💥UPSC 2026, 2027 UAP Mentorship September Batch
September 2025
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Judicial Reforms

National Lok Adalat  

Why in the News?

On September 13, a countrywide National Lok Adalat was held with a special focus on clearing pending traffic e-challans for minor offences.

What is National Lok Adalat?

  • Overview: Lok Adalats held 4 times a year, on a single day, across all courts from the Supreme Court to Taluk Courts.
  • Scope: Settles both pending cases and pre-litigation disputes suitable for compromise.
  • Organisation: Dates fixed in the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) calendar; sessions conducted nationwide.
  • Method: Focuses on amicable settlement rather than judicial imposition.
  • Common Cases: Matrimonial/family disputes, compoundable criminal cases, land acquisition, labour disputes, compensation claims, bank recoveries, and accident claims.
  • Exclusions: Non-compoundable or sensitive offences are outside its scope.

About Lok Adalats:

  • Legal Status: Statutory body under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987; amended in 2002 for Permanent Lok Adalats (public utility services).
  • Composition: Includes a judicial officer (Chairman), a lawyer, and a social worker.
  • History: First Lok Adalat held in Gujarat, 1982, as a voluntary conciliatory forum.
  • Award/Decision: Final, binding, and equivalent to a civil court decree; no appeal permitted.
  • Jurisdiction: Can settle pending cases, matters within court jurisdiction (even pre-litigation), on mutual consent, referral, or court satisfaction.
  • Organisation: Conducted by NALSA and State/District/High Court/Taluk Legal Services Authorities. NALSA operational since 9 November 1995.
  • Powers: Enjoy powers of a civil court; proceedings treated as judicial proceedings.
  • Benefits: No court fee, speedy disposal, procedural flexibility, direct party–judge interaction, and finality of settlement.
[UPSC 2009] With reference to Lok Adalats, consider the following statements:

1. An award made by a Lok Adalat is deemed to be a degree of a civil court and no appeal lies against thereto before any court.

2. Matrimonial/Family disputes are not covered under Lok Adalat.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Tiger Conservation Efforts – Project Tiger, etc.

In news: Sahyadri Tiger Reserve

Why in the News?

The Union Environment Ministry has approved the capture and translocation of eight tigers from Tadoba-Andhari and Pench reserves to the Sahyadri Tiger Reserve (STR) in western Maharashtra.

In news: Sahyadri Tiger Reserve

About Sahyadri Tiger Reserve (STR):

  • Overview: Situated in the Sahyadri Range, Western Ghats (Maharashtra), spanning districts of Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur, Ratnagiri.
  • Status: Declared Tiger Reserve (2010); part of UNESCO Western Ghats World Heritage Site (2012).
  • Geography: Dominated by Shivsagar (Koyna) and Vasant Sagar (Warana) reservoirs.
  • Vegetation: Moist evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist & dry deciduous forests; endemic trees like karvi, bamboo, Terminalia, Emblica.
  • Fauna: Bengal tiger, leopard, dhole, gaur, antelopes, mouse deer, giant squirrel. Birds include hornbills, vultures, river tern.
  • Tiger Status: Tigers absent for years; 5–9 present since 2018 (as per camera trap evidence).
  • Corridor Linkages: Connected to Radhanagari WLS (north) and Anshi–Dandeli TR (south, Karnataka), forming a key Western Ghats corridor.
  • Ecological Role: Secures catchments of Koyna & Warna rivers, crucial for farming and livelihoods.

Need for Tiger translocation:

  • Prey base: Reserve has prey-rich habitat but lacks a stable breeding tiger population.
  • Other benefits: Prevents local extinction, strengthens corridor connectivity, supports Project Tiger, conserves biodiversity, and secures river watersheds.
[UPSC 2017] From the ecological point of view, which one of the following assumes importance in being a good link between the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats?

Options: (a) Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve* (b) Nallamala Forest (c) Nagarhole National Park (d) Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve

 

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Blockchain Technology: Prospects and Challenges

What is Decentralised Finance (DeFi)?

Why in the News?

Decentralised Finance (DeFi) is rapidly expanding as a global financial innovation, enabling direct peer-to-peer transactions without intermediaries such as banks.

What is DeFi?

  • It is a financial system that runs on blockchains like Ethereum.
  • It allows people to send, borrow, lend, invest, and trade money directly without banks.
  • All transactions happen using smart contracts (computer programs) and apps called dApps.
  • Anyone with a phone + internet can use it; no bank account or KYC needed.

Features of DeFi:

  • No middlemen: Works without banks or brokers.
  • Smart contracts: Deals happen automatically once rules are met.
  • Open access: Anyone in the world can join with just a digital wallet.
  • Transparency: Every transaction is recorded on a blockchain for all to see.
  • Cross-border: Can be used internationally, without currency or banking restrictions.
  • Low cost & fast: Cheaper and quicker than traditional banking.
  • Anonymous: Many platforms don’t ask for ID, making it open but risky.

DeFi in India:

  • Adoption: India ranks third globally in DeFi value (Chainalysis Global Crypto Adoption Index 2024).
  • Growth Drivers:
    • Large youth population and widespread smartphone use.
    • Strong digital payments ecosystem (UPI, JAM trinity).
    • Increasing retail investor interest in crypto-assets.
  • Uses: Indian users engage in lending, trading, yield farming, and staking via DeFi platforms like Aave, Compound, and SushiSwap.
  • Market Size: Projected to reach USD 1.7 billion by 2025.
  • Challenges: Regulatory uncertainty, risks of money laundering and terror financing, cyber vulnerabilities, and lack of investor protection.
[UPSC 2025] With reference to the Government of India, consider the following information:

Organization: Some of its functions: It works under

I.Directorate of Enforcement: Enforcement of the Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 : Internal Security Division- I, Ministry of Home Affairs

II.Directorate of Revenue Intelligence: Enforces the Provisions of the Customs Act, 1962 : Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance

III.Directorate General of Systems and Data Management: Carrying out big data analytics to assist tax officers for better policy and nabbing tax evaders: Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance

In how many of the above rows is the information correctly matched?

(a) Only one* (b) Only two (c) All the three (d) None

 

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Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

[12th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Relief for Refugees (Foreign (Exemption) Order, 2025)

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] India is an age-old friend of Sri Lanka. Discuss India’s role in the recent crisis in Sri Lanka in the light of the preceding statement.

Linkage: The issue of Sri Lankan Tamil refugees directly ties to India’s longstanding friendship with Sri Lanka. While India has consistently extended humanitarian aid during Sri Lanka’s crises, the 2025 Immigration Order reflects another dimension of this support by protecting refugees from forcible repatriation. It highlights how India balances compassion for vulnerable groups with its broader role as a stabilising partner in Sri Lanka’s recovery

Mentor’s Comment

The recent Immigration and Foreigners (Exemption) Order, 2025, marks a turning point in India’s refugee policy, particularly concerning Sri Lankan Tamil refugees. While it offers legal relief, many gaps remain in ensuring citizenship, dignity, and durable solutions. This article explores the issue through a UPSC lens, connecting it with governance, international relations, and humanitarian concerns.

Introduction

The Union Ministry of Home Affairs notified the Immigration and Foreigners (Exemption) Order, 2025, exempting specified groups from passport and visa requirements for entering, staying, and exiting India. For the first time, Sri Lankan Tamil refugees, who have lived in Tamil Nadu since the 1990s, find explicit mention, gaining protection from forcible repatriation. However, questions of legal status, citizenship, and long-term rehabilitation remain unresolved, making this both a humanitarian and policy challenge.

Why in the News

For over three decades, Sri Lankan Tamil refugees have lived in India without a clear roadmap for citizenship or repatriation. The 2025 Order gives them temporary relief but does not resolve their “illegal migrant” status. This is significant because, unlike the six religious minorities from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan who received relief under the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), the Sri Lankan Tamils had been left out earlier. The recognition in 2025 is thus both a success and a reminder of unaddressed policy gaps.

What Does the New Immigration Order Provide?

  1. Exemption Granted: Nationals of Nepal and Bhutan, Tibetan refugees, six religious minorities from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lankan Tamils are exempted from strict passport and visa rules.
  2. Historical Reference: Refugees must have entered India before January 9, 2015, and registered themselves to avail of the benefit.
  3. Protection from Forcible Return: This safeguards Sri Lankan Tamils from involuntary repatriation after decades of uncertainty.

Why Are Sri Lankan Tamil Refugees a Special Case?

  1. Civil War Displacement: Many fled to Tamil Nadu in the 1990s during Sri Lanka’s civil war.
  2. Post-war Welfare: Both Union and Tamil Nadu governments provided welfare after the civil war ended in 2009.
  3. Exclusion from CAA 2019: Unlike refugees from Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, Sri Lankan Tamils were excluded from citizenship benefits.

What Legal Hurdles Do Refugees Still Face?

  1. Illegal Migrant Tag: Despite the order, they remain classified as “illegal migrants” under Indian law.
  2. Citizenship Barriers: They cannot easily apply for citizenship under Section 5 (registration) or Section 6 (naturalisation) of the Citizenship Act, 1955.
  3. Long Term Visa (LTV) Gap: Exclusion from LTV eligibility blocks access to gainful employment and higher education.
  4. Missed Precedent: Tibetan refugees receive certificates of identity, which could serve as a model for Sri Lankan Tamils.

What Are the Policy Options Ahead?

  1. Liberalisation of LTVs: Extending LTVs to Sri Lankan Tamil refugees would facilitate education and jobs.
  2. Voluntary Repatriation: India and Sri Lanka can collaborate on structured assistance for safe return.
  3. Local Integration: For those unwilling to return, gradual local integration with a humane approach can be considered.
  4. Model Replication: Certificates of identity, as given to Tibetan refugees, can help provide dignity and legal standing.

Conclusion

The 2025 Immigration Order is a step forward, but it leaves critical questions unresolved. Sri Lankan Tamil refugees deserve a humane, durable solution, whether through voluntary repatriation with assistance, or integration with rights and dignity. India, while balancing domestic concerns and foreign relations with Sri Lanka, must craft a policy that reflects compassion, legality, and long-term stability.

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A Sense of Drift: Democracy at the Crossroads: Youth, Corruption and the New Global Malaise

Introduction

Democracy, once celebrated as the ultimate safeguard of freedom and governance, is witnessing profound crises across continents. Nepal’s weak institutions, France’s protest-prone presidentialism, and America’s violent polarisation reveal that democratic malaise is not confined to one geography. The recurring theme is stark: young people feel robbed of their future.

Why is democracy back in crisis?

  1. Recurring crises: Democracies appear to follow cycles of expansion (40–50 years) followed by exhaustion.
  2. Current triggers: Corruption in Nepal, unsustainable economic models in France, and violent political divisions in the US.
  3. Historical echoes: Similar crises were witnessed in the 1920s–30s and the 1960s–70s, culminating in debates such as the Trilateral Commission’s 1975 report on “The Crisis of Democracy.”

What role does youth disillusionment play?

  1. Stolen future: Across Nepal, France, and the US, young people feel alienated and betrayed.
  2. Lack of consensus: Youth anger does not translate into youth unity; it produces anxiety but not collective solutions.
  3. Gerontocracy problem: Democracies like India and the US are led largely by older generations, deepening generational divides.

How does inequality and polarisation fuel the malaise?

  1. Different consensus: Unlike the 1970s when “excess participation” was blamed, today growing inequality is seen as the root of discontent.
  2. Dual polarisation: A clash of values coupled with diametrically opposed economic visions — Left demanding more state investment, Right fearing socialist excess.
  3. Jobless growth: Declining employment elasticity of capital threatens to erode trust even in well-designed policies.

Why does corruption persist as a democratic fault line?

  1. Structural vs transactional corruption: Elites monopolising power versus ostentatious lifestyles of politicians.
  2. Anti-corruption paradox: Movements rarely eliminate corruption and often fuel authoritarian turns, seen in Nepal’s staggering levels of rent extraction.
  3. Authoritarian co-option: Anti-corruption rhetoric is used to justify illiberal governance.

What is the role of war and misinformation?

  1. Historical corrosion: Vietnam and Iraq wars eroded democratic legitimacy in the US.
  2. Current crises: Gaza conflict risks corroding Western liberal legitimacy.
  3. Misinformation cycle: Radical democratisation of information through social media has dissolved authority and deepened adversarial suspicion.

Can democracies reinvent themselves?

  1. Past reinventions: Post-1930s depression and 1970s crises were followed by new waves of democratisation.
  2. Paradox of protest: While protests mobilise energy, they often breed drift, violence, or nihilism.

Way Forward for Democracies

  1. Institutional Reinvention: Strengthen checks and balances through judicial independence, parliamentary accountability, and free media — preventing democratic backsliding.
  2. Inclusive Growth: Address structural inequality and jobless growth by creating policies focused on employment elasticity and equitable redistribution.
  3. Youth Participation: Channel youth disillusionment into institutionalised participation (youth parliaments, policy fellowships, digital consultative platforms).
  4. Taming Polarisation: Build broad-based social coalitions that transcend Left–Right economic divides and cultural polarisation.
  5. Responsible Information Order: Regulate misinformation while protecting freedom of speech; strengthen media literacy to combat nihilism fuelled by social media.
  6. Corruption Reform: Focus on structural corruption (elite monopolisation of power) rather than episodic “anti-corruption crusades” that risk authoritarian capture.
  7. Global Learning: Draw lessons from past crises (1930s, 1970s) where institutional reinvention, new social contracts, and reform waves revitalised democracy.

Value Addition

Samuel P. Huntington’s Views and Theory on Democracy

Political Order and Institutionalisation

  • Book: Political Order in Changing Societies (1968).
  • Core Argument: The stability of a political system depends more on the strength of its institutions than on the level of modernisation.
  • Key Point: Modernisation without strong institutions leads to instability (e.g., corruption, coups, unrest).
  • Quote: “The most important political distinction among countries is not their form of government but their degree of government.”

The Third Wave of Democratisation

  • Book: The Third Wave: Democratisation in the Late Twentieth Century (1991).
  • Theory: Democracies emerge in “waves,” each followed by a possible “reverse wave.”
    • First Wave (1828–1926): Expansion in Western countries.
    • First Reverse Wave (1922–1942): Rise of fascism, military regimes.
    • Second Wave (1945–1962): Post-WWII, decolonisation.
    • Second Reverse Wave (1960–1975): Coups in Latin America, Africa, Asia.
    • Third Wave (1974 onwards): Started with Portugal’s Carnation Revolution, followed by democratisation in Latin America, Eastern Europe, parts of Asia and Africa.

Key Factors for Third Wave:

  • Declining legitimacy of authoritarian regimes.
  • Economic growth and rising middle class.
  • Religious changes (e.g., Catholic Church’s role in Latin America).
  • Global democratic norms (influence of EU, US).
  • Snowballing effect” (success in one country inspired others).
  • Relevance: Many current democracies (including in Asia, Latin America, Eastern Europe) emerged in this wave

Clash of Civilisations (1993)

  • Book: The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.
  • Argument: Post-Cold War conflicts would be driven not by ideology or economics, but by cultural and civilisational differences.
  • Link to Democracy: Democracies rooted in Western civilisation may clash with non-Western civilisations (Islamic, Sinic/Chinese).

Relevant Quotes on Democracy 

On Cycles and Fragility

  • John Adams: “Democracy never lasts long. It soon wastes, exhausts, and murders itself.”
  • Samuel Huntington: “Democracy is the only political system that is self-correcting.”

On Reinvention

  • Winston Churchill: “Democracy is the worst form of government — except for all those other forms that have been tried from time to time.”
  • Amartya Sen: “No famine has ever taken place in the history of the world in a functioning democracy.”

On Corruption and Morality

  • Mahatma Gandhi: “Corruption and hypocrisy ought not to be inevitable products of democracy, as they undoubtedly are today.”
  • Alexis de Tocqueville: “The health of a democratic society may be measured by the quality of functions performed by private citizens.”

On Youth and Future

  • Jawaharlal Nehru: “The future belongs to those who can give to the next generation reasons for hope.”
  • Kofi Annan: “Young people should be at the forefront of global change and innovation.”

How to Use in UPSC Answers

  • Quote John Adams or Huntington when talking about cycles of democracy.
  • Quote Gandhi or Amartya Sen when linking democracy with corruption or development outcomes.
  • Quote Churchill when emphasising democracy’s resilience despite flaws.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2023] Constitutionally guaranteed judicial independence is a prerequisite of democracy. Comment.

Linkage: The current crisis of democracy, as highlighted in Nepal, France, and the US, shows that without robust and independent institutions, democratic legitimacy erodes. Judicial independence acts as a bulwark against corruption, elite capture, and authoritarian drift. Thus, safeguarding constitutional autonomy of the judiciary is indispensable for reinvigorating democracy.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Pakistan

Looking at India-Pak ties through prism of Indus Waters Treaty

Introduction

For 65 years, the Indus Waters Treaty ensured the uninterrupted sharing of river waters between India and Pakistan despite wars and conflicts. Signed in 1960, with the World Bank as broker, it granted Pakistan control over nearly 80% of the Indus system waters while India retained rights over the eastern rivers. Yet, this arrangement, hailed by Nehru as a “gesture of peace,” was also criticized as appeasement. Today, the Treaty faces an existential challenge, as India, for the first time, suspends its obligations in response to cross-border terrorism. A fresh evaluation of the IWT reveals that Pakistan’s real concern is not water scarcity but the control of flows, a factor deeply tied to its obsession with Kashmir.

Why in the News

India, after decades of restraint, has finally exercised its strategic upper riparian advantage by suspending the Indus Waters Treaty following the April Pahalgam terror attack. This is a watershed moment: for the first time in 65 years, the Treaty, which survived four wars, terror attacks, and political turmoil, has been placed in abeyance. The move underscores a shift from India’s earlier magnanimity to a more assertive posture. It is significant because it challenges one of the few stable frameworks of India–Pakistan relations and introduces water as a core strategic lever, alongside terrorism and Kashmir.

Why was the Indus Waters Treaty so Significant?

  1. Historic endurance: The Treaty survived four wars, repeated terror attacks, and decades of hostility.
  2. Unique distribution: Pakistan received 80% of Indus waters (western rivers) despite being the lower riparian.
  3. Nehru’s vision: Seen as a stabilizing act of peace, prioritizing development over disputes.
  4. Pakistan’s insecurity: Never fully celebrated, fearing India’s control as upper riparian.

How Do India and Pakistan Perceive the Treaty Differently?

  1. India’s approach: Saw the Treaty as magnanimity; Nehru called it a “purchase of peace.”
  2. Criticism of India: S Jaishankar terms it appeasement, not peace.
  3. Pakistan’s strategy: Used Article IX dispute mechanism to obstruct Indian projects in J&K.
  4. Silent dissatisfaction: Despite receiving 80% waters, Pakistan avoided declaring victory to maintain a narrative of victimhood.

What Drives Pakistan’s Deep Insecurity?

  1. Not water, but control: Pakistan’s fear lies in disruption of flows, not absolute shortage.
  2. Kashmir link: To control rivers, Pakistan desires physical control of J&K.
  3. Historic evidence: Gen Ayub Khan soon after the Treaty linked water insecurity with demand for Kashmir.
  4. Perverse use of IWT: Constant attempts to delay Indian projects in J&K despite India’s limited use of western rivers.

Why Did the Treaty Survive for So Long?

  1. India’s responsibility: As the upper riparian, India ensured minimum flows and shared data.
  2. Asymmetry of burden: Pakistan had little responsibility upstream but leveraged dispute clauses downstream.
  3. Counterfactual concern: Survival of Treaty is doubtful if Pakistan had been upper riparian.
  4. Symbol of stability: Often cited globally as a model of cooperative water-sharing.

What Could the Future Hold for the IWT?

  1. Pakistan’s likely strategy: Stonewall renegotiations, fearing worse outcomes.
  2. India’s new stance: Seeks bilateral renegotiation without World Bank involvement.
  3. Regional dimension: Pakistan may attempt to involve China (8% basin) and Afghanistan (6% basin).
  4. Strategic uncertainty: India may not disrupt flows but could introduce uncertainty, forcing Pakistan to rethink its terror policy.
  5. J&K projects: India likely to push through delayed hydro and irrigation projects without Pakistani consent.

Conclusion

The IWT, once a symbol of cooperation, now mirrors the fault lines of India–Pakistan relations. For decades, India upheld its obligations even at strategic cost. But by suspending the Treaty, India has signaled that goodwill cannot be one-sided, especially in the face of relentless terrorism. Water, development, security, and Kashmir are now deeply intertwined. The Indus basin, instead of being a bridge, risks becoming another battlefield in South Asia’s fraught geopolitics.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2015] Terrorist activities and mutual distrust have clouded India–Pakistan relations. To what extent the use of soft power like sports and cultural exchanges could help generate goodwill between the two countries? Discuss with suitable examples.

Linkage: The Indus Waters Treaty itself was long considered a form of institutionalized soft power, surviving wars and terror. However, its suspension after the Pahalgam attack highlights how terrorism erodes even cooperative mechanisms. Just as cultural exchanges aim to build goodwill, water-sharing too depended on mutual trust — and both reveal how soft power collapses when hostility dominates.

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Bharat Emission Standards

BS-VII Emission Norms

Why in the News?

To align India’s automobile sector with global standards, the government is planning to introduce BS VII emission norms by 2026-27.

About BS7 Norms:

  • Overview: India’s equivalent of Euro 7 emission standards, aimed at reducing vehicular pollution and aligning with global benchmarks.
  • Coverage: Applies uniformly to cars, vans, buses, trucks, petrol, diesel, hybrid, and electric vehicles.
  • On-Board Monitoring (OBM): New system to monitor tailpipe emissions in real time, covering NOx, ammonia, PM, engine gases.
  • Non-Exhaust Regulation: First-time regulation of brake dust (PM) and tyre microplastics.
  • EV Standards: Introduces battery safety, durability, and longevity index to lower raw material use and build consumer confidence.
  • Digital Safeguards: Ensures vehicles are not tampered with and remain within emission limits.
  • Testing Scope: Expands checks to real driving conditions beyond lab-based cycles.

Key Differences: BS6 vs BS7

  • OBD vs OBM: BS6 used On-Board Diagnostics (OBD); BS7 brings OBM for direct emission monitoring.
  • NOx Standards: BS6 allowed 60 mg/km petrol, 80 mg/km diesel; BS7 sets uniform 60 mg/km.
  • Coverage: BS6 regulated exhaust only; BS7 adds non-exhaust (brakes, tyres).
  • EV Inclusion: BS6 ignored EVs; BS7 regulates battery life, safety, and replacement cycles.
  • Testing: BS6 relied on defined test cycles; BS7 uses broader real-world conditions.
  • Technology Push: BS7 compels automakers towards advanced emission-control systems and turbo, direct-injection engines.
  • Cost Factor: BS7 compliance raises vehicle costs; some older models may be discontinued.

History of Emission Norms in India:

Year / Period Key Development
1991 Mass emission norms introduced for petrol vehicles.
1992 Mass emission norms introduced for diesel vehicles.
April 1995 Mandatory catalytic converters in new petrol cars in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai; unleaded petrol (ULP) introduced.
2000 Introduction of Euro I equivalent “India 2000” norms for passenger and commercial vehicles; stricter norms for two-wheelers.
2001 Euro II equivalent Bharat Stage II (BS II) norms introduced in Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata.
August 2002 First Auto Fuel Policy announced, outlining emission and fuel roadmap up to 2010.
April 2005 Bharat Stage III (BS III) norms implemented in 13 metro cities; rest of India continued with BS II.
April 2010 Bharat Stage IV (BS IV) implemented in 13 metro cities; rest of India adopted BS III.
October 2014 BS IV extended to 20 more cities.
2013 Auto Fuel Policy 2025 submitted to MoPNG (Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas), outlining roadmap up to 2025.
April 2017 Nationwide implementation of BS IV.
April 2020 Direct leap to BS VI (skipping BS V) due to severe pollution in Delhi NCR.
Upcoming (BS VII) To be aligned with Euro 7 standards: stricter norms, On-Board Monitoring (OBM), coverage of brake & tyre emissions, and EV battery standards.

 

[UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements:

1. The Oil Pool Account of Government of India was dismantled with effect from 1-4-2002.

2. Subsidies on PDS kerosene and domestic LPG are borne by Consolidated Fund of India.

3. An expert committee headed by Dr. R.A. Mashelkar to formulate a national auto fuel policy recommended that Bharat Stage-II Emission Norms should be applied throughout the country by 1 April, 2004.

Which of these statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3*

 

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Researchers develop Red Ivy Plant-Based Wound-Healing Pad

Why in the News?

Researchers at JNTBGRI has developed a multifunctional wound-healing pad using nanomaterials, inspired by the red ivy plant (Strobilanthes alternata), traditionally used in folk medicine.

About the Red Ivy Plant:

  • Overview: Strobilanthes alternata, locally called murikooti pacha, belonging to the Acanthaceae family.
  • Habitat: Found abundantly in tropical regions, including India.
  • Traditional Use: Used in folk medicine for treating cuts and wounds.
  • Scientific Discovery: JNTBGRI, Palode isolated acteoside, a natural bioactive compound, for the first time in this plant.
  • Therapeutic Use: Acteoside, known elsewhere for medicinal activity, showed high wound-healing efficacy at 0.2% concentration in red ivy.

Features of the Wound-Healing Pad:

  • Design: India’s first multifunctional herbal wound dressing pad, combining traditional knowledge with nanotechnology.
  • Components: Electro-spun nanofiber layer (biodegradable, porous, antimicrobial barrier); Acteoside + neomycin sulfate blend (healing and infection control); Sodium alginate sponge (absorbs exudates); Activated carbon layer (controls odour).
  • Significance: Affordable, scalable, and a model of herbal medicine integrated with modern nanotech innovation.
[UPSC 2021] Which one of the following is used in preparing a natural mosquito repellent?

Options:

(a) Congress grass (b) Elephant grass (c) Lemongrass* (d) Nut grass

 

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Indian Navy Updates

Expedition ‘Samudra Pradakshina’

Why in the News?

Defence Minister flagged off Samudra Pradakshina, the world’s first tri-service all-women circumnavigation sailing mission, from the Gateway of India, Mumbai.

About Expedition ‘Samudra Pradakshina’:

  • Overview: First-ever all-women tri-service circumnavigation sailing expedition in the world.
  • Crew: Ten women officers from the Army, Navy, and Air Force, led by Lt. Col. Anuja Varudkar.
  • Vessel: IASV Triveni, a 50-foot yacht built indigenously in Puducherry.
  • Duration & Route: Nine months, covering 26,000 nautical miles, crossing the Equator twice, and rounding Capes Leeuwin, Horn, and Good Hope.
  • Port Calls: Fremantle (Australia), Lyttelton (New Zealand), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Cape Town (South Africa).
  • Mission Objectives: Showcase Nari Shakti, promote joint military cooperation, advance Atmanirbhar Bharat, strengthen maritime diplomacy, and conduct ocean research with the National Institute of Oceanography.

Historic Precursors:

  • Sir Robin Knox-Johnston (UK):  First solo non-stop circumnavigation (1969).
  • Captain Dilip Donde (2009–10): First Indian solo circumnavigation. Commander Abhilash Tomy (2012–13) — first Indian solo non-stop circumnavigation.
  • Women-led Expeditions: Navika Sagar Parikrama (2017–18)– first all-women Indian Navy circumnavigation on INSV Tarini. Navika Sagar Parikrama-II (2024–25) – second successful all-women naval circumnavigation on INSV Tarini.
[UPSC 2025] Operations undertaken by the Army towards upliftment of the local population in remote areas to include addressing of their basic needs is called:

Options:

(a) Operation Sankalp (b) Operation Maitri (c) Operation Sadbhavana* (d) Operation Madad

 

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Vultures and Pandemic Prevention

Why in the News?

Vultures, vital for carcass disposal and disease control, are key to pandemic preparedness.

About Vulture Species in India:

  • Overview: Vultures are among 22 global species of large scavenger birds, found mostly in tropics and subtropics.
  • Ecological Role: Serve as nature’s garbage collectors, preventing disease spread and maintaining balance in ecosystems.
  • Indian Diversity: India hosts 9 species — Oriental white-backed, Long-billed, Slender-billed, Himalayan, Red-headed, Egyptian, Bearded, Cinereous, and Eurasian Griffon.

Vultures and Pandemic Prevention

Distribution and Population Trends:

  • Historic Abundance: In the 1980s, India had over 40 million vultures, often in large groups near carcass dumps.
  • Population Crash: Since the 1990s, numbers have declined by over 95%, mainly due to diclofenac poisoning from veterinary use.
  • Flyway Connection: Vultures are part of the Central Asian Flyway (CAF), linking breeding sites in Central Asia with South Asia’s wintering zones.
  • Global Relevance: The CAF spans 30+ countries, making vulture conservation a regional and international public health concern.

Vultures and Pandemic Preparedness:

  • Carcass Disposal: By consuming dead animals, vultures stop spread of pathogens such as anthrax, Clostridium botulinum, rabies.
  • Bio-Monitor Role: As first responders at carcasses, they act as natural surveillance systems, reducing risks of zoonotic spillover.
  • Conservation Gap: Protection of vultures is rarely included in One Health strategies, despite being low-cost compared to pandemic response.
  • Community Involvement: Local communities coexisting with vultures can aid in awareness, conservation, and disease monitoring, but remain underutilised.
[UPSC 2012] Vultures which used to be very common in Indian countryside some years ago are rarely seen nowadays. This is attributed to:

(a) the destruction of their nesting sites by new invasive species disease among them

(b) a drug used by cattle owners for treating their diseased cattle persistent and fatal*

(c) scarcity of food available to them

(d) a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among them

 

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

In news: Pugad Island

Why in the News?

The Philippine island of Pugad in Manila Bay is facing an existential threat as rising sea levels and rapid land subsidence combine to submerge homes and livelihoods.

About Pugad Island:

  • Overview: Small 7-hectare island in Manila Bay, situated at the mouth of the Angat–Pampanga River Delta, under Hagonoy municipality, Bulacan province, Philippines.
  • Population: Home to about 1,636–2,056 residents, living in a single clustered village of roughly 384 houses.
  • Livelihoods: Community depends on fishing and aquaculture, with families cultivating clams, mussels, and whiting fish in converted fishponds.
  • Living Conditions: Houses built mainly from bamboo and old metal sheets, with poor sanitation, minimal healthcare facilities, and only elementary-level schooling.
  • Flooding Challenge: Regularly hit by high-tide and monsoon floods, made worse by land subsidence (11 cm/year) and sea-level rise (three times global average).
  • Environmental Hazards: Loss of mangroves, urban encroachment, and exposure to typhoons increase risks of disaster and displacement.
[UPSC 2018] Which of the following has/have shrunk immensely/dried up in the recent past due to human activities?

1.Aral Sea 2.Black Sea 3.Lake Baikal

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only (d) 1 and 3*

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

Swami Vivekananda and Vedanta Philosophy

Why in the News?

On the 132nd anniversary of his 1893 Chicago address, Swami Vivekananda was remembered for introducing Indian spirituality and Vedanta to the world with a message of tolerance and unity.

About Swami Vivekananda:

  • Early life: Born Narendranath Datta in 1863, Kolkata; Chief disciple of Sri Ramakrishna.
  • Role: Monk, reformer, and founder of the Ramakrishna Mission (1897).
  • Chicago Speech: Rose to global fame with his 1893 Parliament of Religions address in Chicago, calling for religious tolerance and universal brotherhood.
  • Teachings: Advocated social service, education, and spiritual sovereignty as means of national regeneration.
  • Legacy: Inspired the rise of Vedanta Societies worldwide, spread yoga and meditation in the West, and became a key figure in the Indian renaissance and freedom movement.

What is Vedanta Philosophy?

  • Roots: Derived from the Upanishads, especially Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism).
  • Oneness of Existence: The universe is one absolute Brahman; all souls are divine.
  • Religious Pluralism: All religions are valid paths to the same truth; promotes harmony, not division.
  • Self-Realization: The aim of life is to realize and manifest one’s innate divinity.
  • Karma Yoga: Selfless service is a spiritual practice — “Jiva is Shiva” (service to man is service to God).
  • Practical Vedanta: Application of spiritual wisdom to daily life and social reform, bridging tradition and modernity.

Back2Basics: Indian Classical Philosophy

There are 6 classical schools of Indian philosophy in the orthodox (Astika) tradition, which accept the authority of the Vedas:

  1. Nyaya: School of logic and reasoning
  2. Vaisesika:  Atomism and categories of reality
  3. Sankhya: Dualism of consciousness (purusha) and matter (prakriti)
  4. Yoga: Practical discipline based on Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras
  5. Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa): Ritual action and dharma
  6. Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa): Philosophy of the Upanishads

Apart from these, there are also heterodox (Nastika) schools, which do not accept Vedic authority, such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka (materialism).

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Sri Lanka

[11th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The Way Forward on Katchatheevu, Palk Strait disputes

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2013] In respect of India — Sri Lanka relations, discuss how domestic factors influence foreign policy.

Linkage: The Katchatheevu and Palk Strait disputes show how domestic pressures from Tamil Nadu, fishing community demands, political rhetoric, and cultural ties with Sri Lankan Tamils, directly shape India’s diplomatic posture with Colombo. Balancing these domestic concerns with treaty obligations and ecological imperatives defines the contours of India’s foreign policy. This reflects how internal politics often intersect with external relations in South Asia.

Mentor’s Comment

The Katchatheevu and Palk Straits disputes highlight the fine balance India must strike between diplomacy, livelihood, and ecological sustainability. While political rhetoric often overshadows the nuanced reality, the recent revival of dialogue between India and Sri Lanka offers an opportunity to convert conflict into cooperation. This article unpacks the legal, ecological, and humanitarian dimensions of the issue and offers insights useful for UPSC Mains aspirants.

Introduction

India’s neighbourhood diplomacy has been historically guided by Panchsheel, the Non-Aligned Movement, SAARC, and now the Neighbourhood First Policy. Yet, challenges with Sri Lanka, notably the fisheries dispute in the Palk Straits and the sovereignty of Katchatheevu island, continue to test this vision. Prime Minister Modi’s April 2025 visit to Colombo revived discussions on these long-standing issues, calling for a “humane approach” that reconciles livelihoods and ecological imperatives. The stakes are high: peace in the Palk Straits is not just about maritime boundaries but about human security, sustainability, and regional goodwill.

The Katchatheevu and Palk Strait Issue

Katchatheevu Island Dispute

  • Katchatheevu island: A tiny, uninhabited islet (under 0.5 sq. miles) situated in the Palk Strait, legally ceded to Sri Lanka under the 1974 India-Sri Lanka Maritime Boundary Treaty.
    • Fishing rights vs sovereignty: While sovereignty is settled in Sri Lanka’s favour, Indian fishers, especially from Tamil Nadu, continue to demand access, leading to periodic clashes.
  • Palk Strait: A narrow stretch of sea separating Tamil Nadu from Sri Lanka’s Northern Province, rich in marine resources but ecologically fragile.
    • Conflict drivers: Indian bottom trawlers crossing the maritime boundary deplete fish stocks, harming both Indian artisanal fishers and Sri Lankan Tamil fishers.
    • Core issue: More than territory, it is a livelihood and ecological crisis, complicated by political rhetoric around Katchatheevu’s status.

Livelihood and conservation at odds

  1. Shared history: Fishing communities of Tamil Nadu and Northern Sri Lanka have relied on the Palk Straits for centuries.
  2. Destructive practices: Indian mechanised bottom trawlers enter Sri Lankan waters, violating conservation norms.
  3. Legal framework: UNCLOS and FAO’s 1995 Code of Conduct prohibit destructive fishing; Sri Lanka banned bottom trawling in 2017.
  4. Ecological damage: Coral beds and shrimp habitats are destroyed; fish stocks are depleted.
  5. Internal conflict: Traditional Tamil Nadu artisanal fishers also lose out, creating intra-community livelihood clashes.

Clearing the misconceptions around Katchatheevu

  1. Tiny territory: Katchatheevu is less than half a square mile, barren except for St. Anthony’s church.
  2. Treaty status: The 1974 India-Sri Lanka Maritime Boundary Treaty gave it to Sri Lanka; under international law, such treaties are binding.
  3. Legal precedents: Minquiers and Ecrehos (UK vs France, 1953) and Rann of Kutch (India-Pakistan, 1968) show administrative control outweighs historical claims.
  4. Clarification: Myths such as “Indira Gandhi gifting the island” are misleading; historical records supported Sri Lanka’s claim.
  5. Key point: Fishing rights are separate from sovereignty, and Katchatheevu is not the root of the dispute.

Towards cooperative fisheries management

  1. Historic waters: Indian and Sri Lankan law recognise the Palk Straits as historic waters, giving stronger sovereign rights.
  2. UNCLOS Article 123: Mandates cooperation in semi-enclosed seas.
  3. Models for India-Sri Lanka:
    1. Baltic Sea Fisheries Convention (quota-sharing).
    2. Possible steps: Joint research station on Katchatheevu, regulated quotas, seasonal access, promotion of deep-sea fishing in India’s EEZ.

Building empathy and fraternity

  1. Shared suffering: Sri Lankan Tamil fishers lost decades of livelihood during the civil war due to military restrictions.
  2. Goodwill memory: Tamil refugees were welcomed in Tamil Nadu during the conflict.
  3. Role of Tamil leaders: MPs and media in Sri Lanka can sensitise Tamil Nadu fishers to hardships across the strait.
  4. Narrative shift: Sri Lankan Tamils are not aggressors but fellow victims of history.

India’s neighbourhood policy in action

  1. Diplomatic tradition: Panchsheel, NAM, SAARC, Neighbourhood First Policy.
  2. Way forward: Prioritise livelihood security, ecological sustainability, and treaty respect over populism.
  3. Multi-level engagement: Government-to-government, State/Provincial dialogue, community interaction.
  4. Larger vision: Transform Palk Straits from a zone of conflict to a symbol of cooperation.

Conclusion

The Katchatheevu issue is legally settled and should not distract from the real crisis, sustainable fisheries management in the Palk Straits. Balancing artisanal livelihoods, ecological imperatives, and regional goodwill requires cooperative frameworks and empathy. If pursued with prudence, India and Sri Lanka can convert disputes into opportunities, strengthening the Neighbourhood First Policy and ensuring that smaller conflicts do not overshadow South Asia’s collective future of peace and prosperity.

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Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

To build Roads is to build peace: Developmet in tribal hinterlands affected by Maoist Insurgency

Introduction

Roads in India’s Maoist-affected areas are more than physical infrastructure; they are symbols of the state itself. For communities long governed by neglect or non-state actors, the arrival of a road often marks the first visible sign of governance. Research and field evidence indicate that road development improves access to electricity, healthcare, education, and security while simultaneously displacing the influence of insurgents. Yet, roads alone cannot resolve conflict—they must be embedded in an ecosystem of justice, dignity, and inclusion.

Why is this in the news?

In regions affected by Maoist insurgency, particularly in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha, roads have emerged as a strategic instrument of peacebuilding. Recent studies (Jain & Biswas, 2023) show a correlation between road connectivity and reduced crime, while international evidence (Prieto-Curiel & Menezes, 2020) highlights how poor connectivity perpetuates violence globally. This marks a shift in governance strategy, from viewing infrastructure as purely developmental to recognizing it as a political and stabilising force.

How do roads reclaim governance from insurgents?

  1. Governance presence: Roads bring schools, clinics, and police stations, representing visible and accountable state authority.
  2. Displacement of parallel systems: Maoists often establish informal courts, taxation systems, and welfare activities in remote areas. Roads weaken these structures by enabling the state to reclaim legitimacy.
  3. Diego Gambetta’s insight: Like the Sicilian Mafia, insurgents thrive where the state withdraws. Infrastructure fills the governance vacuum.

What role do insurgent groups play in governance gaps?

  1. Informal welfare: Research by Alpa Shah (2018) and Human Rights Watch (2009) shows Maoists provide rudimentary health and welfare services in villages.
  2. Strategic legitimacy: As Zachariah Mampilly (2011) argues, such services are not altruistic but intended to gain legitimacy.
  3. Coercion with care: Maoist medical aid or welfare is tied to fear and control, not democratic accountability.

Why are extralegal institutions problematic?

  1. Absence of safeguards: Maoist-run “jan adalats” often issue punishments, even executions, without due process.
  2. Opaque justice: Decisions reflect entrenched hierarchies, patriarchy, and mob reprisals rather than rule of law.
  3. Comparison with khap panchayats: Like insurgent institutions, caste councils also deliver swift but exclusionary justice outside constitutional norms.

How do roads act as political infrastructure?

  1. Symbolic presence: Each road signals that “the state is here to stay,” as seen in Chhattisgarh under B.V.R. Subrahmanyam’s governance strategy.
  2. Crime reduction: Jain and Biswas (2023) show connectivity lowers rural crime rates.
  3. Global parallels: Prieto-Curiel & Menezes (2020) demonstrate that poor connectivity correlates with higher violence across contexts.

What safeguards are essential for success?

  1. Justice mechanisms: Roads must be accompanied by functioning courts and legal institutions to prevent arbitrary authority.
  2. Healthcare and welfare: Clinics, schools, and social infrastructure ensure that development is inclusive.
  3. Community participation: Roads must be built with the village, not just through the village, to ensure legitimacy and trust.

Conclusion

Roads in conflict-prone tribal regions represent more than mobility, they embody the arrival of governance and the possibility of peace. Yet, infrastructure without justice risks becoming a symbol of control rather than inclusion. For lasting impact, roads must be accompanied by democratic institutions, safeguards, and rights-based governance. To build roads, then, is indeed to build peace.

Value Addition

Naxalism: Definition & Origins

  • Definition: Left-Wing Extremism (LWE); armed, rural-based movement rooted in land alienation, poverty, displacement, forest rights, and state neglect.
  • Origins: Began with the 1967 Naxalbari peasant uprising in West Bengal; later consolidated under CPI (Maoist) formations.
  • Areas Most Affected — Historical Peak (late 2000s)
    • Spread: Nearly 180 districts across multiple states — the so-called Red Corridor.
    • Core states: Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh/Telangana, parts of Maharashtra & Madhya Pradesh.
  • Areas Most Affected — Recent (2024–25)
    • Reduced footprint: Down to ~38 districts (2024); further shrinking per 2025 statements.
    • Residual hotspots: Bastar (Chhattisgarh), Gadchiroli (Maharashtra), parts of Jharkhand & Odisha, and Chhattisgarh–Telangana border.
  • Why This Shift Matters 
    • Then: Widespread insurgency → blanket rural development response.
    • Now: Concentrated in forested pockets → targeted counter-insurgency + development (roads, police camps, rehabilitation).

What is Operation Black Forest?

  • What / where / when: Operation Black Forest (also reported as Operation Kagar in some outlets) was a focused anti-Maoist offensive launched along the Chhattisgarh–Telangana border in April–May 2025 targeting PLGA (People’s Liberation Guerrilla Army) units in hilly forest belts such as the Kareguttalu/Karegutta hills. 
  • Claimed outcomes (official account): The government/security forces announced significant results — arrests, large recoveries of IEDs, explosives and weapons and the neutralisation (killed/captured) of several Maoists; the Home Minister hailed the operation as a major success and linked it to the government’s goal of a “Naxal-free India.’’

India’s Current Strategy Against Naxalism

  • Security operations & coordination – Intensified offensives (e.g., Operation Black Forest), joint CRPF/state police actions, inter-state Unified Commands.
  • Connectivity first – Roads → schools → clinics → police camps; infrastructure as the entry point of governance.
  • Surrender & rehabilitation – Incentives for cadres to lay down arms, with livelihood and legal reintegration support.
  • Technology & intelligence – Use of UAVs, better signal interception, geolocation, and joint intel sharing.
  • Development & governance – Focus on PESA, land and forest rights, MGNREGA, social welfare schemes to address grievances.
  • Exam angle: India uses a mix of “hard” (security, tech) and “soft” (development, rights, rehab) measures — success lies in balancing both.

Way Forward (Practical + Scholarly Insights)

  • Consolidate gains, avoid militarised development – Pair operations with public-goods delivery to build trust.
  • Rights-based development – Implement PESA/FRA in spirit; ensure Gram Sabha consent and agency.
  • Build accountable institutions – Mobile courts, health camps, schools, and police with transparency; replace jan adalats with constitutional justice.
  • Credible rehabilitation – Beyond cash payouts, provide skills, jobs, and long-term livelihood security.
  • Address political economy – Regulate mining/plantation projects; enforce benefit-sharing and consent to prevent discontent.
  • Theoretical insightsGambetta: extralegal actors thrive in governance vacuums → fill with state services. Mampilly: insurgent welfare is strategic → counter with accountable service delivery.
  • Human rights monitoring – Independent oversight of security and development efforts to ensure legitimacy.
  • One-liner synthesis for mains: Operational successes show improved reach, but a true “Naxal-free” India requires roads + rights + jobs anchored in constitutional justice and inclusive governance.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Naxalism is a social, economic and development issues manifesting as a violent internal security threat. In this context, discuss the emerging issues and suggest a multilayered strategy to tackle the menace of Naxalism.

Linkage: The article shows how roads act as instruments of governance, reducing isolation and weakening insurgent legitimacy, thereby addressing the socio-economic roots of Naxalism. Yet, it cautions that infrastructure alone cannot resolve conflict unless coupled with justice, healthcare, education, and community participation. This aligns with the PYQ’s call for a multi-layered strategy—combining development, security, and rights-based governance.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-SCO

A joint and new journey along the SCO pathway

Introduction

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), now the largest regional grouping after 24 years of evolution, witnessed its biggest summit in Tianjin with 23 countries and 10 international organisations participating. The presence of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Chinese President Xi Jinping signalled a possible recalibration of bilateral ties amid a tense global order. This summit was not only about regional security but also about shaping global governance, fostering sustainable development, and exploring new pathways of cooperation.

Why in the News

The Tianjin SCO Summit is in the news because it marked the largest gathering in SCO’s history and produced high-yielding outcomes, such as the creation of security centres, a development bank, and long-term strategies in energy, green industry, and digital economy. Importantly, India and China engaged in dialogue during the diamond jubilee year of China-India diplomatic ties, projecting partnership rather than rivalry. This reflects a striking shift from the border tensions that have dominated headlines in recent years, positioning the summit as a turning point in regional cooperation and global governance.

High-Yield Outcomes of the Tianjin Summit

  1. Tianjin Declaration: Announced creation of four security centres, including an Anti-drug Center and a Universal Countering Security Challenges Center.
  2. SCO Development Bank: Decision to set up a regional bank to finance cooperative projects.
  3. Fair Stance on Trade: SCO states collectively defended multilateral trading systems and WWII legacy.
  4. 10-Year Strategy: Leaders adopted a development strategy for the next decade.
  5. China’s Initiatives: Xi announced three platforms for energy, green industry, and digital economy; and three centres for innovation, higher education, and vocational training.

How the Summit Shaped Global Governance

  1. Global Governance Initiative: Xi proposed principles such as sovereign equality, international rule of law, and multilateralism.
  2. People-Centered Approach: Emphasis on real actions for peace and justice.
  3. Leadership Platform: SCO positioned as a space to counter the “governance deficit” in world politics.

India’s Role in the SCO

  1. Active Member since 2017: India has advanced SCO’s development agenda.
  2. Support for Presidency: India extended full support to China’s SCO presidency.
  3. Areas of Cooperation: Security, energy, green industry, and digital economy identified as convergence points.

75 Years of India-China Ties

  1. Anniversary Diplomacy: Modi and Xi stressed partnership over rivalry.
  2. Dragon and Elephant Metaphor: Xi urged for “dragon and elephant to dance together.”
  3. Consensus vs Disagreement: Leaders agreed that consensus outweighs differences.

Road Ahead for Bilateral Cooperation

  1. Strategic Mutual Trust: Resume dialogue mechanisms, embrace peaceful coexistence, and mutual respect.
  2. Expanding Exchanges: Focus on trade, investment, technology, culture, and people-to-people bonds.
  3. Good-Neighbourliness: Reinforce Panchsheel principles, keep border differences from overshadowing wider relations.
  4. Global South Leadership: India and China to lead BRICS presidencies, resist hegemony, and promote fairness in world order.

Conclusion

The Tianjin Summit reflects a recalibration of SCO’s role as a platform for regional stability and global governance. For India, it marks a moment of balancing rivalry with cooperation in ties with China. If trust and exchanges are consolidated, India-China relations can shape the future of Asia and the Global South. The challenge lies in ensuring border disputes do not overshadow wider opportunities.

Value Addition

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) 

  • Establishment: Permanent intergovernmental organisation founded on 15 June 2001 in Shanghai by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan. Predecessor: Shanghai Five (1996).
  • Charter: Adopted in 2002 (St. Petersburg), in force since 2003, laying down goals, principles, and structure.
  • Goals:
    • Strengthen trust, friendship, good-neighbourliness.
    • Promote cooperation in politics, economy, science, culture, education, energy, environment, etc.
    • Maintain peace, security, stability in the region.
    • Promote a fair, democratic international order.
  • Principles (Shanghai Spirit): Mutual trust, benefit, equality, consultation, respect for civilizational diversity, common development; externally—non-alignment, openness, non-targeting others.
  • Structure:
    • Council of Heads of State (CHS) – supreme body (annual).
    • Council of Heads of Government (CHG) – economic strategy, budget (annual).
    • Numerous sectoral mechanisms.
  • Permanent Bodies: Secretariat (Beijing) & Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS, Tashkent).
  • Membership:
    • 10 Members – India, China, Russia, Pakistan, Iran, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan.
    • 2 Observers – Afghanistan, Mongolia.
    • 14 Dialogue Partners – incl. Nepal, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Egypt, Qatar, Maldives, etc.

Key Takeaways from SCO Summit 2025

  • 24 Documents Approved – including Tianjin Declaration and SCO Development Strategy till 2035.
  • Security Cooperation – agreement on SCO Anti-Drug Center and Universal Center for Countering Challenges & Threats.
  • Counter-Terrorism – joint declaration condemned Pahalgam (India), Jaffer Express & Khuzdar (Pakistan) terrorist attacks – significant as Pahalgam was earlier omitted.
  • Membership Expansion – Lao PDR granted Dialogue Partner status; CIS given Observer status.
  • Cultural Capital – Cholpon-Ata (Kyrgyzstan) designated SCO Tourist & Cultural Capital (2025–26).
  • Civilisation Dialogue Forum – proposed by PM Modi to strengthen people-to-people ties & civilizational exchange.
  • Global Governance Initiative – proposed by Xi Jinping for multilateralism, just & equitable order, Global South leadership.
  • SCO Chairmanship – passed to Kyrgyz Republic (2025–26) with theme: “25 years of SCO: together for a stable world, development, prosperity.”

What SCO Means for India’s Global and Regional Interests

  1. Strategic Pillars – PM Modi outlined India’s SCO vision as S–Security, C–Connectivity, O–Opportunity.
  2. Central Asia Engagement – SCO provides a rare forum to deepen ties with resource-rich Central Asia and expand India’s role as a pan-Asian player beyond the South Asian paradigm.
  3. Counter-Terrorism – Access to the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) helps India with intelligence-sharing against the “three evils” (terrorism, separatism, extremism), beyond Pakistan-centric frameworks.
  4. India–Russia Cooperation – SCO strengthens Delhi’s strategic proximity with Moscow, which backed India’s full membership in 2016.
  5. Balancing China – India’s presence acts as a countervailing force to Chinese dominance in Eurasia, supported by Russia.
  6. BRI Opposition – India continues to reject the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) as it passes through Pakistan-occupied territory, asserting sovereignty concerns.
  7. Diplomatic Battlefield – While enabling multilateral engagement, SCO also reflects great-power rivalries, making it both an opportunity and a challenge for India.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] ‘Virus of Conflict is affecting the functioning of the SCO.’ In the light of the above statement, point out the role of India in mitigating the problems.

Linkage: The SCO faces internal strains due to rivalries among major members, including China-Pakistan ties and regional security tensions. India has sought to mitigate these by emphasizing its three-pillared approach of Security, Connectivity, and Opportunity, pushing for counter-terrorism cooperation through RATS, and resisting divisive projects like BRI while promoting dialogue, civilizational exchange, and balanced economic engagement. Thus, India positions itself as a stabilizing force to preserve SCO’s collective agenda despite conflicts.

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

[pib] Gyan Bharatam Mission

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Culture has launched the ‘Gyan Bharatam’, a landmark national initiative dedicated to preserving, digitising, and disseminating India’s manuscript heritage.

About Gyan Bharatam Mission:

  • Launch: A national initiative by the Ministry of Culture to preserve, digitise, and disseminate India’s manuscript heritage.
  • Scheme Type: Approved as a Central Sector Scheme (2024–31) with an outlay of ₹482.85 crore.
  • Background: Builds on the National Mission for Manuscripts (2003), which documented 44.07 lakh manuscripts in the Kriti Sampada repository.
  • Vision: Integrates tradition with modern technology (AI, cloud systems, digital archives) to safeguard manuscripts as living knowledge resources.
  • Philosophy: Linked to PM’s Viksit Bharat @2047 vision, positioning India as Vishwa Guru by combining heritage with innovation.

Key Features:

  • Identification & Documentation: Establishment of Manuscript Resource Centres (MRCs) for systematic registration across India.
  • Conservation & Restoration: Strengthening Manuscript Conservation Centres (MCCs) for preventive and curative preservation using scientific techniques.
  • Digitisation & Repository: Large-scale digitisation with AI-based Handwritten Text Recognition (HTR), microfilming, and creation of a National Digital Repository accessible worldwide.
  • Youth & Public Engagement: Programs like Gyan-Setu AI Innovation Challenge to involve youth, start-ups, and researchers in heritage innovation.
[UPSC 2008] Recently, the manuscripts of which one of the following have been included in UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register?

Options: (a) Abhidhamma Pitaka (b) Mahabharata (c) Ramayana (d) Rig Veda*

 

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Digital India Initiatives

[pib] Adi Sanskriti Digital Learning Platform

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has launched the beta version of “Adi Sanskriti”, a pioneering digital learning platform.

About Adi Sanskriti:

  • What is it: A digital learning platform launched by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
  • Objective: To preserve tribal art forms, create livelihoods, and connect tribal communities with the world; scale into a Tribal Digital University with certifications, research opportunities, and transformative learning pathways.
  • Significance: Envisioned as the world’s first Digital University dedicated to tribal culture and traditional knowledge.
  • Developed by: MoTA collaboration with State Tribal Research Institutes (TRIs) to ensure authentic documentation and grassroots participation.
  • Integration with TRIs: Contributions from TRIs of 14 states including Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh.

Key Components of Adi Sanskriti:

  1. Adi Vishwavidyalaya (Digital Tribal Art Academy): Currently offering 45 immersive courses on tribal dance, painting, crafts, music, and folklore.
  2. Adi Sampada (Socio-Cultural Repository): Houses over 5,000 curated documents covering paintings, dance, clothing and textiles, artefacts, and livelihood practices.
  3. Adi Haat (Online Marketplace): Linked with TRIFED, designed to evolve into a dedicated e-marketplace for tribal artisans, ensuring sustainable livelihoods and direct consumer access.
[UPSC 2016] SWAYAM’, an initiative of the Government of India, aims at:

Options: (a) promoting the Self Help Groups in rural areas

(b) providing financial and technical assistance to young start-up entrepreneurs

(c) promoting the education and health of adolescent girls

(d) providing affordable and quality education to the citizens for free*

 

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Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

Himachal Pradesh declared to be ‘Fully Literate’

Why in the News?

Himachal Pradesh was recently declared a ‘fully literate’ state, becoming the 5th State/UT after Goa, Ladakh, Mizoram, and Tripura.

Various Definitions of Literacy / Full Literacy:

  • Ministry of Education (MoE) Definition: Literacy is the ability to read, write, and compute with comprehension, along with digital literacy and financial literacy as critical life skills.
  • Full Literacy (MoE): A State/Union Territory (UT) is considered fully literate at 95% literacy rate.
  • Census of India (2011): Any person aged 7 years or above who can read and write with understanding in any language is considered literate. Ability to read without writing is NOT counted as literacy.
  • ULLAS Programme: Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society launched in 2022. Literacy here means acquiring foundational skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic plus functional knowledge like time, currency, and digital use.
  • NILP: New India Literacy Programme (centrally sponsored, aligned with NEP 2020). Defines full literacy as achieving ≥95% literacy rate certified via assessments.

How is Literacy attained under ULLAS / NILP?

  • Target Group: Adults (15+) who missed formal schooling are identified through door-to-door surveys or other state data.
  • Basic Training: Learners are taught reading, writing, and arithmetic (up to Class 3 level), along with practical skills like using calendars, reading time, handling currency/cheques, and making safe digital transactions.
  • Delivery Mechanism: Training delivered through the ULLAS mobile app or offline by student volunteers and community workers.
  • Assessment: Learners appear for FLNAT (Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test), a 150-mark test available in regional languages.
  • Certification: On passing FLNAT, learners are certified by the NIOS (National Institute of Open Schooling) as literate.
  • Outcome: States/UTs are declared ‘fully literate’ when identified non-literates clear FLNAT and the literacy rate crosses the 95% threshold.
[UPSC 2017] What is the aim of the programme ‘Unnat Bharat Abhiyan’ ?

Options:

(a) Achieving 100% literacy by promoting collaboration between voluntary organizations and government’s education system and local communities.

(b) Connecting institutions of higher education with local communities to address development challenges through appropriate technologies. *

(c) Strengthening India’s scientific research institutions to make India a scientific and technological Power.

(d) Developing human capital by allocating special funds for health-care and education of rural and urban poor, and organizing skill development programmes and vocational training for them.

 

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Power of Siberia 2 Pipeline

Why in the News?

Russia has announced a “legally binding” memorandum with China to build the Power of Siberia 2 pipeline, highlighting closer Russia–China ties amid Western sanctions.

Power of Siberia 2 Pipeline

What are Power of Siberia Pipelines?

  • Power of Siberia 1: Operational pipeline from eastern Siberia to northern China; commercial exports since Dec 2019.
  • Specifications: Length over 5,100 km (3,968 km in Russia), diameter 1,420 mm, capacity 61 bcm/year (38 bcm contracted to China). Built to withstand –62°C, using 2.25 million tonnes of steel.
  • Gas Source & Route: Supplies from Chayanda field (Yakutia) and later Kovykta field; passes via Amur Gas Processing Plant; two tunnels cross under the Amur River into China, linking to Heihe–Shanghai pipeline.
  • Timeline: Construction began 2014, completed 2019, full 38 bcm deliveries by 2025.
  • Power of Siberia 2: Planned 2,600 km pipeline exporting 50 bcm/year from Yamal & western Siberia fields to China, via Mongolia (Soyuz Vostok segment).
  • Status: Gazprom–CNPC signed a binding memorandum. Pricing, financing, and timelines remain unsettled; deliveries may start by 2030.

Geopolitical Significance:

  • Political Symbolism: Project showcases Russia–China partnership, snubs Western LNG, and reflects defiance of sanctions.
  • Strategic Showcase: Analysts call it political theatre — Russia grows more dependent on China, while China gains strategic leverage.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

Statement-I: Sumed pipeline is a strategic route for Persian Gulf oil and natural gas shipments to Europe.

Statement-II: Sumed pipeline connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?”

Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I* (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct

 

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Air Pollution

Swachh Vayu Survekshan, 2025

Why in the News?

Indore, already recognized as the cleanest city in India, has topped the list of million-plus population cities in the Swachh Vayu Survekshan 2025.

Swachh Vayu Survekshan, 2025

About Swachh Vayu Survekshan (SVS), 2025:

  • Overview: Annual survey by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) under the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).
  • Objective: Promotes healthy competition among cities and accelerates implementation of air quality measures.
  • Coverage: Includes 130 cities, grouped into 3 categories: million-plus population, 3–10 lakh population, and under 3 lakh population.
  • Parameters: Cities assessed on 8 factors such as road dust mitigation, solid waste management, vehicular emission control, industrial emission control, construction and demolition waste handling, public awareness, and particulate matter (PM10/PM2.5) reduction.
  • Methodology: Uses a multi-tier evaluation focusing on both on-ground actions and measurable outcomes.

Key Findings of SVS, 2025:

  • Top Performer: Indore ranked 1st among million-plus cities, regaining its position after slipping to 6th in 2024. It had also topped in 2023, while Lucknow topped the inaugural edition in 2022.
  • Other Million-Plus Rankings: Jabalpur 2nd, Agra and Surat 3rd, Navi Mumbai 4th, Kanpur 5th, Bhopal 6th, Allahabad 7th, Chandigarh 8th, Ahmedabad–Pune–Nagpur 10th, Varanasi and Raipur 11th, Lucknow 15th, Hyderabad 22nd, Mumbai 25th, Jaipur 26th, Delhi 32nd, Bengaluru 36th, Kolkata 38th, Chennai 41st.
  • 3–10 Lakh Cities: Amravati 1st, Jhansi and Moradabad joint 2nd, Alwar 3rd.
  • Under-3 Lakh Cities: Dewas 1st, Parwanoo 2nd, Angul 3rd.
  • Air Quality Data: Indore recorded PM10 at 83 μg/m³ in 2024–25, slightly higher than 82 μg/m³ in 2017–18. Cities like Chennai (58 μg/m³), Varanasi (59 μg/m³), Bengaluru (68 μg/m³), and Hyderabad (81 μg/m³) showed lower PM10 levels than Indore.
  • Overall Trends: 103 of 130 cities reduced PM10 since 2017–18. 64 cities achieved a 20% reduction, while 25 cities achieved a 40% reduction. Only 22 cities met the national standard of ≤60 μg/m³, with Chennai the only metro (58 μg/m³). Among metros, Mumbai recorded the highest decline (44%), followed by Kolkata (37%), Hyderabad (26%), Bengaluru (26%), Delhi (15%), and Chennai (12%).
[UPSC 2022] In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements:

1. The 24-hour mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m3 and annual mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m3.

2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.

3. PM 10 can penetrate the long barrier and enter the bloodstream.

4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 only* (c) 2,3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 only

 

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