding Pusa-2090 rice variety from its ability to provide an alternative to the problematic long-duration Pusa-44 variety.
      • Pusa-2090 rice matures in a shorter duration of 120-125 days while maintaining comparable yields, addressing the core issue of stubble burning.
    • Happy Seeder (Tractor) is also a solution that offers an eco-friendly alternative to stubble burning.

    Way Forward:

    • Public Awareness and Guidance: Educate farmers on the benefits of short-duration varieties, which are more water-efficient and better for stubble management.
    • Supportive Policies: Government and agricultural experts need to provide support and incentives for transitioning to sustainable paddy varieties.
    • Gradual Implementation: Acknowledge the need for time and a phased approach to change farming practices in heavily reliant districts.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q The ideal solution of depleting groundwater resources in India is a water harvesting system.” How can it be made effective in urban areas? (15) (UPSC IAS/2018)

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  • Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

    What are fire safety rules, and why are there compliance challenges? | Explained 

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

    Why in the News?

    Recent fire tragedies at a Rajkot gaming zone and a Delhi children’s hospital that killed 40 people highlight the urgent need for stricter fire safety enforcement.

    According to the latest Accidental Deaths and Suicides in India (ADSI) report

    • It was released by the “National Crimes Records Bureau (NCRB)”
    • In 2022, 7,435 people died in over 7,500 fire accidents. This data shows that heavy casualties from fire accidents persist, with no lessons learned from the 1997 Uphaar Cinema tragedy or the 2004 Kumbakonam fire that killed 90 schoolchildren.

    What are the various laws and guidelines which stipulate rules around fire safety in buildings? 

    • National Building Code (NBC): Published by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) in 1970, last updated in 2016.
      • Part 4 of NBC is about the details of fire safety measures, including construction guidelines, materials, and safety protocols. They are mandatory for states to incorporate NBC recommendations into local buildings.
    • Model Building Bye Laws 2016: It is issued by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. It guides States/UTs in framing building bylaws with norms for fire protection and safety.
    • State Fire Services Act: Fire services are a state subject, and individual states have their own Fire Services Acts or building bylaws.
    • National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) Guidelines: Provide fire safety instructions for homes, schools, and hospitals. Include recommendations on maintaining safety spaces, exit mechanisms, dedicated staircases, and evacuation drills.

    Key Points from Fire Safety Regulations by Government:

    • Building Classification: Buildings are classified based on occupancy (e.g., Residential, Institutional, Assembly). Specific measures for high-rise buildings, educational institutes, hotels, etc.
    • Construction Material: Use of non-combustible materials. Internal walls of staircases should have a minimum 120-minute fire rating.
    • Electrical Safety: Flame retardant wiring and cabling. Separate shafts for different voltage wiring, sealed with fire-stop materials.
    • Emergency Power and Signage: Provision of emergency lighting, fire alarm systems, and public address systems. Clear exit signage and escape lighting.
    • Technological Measures: Automatic fire detection and alarm systems.Down-comer pipelines, dry riser pipelines, automatic sprinklers, fire barriers, and fireman’s lifts.

    Challenges in Fire Safety Compliance

    • Lack of Uniform Legislation: Fire safety rules exist in all States, with many drawing from the NBC. However, due to the absence of uniform safety legislation and the NBC being a “recommendatory document,“ its provisions are frequently ignored at the local level.
    • Inadequate Fire Safety Audits: Local bodies fail to conduct regular fire safety checks, leading to non-compliance.
    • Staff Shortages: Insufficient staffing in fire departments exacerbates enforcement issues.
    • Community Awareness and Preparedness: Need for better community awareness and training on fire safety protocols and emergency response.

    Judicial responses to negligence over Public Safety

    • Apex Court: The Judiciary has frequently pulled up state authorities for failure to enforce fire safety regulations. It highlighted the laxity in compliance and the need for stringent enforcement.
    • Legal Actions: Cases like the Rajkot gaming zone fire reveal the consequences of not adhering to fire safety norms. Courts have mandated regular fire safety audits and strict adherence to NBC guidelines.
    • The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) emphasized the need for building community resilience and compliance with safety norms.
    • The report on “Fires in India: Learning Lessons for Urban Safety” underscored the failure of authorities to learn from past tragedies and enforce fire safety measures.

    Way forward:

    • Building some National Standards: The National Building Code (NBC) needs to be converted from a recommendatory document to a mandatory standard across all states.
    • Regular Inspections: Mandate regular and frequent fire safety audits by local authorities.
    • Transparent Assessment: Allow third-party certified agencies to conduct independent fire safety audits to ensure unbiased assessments.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management by the Government of India departing from the earlier reactive approach. (UPSC IAS/2020)

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    Genetic Mysteries of Microcephaly: The Role of SASS6 Gene

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    A gene called SASS6 (Spindle Assembly Abnormal Protein 6) and its variants have been found to play a key role in a developmental process that causes “Microcephaly”.

    What is Microcephaly?

    • Microcephaly is a condition where a baby’s head is much smaller than normal.
    • It is associated with a smaller brain, poor motor skills, poor speech, abnormal facial features, and intellectual disabilities.
    • Developmental Roots:
      • The condition is believed to start during the peak phase of brain development in the embryo. Cells that are supposed to become neurons fail to divide normally.
    • Diagnosis:
      • Microcephaly can be diagnosed before birth using foetal ultrasound and MRI.

    Role of SASS6 gene 

    • Since 2014, the SASS6 gene and its variants have been linked to microcephaly.

    A recent study in China:(On March 19, 2024)

    • The study of a consanguine couple revealed microcephaly and fetal growth issues. Confirming the SASS6 gene’s role in microcephaly, findings suggest embryo survival requires at least one functional gene copy.

    The University of Cologne Study (February 2024):

    • Researchers removed all functional SASS6 genes from mouse embryo-derived cells.
    • Even without the genes, cells could make abnormal but passable centrioles (structures needed for cell division).
    • When these cells were prompted to become neurons, the centrioles disappeared, preventing the cells from becoming neurons.

    Consanguinity and Genetic Risk of Microcephaly

    • Expert Insight:
      • Researchers explained that over 70% of congenital microcephaly cases come from consanguineous marriages.
      • Such marriages increase the risk of inheriting mutated genes from both parents.
    • Genetic Causes:
      • Mutations in 30 genes cause microcephaly.
      • 10 of these genes create proteins needed for centrioles, which are crucial for cell division.

    Ile62Thr Mutation

    • 2004 Discovery: The SASS6 gene was discovered in the roundworm C. elegans, showing its conserved function across animals.
    • Gene Suppression in C. elegans:
      • Suppressing the SASS6 gene halted new centriole assembly, stopping development.
    • 2014 Study on a Pakistani Family: Researchers found four family members with microcephaly due to the Ile62Thr mutation in the SASS6 gene.
    • The Ile62Thr mutation was introduced into the C. elegans SASS6 gene.
    • The mutation alone did not significantly impair centriole function but became deadly when combined with another mutation.
    • In humans, this mutation causes microcephaly due to its impact on centriole function.

     

    PYQ:

    [2016]  In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome’, sometimes seen in the news, refers to-

    (a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing

    (b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism

    (c) the description of the mechanism of gene expression

    (d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cells

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    NASA’s PREFIRE Mission to study Earth’s Polar Regions

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    NASA launched the ” PREFIRE mission”, deploying twin CubeSats to study heat emissions in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, aiming to enhance climate research.

    What are CubeSats?

    • CubeSats are essentially miniature satellites whose basic design is a 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm (which makes up for “one unit” or “1U”) cube — just a little bigger than a Rubik’s cube.
    • weight not more than 1.33 kg.

    • These satellites were first developed in 1999 by California Polytechnic State University at San Luis Obispo (Cal Poly) and Stanford University as educational tools. 
    • However, owing to their low cost and less mass in comparison to traditional satellites, they began to be put in orbit for technology demonstrations, scientific research, and commercial purposes.

    About PREFIRE Mission

    • Jointly developed by NASA and the University of Wisconsin-Madison. 
    • It aims to investigate and comprehend the intricate dynamics of heat emissions from Earth’s Polar Regions, specifically focusing on the Arctic and Antarctica.

    Components:

    • CubeSats: PREFIRE employs shoebox-sized CubeSats, each measuring around 6U (6 units), equipped with advanced instrumentation to facilitate data collection.
      • They measure around 90 cm in height and nearly 120 cm in width when the solar panels, which will power the satellite, are deployed.
      • The two satellites will be placed in a near-polar orbit (a type of low Earth orbit) at an altitude of about 525 kilometres.
    • Thermal Infrared Spectrometers (TIRS): Each CubeSat is outfitted with a Thermal Infrared Spectrometer, meticulously engineered to measure far-infrared radiation emitted by the Polar Regions.

    Mission Objectives:

    1. Investigate heat radiated from Earth’s Polar Regions into space and its impact on climate.
    2. Employ thermal infrared spectrometers to measure far-infrared energy emitted by Earth’s surface and atmosphere.
    3. Improve understanding of the greenhouse effect at the poles and its implications for climate change.
    4. Enhance climate and ice models to predict changes in sea level, weather, snow, and ice cover in a warming world.

    Why study heat budget of the Poles?

    • A large amount of the heat radiated from the Arctic and Antarctica is emitted as far-infrared radiation wavelengths of 3 μm to 1,000 μm within the infrared range of electromagnetic radiation.
    • However, there is currently no way to measure this type of energy.
    • As a result, there is a gap in knowledge about the planet’s energy budget.

    Significance of PREFIRE

    • PREFIRE’s observations will enhance predictions of climate and environmental changes, aiding in mitigating the effects of global warming.
    • Data collected will contribute to updating climate models and improving understanding of Earth’s atmospheric dynamics.

    PYQ:

    [2017] What is the purpose of ‘evolved Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (eLISA)’ project?

    (a) To detect neutrinos

    (b) To detect gravitational waves

    (c) To detect the effectiveness of missile defence system

    (d) To study the effect of solar flares on our communication systems

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-Pacific Island Nations

    Forum for India–Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC)

    Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    • India as a member of FIPIC, has pledged $1 million for relief efforts in flood-hit “Papua New Guinea” showcasing solidarity with the affected nation.

    What is the Forum for India–Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC)?

    • The Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC) is a multilateral platform established by India to enhance cooperation with the Pacific Island countries.
    • FIPIC was established by India in 2014 during the first FIPIC Summit held in Suva, Fiji.
    • The initiative was announced by PM Narendra Modi as part of India’s broader “Act East” policy to strengthen engagement with the Pacific Island countries.

    Overview

    • Purpose: To enhance India’s engagement with Pacific Island nations and support their development priorities through cooperative projects and initiatives.
    • Members: Includes India and 14 Pacific Islands nations (Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu).

    Summits

    1. First Summit – Suva, Fiji (November 2014)
      • Context: Initiated by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi following the re-establishment of democracy in Fiji.
      • Significance: The summit highlighted the geopolitical interest of major powers in the Pacific, with Chinese leader Xi Jinping visiting Fiji shortly after Modi.
    2. Second Summit – Jaipur, India (August 2015)
      • Follow-up: As a continuation of the first summit, Modi invited the leaders of the 14 Pacific Islands to Jaipur.
      • Discussions: Covered cooperation in areas such as the blue economy, oil and natural gas, IT, healthcare, fishing, and marine research. Modi also assured to address their climate change concerns at the 2015 UN Climate Change Conference (COP 21) in Paris.
    3. Third Summit – Papua New Guinea (May 2023)
      • Current Status: Most recent summit, emphasizing ongoing cooperation and collaboration between India and the Pacific Island nations.

    Back2Basics: India’s Act East Policy

    Details
    Launched in November 2014, by PM Modi
    Objective
    • To promote economic cooperation, cultural ties, and develop a strategic relationship with countries in the Indo-Pacific region;
    • Enhancing India’s influence and economic development, especially in the North Eastern Region (NER).
    Scope
    • Extends beyond ASEAN to include East Asian countries.
    • Intensive and continuous engagement in connectivity, trade, culture, defense, and people-to-people contact at bilateral, regional, and multilateral levels.
    Key Dimensions (4C’s)
    1. Culture
    2. Commerce
    3. Connectivity
    4. Capacity building
    Security Focus
    • Enhanced security cooperation, particularly in the context of Chinese assertiveness in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean.
    • Promoting freedom of navigation and securing India’s role in the region.
    Historical Context (Look East Policy)
    • Look East Policy initiated in 1992 by Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao.
    • Focused on strengthening economic integration and cultural ties primarily with ASEAN countries.
    • Aimed to bolster India’s role as a regional power and counter China’s strategic influence.
    Evolution from Look East Policy Act East Policy is an upgrade and expansion of the Look East Policy, incorporating more comprehensive engagement strategies, including security cooperation and broader geographical focus.
    Significant Engagements
    • India’s active participation in regional forums like the East Asia Summit (EAS), ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), and informal groupings such as the Quad.
    • Strategic partnerships and dialogues at various international platforms.
    Major Projects Major projects under the policy include:

     

    PYQ:

    [2016] Evaluate the economic and strategic dimensions of India’s Look East Policy in the context of the post-Cold War international scenario. 

    [2011] With reference to “Look East Policy” of India, consider the following statements:

    1. India wants to establish itself as an important regional player in East Asian affairs.
    2. India wants to plug the vacuum created by the termination of Cold War.
    3. India wants to restore the historical and cultural ties with its neighbours in Southeast and East Asia.

    Which of the statements given above is / are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 1 and 3 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    In news: Campi Flegrei Super Volcano 

    World Mapping | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the News?

    A 4.4 magnitude earthquake struck Italy’s Campi Flegrei super volcano, with Pozzuoli as the epicentre. Felt as far as Naples, it’s the strongest tremor in 40 years

    Bradyseism Concerns near Campi Flegrei:

    • Campi Flegrei is prone to bradyseism, where ground elevation changes due to subsurface pressure.
    • The area, located 50 kilometres from Mt. Vesuvius, is undergoing a new cycle of bradyseism, according to volcanologists.
    • Over 500,000 people reside in the red zone adjacent to Campi Flegrei, prompting the Italian Civil Protection Agency to update evacuation plans.

    About Campi Flegrei Volcano

    • Campi Flegrei, also known as the Phlegraean Fields, is a large volcanic area located in the western suburbs of Naples, Italy.
    • It is one of the most active volcanic systems in the world and has been active for at least 50,000 years.

    Its Volcanic System:

    • Location: Campi Flegrei is situated within the Campanian volcanic arc in southern Italy, extending from the city of Naples to the Gulf of Pozzuoli.
    • Geological Formation: The volcanic system of Campi Flegrei is characterized by a large caldera, which is a collapsed volcanic crater, surrounded by numerous volcanic vents, craters, and lava domes. The caldera has a diameter of about 13 kilometers (8 miles).
    • Volcanic Activity: Campi Flegrei is considered a supervolcano due to its size and potential for large eruptions. It has experienced numerous periods of volcanic activity throughout its history, including explosive eruptions, lava flows, and phreatic (steam-driven) eruptions.
    • Terrain Features: The landscape of Campi Flegrei is characterized by volcanic features such as craters, fumaroles (steam vents), mud pots, and hot springs.

    PYQ:

    [2021] Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in ‘2021’ and their impact on regional environment.

    [2018] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian Territory.
    2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
    3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1 and 3

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  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

    Where animals are dying by a thousand cuts

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    In the Terai region of Uttar Pradesh, the farmers are using razor wire and electric fencing to defend their farms against stray cattle.

    About the Wildlife Populations in the Biodiverse Terai Areas of Uttar Pradesh

    • The Terai region in the U.P., encompassing districts like Pilibhit, Lakhimpur Kheri, and Bahraich, is known for its rich biodiversity, thriving sugarcane agriculture, and two tiger reserves.
    • This area supports endangered species such as tigers, rhinoceros, swamp deer, and the Bengal florican. The landscape blends forests, grasslands, and agriculture, creating a habitat where people and wildlife coexist.

    What does the Statistics say?

    • During the 2022-23 fiscal year, the livestock industry accounted for 30.1% of India’s Agricultural GDP and 4.35% of the national GDP.
    • India’s farming practices involve a blend of crop farming and livestock rearing. This combined approach offers extra income and job prospects, especially supporting landless workers, small-scale farmers, and women in the workforce.

    Constitutional Provision for the Protection of stray cattle:

    • As per Article 243(W) of the Constitution of India, the local bodies are responsible for cattle pounds and pinjrapole. Therefore, the State may also endow panchayats to establish and run. Cattle Pounds (Kanji Houses)/ Gaushala Shelters (community assets) to keep stray cattle.
    • Many States have established Gaushalas and Shelter houses for stray cattle and provide for feeding of those animals.

    Present Conflicts and Conservation Challenges:

    • Conflicts between humans and wildlife are common, including tiger attacks and crop damage by herbivores.
    • Farmers near protected areas sometimes use lethal methods such as razor wire and high-voltage electric fencing along the farm-forest boundaries. The presence of stray cattle, or “chutta jaanwar,” has intensified conflicts and conservation challenges.
    • Stray cattle disrupt wildlife movement corridors vital for species survival and potentially increase disease transmission risks to wild populations.
    • The Unvaccinated stray cattle can transmit diseases like bovine tuberculosis and lumpy skin disease to wildlife, with cases reported in various Terai districts.
    • The degradation of productive grasslands in protected areas further threatens the habitat of imperilled species.

    Way Forward:

    • Providing safe and comprehensive shelters: Construct adequate cow shelters outside protected areas to house stray cattle, preventing them from impacting wildlife habitats and agricultural fields.
      • Promote and subsidize non-lethal fencing solutions for farmers to protect crops without harming wildlife, such as wildlife-friendly barriers.
      • Invest in habitat restoration projects in the Terai, focusing on expanding and maintaining productive grasslands within protected areas to support wildlife populations.
    • Enhanced monitoring and management: Implement comprehensive vaccination and disease monitoring programs for stray cattle to prevent disease transmission to wildlife.
      • Strengthen enforcement against illegal cattle trade and vigilante activities that disrupt the livestock economy.
      • Provide economic incentives and support for farmers to adopt alternative livelihoods that do not depend heavily on livestock, reducing the need for cattle rearing.
    • Community Engagement and Education: Engage with local communities to educate them on the ecological impact of stray cattle and encourage participatory conservation efforts. Foster collaboration between farmers and wildlife authorities to develop sustainable solutions for coexisting with wildlife.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Examine the status of forest resources in India and its resultant impact on climate change. (UPSC IAS/2020)

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  • Trade Sector Updates – Falling Exports, TIES, MEIS, Foreign Trade Policy, etc.

    China’s share in India’s industrial goods imports jump to 30% from 21% in last 15 years: GTRI

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

    Why in the News?

    India’s imports from China crossed $101 billion in 2023-24 from about $70 billion in 2018-19, and the country’s share of India’s industrial goods imports has risen from 21% to 30% over 15 years, according to a report by the Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI).

    • The data shows, it’s resulting in a cumulative trade deficit exceeding $387 Billion in the last 5 years, which is an alarming situation for the Indian government.

    What is meant by Trade Deficit?

    • A trade deficit refers to a situation where the country’s imports exceed the receipts from its exports. A trade deficit arises in the course of international trade when the payments for imports exceed the receipts from export trade.
    • A trade deficit is also referred to as a negative balance of trade.
    • The concerns arising due to this deficit include pressure on external payments and on the currency value of a country. Countries often alter import and export policies, curbing imports or increasing import duties on certain goods due to this.
    • They also encourage exports and consumption of indigenous goods.

    India’s Industrial Imports from China:

    • Electronics and Telecom Sector: During April-January 2023-24, India’s import value for electronics, telecom, and electrical products was $67.8 billion, with China contributing $26.1 billion. (38.4% of the total imports)
    • Machinery Sector: China contributed 39.6% of India’s imports in this category. This highlights China’s essential role as a supplier of machinery to India.
    • Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sector: India’s chemical and pharmaceutical imports were $54.1 billion, with $15.8 billion coming from China (29.2% of the total).
    • MSMEs sector: Products like mobiles and data processing units, are imported by Indian MSMEs. These imports could potentially be produced domestically, highlighting gaps in India’s industrial capabilities.

    Current Trade Observations concerning China and other countries:

    • Rising Trade Deficit with China: India’s exports to China have stagnated at around $16 billion annually (from 2019 to 2024), while imports from China surged from $70.3 billion in 2018-19 to over $101 billion in 2023-24.
    • Growth Rate of Imports: China’s share in India’s industrial product imports increased from 21% to 30% over the last 15 years. China’s exports to India grew 2.3 times faster than India’s total imports from all other countries.
    • Diverse Product Imports: Chinese firms are increasingly entering the Indian market, which is expected to accelerate the import of industrial products from China. India’s imports span high to low-technology items, like smartphones, electronics, electric vehicles, and solar energy.
    • Strategic Concerns: The growing trade deficit and dependence on China have profound strategic implications, affecting both economic and national security dimensions.

    Way Forward:

    • Supply chain diversification: India must focus on diversifying its supply chains and reducing dependency on single-country imports, especially from geopolitical competitors like China.
    • Boosting R&D: Increase investment in research and development for electronics, semiconductors, and machinery to foster innovation and improve domestic production capabilities.
    • Incentivizing Production: Provide tax incentives, subsidies, and grants to local manufacturers of electronics, data processing units, and semiconductor devices to encourage production and reduce import dependency.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q China is using its economic relations and positive trade surplus as tools to develop potential military power status in Asia’, In the light of this statement, discuss its impact on India as her neighbor. (UPSC IAS/2017)

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  • Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

    Menstrual hygiene in Indian prisons | Explained

    Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Laws, Institutions & Bodies Constituted For The Vulnerable Sections

    Why in the News?

    Despite improvements in menstrual hygiene, female prisoners in India face neglect, highlighting systemic biases and unmet basic needs like sanitary products and proper facilities.

    About NFHS Recently Conducted Survey:

    • The 5th round of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS 2019-2020) revealed that approximately 80% of young women aged 15-24 years are now using safe menstrual hygiene products.
    • This survey highlights a positive shift in menstrual hygiene management across India, particularly in urban areas and among certain demographics.

    About the NCRB Data:

    • According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), there are 23,772 women in Indian prisons. Of these, 77% are in the reproductive age group (18-50 years) and are likely to be regular menstruators.
    • The availability of sanitary napkins has been inconsistent across different prisons, and the quality has often been unsatisfactory.
    • Many States have not implemented provisions from “the 2016 Model Prison Manual”, such as supplying adequate water and washroom facilities for female prisoners.
    • Overcrowding and poor socio-economic conditions further exacerbate the struggle of incarcerated women to secure basic necessities during menstruation.

    BACK2BASICS: National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)

    • NCRB was set up in 1986 to serve as a repository of information on crime and criminals. Its establishment was based on the recommendations of the Tandon Committee, the National Police Commission (1977-1981), and the Ministry of Home Affairs Taskforce (1985).
    • It is part of the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) and is headquartered in New Delhi.
    • NCRB acts as a “national warehouse” for the fingerprint records of both Indian and foreign criminals. It assists in locating interstate criminals through fingerprint searches.

    About the National Menstrual Hygiene Policy:

    • In 2023, India formulated this policy to recognize menstruation as a natural process requiring meaningful attention. The policy aims to ensure equity in the safe and dignified management of menstrual hygiene.
    • It prioritises ensuring that all menstruating individuals, regardless of their socioeconomic status and geographical location, have equal opportunities to access and manage their menstruation safely and hygienically.
    • The Ministry of Home Affairs, which influences menstrual hygiene management in prisons, is overlooked as a critical stakeholder in the policy.

    The key challenge of the policy is that it identifies prisoners as a target population with compromised access to menstrual hygiene facilities but lacks a concrete action plan to enhance menstrual hygiene management in prisons.

    Other Government Initiatives to Improve Menstrual Health and Hygiene (MHH) in India

    • Integration of MHH into ASHA’s Role (2005-2010): The government integrated menstrual health and hygiene into the responsibilities of Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHA) as part of the National Rural Health Mission.
    • Menstrual Hygiene Scheme (MHS) Launched (2010): India initiated the Menstrual Hygiene Scheme (MHS) to distribute sanitary napkins to young girls.
    • Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram Programme (2010): This program, under the Reproductive, Maternal, Newborn, Child and Adolescent Health scheme, increased awareness and access to sanitary pads.
    • Menstrual Hygiene Management Guidelines Issued (2011-2015): In 2011, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare issued menstrual hygiene management guidelines. Additional directions were issued by the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation in 2015.
    • Nirmal Bharat Yatra and Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (2012): The Nirmal Bharat Yatra, a flagship sanitation program, included MHH as an integral aspect of its agenda. Simultaneously, other similar programs under the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan began, including initiatives to promote sanitary napkin vending machines and incinerators for safe disposal.
    • WASH targets for prisons:

    Way Forward:

    • Ensure Basic Standards of Menstrual Hygiene: The Indian government must guarantee that basic standards of menstrual hygiene for women in captivity are met consistently across all prisons.
    • Implement Model Prison Manual 2016: The government must ensure that all States adhere to the recommendations outlined in the manual, which includes provisions for adequate water and washroom facilities for female prisoners.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q In order to enhance the prospects of social development, sound and adequate health care policies are needed particularly in the fields of geriatric and maternal health care. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2020)

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  • Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

    The controversy over eucalyptus planting in Kerala | Explained

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the news?

    The Kerala state government permitted Kerala Forest Development Corporation (KFDC) to plant eucalyptus for financial reasons in 2024-2025. Environmentalists objected, citing forest impact and potential human-animal conflicts.

    Reasons for Allowing KFDC to Plant Eucalyptus Trees:

    • Financial Sustenance: KFDC was permitted to plant eucalyptus trees to support its financial viability.
    • Existing Plantations: KFDC manages around 7,000 hectares of plantations, including eucalyptus, which contribute to its revenue generation.
    • Rotation Age: Plantations like eucalyptus have specific rotation ages for harvesting, ensuring a continuous cycle of revenue generation.

    Significance of Eucalyptus

    • Timber and Fuel: Eucalyptus wood is extensively used in Australia as fuel and for building construction, fencing, and other timber applications.
    • Paper and Pulpwood: The bark of many eucalyptus species is used in papermaking and tanning, while the wood is used for pulpwood production.
    • Eucalyptus Oil: The leaves of many eucalyptus species contain aromatic oils, which are used for various purposes such as:
      • Medicinal Uses: Eucalyptus oil is used in expectorants and inhalants to relieve respiratory issues like asthma and bronchitis.
      • Insect Repellent: The oil is used as a natural insect repellent.
      • Antimicrobial Activity: Eucalyptus oil has antimicrobial properties, making it effective against bacteria and fungi

    Why were environmentalists and social activists against the order?

    • Ecological Impact: Environmentalists raised concerns about the adverse effects of eucalyptus plantations on natural forests and ecosystems.
    • Human-Animal Conflicts: The proliferation of invasive species like eucalyptus was linked to increased human-wildlife conflicts, as animals ventured into human habitats in search of food due to habitat depletion.
    • Contravention of Eco-Restoration Policy: Activists argued that permitting eucalyptus plantations contradicted the state’s eco-restoration policy, which aimed to phase out exotic species and replace them with natural forests by 2024.
    • Invasive Species Management: The order was seen as undermining efforts to eradicate invasive species and mitigate their damaging effects on natural habitats and ecosystems.

    Government Initiatives for Plant Conservation:

    • The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) in India operates seed banks to conserve crop diversity and wild plant species.
    • National Afforestation Programme (NAP) has been implemented since 2000 for the afforestation of degraded forest lands. It is being implemented by the MoEFCC.

     

    Conclusion: The controversy over eucalyptus planting in Kerala reflects the balance between financial sustainability and ecological concerns. While eucalyptus offers economic benefits, it also poses ecological risks and challenges to conservation efforts.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Examine the status of forest resources of India and its resultant impact on climate change. (UPSC IAS/2020)

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    What is Zero Debris Charter?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    • The Zero Debris Charter was signed by twelve nations and the European Space Agency (ESA) at the ESA/EU Space Council.

    Zero Debris Charter

      • The Zero Debris Charter was unveiled at the ESA Space Summit in Seville, Spain, in November 2023.
      • The Charter was facilitated by ESA’s “Protection of Space Assets” Accelerator and developed through extensive collaboration among various space actors.
    • Objectives:
    • To achieve debris neutrality in space by 2030.
    • Long-term sustainability of human activities in Earth orbit.
    • Members:
      • The signatory countries are Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
      • The ESA signed as an International Organization.

    Community Support and Leadership

    • Over 100 organizations are expected to sign the Charter in the coming months.
    • This includes national space agencies, satellite manufacturers, space startups, and astronomical societies.

    Space Debris Challenges

    • ESA estimates over one million pieces of space debris larger than 1 cm in Earth orbit.
    • These debris pieces pose significant risks to satellites and astronauts.

    Threats posed by Space Debris

    Space debris also leads to two major risks:

    1. It creates unusable regions of the orbit due to excessive debris, and
    2. Leads to the ‘Kessler syndrome’ – the creation of more debris due to cascading collisions resulting from one collision.

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    Small Island Developing States (SIDS)

    IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    The 4th International Conference on Small Island Developing States (SIDS-4) is underway in Antigua and Barbuda.

    What are Small Island Developing States (SIDS)?

    • SIDS encompass 39 States and 18 Associate Members of United Nations regional commissions, facing unique social, economic, and environmental vulnerabilities.
    • SIDS are situated across three regions:
    1. the Caribbean,
    2. the Pacific
    3. the Atlantic, Indian Ocean, and South China Sea (AIS).
    • Their distinctive challenges were acknowledged at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

    SDGs supporting SIDS

    • Small island development states are mentioned in several of the Sustainable Development Goals.
    • For example, Target 7 of Sustainable Development Goal 14 (“Life below Water“) states-

    “By 2030, increase the economic benefits to Small Island developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism”.

    Challenges Faced by SIDS:

    • Remote geography and reliance on external markets due to narrow resource bases contribute to high import/export costs.
    • Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), substantially larger than landmasses, provides vital resources but poses challenges like high transportation costs and vulnerability to economic shocks.

    Biodiversity and Economic Significance:

    • Biodiversity sustains key industries like tourism and fisheries, often constituting over half of SIDS’ GDP.
    • Beyond economic benefits, biodiversity holds aesthetic and spiritual value, providing essential services like food supply, erosion prevention, and protection from natural disasters.

    UN Programmes Supporting SIDS:

    • The Barbados Programme of Action (1994), Mauritius Strategy (2005), and Small Island Developing States Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Pathway (2014) outline specific actions to achieve sustainable development and address gaps in implementation.
      • Barbados Programme of Action (1994): It prescribed actions enabling SIDS to achieve sustainable development.
      • Mauritius Strategy (2005): It addressed remaining gaps in implementing the Barbados Programme of Action.
      • SAMOA Pathway (2014): It emphasises challenges like climate change and biodiversity loss, outlining priorities for sustainable development.
    • These programmes underscore the ongoing commitment to supporting SIDS’ development and resilience.

    Priority areas defined by SAMOA Pathway:

    1. Economic Growth: Promote sustainable, inclusive economic growth, sustainable consumption/production, and transportation.
    2. Climate Action: Mitigate climate change, and implement sustainable energy, and disaster risk reduction programs.
    3. Biodiversity Protection: Safeguard biodiversity, mitigate invasive species, manage chemicals/water, and protect oceans/seas.
    4. Human Health and Social Development: Enhance food security, and water/sanitation, reduce non-communicable diseases, and promote gender equity.
    5. Partnerships: Foster collaborations among SIDS, UN Agencies, development partners, and stakeholders to achieve sustainable development goals.

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference?

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  • Oil and Gas Sector – HELP, Open Acreage Policy, etc.

    GAIL inaugurates 10 MW Green Hydrogen Plant in Madhya Pradesh

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

    Why in the news?

    GAIL (India) Ltd has commissioned its first green hydrogen plant at Vijaipur in Madhya Pradesh, marking a significant step for the nation’s largest natural gas transmission and distribution firm into new and alternate energy sources.

    About Vijaipur Green Hydrogen Plant

    • The plant aligns with the National Green Hydrogen Mission‘s objective of achieving 5 million tons of annual green hydrogen production capacity by 2030.
    • The plant features a 10-megawatt proton exchange membrane electrolyser imported from Canada.
    • It will produce approximately 4.3 tonnes of green hydrogen per day with a purity of about 99.999% by volume.
    • The production process utilises electricity from renewable sources, such as solar energy, to split water and produce green hydrogen.

    Major Objective: Hydrogen Blending

    • GAIL is currently conducting experimental blending of hydrogen with natural gas.
    • Current regulations permit blending up to 5% hydrogen with natural gas, with ongoing studies to explore higher blending ratios.

    What is Green Hydrogen?

    • Green hydrogen is produced through electrolysis, where electricity derived from renewable sources, such as solar or wind power, is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
    • Since it relies on renewable energy, green hydrogen production has no direct emissions of CO2 or other greenhouse gases.

    What is the Green Hydrogen Standard?

    • Definition of Green Hydrogen: It has defined green hydrogen as having a well-to-gate emission – including water treatment, electrolysis, gas purification, drying and compression of hydrogen – of not more than 2 kg CO2 equivalent per kg of hydrogen produced.
    • Nodal Agency:  The Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Power, will be the nodal authority for green hydrogen production projects.

    Back2Basics: National Green Hydrogen Mission, 2023

    Details
    Ministry Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
    Purpose To incentivise the commercial production of green hydrogen and make India a net exporter of the fuel.
    Key Activities Facilitates demand creation, production, utilisation, and export of green hydrogen.
    Sub-Schemes
    1. Strategic Interventions for the Green Hydrogen Transition Programme (SIGHT): To fund the domestic manufacturing of electrolysers and the production of green hydrogen.
    2. Green Hydrogen Hubs: Identify and develop states and regions capable of supporting large-scale production and/or utilisation of hydrogen as Green Hydrogen Hubs.
    Green Hydrogen Hubs Details Identifies and develops regions capable of large-scale hydrogen production and utilisation as Green Hydrogen Hubs.
    Objectives
    • Develop 5 MMT per annum of green hydrogen production by 2030.
    • Add 125 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2030.
    • Entail over Rs 8 lakh crore investments and generate six lakh jobs.
    • Reduce fossil fuel imports by over Rs 1 lakh crore and abate 50 MT of greenhouse gases annually.

    Significance of Hydrogen Energy 

    • Hydrogen is an important source of energy since it has zero carbon content and is a non-polluting source of energy in contrast to hydrocarbons that have net carbon content in the range of 75–85 per cent.
    • Hydrogen energy is expected to reduce carbon emissions that are set to jump by 1.5 billion tons in 2021.
    • It has the highest energy content by weight and lowest energy content by volume.
    • As per the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Hydrogen shall make up 6 per cent of total energy consumption by 2050.
    • Hydrogen energy is currently at a nascent stage of development but has considerable potential for aiding the process of energy transition from hydrocarbons to renewable.

    Types of Hydrogen

    Hydrogen extraction methods are classified into three types based on their processes: Grey, Blue, and Green etc.

    1. Green Hydrogen:  Discussed above.
    2. Grey Hydrogen: This type of hydrogen is obtained through coal or lignite gasification (black or brown), or by steam methane reformation (SMR) of natural gas or methane (grey). These processes are typically carbon-intensive.
    3. Blue Hydrogen: It is derived from natural gas or coal gasification, coupled with carbon capture storage (CCS) or carbon capture use (CCU) technologies to mitigate carbon emissions.
    4. Turquoise hydrogen: It refers to hydrogen produced from methane pyrolysis, while yellow hydrogen is produced from biomass.

     

    PYQ:

    [2023] Consider the following heavy industries:

    1. Fertilizer plants
    2. Oil refineries
    3. Steel plants

    Green hydrogen is expected to play a significant role in decarbonizing how many of the above industries?

    (a) Only one
    (b) Only two
    (c) All three
    (d) None

    [2023]  With reference to green hydrogen, consider the following statements:

    1. It can be used directly as a fuel for internal combustion.
    2. It can be blended with natural gas and used as fuel for heat or power generation.
    3. It can be used in the hydrogen fuel cell to run vehicles.

    How many of the above statements are correct?

    (a) Only one
    (b) Only two
    (c) All three
    (d) None

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  • AYUSH – Indian Medicine System

    [pib] Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS) launches PRAGATI-2024

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the news?

    • The Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS) is hosting “PRAGATI-2024” at the India Habitat Centre, New Delhi, to promote collaboration and research opportunities between CCRAS and the Ayurveda drug industry.

    About Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS)  

      • The CCRAS is an autonomous body of the Ministry of AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathy), Government of India.
      • It was established in 1978 to formulate, coordinate, develop, and promote research on scientific lines in the Ayurveda and Sowa-Rigpa system of medicine.
    • Primary Objectives:
      • Research: To undertake research to scientifically establish the efficacy of Ayurvedic practices.
      • Development: To develop and promote Ayurveda science through research and education.
      • Integration: To integrate traditional Ayurvedic methods with modern medicine for more comprehensive healthcare.

    Functions of CCRAS

    • Research Studies: Conducting various types of research studies like drug research, fundamental research, clinical research, literary research, and medicinal plant research.
    • Publication: Publishing scientific journals, research papers, and other documentation to disseminate knowledge.
    • Medicinal Plant Development: Focusing on the cultivation and conservation of medicinal plants used in Ayurveda.
    • Public Health Initiatives: Implementing public health programs and providing training to practitioners.

    Achievements of CCRAS:

    • Development of Ayurvedic Formulations: CCRAS has developed several notable Ayurvedic formulations and technologies, which have been patented and commercialised.
    • National Ayurveda Morbidity Codes: CCRAS has developed morbidity codes and standard terminologies to standardise the practice of Ayurveda.
    • AYUSH Research Portal: A comprehensive database of research on Ayurveda, which includes information on drugs, case studies, and clinical trials.

    Notable Projects:

    • Golden Triangle Partnership: A collaborative project with CSIR (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research) and ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research) for enhancing the scientific validation of Ayurveda.
    • Tribal Health Care Research Program: Aimed at documenting ethno-medical knowledge and validating it for scientific purposes.

    PYQ:

    [2019] How is the Government of India protecting traditional knowledge of medicine from patenting by pharmaceutical companies?

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  • Housing for all – PMAY, etc.

    A door to a housing scheme, tribals find hard to open

    ExplainedSchemes | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

    Why in the News?

    The PM JANMAN presents a new opportunity to transform the lives of India’s Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups.

    About PVTGs:

    India has numerous Adivasi groups, with 75 identified as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). These comprise around 14.6 lakh households and live in scattered, remote, and often inaccessible areas. Their livelihoods rely on methods and tools that predate agriculture. PVTGs have low literacy rates, economic backwardness, and stagnant populations.

    In 1960-61, the Dhebar Commission identified disparities among Scheduled Tribes, leading to the creation of the “Primitive Tribal Groups” (PTG) category.
    In 2006, this category was renamed Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).

    Government Initiatives:

    • Pradhan Mantri PVTG Development Mission. Announced for the fiscal year 2023-24 to improve socio-economic conditions of PVTGs.
    • Pradhan Mantri Janjati Adivasi Nyaya Maha Abhiyan (PM-JANMAN) launched in November 2023.
    •  Pradhan Mantri Adi Adarsh Gram Yojana, Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDP) and Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP).

    PM JANMAN Objectives:

    • Provide essential services to PVTGs, including safe housing, clean drinking water, and sanitation.
    • The largest Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) scheme in the initiative.
    • Aims to reach 4.90 lakh PVTG households by 2026.
    • Households to receive ₹2.39 lakh each in three instalments.

    Technical Challenges in the PM JANMAN Housing Scheme

    App Functionality and Data Gathering:

    • Data Collection Areas: The ‘Awaas+’ app records geographical locations, household profiles with geo-tagging, and bank account details for cash transfers.
    • Mandatory Jobcard: Registration requires a jobcard, but many have been deleted, affecting PVTGs’ eligibility.

    Jobcard Issues:

    • Deletion of Jobcards: Widespread deletion of over eight crore MGNREGA jobcards in the past two years has led to many PVTGs being ineligible for the scheme.
    • Jobcard Misuse: Cases of fraudulent registrations with someone else’s job cards further complicate the registration process.

    Village List Discrepancies:

    • Inconsistent Data: The pre-populated list of villages in the app does not match the MGNREGA Management Information System (MIS). For example, the app lists 22 villages while the MIS lists 31 villages for ‘Vanjari’ Panchayat in Andhra Pradesh, causing confusion.

    Aadhaar-related Issues:

    • Name Matching: The app requires names as per Aadhaar records but does not guide what to do if Aadhaar is absent.
    • PVTG Identification: The app does not explicitly identify PVTGs, using a default ‘ST’ option, leading to non-PVTG registrations.

    Certification Issues:

    • Local Certification: Ineligible registrations prompt local officials to ask PVTGs for certification from sarpanches/mukhiyas.
    • Conflict of Interest: Non-PVTG sarpanches/mukhiyas in mixed communities may act against the interests of PVTGs, complicating the certification process.

    Geo-tagging Problems:

    • Network Issues: Geo-tagging required for planned construction locations faces chaos due to poor network connectivity, hindering accurate data capture.

    Bank Selection Complexity:

    • Overwhelming Options: The app’s dropdown lists for banks are excessively long. For example, selecting ‘Commercial Bank’ shows over 300 options, and choosing ‘State Bank of India’ in Andhra Pradesh presents over 500 branches, adding unnecessary complexity for both PVTGs and officials.

    Opportunity/Way Forward for PM JANMAN Housing Scheme

    • Simplify App Interface: Update the ‘Awaas+’ app to have a more user-friendly interface and reduce unnecessary complexities, such as the long dropdown lists for banks.
    • Clear Guidelines for Aadhaar: Provide explicit instructions on what names to use in the absence of Aadhaar, ensuring all eligible PVTGs can register.
    • Verify Jobcard Authenticity: Introduce robust mechanisms to prevent fraudulent registrations using others’ jobcards.
    • Improve Network Infrastructure: Invest in better network infrastructure in remote areas to support the geo-tagging feature.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Given the diversities among tribal communities in India, in which specific contexts should they be considered as a single category? (UPSC IAS/2022)

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  • Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

    How close is the World Health Organization to agreeing on pandemic response rules?

    Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

    Why in the News?

    Health officials of the World Health Organization (WHO) aim to finalize over two years of negotiations on new pandemic response rules when they convene in Geneva next week.

    About the ‘Pandemic Treaty’

    • The pandemic treaty is a new legally binding agreement being negotiated to improve the global pandemic response. The treaty aims to address the shortcomings revealed during the COVID-19 pandemic, such as inequitable vaccine distribution.
    • Article 12, a critical and contentious part of the treaty, proposes reserving around 20% of tests, treatments, and vaccines for WHO distribution to poorer countries during emergencies.
    • The treaty would be the second major health accord after the 2003 Framework Convention on Tobacco Control.

    Convention n Tobacco Control

    • Govt. of India ratified the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC) in 2004, the first-ever international public health treaty focusing on the global public health issue of tobacco control.
    • The FCTC is a legally binding treaty that requires countries bound by the treaty — or Parties to implement evidence-based measures to reduce tobacco use and exposure to tobacco smoke.

    How will Global Health Rules Change?

    • Updates to the existing International Health Regulations (IHR) include a new alert system for different risk assessments of outbreaks, replacing the current single-level emergency declaration.
    • A new “early action alert” stage will be introduced, along with a potential “pandemic emergency” category for the most severe health threats.
    • Obligations for countries: Strengthened obligations for countries to inform the WHO about public health events, changing the language from “may” to “should”.

    How do the countries view this pact?

    • Developed Countries
        • Wealthy countries are often cautious about sharing resources such as drugs and vaccines.
        • There is significant political pressure, especially from right-wing groups, fearing that the treaty could infringe on national sovereignty.
        • These countries are concerned about the financial implications, debating whether to set up a new fund or use existing resources like the World Bank’s $1 billion pandemic fund.
    • Underdeveloped Countries
      • Poorer countries emphasize the need for equitable access to treatments and vaccines, reflecting experiences of “vaccine apartheid” during the COVID-19 pandemic.
      • They advocate for stronger commitments from wealthier nations to support global health infrastructure and emergency response capabilities.

    Future Scope of the New IHR Rules and the Pandemic Accord (Treaty):

    • More robust framework: The IHR updates and the pandemic treaty has designed to complement each other, creating a more robust framework for global health emergencies.
    • Promotes cooperation: The new rules aim to ensure faster, more transparent information sharing, and better co-operation during health crises.
    • Next steps for treaty negotiations: Next week’s World Health Assembly will focus on planning the next steps for the Treaty Negotiations, with a full agreement unlikely to be reached immediately.
    • Defenses against future pandemics: The successful implementation of both the IHR updates and the pandemic treaty could significantly strengthen the world’s defenses against future pandemics, addressing gaps exposed by COVID-19.

    Conclusion: While there is a shared understanding of the treaty’s importance, countries’ views are shaped by their National interests, Financial concerns, and Political pressures, leading to complex and protracted negotiations.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Critically examine the role of WHO in providing global health security during the Covid-19 pandemic. (UPSC IAS/2020)

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  • Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

    How Europe’s AI convention balances innovation and human rights | Explained

    Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    Global AI governance is becoming increasingly intricate, with countries employing diverse approaches. This shows that the Global treaties may face significant challenges despite widespread support.

    About the Council of Europe (COE)

    • The COE is an intergovernmental organization established in 1949. It currently has 46 member states, including the Holy See, Japan, and the U.S., alongside EU countries.
    • Aim: To uphold human rights, democracy, and the rule of law in Europe.

    What is Europe’s AI convention?

    • Europe’s AI convention, officially known as the Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law, represents a significant milestone in AI governance.
    • Adopted by the Council of Europe (COE) on May 17, this convention addresses the pressing need for comprehensive regulation of AI, particularly concerning its impact on human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.

    The scope of the Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights, Democracy, and the Rule of Law encompasses:

    • It ensures that activities throughout the lifecycle of Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems align fully with Human Rights, Democracy, and the Rule of Law.
    • Consistent with the EU AI Act and the OECD’s definition, an AI system is defined as a machine-based system that generates outputs based on input to influence physical or virtual environments.

    Coverage:

    • Application by Parties: The convention applies to activities involving AI systems conducted by both public authorities and private actors acting on their behalf.
    • Addressing Risks: Parties are required to address risks and impacts from AI systems activities by private actors that are not covered under (a) in a manner consistent with the convention’s objectives.

    Difference Between a Framework Convention and a Protocol

    • Framework Convention: A legally binding treaty specifying broad commitments and objectives.Allows parties discretion in achieving objectives, adapting to their capacities and priorities.Example: Convention on Biological Diversity.
    • Protocol: Specific agreements are negotiated under a framework convention. Sets specific targets or detailed measures to achieve the broader objectives of the framework convention.Example: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety under the Convention on Biological Diversity.

    Addressing National Security in the AI Convention

    • Exemptions for National Security: Articles 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 provide broad exemptions for national security interests, research, development, testing, and national defense, excluding military AI applications from the convention’s scope.
    • Balancing Flexibility and Regulation: Article 3(b) allows parties some flexibility in applying the convention to the private sector, preventing total exemption but accommodating national security needs.
    • General Obligations: Articles 4 and 5 ensure the protection of human rights, democratic integrity, and the rule of law, requiring parties to address disinformation and deep fakes as part of their national security measures.
    • Scope for Further Action: Article 22 allows parties to exceed specified commitments, enabling additional measures to address national security concerns related to AI.

    Conclusion: The AI convention is essential because it reinforces existing human and fundamental rights within the context of AI applications, rather than creating new rights. It emphasizes the need for governments to uphold these rights and implement effective remedies and procedural safeguards.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q “The emergence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Digital Revolution) has initiated e-Governance as an integral part of government”. Discuss.(UPSC IAS/2020)

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