Why in the News?
PM extended wishes to the Odia-speaking communities on the occasion of Nuakhai.
About Nuakhai Festival:
- Meaning: Derived from “Nua” (new) and “Khai” (food); literally “new food”, marking the first consumption of freshly harvested rice.
- Region: Celebrated mainly in Western Odisha and also observed in parts of Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand by Odia-speaking communities.
- Significance: Agrarian thanksgiving to deities, ancestors, and the earth; symbol of prosperity, good harvest, and family unity.
- Date: Observed on Bhadraba Sukla Panchami (5th day after Ganesh Chaturthi).
- Historical Roots: Traces to Vedic rituals of first grain offerings (Pralambana yajna); formalized in the 14th century by Raja Ramai Deo of Patna State, Sambalpur.
- Social Role: Strengthens community bonds; people greet with “Nuakhai Juhar”, reconcile disputes, and seek elders’ blessings.
Festivities and Cultural Elements:
- Preparations: Begin 15 days in advance; involve nine ritual steps (Navaranga) such as fixing the date, cleaning homes, harvesting grain, offering puja, and sharing food.
- Ritual Practice: Family head or priest performs puja, offering the first grain to the local deity, followed by distribution within the family.
- Cultural Celebrations: Sambalpuri folk dances like Rasarkeli, Dalkhai, Maelajada, Sajani; folk songs praising harvest and community spirit.
| [UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs: Tradition | State
1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram
2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur
3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim
Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
This year marks three decades since the landmark Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which established the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
About United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED):
- Event: Also called the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (June 3–14, 1992).
- Participation: 178 countries, 117 heads of state, thousands of NGOs and civil society groups.
- Objective: Reconcile economic growth with environmental protection, mainstreaming sustainable development globally.
- Key Outcomes:
- Rio Declaration (27 principles, including precautionary principle & Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)).
- Agenda 21 (non-binding action plan for sustainable development).
- UNFCCC (binding treaty on climate change; later Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement).
- Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (binding treaty on biodiversity).
- Statement of Forest Principles (non-binding guidelines for sustainable forests).
- Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) created to monitor implementation.
- Significance: Landmark in international environmental diplomacy, embedding sustainability in global policy and leading to follow-ups (Rio+10, Rio+20).
India and UNCED:
- Stance & Advocacy:
- Strongly pushed for Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR); developed nations must bear greater responsibility due to historical emissions and resource use.
- Emphasized poverty eradication and the right to economic growth for developing countries.
- Called for financial support and technology transfer from developed countries to the Global South.
- Commitments:
- Signed & ratified all key Rio agreements: Rio Declaration, Agenda 21, UNFCCC, CBD.
- Domestic Follow-up:
- Integrated Agenda 21 principles into national policies (sustainable resource use, biodiversity protection, EIAs).
- Strengthened environmental legislation under the Environment Protection Act (1986).
- Role: Positioned itself as a voice of developing countries, balancing environment with development imperatives.
| [UPSC 2010] The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty drawn at-
Options:
(a) United Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 1972
(b) UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio De Janerio, 1992 *
(c) World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002
(d) UN Climate Change Conference, Copenhagen, 2009 |
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Why in the News?
The latest round of Unified District Information System for Education Plus (UDISE+) data was released by the Ministry of Education (MoE).
About UDISE+
- Launch: Introduced in 2018–19 as an upgraded version of UDISE (2012–13).
- Purpose: Collects and monitors school-level data across India.
- Coverage: Tracks enrolment, dropout rates, teachers, infrastructure, and gender indicators.
- Design: Built to speed up data entry, reduce errors, improve verification, and enhance data quality.
- Policy Role: Functions as a key tool for planning, monitoring, and implementing education reforms.
- Scope: Covers schools at all levels – foundational, preparatory, middle, and secondary.
Key Highlights of the UDISE+ 2025 Report:
- Teachers: Number of teachers crossed 1 crore (1,01,22,420) in 2024–25, a 6.7% rise from 2022–23.
- Pupil–Teacher Ratio (PTR): Improved to 10 (foundational), 13 (preparatory), 17 (middle), and 21 (secondary), well below NEP’s 1:30 recommendation.
- Dropout Rates: Fell sharply to 2.3% (preparatory), 3.5% (middle), 8.2% (secondary) in 2024–25, compared to 8.7%, 8.1%, 13.8% respectively in 2022–23.
- Retention Rates: Reached 98.9% (foundational), 92.4% (preparatory), 82.8% (middle), 47.2% (secondary).
- Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER): Rose to 90.3% (middle) and 68.5% (secondary).
- Transition Rates: Increased to 98.6% (foundational → preparatory), 92.2% (preparatory → middle), 86.6% (middle → secondary).
- Zero-Enrolment & Single Teacher Schools: Single-teacher schools reduced to 1,04,125; zero-enrolment schools dropped to 7,993 (38% decline).
- Infrastructure: 64.7% schools with computer access, 63.5% with internet, 93.6% with electricity, 99.3% with drinking water, 97.3% with girls’ toilets, 96.2% with boys’ toilets. 95.9% with handwashing, 83% with playgrounds, 89.5% with libraries, 54.9% with ramps/handrails, 29.4% with rainwater harvesting.
- Gender Representation: Girls’ enrolment rose to 48.3%. Female teachers increased to 54.2% of the workforce.
| [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:
1. As per the Right to Education (RTE) Act, to be eligible for appointment as a teacher in a State, a person would be required to possess the minimum qualification laid down by the concerned State Council of Teacher Education.
2. As per the RTE Act, for teaching primary classes, a candidate is required to pass a Teacher Eligibility Test conducted in accordance with the National Council of Teacher Education guidelines.
3. In India, more than 90% of teacher education institutions are directly under the State Governments
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only * (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only |
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Why in the News?
ISRO Chairman V. Narayanan announced that the upcoming rocket launching site at Kulasekarapattinam (Tamil Nadu) will handle 20–25 satellite launches annually.
About Kulasekarapattinam Spaceport:
- Location: Coastal hamlet near Tiruchendur, Thoothukudi district, Tamil Nadu; inaugurated by PM in February 2024.
- Second Spaceport: India’s second spaceport after Satish Dhawan Space Centre (Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, 1971).
- Capacity: Can handle 20–25 launches annually, including 24 launches using a Mobile Launch Structure.
- Focus: Dedicated to Small Satellite Launch Vehicles (SSLVs), with capacity to launch rockets up to 500 kg.
- Facilities: About 35 facilities including launch pad, rocket integration units, ground range, checkout systems, and Mobile Launch Structure with onboard checkout computers.
Advantages offered by Kulasekarapattinam Spaceport:
- Direct Southward Launches: Location allows launches into the Indian Ocean without crossing landmasses; ensures more safety from debris fall.
- No Dogleg Manoeuvre: Unlike Sriharikota, no detour is needed to avoid Sri Lanka, saving fuel.
- Efficient Trajectory: Improves efficiency for satellites in Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits (SSPOs).
- Payload Advantage: SSLVs from Kulasekarapattinam can place ~300 kg into SSPO, higher than from Sriharikota.
- Decongestion: Reduces pressure on Sriharikota, which will focus on larger PSLV, GSLV, and Gaganyaan launches.
- Commercial Boost: Strengthens India’s role in the global small-satellite launch market, enhancing space economy.
- Strategic Advantage: Near-equator position provides benefits for certain orbital paths.
| [UPSC 2008] ISRO successfully conducted a rocket test using cryogenic engines in the year 2007. Where is the test-stand used for the purpose, located?
Options: (a) Balasore (b) Thiruvananthapuram (c) Mahendragiri* (d) Karwar |
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PYQ Linkage
[UPSC 2016] Examine the main provisions of the National Child Policy and throw light on the status of its implementation.
Linkage: The National Child Policy envisions ensuring survival, development, protection, and participation of every child. Initiatives like Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi, Aadharshila, and Navchetna operationalise this by transforming Anganwadis into learning hubs and focusing on early stimulation. This reflects concrete implementation of policy goals through structured ECCE and parental involvement. |
Mentor’s Comment
India’s vision of Viksit Bharat depends on nurturing its youngest citizens. By placing Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) at the core of policy, Anganwadi centres are being reimagined as the first classrooms, not just nutrition hubs. This editorial highlights the significance of play-based learning, the reforms underway, and their impact on social, economic, and human capital development.
Introduction
Nation-building begins where learning begins, in Anganwadis and playschools where children first explore and imagine. Since 85% of brain development occurs before six, India has prioritised structured, play-based learning. Initiatives like the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi, Aadharshila curriculum, and Navchetna framework mark a decisive shift: education is no longer seen as starting at school, but from birth itself.
Why in the News?
Play-based learning has become a national policy priority under the present government. Anganwadi workers are being trained in ECCE, and centres are evolving into early learning hubs. This marks a historic policy turn, shifting focus from higher education to the earliest years of life, where investments yield the highest returns. Evidence shows ECCE can raise IQ levels by up to 19 points and deliver 13–18% returns (Heckman), making it one of the most impactful reforms in recent times.
Reimagining Anganwadis as Learning Hubs
- Anganwadis as First Schools: Transition from nutrition centres to vibrant learning hubs.
- Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi: A flagship initiative introducing structured ECCE and play-based learning.
- Training of Workers: First-ever systematic training of Anganwadi workers in ECCE methods.
- Budgetary Support: Enhanced allocations for teaching-learning materials.
- Community Trust: Parents now view Anganwadis as the foundation of their child’s education.
Scientific Evidence Supporting ECCE
- Brain Development: NEP 2020 highlights 85% of brain growth occurs before six years.
- CMC Vellore Study: Children exposed to 18–24 months of ECCE gained up to 19 IQ points by age five, and 5–9 points by age nine.
- Global Research: Nobel Laureate James Heckman shows 13–18% returns on early childhood investments.
Ensuring Holistic Development in Early Childhood
- Aadharshila Curriculum: National ECCE framework for children aged 3–6 years.
- 5+1 Weekly Plan: Balance of free play, structured learning, creativity, motor skills, social interaction, and values.
- Focus Beyond Cognitive Skills: Emotional, social, and physical development equally emphasised.
- Outdoor Play & Emotional Bonds: Ensuring resilience, socialisation, and value-building.
Birth-to-Three: The Neglected but Crucial Stage
- Navchetna Framework: National framework for Early Childhood Stimulation.
- Parental Involvement: Empowering caregivers with play-based activities at home.
- Equity Focus: State as equaliser for low-income families lacking resources.
Play-Based Learning as a Tool for Nation-Building
- Human Capital Formation: Better prepared children ensure stronger productivity.
- Social Inclusion: ECCE bridges gaps between privileged and underprivileged children.
- Nation’s Future: Early learning reduces dropout rates and improves long-term educational outcomes.
Conclusion
If India is to realise its vision of Viksit Bharat @2047, it must begin where life begins. By making play a policy, and not merely leisure, India is reshaping its future workforce and citizens. Anganwadis as learning hubs, structured ECCE, and parental engagement are steps that will yield dividends not just in GDP growth, but in nurturing empathetic, curious, and resilient human beings. Play is no longer child’s play, it is nation-building.
Value Addition
|
Anganwadis
- Scale and Reach: Over 13.9 lakh Anganwadi Centres (AWCs) functioning under the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), covering nearly every village/urban ward.
- Holistic Role: Provide nutrition, health check-ups, immunisation, pre-school non-formal education, and referral services — making them the convergence point for child and maternal welfare.
- Policy Integration: Central to schemes like Poshan Abhiyaan, Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi, and the Saksham Anganwadi & Poshan 2.0.
- Early Childhood Development: With Aadharshila curriculum and Navchetna framework, AWCs are being repositioned as first schools ensuring ECCE and holistic growth.
- Empowerment of Women: Run largely by women workers (anganwadi sevikas), providing local employment, social recognition, and female leadership at the grassroots.
- Challenges: Issues of infrastructure gaps, irregular honorarium, workload burden, training deficits, and low community awareness remain barriers.
- Global Alignment: Echoes UNICEF and UNESCO emphasis on early childhood care as foundational to human capital and demographic dividend.
|
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Introduction
The blocking of Sci-Hub in India marks a turning point in the battle between corporate publishers and the principle of open knowledge. At the heart of the issue lies the paradox of publicly funded research locked behind exorbitant paywalls. The government’s One Nation One Subscription (ONOS) scheme, with an allocation of ₹6,000 crore, aims to democratize access to 13,000 journals for research institutions. Yet, concerns remain about its cost-effectiveness, inclusivity, and long-term sustainability.
Why is this issue in the news?
- The Delhi High Court’s verdict against Sci-Hub is a landmark moment because:
- For the first time in India, the judiciary has formally sided with publishers in the long-drawn copyright battle.
- It stands in sharp contrast with the reality that research is funded by public money but monetized by private publishers with 30%+ profit margins.
- The problem is enormous: lakhs of rupees per journal subscription make access unaffordable for many institutions, forcing dependence on Sci-Hub earlier.
- The government’s ONOS initiative is the first large-scale attempt to address structural inequities in knowledge access, but doubts persist about its ability to replace shadow libraries.
The Distinctive Nature of Scientific Publishing
- No royalties for authors: Researchers and peer reviewers are unpaid, unlike musicians or filmmakers.
- Publicly funded research: Much of Indian science is taxpayer-funded, yet access is privatized.
- Exorbitant subscriptions: Institutions pay lakhs for a single journal. Publishers justify costs via “quality control” but enjoy 30%+ profit margins, raising concerns of rent-seeking.
The Global Controversy Around Sci-Hub
- Copyright infringement: Courts in the U.S., Europe, and now India have ruled against Sci-Hub.
- Essential access tool: For countless researchers, Sci-Hub was the only means to access knowledge, especially outside elite universities.
- Contempt charges: Alexandra Elbakyan allegedly violated court orders by running Sci-Net, a mirror service.
- Declining relevance: Technical unreliability and growing open-access alternatives are reducing its utility.
The Vision of One Nation, One Subscription
- Government-led subscription: Outlay of ₹6,000 crore (2023–2026) for bulk access to 13,000 journals.
- Phase I focus: All public institutions; Phase II may include private ones.
- Equal access: Seeks to eliminate inequities between elite and smaller research centres.
- Limitations: Independent researchers and those at private centres remain excluded until Phase II.
ONOS in the Context of Global Open-Access Movements
- Global open-access movement: Over half of papers are already open access through preprints and repositories.
- U.S. policy (2026): All federally funded research must be open.
- EU Horizon Europe: Similar open-access mandate.
- India’s challenge: At a time when the world moves toward open access, ONOS risks becoming an expensive detour.
Structural Flaws in Scholarly Publishing
- Dependence on foreign publishers: ONOS continues India’s reliance on Western journals.
- Copyright transfer: Indian researchers must still give away rights to their work.
- Pay-to-publish dilemma: Funds freed at institutions may shift to open-access journals, but may ignore institutional repositories.
- Need for rights retention: Policies like Harvard/MIT (mandatory deposit in repositories) could empower Indian researchers.
Conclusion
The Sci-Hub ban highlights the persistent inequities in access to scientific knowledge. While ONOS is a step forward, it risks being a band-aid solution unless paired with deeper reforms: indigenous publishing capacity, national repositories, and copyright retention policies. India must not merely manage the symptoms of an exploitative system but must cure the disease by reclaiming knowledge as a public good.
Value Addition
|
Knowledge as a Public Good
- Publicly funded research must be accessible to all because it is financed by taxpayers.
- Blocking access (through high subscription fees or court orders) creates an elitist knowledge economy.
- UN and UNESCO treat knowledge access as a pillar of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 4: Quality Education, SDG 9: Innovation).
Economic Dimension
- Global publishers enjoy 30%+ profit margins, while Indian institutions pay lakhs per journal subscription, draining public funds.
- ONOS at ₹6,000 crore (2023–2026) represents bulk negotiation power by the state, saving scattered institutional expenditure.
- Issue of dependency on foreign publishers persists, highlighting the need for indigenous publishing ecosystems.
Global Comparisons
- U.S. (2026 mandate): All federally funded research must be openly accessible.
- EU’s Horizon Europe: Immediate open access to publications funded under the programme.
- Plan S (Europe, 2018): Publicly funded research must be published in open-access journals.
- India risks being out of sync if it over-invests in subscriptions while others move to free access models.
Technology and Governance
- ONOS = India’s experiment in e-governance for knowledge.
- Needs to integrate institutional repositories, preprint servers, and rights retention policies (like Harvard/MIT) to empower researchers.
- Can be linked with the Digital India mission, showing tech-driven democratization of services.
Ethical Dimension
- Applied Ethics of Technology: Corporate profits vs. collective social welfare.
- Moral dilemma: Should intellectual property rights override public access to life-saving or path-breaking research?
- Covid-19 demonstrated that open-access collaboration saved lives by accelerating vaccine and drug development.
|
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2024] ‘’What is the present world scenario of Intellectual Property Rights? Although India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.”
Linkage: The Sci-Hub ban and ONOS scheme reflect how IPR in scientific publishing creates barriers to access despite research being publicly funded. Globally, publishers extract high profits through restrictive copyright, mirroring the broader challenge of IPR becoming a tool of rent-seeking rather than innovation. India’s weak indigenous publishing ecosystem and overdependence on foreign journals parallel the problem of low commercialization of patents—both highlight the gap between innovation output and practical accessibility/utility.
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Introduction
Online real-money gaming is no longer an innocent form of entertainment. With mechanics borrowed from gambling, variable rewards, high engagement loops, and rapid gratification, these games are engineered to create dependency. For India’s youth, this shift has manifested in addiction, financial losses, academic decline, and severe mental health crises. The government’s ban may seem like a safeguard, but the issue is deeper: India’s children deserve not just a firewall, but also psychological care, awareness, and structured support.
Online Gaming Addiction as a Pressing Concern
- Gambling-like mechanisms: Real-money games mirror casino psychology, using reward loops to sustain engagement.
- Rising cases of harm: Children have drained family bank accounts, hidden debts, and even attempted suicide due to gaming stress.
- Mental health crisis: Anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation among adolescents point to an urgent public health issue.
The Fallout of Gaming Addiction on Families
- Toxic home environments: Addiction leads to secrecy, conflict, and breakdown of trust.
- Academic decline: Falling grades and inability to concentrate fuel further parental distress.
- Financial stress: Unexpected credit card bills or loans worsen family relations.
The Limits of Gaming Bans
- Immediate relief: Bans reduce household conflicts and financial shocks.
- Partial bans & age-gating: Allowing adults while protecting minors can delay addiction onset.
- Psychological displacement: Without therapy, children may shift to pornography, substance abuse, or compulsive social media use.
Towards a Comprehensive Strategy Against Gaming Addiction
- School-based interventions: Routine mental health screenings and workshops on digital addiction.
- Parental guidance: Training parents to spot early warning signs and encourage healthy digital habits.
- Child-friendly counselling: Access to therapy services designed for adolescents.
- Awareness campaigns: Multi-stakeholder efforts targeting students, caregivers, and teachers.
Gaming Addiction as a Behavioural Health Challenge
- Beyond discipline: Punishment or restriction alone worsens secrecy and aggression.
- Long-term healing: A behavioural approach can repair family rifts and promote healthy tech use.
- Balanced future: Children should grow up with resilience, not dependency, in digital spaces.
Way Forward: Towards a Balanced Approach
- Public Health Lens: Treat gaming addiction as a behavioural health issue with school screenings, awareness drives, and accessible counselling.
- Smart Regulation: Use age-gating, spending caps, and parental consent instead of blanket bans.
- Global Lessons:
- China: Strict weekly limits → relief but drove youth to unregulated platforms.
- UK/EU: Regulate loot boxes as gambling → targeted, flexible control.
- South Korea: Late-night gaming ban + rehab centres → balance of restriction and support.
- India’s Path: A middle way combining safeguards with education and digital literacy, avoiding both overregulation and laissez-faire neglect.
Conclusion
India’s youth deserve more than prohibitionist measures. A firewall can block access, but not heal emotional wounds. True protection lies in combining thoughtful regulation with robust mental health programmes, counselling, and awareness. Only then can families find balance and children grow with a healthier relationship to technology.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2023] “Child cuddling is now being replaced by mobile phones. Discuss its impact on the socialization of children.”
Linkage: Online real-money gaming, like mobile phones, is replacing natural child–parent interaction with addictive digital engagement. This weakens socialization, fuels secrecy and conflict within families, and erodes trust. Both highlight how technology-driven dependence disrupts healthy emotional development in children.
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Why in the News?
India is set to participate with over 700 personnel from tri-services for 19th edition of Exercise Bright Star 2025 in Egypt.
About Exercise Bright Star:
- Origin: Began in 1980 as a US–Egypt bilateral drill after the Egypt–Israel peace treaty.
- Nature: Now one of the largest and longest-running multinational tri-service military exercises in the Middle East.
- Frequency: Held biennially in Egypt with the United States as the principal partner.
- Objectives:
- Enhance regional security and stability.
- Improve jointness, interoperability, and operational coordination among partner nations.
Key Highlights of the 2025 Edition:
- Scale: Approximate 7,900 troops from 43 nations.
- 13 countries directly deploying troops.
- 30 countries participating as observers.
- Strategic Significance:
- Builds defence cooperation between India, Egypt, US, and partner nations.
- Important amid West Asia, Red Sea, and Gulf security challenges.
| [UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?
1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.
Select the answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4* |
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Why in the News?
A recent IIT Indore study shows that climate change has caused a 10% shrinkage in the Gangotri Glacier System over four decades, altering snowmelt and hydrology.
About Gangotri Glacier System (GGS):
- Location: Uttarkashi District, Uttarakhand, in the Central Garhwal Himalayas.
- Origin: Near the Chaukhamba massif at ~7,000 metres above sea level.
- Size: Main trunk 30–32 km long, 2–4 km wide, with a total glacierized area of ~252 sq. km.
- Snout: Known as Gaumukh (“cow’s mouth”), source of the Bhagirathi River, which later merges with the Alaknanda at Devprayag to form the Ganga.
- Tributaries: Includes Chaturangi, Raktavarn, Meru, Rudugaira, Kedar, and Vasuki glaciers.
- Type: Valley-type glacier with granite, gneiss, and schist bedrock.
- Features: Moraines, supraglacial lakes, crevasses, and avalanche fans.
- Debris Cover: 20–24% of the glacier area is debris-covered, affecting melting rates.
Key Findings of the IIT Indore Study (1980–2020):
- Flow Contribution: Snowmelt 64%, glacier melt 21%, rainfall-runoff 11%, base flow 4%.
- Decline in Snowmelt Share: From 73% in 1980–90 to 63% in 2010–20, reflecting climate change impact.
- Temperature Rise: Mean annual temperature increased by 0.5°C in 2001–2020 compared to 1980–2000.
- Shift in Peak Discharge: From August to July since the 1990s due to earlier melting and reduced winter precipitation.
- Snowmelt Rebound: During 2010–2020, colder winters (–2°C) and higher winter precipitation (262 mm) increased snow accumulation.
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following pairs:
Glacier: River
1. Bandarpunch -Yamuna
2. Bara Shigri -Chenab
3. Milam -Mandakini
4. Siachen -Nubra
5. Zemu -Manas
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 4* (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 2 and 5 (d) 3 and 5 |
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Why in the News?
SpaceX’s Starship has completed its first fully successful test flight after a series of failures.
About SpaceX Starship:
- Design: A two-stage heavy-lift launch vehicle built to carry crew and cargo to Earth orbit, the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
- Developer: SpaceX, founded by Elon Musk, with the vision of enabling interplanetary travel and colonisation.
- Size: Nearly 120 metres tall with booster, making it the largest rocket ever built and flown. Taller than Saturn V (111 m) and India’s Qutub Minar (72.5 m).
- Historic Test Flight: On 27 August 2025, achieved its first fully successful flight. Booster splashed down in the Gulf of Mexico, spacecraft reached the Indian Ocean.
- Role in NASA Missions: Critical to Artemis Program for returning humans to the Moon and later missions to Mars.
- Long-term Goal: Make Starship fully and rapidly reusable, cutting costs and redefining space travel.
Key Features of Starship:
- Two-Stage Rocket System:
- Super Heavy booster powered by 33 Raptor engines generating 74 meganewtons of thrust, nearly double NASA’s SLS and twice Saturn V.
- Engines burn liquid oxygen and methane, enabling deep-space use and Mars resource utilisation.
- Booster fully reusable, capable of atmospheric re-entry and recovery.
- Six Raptor engines and four landing fins, designed for full reusability on long-duration missions.
- Payload Capacity: Can carry up to 150 tonnes to Low-Earth Orbit and over 100 tonnes to the Moon and Mars, more than all soft-landed lunar payloads combined.
- Cost Reduction Potential: Estimated to deliver 100 tonnes of cargo to Mars for ~$50 million, compared to NASA Shuttle’s $1.5 billion per launch with far less payload.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following space missions:
I. Axiom-4 II. SpaDeX III. Gaganyaan
How many of the space missions given above encourage and support microgravity research?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three* (d) None |
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Why in the News?
Two Indian aquanauts dived over 5,000 m in the Atlantic aboard French vessel Nautile, as part of India’s Samudrayaan Mission.
What is Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)?
- Approved: 2021 by the Union Cabinet, with a budget of ₹4,077 crore for 5 years.
- Aim: Explore, conserve, and sustainably use deep-ocean resources to support India’s Blue Economy.
- Six Components:
- Develop technologies for deep-sea mining, submersibles, and robotics.
- Ocean climate change advisory service with observations + predictive models.
- Deep-sea biodiversity exploration and conservation.
- Surveys for polymetallic nodules and minerals.
- Energy & freshwater extraction technologies from oceans.
- Advanced Marine Station for ocean biology & engineering → to bridge research & industry.
|
About Samudrayaan Mission:
- Nature: India’s first crewed deep-sea exploration mission.
- Objective: To send 3 humans up to 6,000 m depth into the central Indian Ocean by 2027.
- Vehicle: Crewed submersible Matsya-6000 (fish-shaped, 2.1 m personal sphere).
- Capacity: 3 aquanauts.
- Endurance: 12 hours normal + 96 hours emergency life support.
- Material: Titanium alloy sphere (80 mm thickness) to withstand ~600x atmospheric pressure.
- Coordinating Agency: National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Ministry of Earth Sciences.
- Strategic Significance: Will place India among a select group of countries (US, Russia, China, Japan, France) with human deep-sea exploration capability.
Progress made so far:
- Aquanaut Training: Discussed above.
- Matsya-6000 Development:
- Successfully wet tested in Feb 2025.
- Titanium alloy sphere fabrication ongoing at ISRO using electron beam welding.
- Initial steel test sphere used for 500 m trials.
- Technology Development:
- Indigenous acoustic telephone built for underwater communication (works in open ocean after initial failures).
- Life-support systems designed to maintain 20% oxygen and scrub CO₂.
- Next Steps:
- Human test dive at 500 m depth planned before full 6,000 m mission.
- Full Samudrayaan launch targeted by 2027.
| [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:
1.The Global Ocean Commission grants licenses for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
2.India has received licenses for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.
3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options:(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3 |
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Why in the news?
Floods hit Punjab villages due to heavy rain in Himachal, high dam discharges (Bhakra, Pong, Ranjit Sagar), and regulated headworks flow.
About the Rivers, Dams, and Headworks of Punjab:
| River |
Origin & Entry into Punjab |
Major Dam (Location & Key Facts) |
Headworks & Functions |
| Sutlej |
Origin: Rakshastal Lake (Tibet); enters India at Shipki La (HP); enters Punjab at Rupnagar; joins Beas at Harike, then Chenab in Pakistan. |
Bhakra Dam (near Nangal, HP–Punjab border).
One of India’s highest gravity dams; reservoir = Gobind Sagar Lake; irrigation + hydropower. |
Ropar: Feeds Sirhind & BML canals (Punjab + Haryana).
Harike: Diverts Sutlej–Beas water to Rajasthan & Punjab canals.
Hussainiwala: Feeds Bikaner & Eastern Canals (Punjab + Rajasthan). |
| Beas |
Origin: Beas Kund (Rohtang Pass, HP); enters Punjab near Mukerian (Hoshiarpur); flows via Hoshiarpur, Gurdaspur, Tarn Taran, Amritsar. |
Pong Dam (Maharana Pratap Sagar), HP (Kangra).
Major irrigation + power dam; supplies Harike. |
Harike: Regulates Beas + Sutlej water; feeds Rajasthan & Punjab canals. |
| Ravi |
Origin: Bara Banghal (Rohtang Pass, HP); enters Punjab near Pathankot; flows via Pathankot, Gurdaspur;
Enters Pakistan and joins Chenab. |
Ranjit Sagar Dam (Thein Dam), Pathankot (Punjab–J&K border). Irrigation + hydropower. |
Madhopur: Feeds UBDC canal (Punjab).
Madhopur–Beas Link: Transfers surplus Ravi to Beas before Pakistan. |
| [UPSC 2021] With reference to the Indus river system, among the following four rivers, one of them joins the Indus directly:
Options: (a) Chenab (b) Jhelum (c) Ravi (d) Sutlej* |
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Why in the News?
The Union Cabinet has approved the restructuring and extension of the Prime Minister Street Vendor’s Atmanirbhar Nidhi (PM SVANidhi) scheme.
About PM SVANidhi Scheme:
- Launch: June 1, 2020, as Central Sector Scheme fully funded by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).
- Purpose: To provide affordable credit to street vendors hit hard by the Covid-19 pandemic and help them restart/expand their businesses.
- Target Group: Urban street vendors in statutory towns and peri-urban/rural areas.
- Extension: Restructured and extended up to March 31, 2030.
- Beneficiaries: 1.15 crore vendors, including 50 lakh new ones.
Key Features:
- Collateral-free Loans (incremental):
- 1st tranche: ₹15,000 (earlier ₹10,000).
- 2nd tranche: ₹25,000 (earlier ₹20,000).
- 3rd tranche: ₹50,000.
- Digital Empowerment:
- Timely 2nd loan repayment → eligibility for UPI-linked RuPay Credit Card (for emergent business/personal needs).
- Digital cashback incentives up to ₹1,600 on retail & wholesale transactions.
- Capacity Building:
- Training in entrepreneurship, financial literacy, digital skills, and marketing.
- Food safety & hygiene training for street food vendors (with FSSAI partnership).
- Implementation:
- Jointly by MoHUA & Department of Financial Services (DFS).
- DFS facilitates loans & credit cards through banks/financial institutions.
- Wider Goals:
- Promote financial inclusion & digital adoption.
- Enable vendors’ business expansion & sustainable growth.
- Contribute to inclusive urban economic development.
| [UPSC 2011] Microfinance is the provision of financial services to people of low-income groups. This includes both the consumers and the self-employed. The service/services rendered under microfinance is/are:
1. Credit facilities 2. Savings facilities 3. Insurance facilities 4. Fund Transfer facilities
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 4 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4* |
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PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2021] Examine the role of ‘Gig Economy’ in the process of empowerment of women in India.
Linkage: The article highlights that India’s economic vulnerabilities are aggravated by its failure to integrate women into the workforce. While traditional women-dominated export sectors face instability due to tariff shocks, the gig economy offers a new pathway for empowerment. Platforms like Urban Company demonstrate how women can earn sustainable incomes (₹18,000–25,000/month) with safety, insurance, and skill development. Thus, the gig economy is not just an employment option but a structural enabler of women’s empowerment, mobility, and autonomy. However, as the article stresses, formalisation of gig work, targeted policy support, and social protections are vital to make this empowerment sustainable. |
Mentor’s Comment
India’s economic rise is undeniable, valued at $4.19 trillion, it is poised to be the world’s third-largest economy. Yet, the proposed 50% U.S. tariffs on Indian exports highlight an uncomfortable truth: India’s growth story is fragile because it has failed to empower half its population. This article unpacks how gender imbalance in labour markets is no longer a social concern but an economic vulnerability.
Introduction
India’s ascent as a global economic power is being tested by external shocks such as U.S. tariff hikes targeting $40 billion worth of Indian exports. Unlike China, which diversified and scaled its manufacturing, India’s labour-intensive sectors, textiles, gems, leather, footwear, remain exposed. These are precisely the industries that disproportionately employ women. The looming disruption reveals a deeper structural weakness: India’s persistently low female labour force participation rate (FLFPR). What was once viewed as a social development challenge is now a core economic liability threatening the sustainability of India’s demographic dividend.
The U.S. tariff shock and its economic implications
- Targeted exports: U.S. tariffs at 50% could shave off nearly 1% from India’s GDP, directly hitting sectors employing 50 million workers, many of them women.
- Comparative disadvantage: India could face a 30–35% cost disadvantage against competitors like Vietnam.
- Dependency: The U.S. absorbs 18% of India’s exports, exposing India’s lack of diversification.
- Employment vulnerability: An export decline of up to 50% could destabilise women-dominated industries.
Women’s participation as India’s strategic liability
- Persistently low FLFPR: Stuck at 37–41.7%, far below China’s 60% and the global average.
- Lost GDP potential: IMF estimates closing the gender gap could boost India’s GDP by 27%.
- Cultural and systemic barriers: Patriarchal norms, unpaid care work, safety issues, poor public transport, and sanitation gaps keep women away from education and jobs.
- Urban stagnation: Urban female labour participation shows little improvement despite rising education levels.
The ticking clock of India’s demographic dividend
- Demographic window: India’s working-age population outnumbers dependents, but this will close by 2045.
- Historical lessons: China, Japan, and the U.S. capitalised on their demographic peak to fuel growth; Southern Europe failed due to low female participation, resulting in stagnation.
- Risk of lost opportunity: Without women’s integration, India risks a slowdown before fully realising its demographic advantage.
Lessons from global experiences in women’s empowerment
- U.S. during WWII: Women’s labour mobilised with equal pay and childcare.
- China’s post-1978 reforms: FLFPR at 60%, backed by state-supported childcare and education.
- Japan’s reforms: FLFPR rose from 63% to 70%, boosting GDP per capita by 4%.
- Netherlands model: Flexible part-time work with full benefits, relevant for India’s context.
- Common thread: Institutional investments in legal protections, skills, and care infrastructure.
Emerging solutions and policy innovations within India
- Karnataka’s Shakti Scheme: Free bus travel boosted female ridership by 40%, improving access to jobs, education, and autonomy.
- Targeted fiscal policies: Tax incentives for female entrepreneurs, digital inclusion drives, and gender-skilling programmes.
- Gig economy empowerment: Urban Company employs 15,000+ women, offering ₹18,000–25,000/month along with maternity benefits and insurance.
- Public schemes: Rajasthan’s Indira Gandhi Urban Employment Guarantee Scheme generated 4 crore person-days of work, with 65% jobs for women, enabling many to work for the first time.
Conclusion
The U.S. tariff threat is a wake-up call, India’s economic fragility lies not just in external shocks but in internal neglect of women’s potential. Empowering women is no longer a matter of social justice but a strategic necessity for sustaining growth, harnessing the demographic dividend, and achieving global competitiveness. The choice is stark: invest in women and rise as a resilient power, or ignore them and remain vulnerable to shocks and stagnation.
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Introduction
The National Cooperative Policy, 2025 has triggered a sharp Centre–State tussle, with Kerala at the forefront of resistance. Beyond a policy dispute, it reflects deeper tensions around cooperative federalism, involving constitutional authority, political stakes, and nearly ₹3 lakh crore in deposits, making the issue both high-stakes and nationally significant.
The Current Tussle between Centre and Kerala
- Policy provokes backlash: Kerala describes the National Cooperative Policy as “unconstitutional”, asserting that it violates the State’s exclusive authority over cooperatives.
- Political dimension: The Left Democratic Front (LDF) government accuses the BJP of attempting to capture Kerala’s cooperative network for political consolidation.
- Financial stakes: Kerala’s cooperatives manage deposits worth ₹2.94 lakh crore, making them critical financial entities in the State’s economy.
The Contentious Nature of the National Cooperative Policy
- Federalism at stake: Cooperative societies are a State List subject, yet the Centre is asserting influence, reviving concerns first raised during the Multi-State Cooperative Societies (Amendment) Act, 2023.
- Kerala’s historical legacy: Cooperative institutions date back to early 20th century Travancore, Cochin, and Malabar, and evolved through the Kerala Cooperative Societies Act, 1969, making them central to socio-economic life.
- Grassroots importance: Primary Agricultural Cooperative Societies (PACS) serve as the credit backbone of Kerala’s rural economy.
Kerala’s Political and Institutional Response
- Political opposition: State Cooperation Minister V.N. Vasavan termed the policy “harmful to cooperatives.”
- Organised resistance: The Kerala Primary Agricultural Cooperative Society association passed a resolution against the policy.
- Workers’ unions’ concerns: The Kerala Cooperative Employees Union (KCEU) alleged that the Centre seeks to hand over the cooperative sector to corporates.
Existing Challenges in the Cooperative Sector
- Credibility crisis: Several cooperative banks face embezzlement scandals and non-refund of depositors’ money.
- Case in point: The Karuvannur Service Cooperative Bank scam in Thrissur dented public confidence and put the State government on the defensive.
- State reforms: In 2023, Kerala amended its Cooperative Societies Act to plug loopholes and strengthen safeguards.
Structural Reforms in Kerala’s Cooperative System
- Bank consolidation: Merging of district cooperative banks into the Kerala State Cooperative Bank (Kerala Bank) reduced the traditional three-tier credit structure into a two-tier system.
- Policy rationale: Streamlining was aimed at improving efficiency and financial stability in the sector.
Future Trajectory of Kerala’s Cooperatives
- New crossroads: Accelerated urbanisation, youth aspirations, and sectoral shifts in energy, shipping, technology, and health present opportunities for cooperative diversification.
- Future trajectory: The ability of cooperatives to adapt and modernise will shape Kerala’s economic resilience in the coming decades.
Conclusion
Kerala’s cooperative movement, historically a pillar of rural credit and grassroots empowerment, stands at a critical juncture. The National Cooperative Policy, 2025, while framed in the language of reform, has exposed fault lines in India’s federal structure and deepened Centre–State tensions. For Kerala, the challenge lies in balancing its rich cooperative legacy with the demands of modernisation and transparency. For the Union, respecting constitutional boundaries while ensuring financial discipline will be key to sustaining trust in the cooperative model.
Value Addition
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Overview of the National Cooperative Policy 2025
The National Cooperative Policy, 2025—officially unveiled on July 24, 2025 —replaces the 2002 framework with a visionary 20-year roadmap (2025–2045) centered on “Sahkar se
Policy Goals:
- Tripling cooperative sector’s GDP contribution by 2034 through expanded outreach and growth-boosting measures
- Establish one cooperative unit in every village, and set up 5 model cooperative villages per tehsil, with active creation of 2 lakh new multipurpose PACS by 2026
- Bring 50 crore more people into the fold, increasing cooperative membership and societal participation
Core Pillars of the Policy: Outlined across six strategic pillars designed to transform cooperatives:
- Strengthening Foundations
- Promoting Vibrancy
- Preparing Cooperatives for the Future (e.g., digitalisation)
- Enhancing Inclusivity & Reach
- Expanding into Emerging Sectors
- Engaging the Younger Generation
Institutional and Structural Measures:
- Legal & governance revamp: Updated model bye‐laws, regular review mechanisms (every 10 years), and cluster-based monitoring systems for accountability and responsiveness
- Tribhuvan Cooperative University: A first-of-its-kind cooperative education hub aimed at professionalising the sector and reducing nepotism
- National Cooperative Exports Limited (NCEL): To enhance global market integration for cooperatives, especially in staples like wheat and rice
- Leveraging existing schemes: Integration with programs like DIDF, PMMSY, NPDD to establish infrastructure and functional PACS
Sectoral Diversification & Modernisation:
- New sectors for cooperatives: Including green energy, insurance, tourism, taxi services (“Sahkar Taxi”), Jan Aushadhi Kendras, LPG outlets, CSCs, and more
- Model Cooperative Villages: Combining dairy, fisheries, floriculture, agri-services, and focused inclusion of women and tribal groups as excellence center
Why It Matters:
- Policy Revitalisation: First major overhaul in 23 years, indicating the renewed importance given to cooperatives by the government
- Aligning with National Vision: Anchored in the larger goal of Viksit Bharat 2047, positioning cooperatives as engines of inclusive, rural-led development
- Digital and Professional Transformation: Emphasises tech adoption, capacity building, and modern governance—crucial in restoring public trust and efficiency
- Inclusivity at Core: Explicit focus on increasing participation of women, Dalits, Adivasis, and youth—building on the ethos of cooperative empowerment
- Decentralized Growth Strategy: Village and tehsil-level expansion ensures economic decentralisation and rural integration—a critical tool for grassroots development
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PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2014] “In the villages itself no form of credit organisation will be suitable except the cooperative society.” – All India Rural Credit Survey. Discuss this statement in the background of agricultural finance in India. What constraints and challenges do financial institutions supplying agricultural finance face? How can technology be used to better reach and serve rural clients?”
Linkage: The 2014 question emphasised cooperatives as the most suitable form of rural credit, highlighting their role in agricultural finance. The Kerala–Centre tussle over the 2025 policy shows how this very grassroots credit system, with PACS and cooperative banks at its core, remains vital yet contested. Thus, the article provides a contemporary case study of both the potential and challenges of cooperatives in India’s agricultural and financial landscape.
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Introduction
In a democracy, the judiciary acts as the guardian of fundamental rights, ensuring that executive and legislative actions remain within constitutional limits. However, recent judicial pronouncements urging the executive to tighten controls over online speech raise a worrying question: Is the Court inadvertently enabling state encroachment into constitutionally guaranteed freedoms? This concern is sharpened by the backdrop of the IT Rules, 2021, which already tilt power heavily towards the government in regulating digital speech.
Expanding Powers of the Executive over Free Speech
- Judicial Instructions: The Supreme Court recently directed the Union government to frame guidelines on regulating online speech.
- Problematic Precedent: Instead of protecting rights, the Court’s instructions risk empowering the executive to expand censorship powers under vague grounds like “misuse of freedom of speech.”
Digital Speech: Between Regulation and Censorship
- IT Rules, 2021: These rules already allow the government to flag and order removal of online content, with penalties for intermediaries.
- 2023 Amendment: Expanded scope to hold social media companies accountable for user-generated content, giving the state wide-ranging discretionary powers.
- Challenge Pending in SC: These rules are already under constitutional challenge, making further expansion questionable.
The Risk of False Righteousness
- Distasteful vs. Criminal: While hate speech and incitement to violence are already criminalised, regulating distasteful humour or dissenting opinions risks expanding censorship beyond constitutional boundaries.
- Chilling Effect: Citizens begin to self-censor, fearing repercussions for expressing views.
- Suppression of Creative Expression: Film producers, directors, and journalists face FIRs and restrictions, stifling art, reporting, and debate necessary for a vibrant democracy.
Judiciary’s Institutional Role under Question
- Protector of Rights: The Court is constitutionally mandated to check executive overreach.
- Risk of Overstepping: By urging executive rulemaking, the judiciary risks acting like an unquestioned lord in a feudal setup rather than a rights-protecting institution.
- Misplaced Priorities: Instead of fortifying existing protections against hate speech, the Court seems to encourage executive expansion into grey zones.
Broader Democratic Implications
- Weaponisation of Laws: Governments have a record of using regulations to target political opponents and inconvenient voices.
- Threat to Democratic Discourse: An atmosphere of censorship undermines deliberation, dissent, and innovation—all vital for a progressive society.
- Global Comparison: Mature democracies often rely on civil remedies and self-regulation, rather than empowering the state to police thought and humour.
Conclusion
The judiciary’s role is not to expand executive power but to ensure constitutional freedoms are protected. Hate speech and incitement to violence are already criminalised; expanding censorship to regulate humour, dissent, or artistic expression risks creating an atmosphere of fear and conformity. The Supreme Court must remember its constitutional role as the sentinel on the qui vive—guarding liberty, not enabling its curtailment.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2014] Discuss Section 66A of the IT Act, with reference to its alleged violation of Article 19 of the Constitution.
Linkage: The present debate on the Supreme Court urging the executive to frame guidelines for regulating social media echoes the concerns raised in Section 66A of the IT Act, where vague terms led to misuse against free expression. Just like 66A, expanding executive powers risks creating a chilling effect on speech beyond Article 19(2)’s reasonable restrictions. Both highlight the judiciary’s responsibility to act as a protector of rights, not an enabler of censorship.
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Why in the News?
Cherrapunji and Mawsynram have recorded about 50% below normal rainfall this year.
About the Wettest Places in India:
- Cherrapunji (Sohra, East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya) and Mawsynram (same district) are globally known as the wettest places on Earth.
- Average annual rainfall: ~11,000–12,000 mm.
- World record events:
- Highest annual rainfall: Mawsynram holds the record for highest annual rainfall.
- Heaviest rainfall: Cherrapunji recorded 2,493 mm in 48 hours (June 1995), one of the heaviest rainfalls ever documented.
Comparative Rainfall Data (for 2025 Monsoon Season):
- Cherrapunji (Sohra): ~3,500 mm (≈50% deficit from normal).
- Surlabbi (Kodagu, Karnataka): ~7,300 mm (highest in India this year).
- Tamhini (Maharashtra): 5,788 mm (June–July).
- Trend: At least 32 stations across India received more rainfall than Cherrapunji in June–July 2025.
- Historical Low for Sohra: 5,401 mm in 1962 → 2025 may break this record if deficit continues.
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Why Mawsynram /Cherrapunji receive such high rainfall?
- Geographical Location: Lies on the southern slopes of the Khasi Hills, directly facing the Bay of Bengal branch of the southwest monsoon.
- Orographic Effect: Moist monsoon winds hit the steep hills, rise rapidly, and cause heavy orographic rainfall.
- Monsoon Duration: Receives rainfall almost continuously from June to September, with frequent cloudbursts.
- Topography: Steep hills + valleys act as a trap for moisture-laden winds, leading to intense rainfall concentration.
- Climatic Setting: Part of the Humid Subtropical/Monsoonal climate zone of Northeast India, with high moisture inflow.
| [UPSC 2015] Consider the following States:
1. Arunachal Pradesh 2. Himachal Pradesh 3. Mizoram
In which of the above States do ‘Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests’ occur?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Telecommunications Standards Development Society (TSDI) of India has hosted the 3GPP Radio Access Networks (RAN1–RAN5) Working Group Meetings focusing on 6G standardization for the first time, in Bengaluru.
About 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project):
- Overview: Global body established in 1998 for mobile telecom standards (2G → 6G).
- Partners: Collaboration of ARIB (Japan), ATIS (USA), CCSA (China), ETSI (Europe), TSDSI (India), TTA (South Korea), and TTC (Japan).
- Output: Publishes technical specifications, forming the global benchmark for telecom operators, equipment makers, and regulators.
- Focus Areas:
-
- RAN (Radio Access Network) – towers & radios connecting users to the network.
- Core Network – switching, routing, internet connectivity.
- Services & System Aspects – apps, charging, security.
What is RAN (Radio Access Network)?
- Definition: The wireless part of a mobile network that links user devices (phones, IoT) to the core network using radio waves.
- Components:
- Base Stations (Node B in 3G, eNodeB in 4G, gNodeB in 5G).
- Antennas & radios.
- Controllers (e.g., RNC in 3G).
- Functions:
- Transmits & receives radio signals.
- Allocates spectrum.
- Manages coverage, speed, call/data quality, and handovers.
- Importance: Defines network performance (speed, latency, capacity).
- 3GPP RAN Working Groups (RAN1–RAN5): Develop physical layer, radio protocols, performance testing, ensuring smooth migration from 4G → 5G → 6G.
Back2Basics: Evolution of Mobile Standards
- 3G (UMTS – Universal Mobile Telecommunications System): Introduced in early 2000s; based on WCDMA; enabled video calls, MMS, and mobile internet (up to 2 Mbps).
- 4G (LTE – Long-Term Evolution): All-IP, OFDMA-based; provided high-speed broadband (hundreds of Mbps), VoLTE, and seamless video streaming.
- 5G (NR – New Radio): Flexible OFDM-based; delivers ultra-high speeds (Gbps), ultra-low latency, supports IoT, automation, AR/VR, and network slicing.
- 6G (Sixth Generation – under research): Expected by ~2030; aims for terabit-class speeds, AI-native networking, holographic communication, and satellite–terrestrial integration.
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| [UPSC 2019] With reference to communication technologies, what is/are the difference / differences between LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and VoLTE (Voice over Long-Term Evolution)?
1. LTE ‘is commonly marketed as 3G and VoLTE is commonly marketed as advanced 3G.
2. LTE is data-only technology and VoLTE is voice-only technology.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2* |
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Why in the News?
Scientists have identified UPM J1040−3551 AabBab, a rare quadruple star system with two brown dwarfs orbiting two red dwarfs.
About UPM J1040−3551 AabBab:
- Overview: Newly discovered quadruple star system in the Milky Way.
- Composition: Two cold T-type brown dwarfs orbiting a pair of young red dwarf stars.
- Uniqueness: First known system of its kind; extremely rare as brown dwarfs usually exist alone, with less than 5% chance of companions.
- Significance: Offers new insights into the formation and evolution of low-mass stars and sub-stellar objects.
What are Brown Dwarfs?
- Overview: Celestial objects between stars and planets in characteristics.
- Formation: Form like stars from collapsing gas and dust but lack sufficient mass for sustained hydrogen fusion.
- Nickname: Often called “failed stars” due to absence of sustained nuclear fusion.
- Mass Range: Can reach up to about 70 times the mass of Jupiter.
- Atmosphere: Similar to gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn, with molecules and water vapor clouds.
- Detection: Very faint and cold; usually identified in multiple-star systems where brighter stars help estimate their properties.
- Astronomical Importance: Help define the boundary between stars and planets; provide clues to conditions necessary for stellar and planetary formation.
- Cosmological Role: Studying their abundance and distribution aids in understanding mass distribution in the universe and connections to dark matter.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
Statement-I: Giant stars live much longer than dwarf stars.
Statement-II: Compared to dwarf stars, giant stars have a greater rate of nuclear reactions.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I
(c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect
(d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct* |
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Why in the News?
The US authorities have reported the first human case of the flesh-eating parasite, the New World screwworm.
About New World Screwworm (Cochliomyia hominivorax):
- Overview: Called “man-eater” larvae in Latin; South America and the Caribbean.
- Larval Stage: Eggs hatch into maggots that burrow into wounds of warm-blooded animals (including humans) and feed on living flesh in a screw-like motion.
- Life Cycle: After feeding, larvae fall to soil, pupate, and emerge as adult Blue-grey blowfly.
- Human Infestation (Myiasis): Causes painful non-healing wounds, bleeding, foul odour, sensation of movement; may lead to sepsis or death if untreated.
- Eradication in USA: Eliminated in 1966 using Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) by mass release of sterile males.
Current Spread and Concerns:
- Recent Outbreaks: Detected in Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Honduras.
- Cause of Spread: Likely linked to movement of infested cattle across regions.
- Possible Weakness in SIT: Current strain of sterilized flies may be less effective than earlier strains.
- New Human Case: First travel-associated screwworm myiasis reported in the United States in 2025.
- Livestock Threat: Serious danger to cattle industry; risk of animal suffering and economic loss.
- Biosecurity Risk: Reemergence could undo decades of eradication efforts if uncontrolled.
| [UPSC 2017] Consider the following statements:
1. In tropical regions, Zika virus disease is transmitted by the same mosquito that transmits dengue.
2. Sexual transmission of Zika virus disease is possible.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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