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Russian Invasion of Ukraine: Global Implications

[5th April 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: A case for the Global South in securing Ukraine peace

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2019] The long-sustained image of India as a leader of the oppressed and marginalised Nations has disappeared on account of its new found role in the emerging global order”. Elaborate.

Linkage:  India’s historical role as a voice for the “Global South” and how its current global positioning might be perceived differently. This article argues for the Global South to take a leading role, which resonates with India’s past image.

 

Mentor’s Comment:  As the Ukraine war moves toward a fragile ceasefire, the big question is who will ensure lasting peace. Western countries suggest a European-led peacekeeping force, but Russia rejects NATO troops. Instead, nations from the Global South—Africa, Asia, and Latin America—could lead a neutral UN mission, showing they can help maintain global peace and stability.

Today’s editorial looks at how countries from the Global South could lead a peacekeeping mission in the Ukraine war. This topic is useful for General Studies Paper 2 in the UPSC mains exam.

_

Let’s learn!

Why in the News?

The war in Ukraine gives the Global South a chance to show it can be a fair and trusted force in bringing peace and stability to the world.

Why is a Global South-led peacekeeping mission preferred over a European-led one in Ukraine?

  • Neutrality and Trustworthiness: Global South countries are not directly involved in the Ukraine war and have largely remained neutral, making them more acceptable to both parties Example: India maintains diplomatic ties with both Russia and Ukraine — PM Modi met both leaders within weeks, signalling impartiality.
  • Avoiding NATO-Russia Tensions: European-led missions are viewed by Russia as NATO extensions, which could escalate rather than resolve the conflict. Example: Russian Foreign Minister Lavrov warned that European troops would “fuel the conflict,” not ease it.
  • Strong UN Peacekeeping Experience: Global South nations have a proven record in UN peacekeeping across various conflict zones. Example: The African Union has led missions in Somalia and Sudan; India has contributed over 2,90,000 peacekeepers to UN missions.
  • Public Opposition in Europe: European populations are reluctant to support troop deployments in Ukraine, limiting the viability of a European-led mission. Example: French citizens largely opposed Macron’s suggestion to send French troops for peacekeeping earlier this year.
  • Symbol of Multipolar Global Order: A Global South-led mission would demonstrate their growing role in global governance and diplomacy. Example: Countries like Brazil, Indonesia, and South Africa are part of BRICS and actively engage in UN initiatives, signalling rising influence.

Why does Russia oppose European or NATO-led peacekeeping forces in Ukraine?

  • Perceived NATO Expansion: Russia sees any European-led force as a cover for NATO expansion, violating its red lines on NATO’s eastward movement. Example: Moscow described a European-led mission as a “NATO Trojan horse” — a disguised attempt to increase NATO’s footprint in Ukraine.
  • Threat to Russian Security: A European or NATO presence near Russian borders is seen as a direct security threat, escalating tensions. Example: Russia strongly reacted when NATO troops were deployed in Eastern Europe after 2014, citing encirclement fears.
  • Lack of Impartiality: Russia considers NATO countries partial and hostile, incapable of mediating fairly between Ukraine and Russia. Example: NATO nations have supplied Ukraine with weapons and intelligence, eroding their neutrality in Russia’s view.
  • Potential for Escalation: Deploying NATO-aligned forces could turn peacekeepers into targets, risking direct confrontation between Russia and NATO. Example: Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov warned that NATO troops in Ukraine would “further fuel the conflict.”
  • Undermining Diplomatic Efforts: Russia believes a NATO role in peacekeeping would delegitimize any ceasefire, making negotiations harder. Example: Russia has supported talks in neutral venues like Riyadh, avoiding NATO-influenced settings for peace discussions.

Which Global South countries are suited for peacekeeping in Ukraine, and what proves their capability?

  • India has vast experience in UN peacekeeping, having contributed over 2,90,000 troops to 50+ UN missions. Example: In 2007, India deployed the first all-women peacekeeping contingent to Liberia, showcasing professionalism and inclusivity.
  •  Brazil has led several UN missions, especially in Latin America and Africa, and is known for diplomatic balance. Example: Brazil commanded the UN Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) from 2004 to 2017, showing leadership in volatile environments.
  •  South Africa: With deep regional peacekeeping experience via the African Union and UN, South Africa balances diplomacy with force. Example: South Africa has contributed troops to peacekeeping missions in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUSCO) under challenging conditions.
  • Indonesia has a consistent record of contributing troops and police to UN missions, emphasizing neutrality and professionalism. Example: It currently contributes forces to UN missions in Lebanon (UNIFIL) and the Central African Republic (MINUSCA).
  • Chile specializes in demining and post-conflict reconstruction, vital for Ukraine’s recovery. Example: Chilean experts have worked with UN missions on landmine removal in post-war zones, a skill urgently needed in Ukraine.

How can India’s peacekeeping legacy support a UN mission in Ukraine?  

  • Reputation for Neutrality: India maintains balanced diplomatic relations with Russia, Ukraine, and the West, making it a credible and neutral peacekeeping leader. Example: PM Modi’s meetings with both President Putin and President Zelenskyy within weeks reflect India’s impartial diplomatic posture.
  • Extensive Peacekeeping Experience: India is one of the largest contributors to UN peacekeeping, with over 2,90,000 troops having served in 50+ missions worldwide. Example: India’s leadership in UN missions in South Sudan (UNMISS) and Congo (MONUSCO) shows operational effectiveness in complex conflict zones.
  • Pioneering Gender-Inclusive Peacekeeping: India was the first country to deploy an all-women police contingent in a UN mission. Example: In 2007, Indian women peacekeepers served in Liberia, enhancing community trust and addressing gender-based issues in post-conflict societies.

Way forward:

  • Leverage India’s Neutral Diplomatic Standing: India can lead or coordinate a Global South-led mission due to its balanced ties with Russia, Ukraine, and the West — ensuring credibility and acceptance by all parties. e.g. India’s PM meetings with both Putin and Zelenskyy show diplomatic neutrality.
  • Utilize India’s Peacekeeping Expertise:
     India should offer experienced troops, including women contingents, to promote trust, inclusivity, and effectiveness in conflict zones. e.g. India’s success in UNMISS and the all-women unit in Liberia reflect its capability.

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Minority Issues – SC, ST, Dalits, OBC, Reservations, etc.

Parliament passes Waqf (Amendment) Bill 2025 as Rajya Sabha grants approval

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Major key Amendments;

Why in the News?

After over 12 hours of debate and late-night voting, tensions rose over ministers taking a break and Congress faced criticism from INDI allies over supporting a government-backed Bill.

What are the key provisions of the Waqf (Amendment) Bill?

  • Inclusion of Non-Muslim Members: The Bill makes it mandatory to have at least two non-Muslim members in both the Central Waqf Council and State Waqf Boards. Eg: A State Waqf Board in Uttar Pradesh will now include two non-Muslim members to ensure diversity and broader oversight.
  • Enhanced Transparency and Accountability: The bill mandates the digitization of all Waqf records on a centralized portal, ensuring real-time monitoring and preventing unauthorized transactions. Eg: Waqf institutions earning over ₹1 lakh annually must undergo audits by state-sponsored auditors.
  • Women Must Receive Inheritance Before Waqf: Before any property is dedicated as Waqf, women must receive their rightful share of inheritance under Islamic law. Eg: A man cannot donate ancestral property to a mosque as Waqf unless his daughters have first received their inheritance portion.
  • Waqf Boards Cannot Arbitrarily Declare: The amendment removes the Waqf Board’s earlier power to unilaterally declare any property as Waqf without due process. Eg: If there’s a dispute about a piece of land, the Waqf Board must now legally verify ownership instead of directly labeling it as Waqf land.
  • Restructuring of Waqf Tribunals: The structure of Waqf Tribunals is changed to include a district judge, a joint secretary-level government officer, and an expert in Muslim law. Appeals can go to the High Court within 90 days. Eg: A property dispute handled by the Waqf Tribunal in Delhi can now be appealed in the Delhi High Court within three months.

Why did the Opposition criticize the Bill? 

  • Violation of Religious Freedom and Philanthropy Rights: The Opposition argued that banning non-Muslims from creating Waqf violates their freedom to donate or support causes of other religions. Eg: If a Hindu philanthropist wishes to donate land to a mosque for educational purposes, the law now prohibits it from being treated as Waqf.
  • Interference in Personal and Religious Affairs: Critics said the Bill marks excessive state interference in the religious practices of Muslims, especially by restructuring Waqf Tribunals and mandating non-Muslim representation in Waqf Boards. Eg: The inclusion of non-Muslims in bodies managing Islamic religious endowments is seen by some as an imposition on community autonomy.
  • Lack of Consultation and Political Targeting: Opposition parties claimed the Bill was introduced without adequate consultation with stakeholders, including Muslim scholars, religious leaders, or civil society groups. It was viewed as part of a broader political narrative targeting minorities. Eg: The sudden change in who can create Waqf (only Muslims with 5+ years of practice) was criticized as being done without meaningful dialogue with the affected community.

How much property is currently recorded under Waqf in India?

  • Registered properties: As of March 2025, Waqf boards in India manage approximately 8.72 lakh (872,000) registered properties, encompassing over 38 lakh (3.8 million) acres of land. Eg: Uttar Pradesh: Approximately 2.1 lakh Waqf properties,  West Bengal: Around 78,000 properties and Kerala: About 55,000 properties.
  • Spread Across Prime Urban and Rural Areas: Waqf land is spread across prime locations in cities and fertile lands in villages, often facing issues of encroachment and poor management. Eg: In Delhi and Mumbai, many Waqf lands are located in commercial hubs, but are underutilized or illegally occupied.

Who can donate to Waqf under the new law?

Under the Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2025, only practicing Muslims who have been adhering to their faith for at least five years are eligible to donate property as Waqf. This provision aims to ensure that donations are genuine and voluntary, reinstating a pre-2013 rule

How has this changed from the 2013 Waqf Act?

Aspect Waqf Act, 2013 Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2025
Who can create Waqf Any person (including non-Muslims) could create a Waqf Only practicing Muslims (for at least 5 years) can create Waqf
Inclusion of non-Muslims in Waqf Boards Only Muslims were members of Waqf Boards and the Central Waqf Council At least 2 non-Muslim members must be included in both Boards and Council
Waqf Board’s power to declare property Waqf Boards could unilaterally declare any property as Waqf (Section 40) This power is removed; Boards cannot declare any property Waqf without due process
Women’s inheritance rights in family Waqf Not clearly defined or enforced Ensures women receive inheritance before family property is converted into Waqf
Composition of Waqf Tribunals Tribunals had members appointed by the state, often lacking legal or religious expertise Must include a district judge, joint secretary-level officer, and Muslim law expert
Appeal Mechanism Appeals were limited and unclear in some cases Clear provision for appeal to the High Court within 90 days

Way forward:

  • Promote Inclusive Dialogue and Trust-building: Establish structured consultations with religious leaders, civil society, and legal experts to address concerns and foster transparency.
  • Strengthen Implementation with Oversight: Ensure effective digitization, fair dispute resolution, and regular audits through independent oversight bodies to prevent misuse and encroachment.

Mains PYQ:

[UPSC 2019] What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of secularism.

Linkage: Potential conflicts between secular principles and the freedom to practice cultural and religious traditions in India.

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Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

A people still waiting to move out of the margins

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Social Empowerment
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Gender issues;

Why in the News?

International Transgender Day of Visibility, held on March 31, brings attention to the problems transgender people still face, like unfair treatment in schools, jobs, and healthcare.

What challenges do transgender individuals face despite the 2019 Transgender Rights Act?

  • Delays in Legal Recognition and ID Issuance: The certification process for transgender identity is slow and bureaucratic. e.g. As of December 2023, over 3,200 applications on the National Portal were pending beyond the 30-day limit.
  • Lack of Self-Determination in Identity Recognition: The Act mandates a certification process rather than allowing self-identification, unlike global best practices. e.g. Transgender persons must get approval from a district magistrate instead of simply self-declaring their identity.
  • Poor Implementation of Welfare Schemes: Many government schemes meant for transgender individuals are poorly implemented or inaccessible. e.g. In Delhi, out of about 4,200 transgender people (2011 Census), only 23 ID cards were issued by April 2022.
  • No Provisions for Protection from Family Rejection or Police Harassment: The Act does not address key social challenges like violence, rejection, or abuse. e.g. Transgender persons facing domestic violence or harassment by authorities have little legal recourse under the Act.
  • Continued Social Exclusion and Stigma: Despite legal recognition, social acceptance remains low, leading to discrimination in daily life. e.g. Many transgender individuals are still denied housing, employment, and public services due to prejudice.

Why does economic exclusion persist for the transgender community in India?

  • Hiring Discrimination and Workplace Bias: Transgender individuals face exclusion during recruitment and hostility at work. e.g. A 2022 study reported a 48% unemployment rate among transgender people, far higher than the national average of 7-8%.
  • Limited Industry Adoption of Inclusive Policies: Only a few companies have adopted transgender-inclusive hiring and workplace practices. e.g. while Tata Steel hired over 100 transgender employees, such initiatives are not widely adopted across industries.
  • Barriers to Financial Inclusion: Many transgender individuals face hurdles in opening bank accounts or accessing credit. e.g. Despite a 2024 clarification allowing LGBTQ+ individuals to open joint bank accounts, broader financial exclusion still persists.

How do barriers in education and healthcare impact transgender inclusion?

  • High Dropout Rates Due to Bullying and Harassment: Discrimination in schools leads to low retention and poor educational outcomes. e.g. In Kerala, 58% of transgender students dropped out due to bullying and lack of support.
  • Low Literacy Levels Limit Opportunities: Inadequate access to quality education restricts upward mobility. e.g. The 2011 Census reported a transgender literacy rate of 56.1%, compared to the national average of 74.04%.
  • Lack of Gender-Sensitive Infrastructure in Schools and Colleges: The absence of gender-neutral toilets and inclusive curricula creates an unwelcoming environment. e.g. Few institutions offer facilities like separate hostel rooms or transgender cells; Maharashtra is among the few states addressing this.
  • Denial of Basic Healthcare Services: Transgender individuals are often refused treatment or face discrimination in hospitals. e.g. A National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) survey found that 27% were denied healthcare due to their gender identity.
  • Limited Access to Gender-Affirming Treatments: High costs and lack of insurance make crucial medical procedures unaffordable. e.g. Gender-affirming surgeries cost between ₹2 lakh to ₹5 lakh, and despite the launch of Ayushman Bharat TG Plus, implementation is patchy.

Which state-level initiatives support transgender students in education?

  • Maharashtra – Transgender Cells in Colleges: The state has established dedicated support cells in colleges to address the needs of transgender students. e.g. These cells help create a more inclusive academic environment by offering counseling and redressal mechanisms.
  • Kerala – Reservation and Hostel Facilities: Kerala has introduced reserved seats for transgender students in universities and provided separate hostel facilities. e.g. The University of Kerala reserves seats for transgender individuals in postgraduate courses and provides dedicated accommodations.
  • Tamil Nadu – Scholarships and Welfare Schemes: Tamil Nadu provides scholarships and educational assistance specifically for transgender students. e.g. The Third Gender Welfare Board supports education, skill training, and financial aid for transgender persons.

What measures can ensure genuine inclusion beyond symbolic visibility days?

  • Enforce Anti-Discrimination Laws and Policies: Strong legal enforcement is needed to protect transgender rights in workplaces, schools, and public spaces. e.g. Implementing mandatory anti-discrimination clauses in employment policies can reduce workplace bias and ensure accountability.
  • Promote Gender Sensitisation in Institutions: Regular awareness and training programs in schools, universities, and offices can change attitudes. e.g. Including transgender awareness in school curricula and conducting sensitisation workshops in workplaces helps reduce stigma and foster inclusion.
  • Support Transgender Economic Empowerment: Inclusive hiring, access to credit, and government-backed entrepreneurship programs can boost livelihoods. e.g. Initiatives like targeted financial schemes and diversity hiring programs can help transgender entrepreneurs start businesses and gain financial independence.

 

Mains PYQ:

[UPSC 2024] Despite comprehensive policies for equity and social justice, underprivileged sections are not yet getting the full benefits of affirmative action envisaged by the Constitution. Comment.

Linkage: Lack of progress for underprivileged sections despite policy efforts.

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Heard and McDonald Islands

world map | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Heard and McDonald Islands

Why in the News?

Donald Trump imposed a 10% tariff on imports from the Heard and McDonald Islands, despite no human presence there for nearly a decade.

About the Heard and McDonald Islands

  • The Heard and McDonald Islands are located in the Southern Ocean, approximately 4,100 km south-west of Perth, Australia, and 1,600 km to the north of the Antarctic coast.
  • The islands are unincorporated external territories of Australia, meaning they are not part of any Australian state but are directly administered by the Australian government.
  • The islands are home to seals, penguins, and albatrosses, and serve as crucial breeding grounds for these species.
  • The islands have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites due to their ecological significance, particularly their rich biodiversity.
  • Heard Island:
    • Heard Island spans an area of approximately 368 square kilometers.
    • The island’s highest point is Mawson Peak, an active volcano standing 2,745 meters (9,006 feet) above sea level.
    • Mawson Peak is one of the most active volcanoes in the southern hemisphere, with eruptions as recent as 2016.
  • McDonald Islands:
    • It is much smaller, covering only 2.5 square kilometers.
    • Geological Nature: These islands are volcanic and part of the same volcanic chain as Heard Island.
    • Climate
    • Both islands experience an extremely cold subantarctic climate, with heavy winds, snow, and ice for much of the year.
    • Temperatures rarely exceed 5°C (41°F) even in summer.

Strategic Significance

  • The islands are strategically located between Australia and Antarctica, important for monitoring the Southern Ocean, vital for global biodiversity and climate studies.
  • They play a key role in scientific research, particularly in volcanology, glaciology, and climate change, with Australia operating a research station on Heard Island.
  • The islands are protected under the Antarctic Treaty System, ensuring no military activity or commercial exploitation in the region.
  • Rich in marine resources, the surrounding waters are also safeguarded to prevent overfishing and environmental harm.
  • Their geopolitical importance grows as international competition and territorial claims around Antarctica and the Southern Ocean increase.

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Telecom and Postal Sector – Spectrum Allocation, Call Drops, Predatory Pricing, etc

India’s Subsea Cable Infrastructure

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Undersea Cables

Why in the news?

India is gradually expanding its undersea cable infrastructure, with new systems like Airtel’s 2Africa Pearls and SEA-ME-WE-6 boosting its international internet bandwidth.

What are Undersea Cables?

  • Undersea cables are fiber optic cables laid on the ocean floor that connect internet networks between countries.
  • These cables are heavily insulated and contain fiber optic strands for transmitting data.
  • They surface at landing points, connect to landing stations, and then link to broader terrestrial networks.
  • Approximately 600 undersea cables exist globally.
  • These cables handle 90% of global data, 80% of world trade, and $10 trillion in financial transactions.

India’s Current Undersea Cable Ecosystem:

  • India’s two main hubs for subsea cables are Mumbai and Chennai.
    • 17 international cables land in India, with 95% of subsea cables concentrated in a 6-km stretch in Versova, Mumbai.
  • India has two domestic cable systems:
  1. Chennai–Andaman–Nicobar Islands (CANI)
  2. Kochi–Lakshadweep Islands
  • While current bandwidth is considered sufficient, rising data traffic may soon outpace available capacity.
    • Experts warn that India’s current capacity may become inadequate in the near future.
  • India contributes only 1% of global cable landing stations and 3% of subsea cable systems, highlighting its underrepresentation in the global network.

[UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘LiFi’, recently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. It uses light as the medium for high speed data transmission.

2. It is wireless technology and is several times faster than ‘WiFi’.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Indian Army Updates

Exercise INDRA 2025

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Exercise INDRA 2025

Why in the News?

The bilateral naval exercise INDRA 2025 between the Indian and Russian navies was held from 28 March to 02 April 2025.

About Exercise INDRA

  • INDRA is a biennial joint military exercise that began in 2003.
  • Over time, INDRA transformed into a tri-service exercise involving Army, Navy, and Air Force, making it more comprehensive and multifaceted.
  • Recent Editions of INDRA:
    • 2021 (12th Edition): Held in Volgograd, Russia; Focused on counter-terrorism operations and enhancing operational synergy.
    • 2023 (13th Edition): Conducted in the Bay of Bengal, India; Involved naval forces from both countries, enhancing maritime cooperation and joint operations.
    • 2025 (14th Edition): It is being conducted in two phases: Harbour phase at Chennai and Sea phase in the Bay of Bengal.

Strategic Importance 

  • The exercise reinforced jointmanship between the Indian and Russian forces, strengthening their ability to collaborate in maritime security operations.
  • It highlighted the shared commitment to upholding maritime order and promoting global peace and stability.
  • Best practices were exchanged, fostering a deeper understanding of each other’s operational doctrines and enhancing the capacity to respond effectively to contemporary maritime security challenges.

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AYUSH – Indian Medicine System

Central Sector Scheme for Promotion of International Cooperation for AYUSH 

Schemes | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Central Sector Scheme for Promotion of International Cooperation for AYUSH

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Ayush is implementing the Central Sector Scheme for Promotion of International Cooperation for AYUSH to enhance global recognition and development of AYUSH systems, including Ayurveda, Yoga, Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy.

About the Scheme

  • The scheme focuses on promoting AYUSH systems internationally, contributing to their global growth.
  • The scheme is announced on the AYUSH website, and applications are invited through open advertisements.
  • Proposals are screened by a committee and approved for financial assistance based on needs and activity limits.
  • Key Components of the Scheme:
    1. International Exchange of Experts & Officers: Facilitates deputation of AYUSH experts for international conferences and training.
    2. Incentives for Drug Manufacturers: Provides financial support for international propagation and product registration.
    3. Market Development Support: Supports exhibitions, conferences, and market surveys for international market development.
    4. Promotion through Young Postgraduates: Deploys young postgraduates to promote AYUSH abroad through NGOs.
    5. Translation and Publication: Funds the translation and publication of AYUSH literature in foreign languages.
    6. AYUSH Information Cells/Health Centres: Establishes AYUSH cells and health centers in foreign countries through Indian missions.
    7. International Fellowship Programme: Offers fellowships to foreign nationals to study AYUSH courses in India.

Significance of Yoga and AYUSH in India’s International Outreach

  • The International Day of Yoga (IDY) was declared by the United Nations in 2014, with ₹161 crore spent on its promotion. IDY celebrations spread Yoga’s global message.
  • Yoga is now part of the National Curriculum Framework (NCF), making it compulsory for students from Class I to Class X.
  • The Yoga Certification Board (YCB) under the Ministry of Ayush certifies yoga professionals and accredits institutions, ensuring quality and standards in Yoga practice.
  • The Ministry of Ayush has signed 24 Country-to-Country MoUs and 51 Institute-to-Institute MoUs to promote Indian traditional medicine systems globally.

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

[4th April 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The other space race — the geopolitics of satellite net

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2024] Can India become a space power by solely relying on its indigenous technology, or is it imperative to forge technological alliances and collaborations with other nations to stay competitive in the global space race? Elaborate your views. 

Linkage:  India’s choice to partner with Starlink, a US-based network, over waiting for indigenous solutions or potentially partnering with China, illustrating the geopolitical considerations in space technology.

 

Mentor’s Comment: Many parts of India still lack fiber and mobile networks. Starlink’s tie-up with Airtel and Jio helps bring fast Internet to remote areas without big infrastructure costs. While good for business, it raises concerns about U.S. digital control. Starlink’s dominance, with 7,000 satellites, risks creating a monopoly and giving private firms major control over key infrastructure.

Today’s editorial analyzes  Starlink’s tie-up with Airtel and Jio and its impact. This will help in GS paper 2 and GS Paper 3.

_

Let’s learn!

Why in the News?

It’s still unclear whether satellite Internet will help everyone get connected or just make the digital gap worse in a new way from space.

What are the economic and strategic benefits of India’s partnership with Starlink?

  • Bridging the Digital Divide: Enables high-speed internet access in rural, remote, and hilly areas where laying fiber-optic cables is difficult or expensive. Eg:  Remote villages in Ladakh or Northeast India can access e-learning, telemedicine, and government services through satellite internet.
  • Cost-effective Infrastructure Expansion: Reduces the capital and operational costs for Indian telecom companies like Airtel and Jio, as satellite internet bypasses the need for expensive terrestrial infrastructure. Eg : Instead of building hundreds of towers in sparsely populated areas, Airtel can provide service using Starlink’s satellite network.
  • Strategic Geopolitical Alignment: Aligns India with the U.S.-led democratic digital alliance, distancing itself from authoritarian tech ecosystems like China’s GuoWang. Eg: Choosing Starlink over Chinese alternatives reflects India’s broader Indo-Pacific strategy of cooperation with like-minded nations.
  • Boost to Domestic Capability via Partnership Model: Collaborating through Indian partners (Airtel, Jio) offers regulatory oversight, scope for technology transfer, and growth of India’s tech ecosystem. Eg: Local data routing, domestic satellite ground stations, and service operations can help build technical capacity and expertise in India.
  • Strategic Communication Redundancy Enhances national security by providing backup communication systems during disasters or network blackouts. Eg: During natural calamities like cyclones or earthquakes, satellite internet can keep remote regions connected when ground networks fail.

Why is Starlink’s monopolistic control a concern, and how does it impact India?

  • Overdependence on a Foreign Private Entity: Reliance on Starlink gives a U.S.-based private firm significant control over India’s digital backbone in remote areas.
     Eg: If Starlink alters service terms or suspends access due to U.S. geopolitical interests, India’s connectivity in border or conflict zones could be compromised.
  • National Security Risks: Communication infrastructure operated from outside the country raises concerns over surveillance, data sovereignty, and wartime disruption. Eg: During the Russia-Ukraine war, Starlink restricted access to its services in conflict zones — India could face similar risks in sensitive areas like Jammu & Kashmir or Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Market Distortion and Limited Competition: Starlink’s first-mover advantage and satellite volume (~7,000 satellites) could outcompete smaller or local satellite internet ventures. Eg: Domestic players like ISRO’s satellite internet plans or private Indian firms may struggle to gain market share or scale up effectively.
  • Pricing Power and Affordability Issues: Monopoly allows Starlink to set high prices, making services unaffordable for large sections of rural and poor populations. Eg: Without competition or regulation, satellite internet packages may remain out of reach for rural schoolchildren or small farmers.
  • Reduced Technological Sovereignty: Long-term reliance may hinder India’s ability to develop indigenous alternatives, stalling progress toward digital self-reliance. Eg: Starlink dominance might delay ISRO’s or IN-SPACe’s efforts in launching Indian LEO satellite constellations.

Who are the key global players in satellite internet?

Player Country Project Name Key Features Example / Status
SpaceX USA Starlink – Operates 7,000+ satellites in Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

– Provides global broadband internet

 – Services available in 70+ countries

– Partnerships with Airtel & Jio in India for rural access
China Satellite Network Group China GuoWang – State-run project for national security & digital sovereignty

– Aims to deploy 13,000+ satellites

 – Strategic focus on Indo-Pacific and Belt & Road countries
Amazon USA Project Kuiper – Plans to deploy 3,000+ satellites

– Emerging competitor in global internet services

 – FCC approved

– Aims to launch by 2026

– Focus on North America & developing markets

 

How does India’s choice of Starlink over indigenous or Chinese alternatives reflect its Indo-Pacific strategy?

  • Strategic Alignment with Democratic Partners: India’s preference for Starlink (a U.S.-based company) indicates alignment with democratic nations in the Indo-Pacific region. Eg: By avoiding Chinese alternatives like GuoWang, India reinforces its commitment to frameworks like Quad (India, U.S., Japan, Australia) that promote a free, open, and secure Indo-Pacific.
  • Countering China’s Digital Influence: India’s decision helps prevent Chinese technological dominance in Asia, especially in sensitive sectors like space and communication.Eg: Partnering with Starlink counters China’s Digital Silk Road ambitions and limits Beijing’s potential surveillance or control via GuoWang.
  • Enhancing Strategic Interoperability: Collaborating with U.S. technologies builds compatibility with partner nations’ digital and defense infrastructure. Eg: Starlink’s use in defense communication, as seen in Ukraine, could serve as a backup during emergencies in border regions like Ladakh or Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Economic Pragmatism and Speed: India needs fast, scalable connectivity. Starlink offers a quicker solution compared to long timelines for domestic capability development. Eg: Indigenous LEO satellite programs are still in nascent stages, while Starlink is already operational, helping bridge rural digital gaps.
  • Signal of Strategic Autonomy, Not Dependency: By routing Starlink through Indian firms like Jio and Airtel, India retains some control, showing a model of “managed dependency.” Eg: Unlike full foreign control, this hybrid model mirrors India’s “Act East” and “Neighbourhood First” policies that balance strategic autonomy with global partnerships.

What steps can ensure digital sovereignty? (Way forward)

  • Develop Indigenous Satellite Infrastructure: Investing in homegrown satellite constellations enhances strategic independence and reduces reliance on foreign networks.Eg: ISRO and private players like IN-SPACe can develop India’s own LEO satellite systems to serve rural and border areas.
  • Enforce Strong Regulatory Frameworks: Mandating data localization, technology transfer, and operational oversight ensures control over foreign tech operations. Eg: India can require local data storage and security vetting for Starlink services, similar to norms for other digital services.
  • Strengthen Public Sector Participation: Involving state-owned enterprises like BSNL in satellite internet rollouts can provide public oversight and reduce strategic vulnerabilities.Eg: Partnering Starlink with BSNL could combine reach and regulation, giving the government more control over critical infrastructure.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-United States

India holds fire as Trump announces tariffs

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: India-US Relations;

Why in the News?

India faces lower U.S. tariffs than its rivals, making its exports more competitive. This can help expand market share and strengthen trade ties, possibly securing better terms through a future Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA).

India faces lower U.S. tariffs than its rivals, making its exports more competitive. This can help expand market share and strengthen trade ties, possibly securing better terms through a future Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA).

Why did Trump impose “reciprocal tariffs” on countries like India?

  • Addressing Trade Deficits: Trump viewed large U.S. trade deficits as a national emergency and sought to correct them. Eg: India had a $30+ billion trade surplus with the U.S. in 2019, prompting higher tariffs.
  • High Tariffs by Trading Partners: Claimed that countries like India imposed higher tariffs on U.S. goods while enjoying low tariffs in return. Eg: India’s 52% tariff on U.S. goods (as per Trump’s claim) led to a 27% tariff on Indian exports.
  • Legal Justification Under IEEPA (1977): Used the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) to justify tariffs as a response to economic threats. Eg: Trump declared April 2 as “Liberation Day”, marking U.S. retaliation against trade imbalances.
  • Targeting Specific Sectors with Unfair Trade Practices: Accused India of protecting key industries with high tariffs and non-tariff barriers. Eg: India’s high tariffs on motorcycles (100% in 2017, later reduced to 30%) were cited as unfair.
  • Political Strategy for U.S. Domestic Industry: Aimed to protect American jobs and industries by reducing competition from low-cost imports. Eg: Tariffs targeted India’s gems, jewelry, and textiles sectors to favor U.S. producers.

Why was India’s response to the U.S. tariffs muted compared to others?

  • Ongoing Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) Talks: India was engaged in negotiations with the U.S. for a Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) and did not want to escalate tensions. Eg: The Commerce Ministry stated that India values its Comprehensive Global Strategic Partnership with the U.S. and remained committed to BTA discussions.
  • Lower Tariff Impact Compared to Regional Competitors: India’s 27% tariff penalty was lower than those imposed on Vietnam (46%), Thailand (37%), Bangladesh (37%), and Sri Lanka (44%), offering a slight comparative advantage. Eg: Indian exports faced less severe tariffs than competitors, reducing the immediate urgency for a retaliatory response.
  • Focus on Exploring New Trade Opportunities: Instead of retaliation, India sought to leverage shifting global trade patterns and assess how the tariffs might create new export opportunities. Eg: The Commerce Ministry stated that it was studying “opportunities that may arise due to this new development.”
  • Avoiding Direct Confrontation with a Key Strategic Partner: India prioritized maintaining strong diplomatic and strategic ties with the U.S., especially given their defense, geopolitical, and economic partnerships. Eg: Unlike China or the EU, which threatened countermeasures, India’s official statement was measured and non-confrontational.
  • Selective Impact on Indian Industries: While some sectors like gems and jewelry were hit hard, others, such as automobiles and auto parts, were not significantly affected, reducing the immediate urgency for a strong reaction. Eg: The Gems & Jewellery Export Promotion Council (GJEPC) called for a quick resolution but did not demand aggressive retaliation.

Which Indian sectors are most affected by the 27% U.S. tariff?

  • Gems & Jewelry Industry: The U.S. accounts for over 30% of India’s $32 billion annual gems and jewellery exports, making it the hardest-hit sector. Eg: The Gem & Jewellery Export Promotion Council (GJEPC) warned that sustaining India’s $10 billion export volume to the U.S. would be challenging.
  • Textile & Apparel Sector: India is a major exporter of textiles and garments to the U.S., and higher tariffs could reduce price competitiveness against rivals like Vietnam and Bangladesh. Eg: The tariff increase could lead to order cancellations or a shift in sourcing to lower-tariff countries.
  • Processed Food & Agricultural Exports: India exports rice, tea, spices, and processed food to the U.S., which are now subject to higher tariffs, making them more expensive for American consumers. Eg: Indian basmati rice and processed mango products could face a drop in demand due to higher costs.

How could India gain a comparative advantage? (Way forward) 

  • Lower Tariff Impact Compared to Competitors: India’s 27% tariff is lower than Vietnam (46%), Thailand (37%), Bangladesh (37%), and Sri Lanka (44%), making Indian goods relatively cheaper in the U.S. market. Eg: Indian textile and leather exports could remain more competitive than those from Bangladesh or Vietnam.
  • Potential Market Share Expansion: Higher tariffs on regional competitors may shift U.S. import preferences toward India, increasing Indian exports in affected sectors. Eg: If Bangladesh’s apparel exports become too costly, U.S. buyers may turn to Indian manufacturers for sourcing.
  • Strengthened Trade Relations with the U.S: By maintaining a measured diplomatic response and continuing trade negotiations, India can secure long-term benefits through a Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA). Eg: A favorable BTA could lead to tariff reductions or exemptions for key Indian industries like pharmaceuticals and IT services.

Mains PYQ:

Question: How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect the macroeconomic stability of India? [UPSC 2022]

Linkage: The potential impact of protectionist measures (like tariffs) on India’s economy.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Bangladesh

Bangladesh events, a reflection of South Asia’s minorities

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Minority in South East Asia;

Why in the News?

The removal of Sheikh Hasina in August 2024 has raised concerns about violence against Hindus in Bangladesh. Religious minorities in South Asia, especially India and Pakistan, are facing increasing challenges that have worsened since Partition.

What are the key factors contributing to the decline in the status of religious minorities in South Asia since Partition?

  • Majoritarian Nationalism & Religious Extremism: Rise of Hindutva politics in India, Islamization of laws in Pakistan, and political Islamization in Bangladesh have led to exclusionary policies and attacks on minorities. Eg:  Pakistan’s blasphemy laws disproportionately target Christians, Hindus, and Ahmadis, often leading to mob violence.
  • Communal Violence & Targeted Persecution: Repeated riots, lynchings, and attacks on places of worship have created fear and displacement among minorities. Eg: The 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War saw mass violence against Hindus; attacks on Hindus during Durga Puja 2021 in Bangladesh highlight continued persecution.
  • Legal & Institutional Discrimination: Laws and policies systematically disadvantage minorities, restricting their rights to education, property, and political participation. Eg: India’s Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), 2019, excludes Muslims from fast-track citizenship; Pakistan’s separate electorate system (before 2002) marginalized minorities.
  • Political Instability & State Apathy: Changing political dynamics often leave minorities vulnerable to state inaction or deliberate neglect.Eg: The deposition of Sheikh Hasina in 2024 has led to increased violence against Hindus in Bangladesh, reflecting the role of political shifts in minority safety.
  • Cross-Border Tensions & Geopolitical Factors: Tensions between India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh over religious issues fuel polarization and hostility towards minorities. Eg: 1992 Babri Masjid demolition in India led to retaliatory violence against Hindus in Pakistan and Bangladesh, worsening interfaith relations.

How did the Nehru-Liaquat Ali Pact aim to address minority concerns?

  • Protection of Minority Rights: The pact, signed in 1950, aimed to safeguard the rights of religious minorities in India and Pakistan, ensuring security, freedom of movement, and non-discrimination. Eg: It assured that minorities in both countries could practice their religion freely without fear of persecution.
  • Creation of Minority Commissions & Legal Safeguards: Both nations agreed to set up Minority Commissions to address grievances and ensure the implementation of protective measures. Eg: The pact led to the establishment of a Branch Secretariat of the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) in Calcutta to monitor the situation.
  • Prevention of Forced Migration & Refugee Crisis Management: The pact sought to reduce communal tensions and prevent forced migration by ensuring the safety of minorities in both countries. Eg: It aimed to halt mass population exchanges, which were being considered by leaders like Sardar Patel in response to escalating refugee crises.

What were its limitations?

  • Failure to Prevent Long-Term Religious Persecution: Despite assurances, violence against religious minorities continued in both India and Pakistan, undermining the pact’s effectiveness. Eg: Large-scale anti-Hindu riots in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) in 1950 and later events like the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War led to mass Hindu migration to India.
  • Lack of Strong Enforcement Mechanisms: The pact lacked binding enforcement mechanisms, relying on political goodwill rather than legal obligations, making it difficult to sustain over time. Eg: The Minority Commissions proposed under the pact had limited authority, leading to weak implementation and minimal impact on ground realities.

What are the implications of political developments in Bangladesh on India-Bangladesh relations?

  • Increased Strain Due to Minority Persecution: Rising violence against Hindus in Bangladesh creates diplomatic tensions, as India sees itself as a protector of South Asian Hindus. Eg: Attacks on Hindu temples and communities after Sheikh Hasina’s deposition in 2024 have led to concerns in India about the safety of minorities.
  • Security Concerns & Border Management: Political instability in Bangladesh can lead to illegal migration, cross-border insurgency, and smuggling, affecting India’s internal security. Eg: India has strengthened border security along the India-Bangladesh border to curb illegal immigration and Rohingya refugee movements.

How can South Asian nations develop a more inclusive framework to protect religious minorities and promote regional stability? (Way forward)

  • ​​Strengthen Legal & Institutional Safeguards: Implement strict anti-discrimination laws and establish independent minority rights commissions to monitor violations. Eg: India’s National Commission for Minorities (NCM) works to safeguard minority rights, but a regional body could ensure cross-border protection.
  • Promote Regional Cooperation & Crisis Response: Develop joint mechanisms for refugee protection, minority safety, and early conflict resolution. Eg: The SAARC framework could be expanded to include a South Asian Minority Rights Charter, ensuring accountability.
  • Ensure Socio-Economic Inclusion: Invest in education, employment, and political participation programs for minority communities. Eg: Bangladesh’s Ashrayan Project provides housing to marginalized groups, a model that can be scaled regionally.

Mains PYQ:

Question: The protests in Shahbag Square in Dhaka in Bangladesh reveal a fundamental split in society between the nationalists and Islamic forces. What is its significance for India? [UPSC 2013]

Linkage: The significant socio-political event in Bangladesh and asks about its implications for India. The underlying tensions between nationalist and religious forces, are crucial for understanding the context of minority issues in Bangladesh.

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

Ramakien Murals of the Grand Palace of Bangkok

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Ramakien Murals

Why in the News?

The Prime Minister has highlighted the release of iStamp depicting Ramakien mural paintings by Thai Government.

Ramakien mural

About the Ramakien Murals:

  • The murals were first painted in 1783 during the reign of King Rama I, who commissioned the adaptation of the Indian epic Ramayana into the Thai version called the Ramakien.
    • The Ramakien holds a vital role in Thai culture, influencing literature, dance, and art, and the murals serve as a visual representation of this national epic.
  • The murals are predominantly displayed in the Wat Phra Kaew (Temple of the Emerald Buddha) in the Grand Palace complex, Bangkok.
  • It illustrates episodes from the Ramakien, highlighting the eternal battle between good and evil.
  • It is located in the Phra Rabiang gallery, a two-kilometer corridor surrounding the temple, with 178 panels depicting scenes from the epic.

India-Thailand Cultural Connect

Historical and Cultural Ties:

  • Thailand, part of the Suvarnabhumi territory, is mentioned in the Ramayana.
  • Ancient trade links with South India, and kingdoms like Dvaravati and Khmer had strong ties with India.
  • Brahmanism coexisted with Buddhism, and Thai worship includes Indian deities like Ganesha, Shiva, and Vishnu.
    • Emperor Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to Thailand in the 3rd century BCE, deeply influencing Thai culture and religion.
  • The Thai language includes Sanskrit and Pali words, while Thai art and architecture exhibit Indian influences, particularly in temples.
  • Association with Lord Rama:
    • The Ramakien, the Thai version of the Ramayana, is central to Thai culture, with murals depicting episodes in temples.
    • The title Rama has been adopted by all the monarchs of Thailand’s Chakri Dynasty, which began with King Rama I in 1782.
    • Ayutthaya city was the capital of the Ayutthaya Kingdom (1350–1767) in present-day Thailand, and it is thought that the name is derived from the Indian city of Ayodhya.

Modern Diplomatic and Cultural Relations:

  • Diplomatic Ties were established in 1947, the two countries celebrated 75 years of relations in 2022.
  • Thai-Bharat Cultural Lodge (1940) promotes educational and cultural exchanges. Thai citizens visit India for religious and cultural purposes, especially Buddhist sites.

Recent Initiatives:

  • Exhibitions like “Indo-Siam Connect” showcase shared heritage.
  • Joint research and academic exchanges continue to deepen mutual understanding.

 

[UPSC 2010] There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta Caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings?

(a) Bagh Caves (b) Ellora Caves (c) Lomas Rishi caves (d) Nasik Caves

 

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Wetland Conservation

Why Naini Lake is seeing record-low water levels?

Places in news | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Naini Lake

Why in the News?

Naini Lake, one of Nainital’s key attractions, has recorded a water level of 4.7 feet, marking a 5-year low, sparking concerns about drinking water scarcity as the summer season approaches.

About Naini Lake

  • Naini Lake is situated in the heart of Nainital, a hill station in the Indian state of Uttarakhand. It is surrounded by seven hills.
  • The lake is natural kidney-shaped and is one of the main attractions of Nainital.
  • It was discovered by P. Barron, an English businessman, in the mid-19th century, which led to the development of Nainital as a hill station.
  • The deepest point of Naini Lake is 89 feet.
  • The normal gauge level of the lake is 12 feet, and its water level has recently dropped to 4.7 feet, marking a five-year low.

Why is the Water Level declining?

  • The Uttarakhand Jal Sansthan extracts 10 million litres of water daily from Naini Lake for drinking water supply to the city of Nainital.
  • 76% of the city’s water demand was met by the lake in 2024, but increasing population, tourist activity, and commercialisation have intensified pressure on the lake’s water resources.
  • The lake faces numerous threats, including:
    • Decreased snowfall and rainfall, especially in the winter months.
    • Unplanned construction and encroachments around the lake, leading to the reduction of its catchment area.
    • Pollution due to the discharge of untreated wastewater and improper disposal of solid waste.
  • Siltation caused by debris dumping in Sukhatal Lake, a major aquifer recharge area for Naini Lake, has contributed to the shrinking of the lake’s size.
  • Climate change is affecting the region’s weather patterns, with annual temperatures rising by nearly 1.5 degrees Celsius between 1970 and 2022.

Other Important Lakes in India (Artificial and Manmade):

Type Lake Name Location Details
Natural Dal Lake Jammu & Kashmir Famous for houseboats and scenic beauty, located in Srinagar.
Vembanad Lake Kerala The longest lake in India, central to Kerala’s backwaters and tourism.
Sambhar Lake Rajasthan Largest inland saltwater lake, important for bird migration, especially flamingos.
Manmade Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh A large freshwater lake, critical for bird habitats and a wetland.
Hussain Sagar Lake Telangana Constructed in 1562, famous for its Buddha statue and as a water source.
Upper Lake Madhya Pradesh Artificial lake in Bhopal, important for water supply and recreational activities.
Indira Sagar Lake Madhya Pradesh A large reservoir created by the Indira Sagar Dam for power generation and irrigation.

 

[UPSC 2018] Which one of the following is an ‘Artificial Lake‘?

(a) Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu) (b) Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh) (c) Nainital (Uttarakhand) (d) Renuka (Himachal Pradesh)

 

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GI(Geographical Indicator) Tags

GI Tags Awarded in April 2025

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Intellectual Property Rights
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: GI Tags in news

Why in the News?

Recently, several Geographical Indication (GI) tags have been awarded to unique products, enhancing their protection in the market and giving them a platform for global recognition.

Here is the list of all the GI tags recently Awarded:

State Product Name Description
Meghalaya Ryndia (Meghalaya Handloom Products) Ryndia is an eco-friendly fabric made from Ahimsa Silk by indigenous Khasi, Bhoi, and Jaintia artisans. Known for its durability and luxurious texture, Ryndia is used to make stoles, shawls, and garments with organic dyes from local plants.
Kerala Kannadippaya A traditional tribal handicraft made from the inner layers of reed bamboo. This mat, known for its reflective pattern, provides a cooling effect in summer and warmth during winter. It is woven by various tribal communities, including the Oorali, Mannan, Muthuva, Malayan, and Kadar tribes, primarily in the Idukki, Thrissur, Ernakulam, and Palakkad districts of Kerala.
Tamil Nadu Panruti Cashew This cashew variety is celebrated for its mildly sweet, nutty flavor and its crisp yet tender texture. Grown primarily in Panruti, Tamil Nadu, it has a high demand both domestically and internationally, setting it apart from other cashew varieties due to its unique taste and texture.
Panruti Jackfruit The Panruti jackfruit is a prized agricultural product from Panruti, where commercial cultivation is concentrated. Known for its large size and distinctive flavor, it is available throughout the year, with different varieties ripening at different times. The jackfruit is widely used for making chips, curries, and sweets and has potential for value-added products.
Chettikulam Small Onion Grown in the Aalathur block of Perambalur district, this small onion variety is an important crop in Tamil Nadu, known for its strong aroma and robust flavor. Over 8,000 hectares in the district are dedicated to small onion cultivation, producing 65,000 to 70,000 tonnes annually. This variety is integral to local cooking and is used in various dishes, offering a unique flavor to regional cuisine.
Puliyangudi Acid Lime Known as the Lemon City of Tamil Nadu, Puliyangudi produces acid lime that is small to medium-sized (4–6 cm in diameter) with a vibrant green color and thin, smooth skin. The limes are famous for their tangy taste and are widely used in cooking, especially in Southern Tamil Nadu and Kerala, as well as for producing lime juice and lime-based products.
Virudhunagar Samba Vathal These bright red, spicy sambal chilies from Virudhunagar are renowned for their distinct flavor and are a crucial ingredient in Southern Indian cuisine. They are often used in the oleoresin extraction process, which plays a significant role in the spice industry.
Ramanadu Chithiraikar Rice A red rice variety from Ramanadu, this rice is known for its ability to keep hunger at bay for hours, making it a staple in many households. The rice is commonly consumed as a hearty porridge and is recognized for its nutritional value and ability to provide long-lasting energy.
Kumbakonam Betel Leaf Grown in the fertile Cauvery River basin, Kumbakonam Betel Leaf is known for its distinct taste and aroma. It is used in the preparation of paan and as a symbol of hospitality in the region.
West Bengal Thovalai Flower Garland A handcrafted floral garland made from a mix of white, red, and green flowers, Thovalai Flower Garland is used for festivals and special occasions. It is woven in a mat-like fashion and is celebrated for its artistic beauty.
Murshidabad Chhanobora This sweet from Murshidabad is made from chhena (curdled milk) and flavored with cardamom. It is known for its smooth texture and distinct taste, being a traditional treat prepared during festivals and significant occasions.
Bishnupur Motichur Laddu A traditional Bengali sweet laddu, made from finely ground chickpeas, sugar, and ghee. It has a delicate, aromatic flavor and is often enjoyed during festivals like Durga Puja and Diwali. Its historical roots trace back to the Bishnupur region, known for its unique preparation methods.
Kamarpukur Sada Bode A fried Bengali sweet, Kamarpukur Sada Bode is made from wheat flour, sugar, and ghee. It is an important part of Bengali festivals and local traditions, valued for its crisp texture and sweet, rich taste.
Malda Nistari Silk Yarn Known for its fine texture, durability, and the intricate traditional weaving techniques used, Malda Nistari Silk Yarn is produced in Malda, Bengal. This silk is highly sought after for its luxurious feel and is used for making high-quality garments.
Radhunipagal Rice A local variety of rice from Bengal, Radhunipagal is known for its resilient texture and ability to stay filling for extended periods, making it perfect for hearty meals. This rice is a staple in many traditional Bengali dishes.
Baruipur Guava Baruipur Guava, grown in the fertile soil of West Bengal, is known for its distinct taste and texture. The fruit has a sweet flavor and is used in juices, jams, and desserts.
Jammu and Kashmir 

 

 Kashmir Namda A woolen rug from Kashmir, Namda is known for its thick texture and intricate designs. Traditionally crafted by hand using sheep wool, it is prized for its insulating properties and is a significant part of Kashmir’s textile heritage.
Kashmir Gabba A traditional woolen product from Kashmir, Gabba is used in home decor and textiles. It is made using local wool and features intricate handwoven patterns.
Kashmir Willow Bat Kashmir Willow is used for making high-quality cricket bats, known for their lightweight and durable properties, making it a sought-after material for professional cricket bats.
Kashmir Tweed Kashmir Tweed is a finely woven fabric, made from wool, and is renowned for its warmth and luxury. It has been traditionally used to make winter garments, particularly coats and shawls.
Kashmir Crewel A hand-embroidered fabric from Kashmir, Crewel features intricate floral designs and is traditionally used in making home textiles like curtains, bedspreads, and cushions.
Kashmir Chain Stitch A traditional embroidery technique from Kashmir, Chain Stitch is used to create decorative textiles. The embroidery is vibrant, with floral patterns, and is used in making garments and home furnishings.
Kashmir Shikara The Shikara is a traditional boat from Kashmir used primarily for tourism and transportation in the Dal Lake. It is a symbol of Kashmir’s rich heritage and has been part of the region’s culture for centuries.
Kashmir Wagguv Wagguv is a traditional handcrafted product from Kashmir, made using local materials and is known for its unique craftsmanship and cultural significance in the region.

 

[UPSC 2015] Which of the following has/have been accorded ‘Geographical Indication’ Status?

(1) Banaras Brocades and Sarees (2) Rajasthani Daal-Bati-Churma (3) Tirupathi Laddu

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

PM gifted with a copy of Tripitaka by Thai PM

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Tripitaka

Why in the News?

Prime Minister was presented with ‘The World Tipitaka: Sajjhaya Phonetic Edition’ by his Thai counterpart, Paetongtarn Shinawatra, in a diplomatic exchange.

About Tripitaka

  • The Tripitaka, also known as the Pali Canon or Tipitaka, is the primary scripture of Theravada Buddhism, containing the teachings attributed to Buddha.
  • It was initially preserved through oral tradition and recited by Buddhist monks after the Buddha’s death.
  • It was first written down in the 1st century BCE during the reign of King Vattagamani of Sri Lanka, ensuring its preservation for future generations.
  • It is central to Theravada Buddhism, which is practiced mainly in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos.
  • It is also regarded as an authoritative collection of the Buddha’s words, influencing the practices of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhists.
  • Its teachings cover practical aspects of morality (sila), meditation (samadhi), and wisdom (prajna), guiding followers towards nirvana (enlightenment).
  • It is composed of 3 major sections, each known as a “basket” (Pitaka), containing rules, discourses, and doctrinal analyses:
Focus Key Components Key Teachings

Vinaya Pitaka

 Governs the rules and regulations for the monastic community (Sangha), focusing on the conduct of monks and nuns. • Suttavibhanga: The primary text detailing the rules for monks and nuns, including disciplinary measures.

• Khandhaka: A collection of regulations governing the monastic community’s daily life, organizational structure, and interactions.

• Parivara: A summary and analysis of the rules and their interpretations.

• Discusses issues related to ordination, monastic vows, and the ethical conduct of monks and nuns.

 • Establishes a structured framework for maintaining the monastic order.

• Focus on ethical behavior, discipline, and the proper conduct necessary for spiritual growth.

• Importance of the community and the harmonious living of monks and nuns.

Sutta Pitaka

 Contains the discourses delivered by the Buddha, covering various topics like morality, meditation, and wisdom. • Digha Nikaya: The long discourses of the Buddha, including topics on ethics, meditation, and cosmology.

• Majjhima Nikaya: Middle-length discourses, often addressing common people and their concerns, focusing on practical aspects of the Buddha’s teachings.

• Samyutta Nikaya: Connected discourses grouped by topics like impermanence, suffering, and dependent origination.

• Anguttara Nikaya: A collection of numerical discourses, categorized by numbers (e.g., 3, 4, 5), addressing practical guidelines for daily living.

• Khuddaka Nikaya: A minor collection of texts, including the Dhammapada, Jataka tales (stories of the Buddha’s past lives), Therigatha, and others.

 • Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as central teachings for achieving liberation from suffering.

• Instructions on ethical living, mental cultivation, and the development of wisdom.

• Stories of the Buddha’s past lives, which serve to teach moral lessons and virtues.

• Provides practical teachings for both monastics and laypeople on how to live a life conducive to enlightenment.

Abhidhamma Pitaka

 A detailed systematic analysis of the Buddha’s teachings, providing a philosophical and psychological examination of Buddhist concepts. • Dhammasangani: A classification of mental and physical phenomena, offering an in-depth analysis of mental states and experience.

• Vibhanga: Provides a detailed analysis of various doctrines, including virtues, meditation practices, and psychological states.

• Puggalapannatti: Describes different types of persons and their spiritual progress, from ordinary beings to enlightened ones.

• Kathavatthu: A collection of doctrinal debates that addresses differences between early Buddhist schools, offering clarification on certain teachings.

• Yamaka: A set of questions and answers that explores complex doctrinal points in pairs of opposites.

• Patthana: Describes conditional relations between phenomena, offering a complex framework for understanding dependent origination.

 • Mind and consciousness: Detailed study of the nature of the mind, its states, and interactions with the physical world.

• Causality and the law of dependent origination (paticca-samuppada), explaining how phenomena arise and cease based on conditions.

• Analytical psychology: Explores the workings of the human mind, including perception, cognition, and emotion.

• Explores the relationship between mental and physical processes and provides an advanced understanding of reality and experience.

• Essential for understanding advanced Buddhist philosophy and psychology.

 

[UPSC 2024] Sanghabhuti, an Indian Buddhist monk, who travelled to China at the end of the fourth century AD, was the author of a commentary on:

(a) Prajnaparamita Sutra (b) Visuddhimagga (c) Sarvastivada Vinaya (d) Lalitavistra

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

50th Anniversary of Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

Why in the News?

March 26, 2025, marked the 50th anniversary of the entry into force of the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban an entire category of weapons of mass destruction.

About the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

  • The BWC also known as the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), is a disarmament treaty aimed at banning biological and toxin weapons.
  • It prohibits activities related to the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling, and use of biological and toxin weapons.

Negotiation and Adoption of BWC: 

  • Negotiated in Geneva, Switzerland, from 1969 to 1971.
  • Draft versions were tabled by the USA and USSR in August 1971.
  • The treaty was opened for signature on April 10, 1972, in London, Moscow, and Washington, D.C.
  • It entered into force on March 26, 1975, after the required ratifications.

Key Provisions of BWC:

  • Article I: Prohibits development, production, stockpiling, and use of biological weapons.
  • Article II: Requires destruction or conversion of biological agents, toxins, and weapons to peaceful purposes before joining.
  • Article III: Prohibits transfer or assistance in acquiring biological weapons.
  • Article VI: Allows states to file complaints with the UN Security Council about treaty violations.
  • Article X: Promotes the exchange of materials and information for peaceful purposes.

Structure and Membership of BWC:

  • Depositaries: United States, United Kingdom, and Russian Federation are the depositary governments.
  • Membership: As of February 2025, 188 states are parties to the treaty, with 4 states having signed but not ratified, and 9 states have neither signed nor ratified.
  • Review Conferences: Held every 5 years to assess the treaty’s implementation and strengthen confidence-building measures.

India and the BWC:

  • India is a party to the BWC.
  • India has implemented national measures and established legal frameworks to comply with the provisions of the BWC, preventing the development or use of biological weapons.
[UPSC 2017] With reference to the Biological Weapons Convention, consider the following statements:

1.It prohibits the development, production, stockpiling or use of biological and toxin weapons.

2. It has a verification mechanism to check compliance by member States.

3. It is an umbrella treaty under the aegis of the United Nations.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

15th Century Copper Plates from the Vijayanagara Empire discovered

Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Vijayanagara Empire

Why in the News?

A set of copper plates from the early 15th Century, dating back to the reign of Devaraya I of the Sangama Dynasty, were recently unveiled by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

About the Sangama Dynasty 

  • The Sangama Dynasty was the first ruling dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire, founded in the 14th century by brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I.
  • They were the sons of Bhavana Sangama, a chieftain from a pastoralist community with Yadava descent.
  • The Sangama Dynasty was established in 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, who founded the city of Vijayanagara on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River.
  • The early rulers focused on building the foundations of the empire, both administratively and culturally.

Notable Rulers

  • Harihara I: Known for founding the empire and laying its initial foundations.
  • Bukka Raya I: Expanded the empire’s territories significantly, ruling from 1343 to 1379 CE.
  • Harihara II: Conquered coastal Andhra and important Indian ports like Goa, continuing his predecessor’s expansion.
  • Deva Raya I: Ruled from 1404 to 1422 CE, further expanding the empire.
  • Deva Raya II (Krishnadeva Raya): Regarded as one of the greatest rulers of the dynasty, he expanded the empire and promoted art, literature, and diplomacy from 1422 to 1446 CE.

Downfall

  • Internal conflicts, particularly succession disputes, and external pressures from the Bahmani Sultanate and neighboring kingdoms weakened the dynasty.
  • The final blow came when Narasimha of the Saluva Dynasty usurped the throne in 1485 CE, marking the end of the Sangama Dynasty’s reign.

Key Features of the Copper Plates

  • These plates are unique, dating back to the coronation of King Devaraya I of the Vijayanagara Empire.
    • The king granted the village of Gudipalli, along with the hamlets Rajendramada and Udayapalli, during his coronation.
    • The village was renamed Devarayapura-agrahara and divided into 61 shares allocated to various Brahmins with expertise in Vedas and Shastras.
  • They are written in Sanskrit, Kannada and Nagari characters.
  • The seal features an image of Vamana, rather than the usual Varaha (boar), which is the royal insignia of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Historical Significance:

  • Dated to Saka 1328 (November 5, 1406 CE), the plates provide insights into the Sangama Dynasty.
  • It helps trace the lineage from Chandra, Yadu, and Sangama to the five sons of King Harihara: Harihara, Kampa, Bukka, Mãrapa, and Muddapa.
[UPSC 2023] Who among the following rulers of Vijayanagara Empire constructed a large dam across Tungabhadra River and a canal-cum-aqueduct several kilometres long from the river to the capital city?

(a) Devaraya I (b) Mallikarjuna (c) Vira Vijaya (d) Virupaksha

 

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

What is the Green Credit Programme?

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Green Credit Programme

Why in the News?

The Green Credit Programme (GCP), launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 2023, was questioned by the Ministry of Law and Justice regarding the legality of its business model.

About the Green Credit Programme (GCP)

  • The GCP launched by the MoEFCC in 2023, is a government initiative aimed at encouraging voluntary participation in environmental activities.
  • It was launched officially in December 2023 by PM Narendra Modi and Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan at the UN climate conference in Dubai.
  • Participants, including individuals, companies, and industries, can earn green credits for actions such as tree plantation, water conservation, waste management, and others.
  • These credits can be traded on a domestic platform, helping participants meet sustainability targets or fulfill legal obligations.
  • It is managed by the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), an autonomous organization under the MoEFCC.
  • The program supports the Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Sustainable Environment) and encourages a market-based approach to environmental action.

Criticisms of the Program:

  • Forest Diversion Concerns: The GCP has been criticized for promoting forest diversion for industrial activities. Critics argue that trading compensatory afforestation credits could weaken forest protection efforts and lead to the loss of old-growth forests.
  • Impact on Ecologically Valuable Lands: Concerns have been raised about plantations on degraded lands and scrublands, which provide essential ecological services. Critics argue these areas should not be used for plantations with uncertain long-term benefits.
  • Plantation Survival Issues: There are concerns about the survival rate of trees planted under the GCP, with some questioning if these plantations can truly replicate the environmental value of mature forests.
  • Compensatory Afforestation Conflicts: The GCP’s exchange of plantation credits for compensatory afforestation is seen as a challenge to the Van Adhiniyam, 1980, which mandates non-forest land for afforestation rather than degraded forest land.
[UPSC 2009] In the context of C02 emission and Global Warming, what is the name of a market driven device under the UNFCC that allows developing countries to get funds/incentives from the developed countries to adopt, better technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions?

(a) Carbon Footprint (b) Carbon Credit Rating (c) Clean Development Mechanism (d) Emission Reduction Norm

 

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RBI Notifications

RBI celebrates 90 years

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Evolution of RBI's Monetary Policy

Why in the News?

The first monetary policy of RBI Governor Sanjay Malhotra in 2025 marks 90 years since the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) announced its inaugural monetary policy in 1935.

RBI’s First Monetary Policy in 1935

  • On July 3, 1935, RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, reflecting the Imperial Bank’s rate.
  • The CRR was set at 5% of demand liabilities and 2% of time liabilities on July 5, 1935.

Evolution of RBI’s Monetary Policy

  • Bank Rate in Early RBI History:
    • The bank rate was a key tool introduced by the RBI in 1935 to control credit and liquidity. On July 3, 1935, the RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, mirroring the rate of its predecessor, the Imperial Bank of India.
    • The RBI Act (1934) mandated its use for buying or re-discounting commercial paper, and it played a crucial role in India’s interest rate structure.
  • Role of Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR):
    • The CRR, introduced by the RBI, required banks to maintain a percentage of their deposits as reserves.
    • Influenced by the Federal Reserve Act of the USA, the CRR helped stabilize the banking system, especially during failures.
    • The CRR was set at 5% for demand liabilities and 2% for time liabilities in 1935, with adjustments made over time.
  • Exchange Rate Management
    • In 1935, the RBI managed the exchange rate of the 1 Indian rupee at 1 shilling and 6 pence.
    • This caused friction between nationalists, who favoured a lower exchange rate to boost exports, and the British, who preferred a higher rate to facilitate cheaper imports.
  • Disputes Between Government and RBI
    • The RBI’s decision to reduce the bank rate in 1935 was opposed by the government, fearing rupee depreciation.
    • This led to a conflict, resulting in the resignation of Osborne Smith, the first RBI Governor.
    • The incident highlighted tensions between the RBI’s monetary autonomy and government priorities.

About Reserve Bank of India (RBI)

  • The RBI is the central bank and monetary authority of India established on April 1, 1935, under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.
  • Its idea was incepted from the recommendations of the Hilton Young Commission.
  • Sir Osborne Arkell Smith, an Australian, served as the inaugural Governor.
  • He was succeeded by Sir C D Deshmukh, the first Indian to hold the position.
  • It is a centralized institution for India to effectively regulate its monetary and credit policies.
  • RBI had its initial headquarters in Kolkata, later moving permanently to Mumbai in 1937.
  • Initially, the RBI operated as a privately owned entity until its full nationalization in 1949.

Functions and Initiatives:

  • Monetary Authority: The RBI controls the supply of money in the economy to stabilize exchange rates, maintain a healthy balance of payment, and control inflation.
  • Issuer of Currency: Sole authority to issue currency and combat circulation of counterfeit notes.
  • Banker to the Government: Acts as a banker to both the Central and State governments, providing short-term credit and financial advisory services.
  • Lender of Last Resort: Provides emergency liquidity assistance to banks during crises.
  • Custodian of Foreign Exchange Reserves: Manages foreign exchange reserves and administers the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA).
  • Regulator and Supervisor of Payment and Settlement Systems: Oversees payment and settlement systems in the country, ensuring efficiency and security.
  • Credit Control and Developmental Role: Promotes credit availability to productive sectors and fosters financial infrastructure development.

Dr. Ambedkar’s Role in the Establishment of RBI:

  • Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s contributions were particularly notable during the Hilton Young Commission discussions in 1926, where he presented his recommendations based on his book “The Problem of the Rupee – Its Origin and Its Solution.”
  • These discussions laid the foundation for establishing the RBI on April 1, 1935.

 

[UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements:

1. Reserve Bank of India was nationalized on 26 January 1950.

2. The borrowing programme of the Government of India is handled by the Department of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-China

China-India ties across the past and into the future

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: India-China relation;

Why in the News?

On April 1, China and India celebrated 75 years of diplomatic relations. Despite some challenges, their bond has kept growing, just like the Yangtze and Ganges rivers.

What are the key factors that have influenced China-India relations over the past 75 years?

  • Strategic Leadership & Diplomatic Initiatives: Leaders have played a pivotal role in shaping ties at critical junctures. Example: In 1950, Nehru and Mao established diplomatic relations, and in 1988, Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China helped normalize relations after the 1962 war.
  • Border Disputes & Security Concerns: The unresolved boundary issue has been a major friction point. Example: The 1962 India-China War and recent tensions in Ladakh (Galwan clash, 2020) highlight ongoing territorial disputes.
  • Economic Engagement & Trade Relations: Bilateral trade has expanded significantly, despite political tensions. Example: Trade increased from under $3 billion in 2000 to $138.5 billion in 2024, making China India’s largest trading partner.
  • Multilateral Cooperation & Global Governance: Both nations collaborate in international forums but also compete for regional influence. Example: India and China work together in BRICS, SCO, and G-20 but differ in strategies for regional dominance (e.g., Indo-Pacific and BRI).
  • Cultural & People-to-People Ties: Historical and civilizational ties continue to foster mutual understanding. Example: The influence of scholars like Rabindranath Tagore and the contribution of Dr. Kotnis in China during WWII symbolize enduring cultural bonds.

How have the leaders of China and India guided their bilateral relations during critical historical junctures?

  • Establishment of Diplomatic Ties (1950): Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Chairman Mao Zedong formalized relations, making India the first non-socialist country to recognize the People’s Republic of China.
  • Normalization Post-1962 War (1988): Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China marked a turning point, leading to agreements on peace and cooperation, setting the stage for improved ties.
  • Economic & Strategic Engagement (2003-2013): Under Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Hu Jintao, India recognized Tibet as part of China, and China acknowledged Sikkim as part of India, fostering trade and diplomatic ties.
  • Informal Summits for Stability (2018-2019): Prime Minister Narendra Modi and President Xi Jinping held informal summits in Wuhan (2018) and Mamallapuram (2019) to ease tensions and enhance strategic trust.
  • Crisis Management & Recent Diplomatic Talks (2023-2024): Amid border tensions, diplomatic channels, such as the Special Representatives’ talks and Foreign Minister-level dialogues helped maintain stability and explore solutions.

How can China and India promote a multipolar world and protect developing countries’ interests?

  • Strengthening Multilateral Organizations: Both nations actively contribute to BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), and the G-20 to ensure developing countries have a greater voice in global governance.
  • Advocating for Fair Trade and Economic Policies: They push for reforms in the World Trade Organization (WTO) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) to make global trade and financial systems more inclusive and equitable.
  • Enhancing South-South Cooperation: Initiatives like China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and India’s Development Partnership Administration (DPA) can support infrastructure, healthcare, and education in Africa, Latin America, and Asia.
  • Promoting an Inclusive Global Order: China and India have called for United Nations (UN) Security Council reforms to give more representation to emerging economies, ensuring a balanced global power structure.
  • Joint Climate and Sustainable Development InitiativesThey collaborate in forums like the International Solar Alliance (ISA) and advocate for climate justice, ensuring fair access to green technology and funding for developing nations.

What steps can China and India take to strengthen their bilateral economic and trade cooperation? (Way forward)

  • Enhancing Trade Facilitation and Reducing Barriers: Both nations can work towards reducing tariffs and non-tariff barriers to improve market access. Example: Streamlining customs procedures and regulatory harmonization can facilitate smoother trade in key sectors like pharmaceuticals, electronics, and textiles.
  • Boosting Investments and Joint Ventures: Encouraging mutual investments in infrastructure, manufacturing, and technology sectors to foster economic interdependence. Example: China’s investment in India’s mobile phone sector (e.g., Xiaomi and Oppo factories in India) can be expanded to other industries like renewable energy and automobile manufacturing.
  • Strengthening Supply Chain Resilience: Both countries can collaborate to create diversified supply chains and reduce overdependence on Western markets. Example: Joint production and R&D in semiconductor manufacturing to reduce dependency on third-party nations.
  • Promoting Digital and Financial Cooperation: Expanding digital economy collaboration, including fintech, e-commerce, and AI-driven solutions. Example: Enabling regulated entry of Indian fintech firms into China’s market and vice versa, similar to how Chinese tech firms like Alibaba and Tencent have invested in Indian startups.
  • Expanding Multilateral and Regional Cooperation: Strengthening collaboration in platforms like BRICS, SCO, and RCEP to enhance economic integration. Example: Coordinating policies on global trade issues like WTO reforms, climate finance, and digital trade governance to promote shared economic interests.

Mains question for practice:

Question: ‘Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad)’ is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times – Discuss. [UPSC 2020]

Linkage: Quad, a strategic dialogue involving India, the US, Japan, and Australia, which is widely seen as a counter to China’s growing influence in the Indo-Pacific. Understanding the Quad’s evolving nature is crucial for analyzing India’s strategic choices in relation to China.

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Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

India’s educational transformation — the true picture 

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Indian Education System;

Why in the News?

India’s education system was neglected for decades, with no major policy update since 1986. While the world evolved, India remained stuck in outdated methods, resisting technological and global advancements.

What were the key flaws in India’s education system before NEP 2020?

  • Outdated and Rigid Curriculum: The last major policy revision was in 1986 (with minor changes in 1992), making the education system disconnected from modern technological and economic advancements. Example: While global education systems embraced digital learning and skill-based curricula.
  • Lack of Access and Equity: The system failed to provide inclusive education, with marginalized communities, women, and rural students facing significant barriers. Example: Inadequate scholarships, lack of infrastructure in rural schools, and gender disparity led to lower enrollments among Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and women.
  • Political Interference and Corruption: Governance bodies like UGC and AICTE became instruments of political control rather than enablers of academic excellence. Example: The 2009 Deemed University scandal, where 44 private institutions were granted university status without proper evaluation, exposing financial irregularities.
  • Underfunded Public Education & Rise of Unregulated Private Institutions: Public universities were systematically starved of funds, leading to poor infrastructure and faculty shortages. Meanwhile, private institutions emerged as degree mills with little regulation. Example: Many engineering and medical colleges prioritized profit over education quality, leading to subpar graduates with minimal employable skills.
  • Eurocentric and Ideologically Driven Curriculum: The education system failed to incorporate India’s rich intellectual and cultural heritage, with history often being selectively framed to suit political narratives. Example: Contributions of revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad, and Veer Savarkar were downplayed.

How has the NEP 2020 contributed to improving access, equity, and quality in education in India?

  • Increased Access to Education for Marginalized Groups: NEP 2020 introduced policies to improve enrollment among SCs, STs, OBCs, and minorities. Example: Enrollment in higher education increased by 50% for SCs, 75% for STs, and 54% for OBCs since 2014-15. Women’s enrollment also grew by 38.8% in 2022-23.
  • Expansion of Early Childhood Education & Foundational Learning: NEP 2020 introduced the 5+3+3+4 system, focusing on foundational literacy and numeracy. Example: The NIPUN Bharat Mission aims to ensure that every child attains foundational literacy and numeracy by Grade 3.
  • Multilingual Education & Inclusion of Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS): Promotes regional languages in schools and integrates traditional knowledge into the curriculum. Example: The Bharatiya Bhasha Pustak Yojana aims to publish 15,000 textbooks in 22 Indian languages to make higher education accessible in local languages.
  • Improved Infrastructure & Teacher-Student Ratio: NEP 2020 mandates modern infrastructure, teacher training, and support systems to improve learning outcomes. Example: Per-child government expenditure increased by 130% (from ₹10,780 in 2013-14 to ₹25,043 in 2021-22), leading to improved pupil-teacher ratios and reduced dropout rates.
  • Quality Enhancement Through Skill-Based & Digital Learning: NEP 2020 emphasizes coding, AI, and multidisciplinary learning to prepare students for the future. Example: Over 10,000 Atal Tinkering Labs (ATLs) have been set up to promote STEM education, and plans are underway to establish 50,000 more with broadband access.

Why is the empowerment of women a key focus of the education reforms under NEP 2020?

  • Bridging Gender Gaps in Education: NEP 2020 emphasizes increasing female enrollment across all levels of education. Example: Female enrollment in higher education grew by 38.8%, crossing 2.18 crore in 2022-23. Among Muslim minority students, female enrollment rose by 57.5%.
  • Encouraging Women in STEMM Fields: The policy promotes gender inclusion in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medicine (STEMM). Example: Women now make up 43% of students in STEMM fields, breaking traditional gender barriers in male-dominated domains.
  • Improving Female Representation in Academia: NEP 2020 ensures equal opportunities in teaching and research positions. Example: The proportion of female teachers increased from 38.6% in 2014 to 44.23%, transforming academic leadership landscapes.
  • Financial and Social Support for Girls’ Education: NEP 2020 promotes scholarships, financial aid, and safety measures to encourage girls’ education. Example: The introduction of Gender Inclusion Fund supports school infrastructure, sanitary facilities, and incentives for female students.
  • Skill Development & Economic Independence: NEP 2020 integrates vocational training, entrepreneurship, and digital literacy to empower women economically. Example: The policy supports multidisciplinary learning and skilling programs that prepare women for careers in emerging fields like AI and data science.

Which NEP 2020 initiatives promote innovation and research in education?

  • Establishment of the National Research Foundation (NRF): The NRF aims to fund, mentor, and support research across disciplines by integrating industry and academia. Example: India’s research publications have increased by 88% since 2015, and India’s ranking in the Global Innovation Index improved from 76 (2014) to 39 (2023).
  • Introduction of Atal Tinkering Labs (ATLs) for Grassroots Innovation: Over 10,000 ATLs have been set up in schools to nurture a culture of experimentation, problem-solving, and innovation among students. Example: The government plans to expand ATLs to 50,000 schools with broadband connectivity in the next five years.
  • Multidisciplinary and Flexible Learning Approach: NEP 2020 promotes multidisciplinary research by breaking rigid subject barriers and introducing coding, artificial intelligence (AI), and data science at the school level. Example: Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) are being integrated into over 8,000 higher education institutions, encouraging innovation rooted in traditional knowledge.

Way forward: 

  • Enhanced Public-Private Collaboration in Research & Innovation: Strengthen industry-academia partnerships to bridge the skill gap, improve employability, and boost indigenous research in emerging technologies like AI, quantum computing, and biotechnology.
  • Robust Monitoring & Implementation Framework: Establish independent regulatory bodies to track progress, ensure equitable access, and prevent commercialization of education, ensuring that NEP 2020 achieves its intended objectives effectively.

Mains PYQ:

Question: National Education Policy 2020 is in conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement. [UPSC 2020]

Linkage: Critical examination of the policy’s intent to restructure and reorient the education system.

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