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FDI in Indian economy

[8th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: A complex turn in India’s FDI story

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2016] Justify the need for FDI for the development of the Indian economy. Why there is gap between MOUs signed and actual FDIS? Suggest remedial steps to be taken for increasing actual FDIs in India.

Linkage: The article highlights that although India records high gross inflows ($81 bn in FY 2024–25), massive repatriations and outward FDI reduce net retained capital, weakening industrial growth, directly reflecting the gap between headline FDI figures and actual developmental impact, just like the MOU–FDI gap in the question. Structural barriers such as regulatory opacity, policy unpredictability, and weak infrastructure explain why capital commitments don’t translate into long-term projects. The remedial steps suggested, simplified regulations, policy consistency, and infrastructure upgrades, align with the measures demanded in the UPSC 2016 question.

Mentor’s Comment

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) has long been celebrated as one of the most powerful engines of India’s growth since the reforms of 1991. It brought in capital, technology, and global linkages. Yet, beneath the shining surface of record inflows lies a disquieting reality, unprecedented outflows, disinvestments, and a shift away from long-term industrial commitments. This article explores the nuanced challenges in India’s FDI ecosystem, the divergence between inflows and outflows, and the urgent need for reforms.

Introduction

FDI has been central to India’s growth story, particularly after liberalisation in 1991, modernising industries and integrating India into global markets. While e-commerce and IT saw transformative capital inflows, recent years mark a complex shift. Despite India recording $81 billion in gross FDI inflows in FY 2024–25, net retained capital fell drastically due to massive repatriations and rising outward investments by Indian firms. This has profound implications for industrial growth, job creation, and long-term economic resilience.

Divergence Between Inflows and Outflows

  1. Gross inflows: $81 billion in FY 2024–25, up 13.7% from last year.
  2. Sharp withdrawals: Disinvestments surged by 51% in FY 2023–24 to $44.4 billion and further to $51.4 billion in FY 2024–25.
  3. Net retained capital: Fell to just $0.4 billion after accounting for outflows, a stark erosion of confidence.
  4. Investor behaviour shift: From long-term commitments to short-term tax arbitrage and profit-seeking.

The Decline of Manufacturing in FDI Trends

  1. Declining share: Manufacturing’s share in FDI dropped to a mere 12% of total inflows.
  2. Short-term focus: Preference for rent-seeking sectors such as financial services, hospitality, and energy distribution.
  3. Weak multiplier effects: Unlike manufacturing or infrastructure, these sectors do not create broad-based industrial or technological growth.

The Surge of Indian Capital Abroad

  1. Outward FDI: Rose from $13 billion in FY 2011–12 to $29.2 billion in FY 2024–25.
  2. Reasons cited: Regulatory inefficiencies, infrastructure gaps, and unpredictable policies.
  3. Destinations: Nearly half of outflows directed toward developed economies with stable tax regimes and strategic resources.

Structural Barriers in India’s Investment Climate

  1. Regulatory opacity: Complex compliance requirements discourage investors.
  2. Legal unpredictability: Frequent policy shifts undermine confidence.
  3. Governance inconsistencies: Contrast between reforms on paper and actual execution.
  4. Dominance of tax havens: Mauritius and Singapore continue to account for bulk inflows, driven by treaty-based tax strategies.

Why the Long Term Matters

  1. FDI as stability cushion: Supports balance of payments, currency stability, and external accounts.
  2. Declining net inflows: Curtails India’s monetary policy flexibility.
  3. RBI’s concern: Outflows align with global emerging market trends but pose systemic risks if unchecked.
  4. Need for committed capital: Advanced manufacturing, clean energy, and technology sectors require sustained inflows.

What Needs to Be Done

  1. Simplify regulations: Reduce compliance burden and procedural delays.
  2. Ensure policy consistency: Long-term clarity to build investor trust.
  3. Upgrade infrastructure: Logistics, energy, and digital backbones to attract manufacturing FDI.
  4. Strengthen institutions: Predictable legal frameworks and efficient governance.
  5. Invest in human capital: Education and skilling to meet industry demands.

Conclusion

India’s FDI story is at a crossroads. Gross inflows remain high, but capital is no longer staying long enough to catalyse industrial growth. The rising tide of disinvestment by foreign firms and outward FDI by Indian companies reflects systemic inefficiencies, weak confidence, and policy unpredictability. If India aspires to be a global investment hub, reforms must focus on quality, durability, and alignment of capital with national developmental goals.

Value Addition

Official Definition of FDI

  • IMF/UNCTAD definition: A cross-border investment where a resident entity in one economy obtains a lasting interest and a significant degree of influence in the management of an enterprise in another economy.
  • India (RBI): “Investment by a person resident outside India in the capital of an Indian company under Schedule 1 of FEMA Regulations, 2000.”

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Routes in India

  • Automatic Route: No prior approval required; investor only informs RBI after investment.
    • Examples: 100% FDI in e-commerce marketplace model, renewable energy, and computer software.
  • Government Route: Prior approval of the Government of India required.
    • Examples: FDI in multi-brand retail, defence beyond 74%, and print media.

Regulation of FDI in India

  • Ministry of Commerce and Industry: Frames FDI policy, announced via Consolidated FDI Policy Circular.
  • Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT): Nodal body for policy formulation and coordination.
  • RBI: Governs reporting, inflows, and compliance under FEMA, 1999.
  • Sectoral Regulators: Defence, Insurance, Banking, Telecom, etc. may impose additional conditions.

Barriers to FDI in India

  • Regulatory opacity: Complex rules and compliance increase transaction costs.
  • Policy unpredictability: Frequent changes in taxation (e.g., retrospective tax) weaken investor trust.
  • Infrastructure gaps: Logistics bottlenecks, power shortages, and urban congestion raise costs.
  • Legal uncertainties: Contract enforcement and dispute resolution remain weak.
  • Governance challenges: Land acquisition, bureaucratic delays, and inconsistent state-level policies.

Global Comparative Analysis

  • China: Strong manufacturing-centric FDI policies, large SEZs, predictable incentives, and world-class infrastructure helped it emerge as the world’s largest FDI recipient.
  • Vietnam: Stable policy frameworks, competitive labour costs, and integration into global supply chains (electronics, textiles) made it a hub for relocated investments.
  • Singapore & Mauritius: Dominant sources of FDI into India, largely due to tax treaty advantages rather than productive investment.
  • India: Despite being among the top FDI destinations (UNCTAD report), outflows and repatriations remain high, reflecting weak long-term retention.

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

The making of an ecological disaster in the Nicobar

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

The Great Nicobar Island Project, with an estimated expenditure of ₹72,000 crore, has sparked unprecedented controversy. Instead of strengthening India’s ecological security and inclusive growth, the project threatens to uproot indigenous communities such as the Nicobarese and the Shompen, destroy one of the world’s richest biodiversity hotspots, and expose the island to severe natural disaster risks. By bypassing constitutional bodies, statutory protections, and scientific warnings, the project raises fundamental questions about governance, justice, and sustainability in India’s developmental trajectory.

Uprooting Tribal Communities

  1. Nicobarese displacement: The project site overlaps with ancestral villages of the Nicobarese, already displaced once by the 2004 tsunami. Their hope of return will now be permanently extinguished.
  2. Shompen threat: The Shompen, classified as a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG), face cultural and ecological extinction as their reserve land is denotified and forests destroyed.
  3. Violation of tribal safeguards: Article 338A mandates consultation with the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes, which was bypassed. The Tribal Council’s objections were ignored after being “rushed” into signing a no-objection letter, later revoked.

Mockery of Legal and Regulatory Safeguards

  1. Social Impact Assessment failure: The 2013 Act on Land Acquisition and Rehabilitation excluded Nicobarese and Shompen from consideration, denying them stakeholder status.
  2. Forest Rights Act ignored: The Shompen’s authority to regulate and protect forests was bypassed.
  3. Constitutional neglect: Bodies like NCST and local tribal councils were side-lined, undermining democratic accountability.

The Farce of Compensatory Afforestation

  1. Massive tree felling: The Ministry projects 8.5 lakh trees may be cut, but independent estimates put the figure between 32–58 lakh.
  2. Afforestation mismatch: Compensatory afforestation is planned in Haryana, thousands of kilometres away, with a completely different ecology.
  3. Mining contradiction: A quarter of this afforestation land has been auctioned for mining, nullifying the mitigation strategy.
  4. CRZ violation: Port site falls under CRZ 1A, which prohibits construction due to turtle nesting sites and coral reefs.

Ecological and Wildlife Concerns

  1. Nicobar long-tailed macaque: Primatologists’ warnings on its survival risks were ignored.
  2. Sea turtle nesting mis-assessed: Surveys were conducted off-season, compromising accuracy.
  3. Dugong impact underestimated: Drone-based surveys only covered shallow waters.
  4. Biased assessments: Reports were allegedly conducted under duress, undermining credibility.

A Disaster-Prone Location

  1. Tsunami precedent: In 2004, the island subsided by 15 feet.
  2. Seismic zone risk: A 6.2 magnitude earthquake in July 2025 reinforced its vulnerability.
  3. Jeopardising investment: Infrastructure and lives face catastrophic risk from earthquakes and tsunamis.

Conclusion

The Great Nicobar Project symbolizes an ecological and humanitarian misadventure where short-term ambitions eclipse constitutional morality, environmental prudence, and tribal justice. The survival of the Nicobarese and Shompen, along with an irreplaceable ecosystem, hangs in the balance. True development must integrate ecological sustainability and social justice rather than sacrifice them at the altar of misplaced mega-infrastructure.

Value Addition

Way Forward

  • Inclusive Development with Tribal Consent
    • Ensure free, prior, and informed consent of Nicobarese and Shompen communities in line with the Niyamgiri judgment (2013).
    • Empower tribal councils in decision-making as mandated by the Forest Rights Act (2006).
  • Strengthening Legal and Institutional Safeguards
    • Consult the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) and respect constitutional provisions under Article 338A.
    • Strengthen Social Impact Assessments with participation of affected communities.
  • Rethinking Compensatory Afforestation
    • Undertake afforestation within island ecosystems, not in distant states like Haryana.
    • Promote ecosystem restoration rather than mere plantation drives.
  • Ecologically Sensitive Area Protection
    • Enforce CRZ 1A norms protecting turtle nesting sites, coral reefs, and coastal biodiversity.
    • Recognise Great Nicobar as an Ecologically Sensitive Zone (ESZ) under Environment Protection Act.
  • Disaster-Resilient Planning
    • Recognise that Great Nicobar lies in Seismic Zone V and redesign infrastructure accordingly.
    • Adopt a low-impact development model suited for fragile ecosystems (eco-tourism, research hubs, small-scale renewable energy).
  • Alternative Growth Models
    • Focus on sustainable livelihoods for locals (fisheries, forest produce, heritage tourism).
    • Leverage the island’s location for strategic security through minimal-impact naval installations, avoiding large-scale civilian displacement.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2017] ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?

Linkage: The Great Nicobar Project directly links to this PYQ as it illustrates how climate change impacts combine with ill-planned development to heighten risks. Rising sea levels and intensifying cyclones threaten India’s coastal states, while Great Nicobar, lying in a seismically active and tsunami-prone zone, showcases the compounded vulnerability of fragile ecosystems and communities. Thus, it exemplifies how coastal regions face existential risks when climate change interacts with unsustainable projects.

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Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

How much is spent on children’s education in India

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Introduction

India has long struggled with gender inequities in education. Despite government efforts like Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao and steady progress in enrolment, where girls now form 48% of the school population and even surpass men in gross enrolment ratios in higher education, financial investment by families continues to tilt in favor of boys. The 80th round of the National Sample Survey (Comprehensive Modular Survey on Education) reveals that boys consistently receive higher expenditure allocations across school stages and states, highlighting deep-rooted social biases in household decision-making.

Significance of the recent NSS report

  1. New evidence: The 2024 survey covered 52,085 households and data for 57,742 students, making it one of the most comprehensive datasets on education expenditure.
  2. Contradiction with enrolment success: Despite progress in closing gender enrolment gaps, the spending patterns show that financial priorities still favor boys.
  3. Striking gap: In urban India, families spend ₹2,791 less per girl compared to boys, while in rural India, boys get 18% more spent on them.
  4. Long-term concern: Such expenditure biases translate into inequities in learning outcomes, employability, and overall empowerment.

Gender patterns in household spending on education

  1. All stages of schooling: Per-student expenditure on girls is consistently lower than boys from pre-primary to higher secondary.
  2. Rural-urban divide: Rural families spend ₹1,373 more on boys; urban families spend 30% more on boys by higher secondary level.
  3. Course fees: Families pay on average 21.5% more in fees for boys.

Private vs government schooling:

  1. 58.4% of girls are in government schools.
  2. 34% of boys access private unaided schools compared to 29.5% of girls.
  3. Tuition classes: While enrollment in coaching is similar (26% girls vs 27.8% boys), expenditure differs, by higher secondary, families spend 22% more on tuition for boys.

State-level variations in educational expenditure

  1. Delhi, MP, Rajasthan, Punjab: More than 10 percentage points gender gap in private school enrolment.
  2. Tamil Nadu and Kerala: Gender parity—boys and girls access government and private schools almost equally.
  3. Northeast States: Reverse trend—more girls enrolled in private schools.
  4. Telangana, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal: Families spend vastly more on boys at higher secondary level.
    • Example: In Tamil Nadu, families spend ₹35,973 on boys vs ₹19,412 on girls.
  5. Kerala, Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh: More spending on girls at higher secondary, partly due to safety-related transport costs.

Gender gap in private coaching expenditure

  1. Himachal Pradesh: Families spend ₹9,813 per boy vs ₹1,550 per girl on higher secondary tuition.
  2. Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu: Also show significant tuition expenditure gaps.
  3. Implication: Coaching is seen as a gateway to competitive exams and better career prospects—girls being left out deepens structural disadvantages.

Broader implications for gender equality

  1. Hidden inequality: Enrolment parity does not mean equity in quality or investment.
  2. Future workforce impact: Lower spending on girls limits their human capital development and perpetuates the gender pay gap.
  3. Policy blind spots: Subsidies and scholarships exist, but social norms continue to undervalue daughters’ education.

Way Forward

Bridging the gender gap in educational expenditure requires a multi-pronged approach that addresses not just affordability but also deep-rooted social norms.

  1. Strengthening targeted subsidies: Expansion of schemes like Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao, free bicycles for girls, and conditional cash transfers for secondary and higher education can encourage families to invest equally in daughters.
  2. Equalising access to quality education: Improving the quality of government schools and providing digital learning resources will reduce the need for costly private schooling and tuitions, thereby narrowing gendered disparities.
  3. Awareness and behavioural change: Community-level campaigns must challenge patriarchal mindsets that undervalue girls’ education. Civil society and self-help groups can be leveraged to reshape family-level decision-making.
  4. Transport and safety interventions: Ensuring safe and affordable transport for girls, particularly in higher secondary education, will address a key cost component that discourages investment.
  5. Monitoring and accountability: Data from National Sample Survey and Unified District Information System for Education (UDISE+) should be used to regularly monitor gendered expenditure gaps and inform evidence-based policies.
  6. Integrating ethics and social responsibility: Education policies must go hand in hand with fostering a sense of justice, fairness, and equal opportunity, so that families see daughters as equal bearers of human capital.

Conclusion

The NSS findings show that while India has moved forward in closing the gender gap in enrolment, it still struggles with a silent financial discrimination in household educational spending. Unless families start valuing daughters’ education equally, not just in words but also in investment, true gender equality in education will remain elusive. Corrective measures through policy nudges, financial incentives, and awareness campaigns are essential to bridge this invisible divide.

Value Addition

Key Concepts

  1. Gender Parity Index (GPI): Ratio of female-to-male values in education indicators; India has achieved near-parity in enrolment but lags in investment equity.
  2. Human Capital Theory: Education as an investment leading to productivity and growth; unequal spending weakens women’s contribution to the economy.
  3. Intersectionality: Gender bias in expenditure intersects with class, caste, and rural-urban divides, amplifying inequalities.

Data and Reports

  1. National Sample Survey (2024): Reveals consistent gaps in household expenditure on girls’ education across stages and regions.
  2. World Economic Forum Gender Gap Report (2024): India slipped in rankings, with education a major drag despite enrolment progress.
  3. ASER Report (Annual Status of Education Report): Points to quality issues in rural schools, often affecting girls disproportionately.
  4. UNESCO (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2023): Highlights that globally, girls are more likely to be excluded from secondary and higher education due to cost factors.

Government Policies and Schemes

  1. National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Emphasises inclusive, equitable education and gender-sensitive curricula.
  2. Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao (2015): Social mobilisation for improving girls’ survival, protection, and education.
  3. National Scheme of Incentives to Girls for Secondary Education (NSIGSE): Financial support to reduce dropouts.
  4. Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV): Residential schooling for disadvantaged girls in Classes 6–12.

Comparative International Experience

  1. Bangladesh: Successful in reducing gender disparity through stipend schemes for girls, free textbooks, and subsidies—leading to higher female enrolment in secondary education.
  2. Nordic Countries (Sweden, Norway, Finland): Achieved near-complete gender equity in education by ensuring free schooling, universal childcare, and strong social security systems that reduce household bias.
  3. Rwanda: Introduced Gender-Responsive Budgeting—allocating funds specifically to address gender gaps in education, which India can emulate.

Quotes (Useful for Essay/Ethics/GS answers)

  1. “If you educate a man you educate an individual, but if you educate a woman you educate a family.” — Charles M. Cooper
  2. “Investment in girls’ education is not charity, it is the smartest investment a country can make.” — UN Secretary-General António Guterres

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 remains inadequate in promoting incentive-based system for children’s education without generating awareness about the importance of schooling. Analyse.

Linkage: The NSS 80th round shows families spend 18–30% more on boys than girls, privileging them in private schools and coaching despite RTE’s universal access. This proves that incentive-based provisions under the RTE Act remain inadequate without tackling deep-rooted gender norms. Hence, awareness generation, gender-responsive budgeting, and social mobilisation are essential complements to legal entitlements.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Sri Lanka

Katchatheevu Island Dispute

Places in newsPrelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Why in the News?

Sri Lankan President Dissanayake’s visit to Katchatheevu Island, the first ever visit by a head of state, revived debates on the island’s history and ownership.

Katchatheevu Island Dispute

About Katchatheevu Island:

  • Overview: Small uninhabited island of about 285 acres in the Palk Strait, ~33 nautical miles from Jaffna (Sri Lanka) and close to Ramanathapuram (Tamil Nadu).
  • History: Once under the Raja of Ramnad (TN), later became disputed during British rule.
  • Agreements: Under 1974 and 1976 pacts, India (under Indira Gandhi govt.) recognised Sri Lanka’s sovereignty and gave up traditional fishing rights.
  • Religious Site: Home to St. Anthony’s Catholic Shrine, visited annually by Indian and Sri Lankan fishermen during a joint festival with visa waiver.
  • Ecology: Though barren and unsettled, serves as a resting point for fishermen and supports marine biodiversity.

Disputes around Katchatheevu:

  • Fishing Conflicts: Tamil Nadu fishermen often cross into Sri Lankan waters due to declining catch in Indian waters, leading to frequent arrests by the Sri Lankan Navy.
  • Bottom-Trawling Issue: Indian trawlers use bottom-trawling, banned in Sri Lanka, which damages marine ecosystems and escalates tensions.
  • Political Demands: All TN political parties have demanded retrieval of the island.
  • National Politics: Issue often resurfaces during elections, with claims that earlier governments “easily gave away” Katchatheevu.
  • Official Position: India clarified in 2013–14 that no sovereign territory was ceded since the island was disputed, not fully under India’s control.
  • Core Problem: Lies not in sovereignty but in unsustainable bottom-trawling practices and the livelihood crisis faced by Tamil Nadu fishermen.
[UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:

1. The value of Indo-Sri Lanka trade has consistently increased in the last decade.

2. “Textile and textile articles” constitute an important item of trade between India and Bangladesh.

3. In the last five years, Nepal has been the largest trading partner of India in South Asia.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (2020)

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only* (c) 2 only (d) 3 only

 

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

‘Blood Moon’ and Lunar Eclipse

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

Why in the News?

Viewers across Asia, Australia, and parts of Africa witnessed a Blood Moon on 8th September, a spectacular form of total lunar eclipse visible.

About Lunar Eclipse:

  • Overview: Happens when Earth comes between Sun and Moon, blocking sunlight from reaching the Moon.
  • Earth’s Shadow:
    • Umbra: Dark central shadow, causes total or partial eclipses.
    • Penumbra: Outer shadow, causes faint dimming.
  • Types:
    1. Total Eclipse: Moon passes fully through umbra.
    2. Partial Eclipse: Only part of Moon enters umbra.
    3. Penumbral Eclipse: Moon passes through penumbra with subtle darkening.
  • Frequency: Occurs 2–4 times per year, visible from different regions.

Why lunar eclipse don’t occur every month?

: Lunar eclipses don’t happen every month because the Moon’s orbit around the Earth is tilted by about 5 degrees relative to the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. This tilt, known as orbital inclination, means that during a full Moon, the Moon often passes above or below Earth’s shadow, preventing a perfect alignment required for an eclipse. Eclipses only occur when the alignment is precise, allowing the Sun, Earth, and Moon to line up in a straight line.

What is Blood Moon?

  • Meaning: Refers to the reddish glow of the Moon during a total lunar eclipse.
  • Cause: Rayleigh scattering in Earth’s atmosphere.
    • Short wavelengths (blue, violet) scatter away.
    • Longer wavelengths (red, orange) bend around Earth and light the Moon.
  • Colour Intensity:
    • Presence of dust, aerosols, volcanic ash deepens the red shade.
    • Cleaner atmosphere produces a lighter red or orange.
  • Historical Insight: Medieval records of Blood Moons helped identify volcanic eruptions between 1100–1300 CE, confirmed by a 2023 University of Geneva study.

Significance:

  • Scientific: Acts as a natural indicator of atmospheric composition, dust, and pollution; helps model planetary atmospheres.
  • Historical/Environmental: Provides evidence of past volcanic events and climate conditions.
  • Cultural: Linked to myths and superstitions, though harmless scientifically.
  • Public Engagement: Widely followed celestial event that aids astronomy outreach and awareness.
[UPSC 2019] On 21st June, the Sun

Options: (a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle*

(b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle

(c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator

(d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn

 

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

100 years of the Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Why in the News?

This year marks the centenary of the Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu, a transformative socio-political reform movement.

About Self-Respect Movement:

  • Overview: Started in 1925 by E.V. Ramasamy Periyar in Tamil Nadu after his exit from the Indian National Congress.
  • Aim: To challenge Brahminical dominance, caste hierarchy, patriarchy, and blind religious practices; to create a rational, egalitarian society.
  • Methods:
    • Promotion of Self-Respect Marriages (without priests or caste rituals).
    • Advocacy of women’s rights – widow remarriage, divorce, property rights, inter-caste marriage.
    • Use of Kudi Arasu journal for spreading radical ideas and reform propaganda.
  • Significance:
    • Laid the foundation of the Dravidian movement in Tamil Nadu.
    • Prioritized social reform over political independence.
    • Gave marginalized communities and women a platform for dignity and equality.

100 years of the Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu

Who was E.V. Ramasamy Periyar?

  • Overview: Erode Venkatappa Ramasamy (1879–1973), popularly known as Periyar or Thanthai Periyar (“Father Periyar”).
  • Identity: Social reformer, rationalist, and political thinker; called the “Father of the Dravidian Movement.”
  • Key Roles:
    • Led the Vaikom Satyagraha (1924-25) in Kerala against caste restrictions in temples, earning the title “Vaikom Hero.”
    • Founded the Self-Respect Movement (1925) and later Dravidar Kazhagam.
  • Ideology:
    • Advocated rationalism, atheism, equality, and eradication of caste.
    • Strongly opposed gender inequality and social exploitation.
  • Legacy: Inspired later Dravidian parties (DMK, AIADMK) and influenced Tamil Nadu’s policies on social justice, women’s rights, and education.
[UPSC 2025] Who among the following was the founder of the ‘Self-Respect Movement’?

Options:

(a) ‘Periyar’ E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker* (b) Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (c) Bhaskarrao Jadhav (d) Dinkarrao Javalkar

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

New Horizons and Stellar Parallax Navigation

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

A recent study has showcased that spacecrafts can locate themselves using a simple stellar parallax method with just two nearby stars, without relying on Earth.

New Horizons and Stellar Parallax Navigation

What is Stellar Parallax?

  • Overview: Stellar parallax is the apparent shift in a star’s position against background stars when observed from two different vantage points.
  • Example: On Earth, this is measured every 6 months as the planet moves to opposite sides of its orbit.
  • Parallax Angle: The degree of this shift gives the star’s distance. Larger parallax means the star is closer.
  • Application in Space: By observing stars from both Earth and a spacecraft (billions of km apart), the relative positions can be compared to calculate the spacecraft’s distance.

About the New Horizons Demonstration:

  • Spacecraft: Launched in 2006, New Horizons explored Pluto (2015) and is now beyond 60 AU (astronomical units).
  • Observation: On April 23, 2020, astronomers measured parallaxes of Proxima Centauri (4.2 light years) and Wolf 359 (7.9 light years) using Earth-based telescopes and New Horizons’ onboard instruments.
  • Results:
    • Proxima’s parallax: 32.4 arcseconds
    • Wolf 359’s parallax: 15.7 arcseconds
    • Derived spacecraft position: 46.89 AU, matching DSN’s 47.11 AU reading.
  • Requirements: Only a camera, onboard computer, and stellar catalogue — no special equipment needed.

Significance:

  • Self-sufficient Navigation: Enables spacecraft to calculate their position without depending solely on Earth-based radio signals.
  • For Future Missions: Particularly useful for interstellar missions, where Earth’s beacons won’t be practical.
  • Simplicity: Unlike more complex astrometric navigation or pulsar navigation, this method is accessible with minimal hardware.
  • Educational Value: Though not precise enough yet for real-time navigation, it is a proof of concept for deep-space autonomy.
[UPSC 2012] A person stood alone in a desert on a dark night and wanted to reach his village which was situated 5 km east of the point where he was standing. He had no instruments to find the direction, but he located the polestar. The most convenient way now to reach his village is to walk in the:

Options: (a) direction facing the polestar

(b) direction opposite to the polestar

(c) direction keeping the polestar to his left *

(d) direction keeping the polestar to his right

 

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Tribes in News

In news: Apatani Tribe

Prelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Salient features of Indian Society

Why in the News?

The facial tattoos and wooden nose plugs of Apatani women in Arunachal Pradesh, banned in the 1970s, now survive only among older generations, giving them anthropological importance.

About Apatani Tribe:

  • Overview: A Scheduled Tribe (ST) concentrated in Ziro Valley, Lower Subansiri district, Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Language: Part of the Tani linguistic group, speaking a dialect of the Tibeto-Burman family.
  • Belief System: Paganistic faith worshipping the Sun (Ayo Danyii) and Moon (Atoh Piilo).
  • Festivals: Dree (prayers for harvest and prosperity), Myoko (friendship bonds), along with Yapung and Murung.
  • Global Recognition: Ziro Valley noted for traditional ecological knowledge, proposed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Unique Features:

  • Distinct Identity: Women traditionally had facial tattoos and wooden nose plugs; banned since the 1970s, seen only among older women today.
  • Sustainable Farming: Practise integrated rice-fish farming on terraced fields, growing rice varieties like Mipya, Emoh, Emeo along with fish (Ngihi).
  • Weaving Tradition: Women weave on a loin loom (Chichin), producing fabrics with geometric and zig-zag designs, dyed with natural extracts.
  • Bamboo Culture: Bamboo central to daily life, crafts, and rituals, symbolising ecological harmony.
  • Community Systems: Maintain sustainable social forestry and village institutions for conservation and cultural continuity.
[UPSC 2014] Consider the following pairs:

Tribe : State

1. Limboo (Limbu) : Sikkim

2. Karbi : Himachal Pradesh

3. Dongaria Kondh : Odisha

4. Bonda : Tamil Nadu

Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?

Options: (a) 1 and 3 only* (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

 

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

RNA–Amino Acid Link clues to Origin of Life

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

A recent study published in the Nature suggests that simple molecules called aminoacyl-thiols may have helped amino acids stick to RNA (ribonucleic acid) without enzymes, giving clues to how protein-making began on early Earth.

About the RNA–Amino Acid Link:

  • Discovery: Study showed that aminoacyl-thiols (simple prebiotic molecules) can attach amino acids to RNA directly (aminoacylation) without enzymes.
  • Modern Parallel: In cells today, this is done by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases before ribosomes build proteins. This created the “chicken-and-egg problem”: proteins are needed to make proteins.
  • Chemical Mechanism:
    • Thioesters: Enable amino acids to attach to RNA (“charging RNA”).
    • Thioacids: Enable amino acids to link into peptides.
  • Robustness: Works at neutral pH, across many amino acids, with unexpected selectivity for RNA despite other molecules being more reactive.

Significance for Origin of Life:

  • RNA World Hypothesis: Supports the idea that RNA and amino acids interacted directly before enzymes evolved.
  • Chemical Advantage: Shows RNA had a natural edge in early Earth conditions, explaining its central role in life’s origin.
  • Prebiotic Plausibility: Aminoacyl-thiols could form from simple nitriles and thiols, and reactions occurred even in cold/frozen pools resembling early Earth.
  • Evolutionary Pathway: Suggests life began with short peptides, with RNA later evolving control, leading to coded protein synthesis and ribosomes.
[UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements : DNA Barcoding can be a tool to:

1. assess the age of a plant or animal.

2. distinguish among species that look alike.

3. identify undesirable animal or plant materials in processed foods.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3*

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-United States

[6th Spetember 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: India’s Strategic autonomy in a multipolar world

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2014] With respect to the South China Sea, maritime territorial disputes and rising tension affairs the need for safeguarding maritime security to ensure freedom of navigation and even flight throughout the region. In this context, discuss the bilateral issues between India and China.

Linkage: India’s stance on the South China Sea highlights strategic autonomy — upholding freedom of navigation under UNCLOS while resisting China’s expansive claims. Bilateral tensions persist, from border clashes (2020) to disputes over India’s oil exploration with Vietnam in contested waters. Yet, India balances deterrence through the Quad and cooperation via BRICS/SCO, reflecting a cautious but autonomous approach.

Mentor’s comment

Strategic autonomy is more than just a diplomatic catchphrase for India, it is the lifeline of its foreign policy in an era of multipolar flux. As India seeks to balance ties with the United States, China, and Russia, while also positioning itself as the voice of the Global South, the concept is no longer theoretical but a daily practice. For UPSC aspirants, understanding this evolving doctrine is essential to connect historical continuities with present-day challenges of geopolitics, economy, and technology.

Introduction

Strategic autonomy, once confined to the academic realm of international relations, has become a core principle of India’s foreign policy. Rooted in India’s colonial history and first institutionalized through Nehru’s Non-Alignment Movement, it has today evolved into a doctrine of multi-alignment, pragmatism, and resilience. In a world where U.S. unipolarity is waning, China is rising, and Russia is recalibrating its global role, India faces both opportunities and constraints. The essence of strategic autonomy lies in navigating this turbulent multipolarity while safeguarding sovereignty, growth, and global aspirations.

The Evolution and Relevance of Strategic Autonomy

  1. Historical roots: Emerged from India’s colonial subjugation and Nehru’s vision of non-alignment.
  2. Cold War practice: Balanced ties with both blocs while retaining independence.
  3. Contemporary shift: Modi-era “multi-alignment” emphasizes flexibility with powers like the U.S., Russia, and China.
  4. Core principle: Not isolationism but adaptability in safeguarding national interests.

How the Global Order Shapes India’s Autonomy

  1. Fragmented multipolarity: Decline of U.S. dominance, rise of China, Russia’s revisionism, and West’s internal divisions.
  2. Volatility in partnerships: U.S. unpredictability under Trump strained trade ties and increased pressure on India over Russia.
  3. Fluid environment: India must recalibrate ties to secure territorial integrity, economic growth, and regional stability.

India’s Engagement with the United States

  1. Deepened partnership: Defence cooperation, intelligence sharing, joint exercises, and technology transfers.
  2. New initiatives: Quad, Indo-Pacific dialogues, I2U2, and IMEC reflecting shared concerns about China.
  3. Friction points: Trade tariffs, sanctions, and pressure to reduce Russia ties.
  4. India’s stance: Balanced engagement, cooperative yet assertively independent.

India’s Balancing Act with China

  1. Security challenge: Border clashes of 2020 ended the façade of benign coexistence.
  2. Dual reality: China remains India’s major trading partner despite tensions.
  3. Strategic response: Strengthened border infrastructure, deepened Indo-Pacific ties, and indigenous defence push.
  4. Diplomatic engagement: Continued participation in BRICS, SCO to balance rivalry with dialogue.

India’s Enduring Partnership with Russia

  1. Historical solidarity: Long-standing defence cooperation rooted in Cold War ties.
  2. Ukraine conflict test: Continued oil imports and weapons purchases despite Western criticism.
  3. Autonomous approach: Diversification of defence imports without abandoning Russia.
  4. Core principle: Refusal to choose sides in binary contests.

Strategic Autonomy in the Global South Context

  1. Voice of the Global South: Asserted during India’s G20 presidency in 2023.
  2. India’s stance: “Non-West” but not “anti-West”, balancing pragmatism with plural democracy.
  3. Resonance abroad: Other rising powers too seek agency, not vassalage, in global politics.

Domestic and Technological Dimensions of Autonomy

  1. Internal constraints: Political polarisation, economic vulnerabilities, institutional weaknesses.
  2. Modern domains: Cyber threats, AI warfare, space competition, data sovereignty.
  3. Recent steps: Indigenous platforms, critical minerals security, global tech governance participation.

Conclusion

Strategic autonomy is not about standing alone, but about standing tall. It requires balancing ties with major powers, investing in national capacity, and adapting to new-age domains of competition. India’s rise as a sovereign pole in the multipolar order rests on maintaining autonomy without succumbing to bloc politics. The essence is not isolation, but resilience, the art of walking the tightrope with clarity, confidence, and conviction.

Value Addition

Definition of Strategic Autonomy

General Definition:

  • Strategic autonomy is a nation’s ability to pursue independent foreign and security policies, making sovereign decisions without being bound by external pressures, alliances, or blocs.
  • MEA perspective: It is about “maximizing national interest through diversified engagements” — not neutrality, not isolation, but flexibility and resilience.

Evolution of Strategic Autonomy in India

  • Colonial Context: India’s colonial past created a deep-rooted desire to preserve independence in foreign policy.
  • Nehruvian Non-Alignment (1950s–1970s)
    • Core principle: India would not align with any Cold War bloc.
    • 1955 Bandung Conference and NAM (1961 Belgrade) institutionalized this vision.
    • Quote (Nehru, 1946): “We propose, so far as we can, to keep away from the power politics of groups, aligned against one another.”
  • Indira Gandhi Era (1970s–1980s)
    • Tilt towards USSR (1971 Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation).
    • Still claimed non-alignment, but practice became more pragmatic.
  • Post-Cold War Recalibration (1990s–2000s)
    • Unipolar U.S.-dominated world; India liberalised economy and sought closer U.S. ties while keeping Russia engaged.
    • “Strategic autonomy” re-emerged as India avoided being a U.S. ally despite growing partnership.
  • 21st Century: Multi-Alignment
    • India now engages multiple powers simultaneously: U.S. (Quad, I2U2, IMEC), Russia (defence, energy), China (BRICS, SCO), EU (trade), Global South (voice in G20).
    • Current doctrine: “Autonomy through diversification”, maintaining flexibility across issues.

Multi-Alignment in India’s Foreign Policy

  • Overview: Instead of non-alignment (staying out of blocs), India today practices multi-alignment — engaging with all major powers, often simultaneously, without exclusive commitment.
  • Examples:
    • Quad (U.S., Japan, Australia, India) → Indo-Pacific security.
    • BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) → financial/strategic cooperation.
    • SCO (Russia, China, Central Asia) → security & regional stability.
    • I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE, U.S.) → technology, infrastructure, food security.
    • IMEC → new economic corridor connecting India–Middle East–Europe.

Key Quotes for Value Addition

  • Jawaharlal Nehru (1946): “We propose, so far as we can, to keep away from the power politics of groups, aligned against one another.” (Origin of non-alignment).
  • Atal Bihari Vajpayee (2003, as PM): “India and the United States may disagree on some issues, but as sovereign countries, we have the right to pursue our national interests.” (Strategic autonomy in U.S. ties).
  • Dr. Manmohan Singh (2005, PM): “Our strategic autonomy does not mean isolation. It means engaging all major powers on equal terms.”
  • S. Jaishankar (External Affairs Minister):
    • “Multi-alignment is the call of the day. Strategic autonomy in today’s multipolar world means engaging America, Russia, China, Europe, and others — each on its own merit.”
    • “Partnerships must be based on interests, not sentiment, not inherited obligations.”
    • “We are non-West, but not anti-West.” (G20 context, 2023).
  • Shivshankar Menon (Former NSA & diplomat):
    • “Strategic autonomy is not a slogan. It is the art of being flexible in a world where alliances are rigid, and sovereignty is contested.”
    • “For India, autonomy lies in not choosing sides but choosing our interests.”

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Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

Why Punjab keeps flooding

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

Introduction

Punjab, often called the “food bowl of India,” is paradoxically one of the most flood-prone states in the country. Drained by three perennial rivers, the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej, along with seasonal tributaries and hill streams, Punjab has historically thrived on its fertile floodplains. Yet, the very rivers that make its land abundant also bring recurring devastation. The 2025 floods, among the worst in recent memory, have once again underlined the dual challenge of geography and governance. With 3.8 lakh people affected, 11.7 lakh hectares of farmland destroyed, and 43 lives lost, the floods highlight not just natural vulnerability but also systemic mismanagement.

Why Punjab’s Floods Are Back in the Spotlight

Punjab is currently experiencing one of the most destructive floods in decades, with unprecedented rainfall in Himachal Pradesh, J&K, and Punjab itself swelling rivers beyond capacity. What makes this year’s floods significant is the scale: all 23 districts have been declared flood-hit, and the breach of Madhopur barrage gates has worsened devastation. While heavy rains are not new, institutional failures, especially in dam management by the Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB), and delayed warnings have amplified the crisis, making the situation worse than previous floods of 1955, 1988, 1993, 2019, and 2023.

Rivers as Both Boon and Bane

  1. Three perennial rivers – Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej traverse Punjab, carrying immense alluvium and making the state highly fertile.
  2. Seasonal rivers and choes – Rivers like Ghaggar and hill streams add to Punjab’s complex hydrology.
  3. Agricultural abundance – Punjab produces nearly 20% of India’s wheat and 12% of its rice, despite occupying only 1.5% of landmass.
  4. Recurring floods – Heavy monsoons, particularly in upstream catchments (Himachal and J&K), frequently overwhelm dhussi bundhs (earthen embankments), as seen in 1955, 1988, 1993, 2019, 2023, and now 2025.

Why Do Dams Intensify Flooding

  1. Upstream dams – Bhakra (Sutlej), Pong (Beas), and Thein/Ranjit Sagar (Ravi) play a central role in regulating river flow.
  2. Rule curve dilemma – The BBMB maintains high reservoir levels in July–August for irrigation and power, leaving little cushion for sudden heavy inflows.
  3. Sudden releases – Emergency releases during extreme rainfall cause flash floods downstream, as seen with Pong dam’s unprecedented 20% higher inflows than 2023.
  4. Governance issue – Punjab feels marginalized in BBMB decisions, especially after 2022 rule changes allowing all-India officers to head the Board.

Human Factors Worsening the Crisis

  1. Barrage failures – On August 26, two gates of the Madhopur barrage collapsed after Thein dam releases, flooding Pathankot, Gurdaspur, and Amritsar.
  2. Weak embankments – Illegal mining has eroded dhussi bundhs, reducing their ability to withstand pressure.
  3. Poor coordination – Lack of communication between upstream and downstream departments delayed gate operations.
  4. Neglected desilting – Experts estimate that ₹4,000–5,000 crore investment in desilting and embankment strengthening could prevent far greater losses.

Larger Governance Failures

  1. BBMB’s narrow mandate – Prioritizes irrigation and power, neglecting flood management.
  2. Delayed warnings – Punjab officials allege sudden releases with little time for evacuation.
  3. Political tensions – Punjab’s Water Resources Minister accused the Centre of ignoring Punjab’s plight.
  4. Environmentalists’ view – Experts stress that flood cushions, transparent decision-making, and scientific dam operations are essential to prevent repeated tragedies.

Conclusion

Punjab’s floods are not just a story of heavy rain but of fragile governance structures. Nature may trigger floods, but poor dam management, illegal mining, weak embankments, and lack of timely communication convert them into disasters. Strengthening embankments, enforcing transparent dam operations, and giving Punjab a greater role in BBMB are urgent needs. Unless governance catches up with geography, Punjab will continue to oscillate between abundance and devastation.

UPSC Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Flooding in urban areas is an emerging climate-induced disaster. Discuss the causes of this disaster. Mention the features of two such major floods in the last two decades in India. Describe the policies and frameworks in India that aim at tackling such floods.

Linkage: The Punjab floods of 2025 mirror the challenges of urban floods like Mumbai (2005) and Chennai (2015), where extreme rainfall combined with poor drainage, unplanned construction, and dam mismanagement turned heavy rain into catastrophe. Frameworks like the Disaster Management Act, 2005, the Sendai Framework (2015–30), and National Disaster Management Plan (2019) provide guiding structures, yet governance lapses and weak local preparedness continue to make both rural and urban areas equally vulnerable to flooding.

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A new leaf- environmental compliance needs to be monitored at all levels

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

India’s environmental regulation has long suffered from weak enforcement due to manpower and capacity deficits. The Environment Audit Rules, 2025 seek to fix this by authorising private accredited auditors to monitor compliance, ensuring industries and companies adhere to environmental norms and emerging frameworks like carbon accounting and green credits.

Why in the News

The rules are significant because, for the first time, private agencies have been formally allowed to audit environmental compliance, a task previously limited to statutory boards. This shift addresses the chronic resource crunch in pollution control authorities and ties compliance to future-ready mechanisms such as the Green Credit Rules.

The Expanding Framework of Environmental Monitoring

  1. Current institutional structure: Supported by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), the Regional Offices of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), and the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs)/Pollution Control Committees (PCCs).
  2. Persistent limitations: Severe shortage of manpower, resources, capacity, and infrastructure has hampered effective monitoring.
  3. Press statement: The Ministry itself acknowledged that these deficits weaken enforcement across “the vast number of projects and industries operating nationwide.”

The Role of Private Environmental Auditors

  1. Accreditation system: Private agencies can now get licensed as environmental auditors.
  2. Comparable to Chartered Accountants: Much like financial auditors, they will assess compliance with environmental laws and best practices in pollution abatement.
  3. Wider application: Their audits will also be relevant for emerging frameworks such as the Green Credit Rules.

Integrating Green Credit and Carbon Accounting

  1. Green Credit Rules: Individuals and organisations can earn tradeable credits for activities such as afforestation, water conservation, and waste management.
  2. Corporate responsibility: Companies must now account for direct and indirect carbon emissions, requiring sophisticated auditing frameworks.
  3. Gap in state capacity: SPCBs are not equipped to handle complex emission accounting, hence the shift towards specialised auditors.

Risks of Diluting Core Responsibilities

  1. Neglect at the grassroots: Environmental violations are often most blatant at district, block, and panchayat levels.
  2. Lack of trained staff: Local monitoring agencies remain understaffed and undertrained, allowing many violations to go unchecked.
  3. Need for empowerment: Any new regime must strengthen, not sideline, grassroots institutions.

Future of Environmental Regulation in India

  1. Beyond policing: Environmental regulation is no longer about enforcement alone but about aligning with global climate goals.
  2. Preparing for the future: Systems must adapt to integrate climate accounting, sustainability audits, and market-based mechanisms like credits.
  3. Balancing act: New reforms must bridge manpower deficits without undermining accountability.

Conclusion

The Environment Audit Rules, 2025 represent a decisive shift in India’s environmental governance by institutionalising private auditing in compliance monitoring. While this can bridge long-standing deficits in manpower and expertise, the real test lies in ensuring grassroots empowerment and preventing dilution of State responsibility. Environmental protection cannot be outsourced entirely; instead, it must evolve into a multi-stakeholder responsibility that balances accountability, innovation, and inclusivity.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2013]: Enumerate the National Water Policy of India. Taking river Ganges as an example, discuss the strategies which may be adopted for river water pollution control and management. What are the legal provisions for management and handling of hazardous wastes in India?

Linkage: The UPSC 2013 question on National Water Policy, Ganga pollution control, and hazardous waste laws links well with the Environment Audit Rules, 2025, as both highlight the gap between legal provisions and effective enforcement. The new rules strengthen monitoring by accrediting private auditors, addressing the chronic manpower deficits that plagued river pollution and waste management efforts. They represent an evolution from mere policy frameworks to robust compliance mechanisms.

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Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

Technology Perspective and Capability Roadmap (TPCR-2025)

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Defence has released the Technology Perspective and Capability Roadmap 2025 (TPCR-2025), a 15-year blueprint for military preparedness and modernization.

About Technology Perspective and Capability Roadmap (TPCR-2025):

  • Overview: A strategic modernization blueprint released by the Ministry of Defence to guide India’s Armed Forces for the next 10–15 years.
  • Scope: Covers tri-services for multi-domain operations across land, sea, air, cyber, and space.
  • Industry Role: Provides clear requirements to defence industry, MSMEs, and start-ups to focus R&D, manufacturing, and innovation.
  • Policy Alignment: Linked to Atmanirbhar Bharat, reducing import dependence and strengthening indigenous production.
  • Objective: Ensure forces remain technologically competitive, prepared for emerging threats, and resilient in a dynamic security environment.

Key Features of TPCR-2025:

  • Nuclear & CBRN Preparedness: Strengthening nuclear command systems, survivability infrastructure, radiation detection, decontamination units, unmanned CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear) vehicles.
  • Drones & Unmanned Systems: Development of stealth drones (range 1,500 km, altitude 60,000 ft), AI-enabled loitering munitions, anti-drone EW bubbles.
  • Electronic & Cyber Warfare: Deployment of advanced jammers, EW payloads, info-dominance systems, and readiness for cyber and space warfare.
  • Service Modernization:
    • Army: New tanks, light tanks, UAV-launched PGMs, electromagnetic weapons.
    • Navy: New destroyers, corvettes, mine vessels, nuclear-powered warships, third aircraft carrier.
    • Air Force: Stratospheric airships, long-range cruise missiles, hardened PGMs.
  • Implementation: Regular industry–services consultations, engagement with MSMEs and start-ups, periodic updates.

Significance:

  • Serves as a capability roadmap for long-term defence planning.
  • Strengthens domestic defence ecosystem.
  • Ensures future combat readiness in multi-domain operations.
[UPSC 2020] In India, why are some nuclear reactors kept under “IAEA safeguards” while others are not?

Options: (a) Some use uranium and others use thorium

(b) Some use imported uranium and others use domestic supplies

(c) Some are operated by foreign enterprises and others are operated by domestic enterprises

(d) Some are State-owned and others are privately owned *

 

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Nuclear Energy

Thunderbird Reactor and Cold Fusion Research (2025)

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Cold fusion reaction, once dismissed after failed 1989 claims, is back in discussion as US-based researchers report neutron production from their small “Thunderbird Reactor.”

Thunderbird Reactor and Cold Fusion Research (2025)

What is Cold Fusion Reaction?

  • Overview: A proposed way to achieve nuclear fusion at room temperature, unlike conventional fusion which needs extremely high heat (100 million °C or more).
  • How it started: In 1989, two chemists, Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons, said their palladium-heavy water experiment created more heat than normal chemistry allows.
  • Problem: Other scientists could not reproduce the result. No clear evidence of fusion products (like neutrons or helium) was found. The claim was dismissed, but the idea stayed alive.
  • Why interest remains: If proven, cold fusion could provide limitless, clean, and cheap energy. Research in this area is now called Low-Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR).

About the Thunderbird Reactor (2025)

  • Inception: Scientists led by Curtis Berlinguette, University of British Columbia, published in Nature (Aug 2025).
  • Why built: Not to make electricity, but to test if chemistry can affect nuclear reactions.
  • How it works:
    • A plasma thruster shoots deuterium ions (a form of hydrogen) at a palladium metal target.
    • At the same time, an electrochemical cell pushes more deuterium into the palladium.
    • This builds up a very high density of deuterium inside the metal, making fusion more likely.
    • A neutron detector checks if fusion really happens.

Key Findings:

  • Neutrons detected: When deuterium ions hit palladium, about 130–140 neutrons per second were observed (much higher than background levels).
  • Electrolysis boost: Adding extra deuterium through electrolysis increased the neutron count further.
  • Energy output: The reaction only produced a tiny amount of power (one-billionth of a watt) while consuming 15 watts of electricity. No net energy gain yet.
[UPSC 2016] India is an important member of the ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor’. If this experiment succeeds, what is the immediate advantage for India?

Options: (a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power generation

(b) It attain a global role in satellite-navigation

(c) It can drastically improve the efficiency of its fission reactors in power generation

(d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation*

 

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Electronic System Design and Manufacturing Sector – M-SIPS, National Policy on Electronics, etc.

[pib] Incentive Scheme to Promote Critical Mineral Recycling

Schemes | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

The Union Cabinet approved a ₹1,500 crore Incentive Scheme to promote recycling of critical minerals from secondary sources such as e-waste and battery scrap.

About Critical Mineral Recycling Incentive Scheme:

  • Launch: Approved under the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM).
  • Outlay: ₹1,500 crore over 6 years (FY 2025–26 to FY 2030–31).
  • Objective: Build domestic recycling capacity for critical minerals (lithium, cobalt, nickel, copper, rare earths) from secondary sources.
  • Rationale: Provides a near-term solution to supply chain challenges as mining projects require long lead times.
  • Targets:
    • 270 kilotonnes annual recycling capacity.
    • 40 kilotonnes minerals yield per year.
    • ₹8,000 crore investment mobilised.
    • ~70,000 jobs created.

Key Features:

  • Beneficiaries: Large recyclers, small/new recyclers, start-ups; one-third funds reserved for small/new entrants.
  • Feedstock Sources: E-waste, lithium-ion battery scrap, catalytic converters, other industrial scrap.
  • Coverage: Support for new units, as well as expansion, modernisation, and diversification of existing plants.
  • Capex Subsidy: 20% subsidy on plant & machinery for timely commissioning; reduced rates for delays.
  • Opex Subsidy: Tied to incremental sales over FY 2025–26 base year.
    • 40% subsidy released in FY 2026–27.
    • 60% subsidy released in FY 2030–31.
  • Incentive Caps:
    • Large entities: ₹50 crore cap (₹10 crore max for opex).
    • Small entities: ₹25 crore cap (₹5 crore max for opex).
  • Eligibility Restriction: Only for firms engaged in actual mineral extraction, not just intermediate “black mass” processing.
[UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:

I. India has joined the Minerals Security Partnership as a member.

II. India is a resource-rich country in all the 30 critical minerals that it has identified.

III. The Parliament in 2023 has amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 empowering the Central Government to exclusively auction mining lease and composite license for certain critical minerals.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only* (d) I, II and III

 

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Food Processing Industry: Issues and Developments

BHARATI Initiative

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Food Processing & Related Industries In India

Why in the News?

The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) has launched the BHARATI initiative — Bharat’s Hub for Agritech, Resilience, Advancement and Incubation for Export Enablement.

About BHARATI Initiative:

  • Launched by: APEDA (Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority) in September 2025.
  • Purpose: To incubate and empower 100 agri-food and agri-tech startups, making them export-ready.
  • Target: Support APEDA’s vision of reaching US$ 50 billion (₹4.4 lakh crore) in agri-food exports by 2030.
  • Focus Areas: Export enablement, innovation, incubation, and addressing challenges like perishability, logistics, quality compliance, and sustainability.
  • Policy Alignment: Linked to Atmanirbhar Bharat, Start-Up India, Vocal for Local, and Digital India.

Key Features:

  • Targeted Products: GI-tagged items, organic foods, superfoods, AYUSH products, processed foods, livestock-based products.
  • Technology Integration: AI-based quality control, blockchain-enabled traceability, IoT-based cold chains, and agri-fintech solutions.
  • Acceleration Model: 3-month programme to build export readiness, ensuring compliance with international food safety and quality standards.
  • Partnership Ecosystem: Collaboration with state boards, IITs/NITs, universities, industry bodies, and accelerators.
  • Scalability: Designed for annual expansion, gradually increasing the number of supported startups.
[UPSC 2011] With what purpose is the Government of India promoting the concept of “Mega Food Parks”?

1. To provide good infrastructure facilities for the food processing industry.

2. To increase the processing of perishable items and reduce wastage.

3. To provide emerging and

eco-friendly food processing technologies to entrepreneurs.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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MGNREGA Scheme

20 Years of MGNREGS

Schemes | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

Why in the News?

On the 20th anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005, concerns were raised over chronic underfunding of the scheme during the past decade.

About MGNREGS:

  • Overview: MGNREGS is a rights-based Centrally Sponsored Scheme launched under the MGNREGA Act of 2005 to ensure the Right to Work for rural households.
  • Origins:
    • The idea of employment guarantee in India began with Maharashtra’s pilot, Employment Guarantee Scheme (MEGS), in 1965 under the Vasantrao Naik government.
    • At the national level, the idea was first proposed in 1991 by then PM P. V. Narasimha Rao and later enacted in 2005.
  • Employment Guarantee: It provides 100 days of wage employment per year to any adult willing to do unskilled manual labour in rural India.
  • Legal Obligation: It is the first law in India that imposes a legal duty on the government to provide employment and compensate for non-compliance.
  • Development Goal: The scheme aims to promote livelihood security, inclusive growth, and rural development.

Key Features:

  • Statutory Right: Employment under MGNREGS is a legal entitlement, not just a welfare scheme.
  • Eligibility: Any rural adult aged 18 or above can apply and must be offered work within 15 days.
  • Proximity and Wages: Work must be provided within 5 km of the applicant’s residence with minimum wage, and delays attract compensation.
  • Unemployment Allowance: If work is not provided on time, the state must pay an allowance.
  • Demand-Driven Model: The scheme is worker-initiated, requiring the government to respond to demand.
  • Transparency and Audits: Regular social audits and online updates ensure accountability in job cards, muster rolls, and fund use.
  • Local Implementation: It is decentralised, led by Gram Panchayats, with support from block and state officials, and centrally funded.
  • Women’s Inclusion: At least one-third of beneficiaries must be women, enhancing gender equity.
  • Sustainable Assets: Projects focus on durable rural infrastructure like ponds, roads, canals, and plantations.
[UPSC 2006] Consider the following statements in respect of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005:

1. The Act provides 100 days of employment to households as a fundamental right.

2. Women are given priority such that half of the employment seekers are women.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 *

 

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Goods and Services Tax (GST)

[5th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: GST 2.0 is a landmark in India’s Tax Journey

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2020] Explain the rationale behind the Goods and Services Tax (Compensation to States) Act of 2017. How has COVID-19 impacted the GST compensation fund and created new federal tensions?

Linkage: The GST (Compensation to States) Act, 2017 was meant to assure states of revenue stability post-GST rollout, but COVID-19 strained the fund, creating federal tensions over delayed compensation. In contrast, GST 2.0 reflects cooperative federalism, with consensus on slab rationalisation, inverted duty correction, and GSTAT. This marks a shift from fiscal disputes to collaborative reform, strengthening trust in India’s tax federalism.

Mentor’s Comment

The 56th meeting of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council has ushered in a decisive set of reforms, marking a new chapter in India’s fiscal federalism. By moving towards a simplified two-rate structure and addressing long-standing distortions, GST 2.0 promises to reshape consumption patterns, boost competitiveness, and build a fairer system. For UPSC aspirants, this development offers lessons on economic governance, cooperative federalism, social security, and inclusive growth.

Introduction

The 56th GST Council meeting (September 3, 2025) has been hailed as a watershed in India’s taxation history. For the first time since the rollout of GST in 2017, the complex multi-slab structure has been significantly rationalised. The new structure introduces just two core slabs, 18% (Standard Rate) and 5% (Merit Rate), with a 40% demerit rate for a few goods, while several essentials are exempt. These reforms are not limited to technical tax changes; they are a “people’s reform” with direct impact on households, farmers, industries, and the healthcare sector.

The significance of GST 2.0 reforms

  1. Historic simplification: Earlier GST had 5%, 12%, 18%, and 28% slabs. The new 2-rate system with exemptions marks the biggest simplification since 2017.
  2. People-centric relief: Daily-use goods like soap, shampoo, bicycles, and kitchenware now taxed at 5%; essentials like milk, paneer, parathas exempt. This makes taxation citizen-friendly.
  3. Social security boost: All life and health insurance products are exempted from GST for the first time, improving affordability and raising insurance penetration.
  4. Correcting distortions: Long-pending inverted duty structures, particularly in textiles and fertilizers, have been corrected.
  5. Institutional strengthening: The announcement of GST Appellate Tribunal (GSTAT) by year-end promises faster dispute resolution.

Impact of reforms on households and social security

  1. Cheaper essentials: Items like soap, shampoo, toothpaste, bicycles, and kitchenware moved to the 5% slab.
  2. Exemptions on food: UHT milk, paneer, chapatis, and parathas exempt, easing burden on middle and low-income families.
  3. Insurance relief: GST exemption on life and health insurance makes coverage accessible to senior citizens and low-income groups.
  4. Healthcare affordability: Cancer drugs, medicines for rare diseases, and critical devices made cheaper through exemptions and cuts.

Benefits of GST 2.0 for farmers and rural India

  1. Lower cultivation cost: Fertilisers, sulphuric acid, and ammonia shifted from 18% to 5%.
  2. Cheaper farm equipment: Tractors and machinery brought to 5% slab, improving productivity and rural income.
  3. Structural correction: By rationalising inputs and outputs, GST 2.0 reduces price distortions and supports agricultural sustainability.

Implications for industries and employment

  1. Labour-intensive sectors: Handicrafts, marble, granite, and leather goods get rate reductions, boosting employment.
  2. Textile competitiveness: GST on man-made fibres and yarn reduced to 5%, resolving a major inverted duty issue. This is expected to improve exports and domestic value-addition.
  3. Infrastructure multiplier: Cement rate cut from 28% to 18% to spur housing and infrastructure.
  4. Green economy boost: Cuts on renewable energy devices and auto components support sustainable growth.

Institutional reforms under GST 2.0

  1. Operationalisation of GSTAT: To be functional by year-end, ensuring quicker dispute resolution and taxpayer confidence.
  2. Process reforms: Provisional refunds for inverted duty structures, risk-based compliance, and harmonised valuation rules reduce business uncertainty.
  3. Ease of doing business: These reforms align India’s tax system with global best practices and make compliance less cumbersome.

Phased rollout and implementation strategy

  1. Gradual rollout: Effective from September 22, 2025, reforms are phased to balance fiscal stability and consumer benefits.
  2. Revenue neutrality: Phasing prevents sudden fiscal shocks while stimulating demand and investment.
  3. Stakeholder partnership: Council’s decisions reflect responsiveness to industry, consumers, and state governments.

Conclusion

GST 2.0 represents not just a fiscal reform but a societal shift. By rationalising slabs, correcting distortions, and easing compliance, it strengthens the foundation for a Viksit Bharat 2047. The reforms are inclusive, covering farmers, workers, households, and industries alike, while building institutions like GSTAT. The success of these reforms will ultimately depend on smooth implementation and sustained cooperative federalism.

Value Addition

Economic Reforms: GST 2.0 and Global Best Practices

Two-rate model adoption: GST 2.0 moves from a complex four-slab structure (5%, 12%, 18%, 28%) to a simplified two-rate system (5% Merit Rate and 18% Standard Rate), with a 40% demerit rate for select goods. This mirrors global practices where most advanced economies prefer fewer slabs for simplicity.

International parallels:

  1. Canada follows a dual rate Goods and Services Tax/Harmonized Sales Tax model, with exemptions for essentials like food and healthcare.
  2. Australia operates a uniform GST at 10% but exempts basic food, health, and education, similar in spirit to India’s exemptions on milk, paneer, chapati, and healthcare.
  3. Singapore maintains a single GST rate (currently 9%) with targeted exemptions.

Benefits of convergence:

  1. Ease of compliance: Fewer slabs reduce classification disputes and litigation.
  2. Predictability for businesses: Encourages investment by aligning India’s tax structure with global investors’ expectations.
  3. Revenue neutrality with inclusivity: Exemptions for essentials ensure equity while maintaining fiscal stability.

Reform trajectory: GST 2.0 represents a shift towards global standards without fully copying them, adapting the model to India’s socio-economic realities — balancing growth, inclusion, and fiscal prudence.

 

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Freedom of Speech – Defamation, Sedition, etc.

Should Commercial speech on digital platform be regulated

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Introduction

On August 25, 2025, the Supreme Court of India asked the Union government to frame guidelines for regulating social media content, noting that influencers often commercialise speech in ways that offend vulnerable groups. The case arose from derogatory remarks made by comedians about persons with Spinal Muscular Atrophy. While well-intentioned, the order has raised concerns about overregulation of free speech.

Why in the news

The Supreme Court of India’s intervention is significant because it directs the executive to draft specific rules for social media despite existing laws such as the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 (BNS) and the Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act) already providing mechanisms. For the first time, the Court has nudged the government toward formal regulation triggered by a single incident, raising alarms of censorship and judicial overreach.

The presence or absence of a regulatory vacuum

  1. Existing provisions: FIRs can be filed under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 and the Information Technology Act, 2000. The IT Act already empowers courts or the executive to order takedowns.
  2. Opaque enforcement: Takedowns often occur without notifying the affected individual, undermining natural justice.
  3. Critics’ view: No regulatory vacuum exists; additional rules may be an overreaction to a single case.

The question of dignity as a ground for restricting free speech

  1. Constitutional limits: Article 19(2) of the Constitution of India exhaustively lists permissible restrictions, security of the state, public order, decency, morality, etc. Dignity is not among them.
  2. Judicial precedents: In Subramanian Swamy v. Union of India (2016), the Supreme Court of India upheld criminal defamation, indirectly protecting individual dignity, but did not treat dignity as an independent ground.
  3. Slippery slope risk: Recognising dignity as a separate basis for restriction could legitimise expansive censorship.

The risk of silencing uncomfortable speech

  1. Chilling effect: Overbroad regulations may deter comedians, satirists, and artists from bold expression.
  2. Supreme Court stance: In March 2025, in Imran Pratapgadhi v. State of Gujarat, the Court quashed charges against a Member of Parliament, reaffirming that Article 19(1)(a) protects even disturbing or offensive views.
  3. Censorship creep: Proposals like the Broadcasting Services (Regulation) Bill may expand state control over independent creators.

The place of commercial speech in free expression

  1. Judicial recognition: In Sakal Papers Pvt. Ltd. v. Union of India (1962) and Tata Press Ltd. v. Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (1995), the Supreme Court of India affirmed that commercial speech falls under Article 19(1)(a).
  2. Commerce and speech: Just as newspapers rely on advertisements, comedians and influencers rely on monetisation. Profit motive does not make speech less deserving of protection.
  3. Criticism: Comedy and satire do not neatly fall into the narrow category of “commercial speech,” traditionally reserved for advertisements.

Judicial polyvocality and consistency of precedent

  1. Court’s nature: Divergent views are part of common law, but binding precedent ensures continuity.
  2. Problem here: Directing the executive to draft rules risks giving regulations undue legitimacy and making constitutional challenges harder.
  3. Judicial discipline: When coordinate Benches depart from earlier rulings, proper procedure is referral to a larger Bench.

Safeguards needed in future regulations

  1. Transparent review: Any regulation must ensure robust review mechanisms and fairness in takedown procedures.
  2. Broad consultation: Stakeholder engagement should extend beyond industry associations to include civil society and affected communities.
  3. Opacity concerns: Section 69A of the Information Technology Act, 2000 and its rules (2009) are already opaque; future regulations must not repeat these flaws.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s intention to protect dignity is laudable, but creating fresh regulations risks undermining the freedom of expression. India already has legal frameworks to tackle offensive content. Expanding restrictions based on vague concepts like dignity may lead to excessive censorship, weaken democratic discourse, and erode artistic freedom.

Value Addition

Social Media Regulation in India

Existing legal framework:

  1. Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act) – Section 69A empowers the government to block content in the interest of sovereignty, security, or public order.
  2. Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021 – impose obligations on intermediaries (traceability, grievance redressal, content takedown within 24 hours).
  3. Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 (BNS) – contains provisions criminalising hate speech, obscenity, and defamation.

Judicial interventions:

  1. Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015) – struck down Section 66A of the IT Act for being vague and unconstitutional.
  2. Subramanian Swamy v. Union of India (2016) – upheld criminal defamation, linking dignity and reputation to Article 21.
  3. Concerns: Opaque takedown orders, executive overreach, limited transparency, chilling effect on creators.

Comparative Global Perspective

  • European Union (EU):
    • Digital Services Act (DSA), 2022 – imposes strict obligations on platforms to remove illegal content, ensures algorithmic transparency, and penalises non-compliance heavily.
    • Focus on user rights, platform accountability, and transparency reports.
  • United States:
    • Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act, 1996 – grants platforms immunity for third-party content but allows them to moderate in “good faith.”
    • Debate ongoing about reforming Section 230 to tackle misinformation and hate speech.
  • United Kingdom: Online Safety Act, 2023 – places a “duty of care” on platforms to protect children and curb illegal content.
  • Australia: Online Safety Act, 2021 – empowers the eSafety Commissioner to order removal of harmful content (cyberbullying, image-based abuse, terrorist material).
  • China: Heavily restrictive model – extensive censorship, mandatory real-name verification, and state monitoring of digital platforms.
  • Global South: Many countries (e.g., Nigeria, Pakistan) have passed restrictive social media laws under the pretext of national security, raising concerns about authoritarian misuse.

International Bodies and Global Norms

  • United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC): Stresses that restrictions on online speech must comply with Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) – legality, necessity, and proportionality.
  • UNESCO: Advocates for a multi-stakeholder approach to digital governance, focusing on protecting human rights, access to information, and pluralism.
  • OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development): Encourages transparency and accountability frameworks for digital platforms.
  • Global Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism (GIFCT): A tech industry-led initiative to remove extremist content online.

Good Examples

  • Germany: Network Enforcement Act (NetzDG), 2017 – requires platforms to remove “manifestly unlawful” content (hate speech, fake news) within 24 hours. Criticised for overblocking but effective in quick takedowns.
  • France: Passed “Avia Law” (2020) against online hate but was struck down by the Constitutional Council for disproportionate restrictions. Illustrates the tension between free speech and regulation.
  • EU’s GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) indirectly regulates platforms by holding them accountable for data privacy and targeted advertising.

Way Forward for India

  • Principle-based framework: Regulations should follow constitutional safeguards (Article 19(2)), ensure proportionality, and avoid vague categories like “dignity.”
  • Transparency and due process: Mandatory publication of takedown orders, notice to affected parties, and avenues for appeal.
  • Independent oversight: Instead of executive dominance, an independent regulator (like an ombudsman or tribunal) could review takedown requests.
  • Stakeholder-driven approach: Consultation must involve civil society, creators, tech companies, and vulnerable communities.
  • Digital literacy: Public campaigns to counter hate speech and misinformation organically, rather than relying solely on punitive regulation.
  • Learning from global practices: India could adapt elements of the EU’s Digital Services Act (transparency), US’s Section 230 immunity, and Australia’s safety-first approach, while avoiding China’s over-control.

UPSC Relevance

[UPSC 2013] Discuss Section 66A of IT Act, with reference to its alleged violation of Article 19 of the Constitution.

Linkage: Section 66A of the Information Technology Act, 2000 was struck down in Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015) for being vague and violating Article 19(1)(a) beyond the limits of Article 19(2). The present debate on regulating commercial speech on digital platforms raises a similar concern, as introducing “dignity” as a restriction risks the same arbitrariness. Both highlight the constitutional need for clear, proportionate, and narrowly defined limits on free speech in India.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-China

India-China: the making of a border

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Introduction

The India–China boundary, stretching for about 3,488 km, is one of the longest disputed borders in the world. Unlike clearly demarcated international frontiers, this boundary runs through the Himalayas and remains unsettled in large parts. The two major areas of dispute are Aksai Chin in the western sector, occupied by China but claimed by India, and Arunachal Pradesh (particularly the Tawang tract) in the eastern sector, claimed by China but under Indian control. Rooted in the legacies of the British and Manchu empires, the boundary was never precisely defined. After independence, India relied on British-era maps while China pressed for historical and strategic claims. This divergence led to the 1962 war and continues to shape relations between the two Asian powers.

Why the India–China border issue matters

The unresolved India–China border remains a major geopolitical challenge in Asia. Unlike other international boundaries, this border runs through inhospitable Himalayan terrain where neither country historically maintained a permanent presence. The 1962 war, following India’s rejection of Chinese proposals, left scars of mistrust. Later attempts, such as Rajiv Gandhi’s 1988 Beijing visit, restored engagement but not resolution. The dispute is about sovereignty, strategy, and national prestige, making it a flashpoint with global implications.

The imperial legacy and a contested border

  1. Colonial inheritance: The India–China border was a product of the British and Manchu empires, drawn imprecisely through the Himalayas.
  2. Absence of settlement: After independence, India relied on colonial maps and dismissed Chinese calls for negotiations.
  3. Strategic miscalculation: India’s faith in maps was not supported by control on the ground, leaving space for China’s proactive steps in Aksai Chin.

The emergence of conflict in Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh

  1. Chinese presence in Aksai Chin: China constructed a highway from Xinjiang to Tibet through Aksai Chin, asserting de facto control.
  2. Indian assertion in Tawang: India occupied Tawang citing the 1914 Simla Convention and the McMahon Line signed with an independent Tibet.
  3. Proposals for compromise: In 1959, Beijing suggested a Line of Actual Control (LAC) with a 20 km troop pullback; in 1960, Zhou Enlai proposed a swap—Aksai Chin for Arunachal recognition.
  4. Breakdown and war: India rejected these offers; attempts to reclaim Aksai Chin triggered the 1962 war, where India lost ground in Ladakh but retained the McMahon Line in the east.

Post-war developments and early engagement

  1. Dormancy period: After 1962, both sides avoided border contact for more than a decade.
  2. China Study Group: In 1975, India formed this high-level body to map the border with satellite imagery and direct patrolling.
  3. Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s outreach: In 1979, Vajpayee visited Beijing, the first senior Indian leader to do so since 1962, initiating cautious normalisation.
  4. Revival of Chinese proposals: Deng Xiaoping in 1980 reiterated Zhou’s swap idea, but India, led by Indira Gandhi, rejected it due to mistrust.

The stalemate in negotiations during the 1980s

  1. Unproductive talks: From 1981, both sides engaged in negotiations—India sought sector-wise talks, while China insisted on a package deal.
  2. Demand for Tawang: By 1985, Beijing linked concessions in Ladakh with Indian concessions over Tawang, central to China’s Tibet policy.
  3. Operation Falcon: In 1986, India forward-deployed troops at Namka Chu, displaying improved military preparedness since 1962.
  4. De-escalation: Both sides eventually pulled back, but the demand for Tawang revealed fundamental divergence.

Rajiv Gandhi’s 1988 visit and a new framework

  1. Strategic reset: Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to Beijing marked a shift from linking normalisation to border resolution.
  2. Framework for dialogue: Both sides agreed to restore relations while deferring the border issue to a Joint Working Group (JWG).
  3. Principle of accommodation: Premier Li Peng emphasised “mutual understanding and mutual accommodation (MUMA),” while Gandhi sought a “fair and reasonable” settlement.
  4. Peace as priority: Peace and tranquillity were prioritised, enabling cooperation in other fields despite the unsettled boundary.

Conclusion

The India–China border dispute is a story of missed chances, mistrust, and strategic recalibration. From Aksai Chin to Tawang, an imperial legacy evolved into a sovereignty dilemma. While Deng Xiaoping and Rajiv Gandhi shifted the relationship towards peace, fundamental differences endure. History shows that strategic patience, military preparedness, and calibrated diplomacy remain the keys to managing this difficult relationship.

Value Addition

Institutional Mechanisms

  1. China Study Group (1975): Established by India to monitor the border with satellite mapping and patrolling points.
  2. Joint Working Group (1988): Created after Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to sustain structured dialogue on the boundary issue.
  3. Later confidence-building agreements (1993, 1996, 2005): Though not in this article, they flowed from this trajectory and institutionalised border management.

Policy Evolution

  1. Jawaharlal Nehru: Over-reliance on colonial maps and dismissal of negotiations.
  2. Atal Bihari Vajpayee: Cautious outreach to normalise ties in 1979 despite tensions.
  3. Indira Gandhi: Strong mistrust post-1962, refusal to accept “territorial swaps.”
  4. Rajiv Gandhi: Pragmatic reset in 1988, separating normalisation from boundary resolution.

Line of Actual Control (LAC)

  1. Definition: The de facto boundary separating Indian and Chinese forces, first formally acknowledged in 1959 by China.
  2. Nature: Not mutually agreed or demarcated on the ground, leading to “differing perceptions.”
  3. Relevance: Key to understanding recurring standoffs such as Galwan (2020), though beyond this article’s timeframe.

Case Study Relevance

  1. Aksai Chin: Illustrates how geography and strategic imperatives (road connectivity to Tibet) drive China’s claims.
  2. Tawang: Demonstrates cultural and religious dimensions (Tibetan Buddhism, Dalai Lama’s birthplace links).
  3. Operation Falcon (1986): A case study in how improved military readiness altered China’s calculus.
  4. Rajiv Gandhi’s 1988 visit: A model of pragmatic diplomacy—normalisation without immediate resolution.

Way Forward

  1. Institutional strengthening: Reviving and empowering mechanisms like the Joint Working Group and Special Representatives dialogue.
  2. Confidence-building: Expanding agreements on patrolling norms, hotlines, and disengagement to avoid clashes.
  3. Strategic balance: Maintaining military preparedness (as shown in Operation Falcon) while keeping diplomacy open.
  4. Engagement beyond the border: Deepening cooperation in trade, technology, and multilateral forums to build trust.
  5. Mutual accommodation: Drawing from Deng Xiaoping and Rajiv Gandhi’s vision of a “fair, reasonable, mutually acceptable” settlement to guide long-term resolution.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2017] ‘China is using its economic relations and positive trade surplus as tools to develop potential military power status in Asia’, In the light of this statement, discuss its impact on India as her neighbor.

Linkage: China’s occupation of Aksai Chin and insistence on Tawang show how strategic control is tied to economic leverage, such as road connectivity and infrastructure. Its trade surplus with India fuels military modernisation along the Line of Actual Control (LAC). For India, this creates a dual challenge of managing unresolved borders while countering China’s economic–military power projection in Asia.

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