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These Newscards correspond to the explained section of various newspapers. They become immensely important for both prelims and mains and special attention needs to be paid to them

Bills/Act/LawsDOMREthicsExplainedHistorical SitesIOCRop-ed snapPIBPlaces in newsPrelims OnlySC JudgementsSchemesSpeciesStatesworld map

Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

A climate-health vision with lessons from India

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

At the Global Conference on Climate and Health (July 2025, Brazil), 90 countries shaped the Belém Health Action Plan, which will guide the climate-health agenda at COP30 (Nov 2025). Ironically, India, despite having some of the most instructive welfare experiences linking climate and health, was not officially represented, a missed opportunity to emerge as a global exemplar.

India’s non-health interventions like the Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM POSHAN), Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA), and Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) offer rich lessons for operationalising an integrated climate-health framework. They reveal that intentional, intersectoral action can yield multiple dividends: improved nutrition, reduced pollution, restored ecosystems, and healthier communities.

Why is this news significant?

India’s absence at Belém stands out because for the first time a global platform is drafting a climate-health action plan. While India has often been viewed through the prism of its energy transition challenges, this moment presented a chance to highlight its homegrown welfare successes with global resonance. The paradox is striking: even without designing policies as “climate policies,” India has reaped climate-health co-benefits, unlike many countries still struggling to integrate the two. Yet, persistent failures like high LPG refill costs in PMUY and siloed governance highlight the scale of unfinished work.

What is the Belém Health Action Plan (BHAP)?

  • The BHAP is a strategic framework being finalized ahead of COP30 (Nov 2025, Belém, Brazil) intended to integrate health into climate change adaptation.
  • It emphasizes health equity, climate justice, and social participation alongside strengthening health systems to be resilient in face of climate change.

Key Features / Action Lines

Some of its priority action lines include:

  • Surveillance & Monitoring:
    • Linking climate/environmental data with health surveillance, early warning systems (for heatwaves, epidemics, etc.).
    • Real-time data, local / community-level monitoring.
  • Evidence-Based Policy Strategy & Capacity Building:
    • Training health workforce, integrating mental health & psychosocial support measures.
    • Gender-responsive, inclusive policies, recognizing most vulnerable groups (women, Indigenous people, persons with disabilities).
  • Innovation & Production:
    • Resilient infrastructure and services (e.g. climate-adapted health facilities), sustainable supply chains.
    • Focus on blended financing and mobilizing investments to make health systems adaptive and equitable.
  • Cross-cutting priorities:
    • Health equity & climate justice: ensuring that adaptation efforts do not further marginalize vulnerable groups.
    • Leadership & governance: accountability, social participation from civil society, clear institutional roles.

What lessons do India’s welfare programmes offer for climate-health synergy?

  1. PM POSHAN: Covers 11 crore children in 11 lakh schools, linking nutrition, agriculture, and education. Promotion of millets strengthens climate-resilient food systems.
  2. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Improved sanitation, public health, and environmental sustainability, while embedding dignity and cultural symbolism via Gandhi’s vision.
  3. MNREGA: Enhanced livelihood security while simultaneously restoring degraded ecosystems through water conservation and afforestation.
  4. PM Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): Transition to clean cooking fuel cut household air pollution — a leading cause of respiratory illness — while reducing carbon emissions.

How has leadership and community engagement shaped outcomes?

  1. Political leadership: Direct involvement of the Prime Minister gave Swachh Bharat and PMUY inter-ministerial traction and public legitimacy.
  2. Community engagement: PM POSHAN leveraged parent-teacher committees, Swachh Bharat invoked cultural pride in cleanliness, ensuring local ownership.
  3. Cultural anchoring: Climate action framed as health protection resonates more deeply than carbon metrics.

What structural challenges persist in implementation?

  1. Administrative silos: Divergent sectoral mandates limit integrated outcomes.
  2. High refill costs in PMUY: Oil marketing interests often outweigh beneficiary affordability.
  3. Social barriers: Gender norms and cultural practices limit uptake of clean fuel and sanitation.
  4. Output vs. outcome gap: Programmes measure immediate coverage but not long-term health-climate impact.

What framework does India’s experience suggest for climate-health governance?

  1. Strategic prioritisation: Frame climate action as immediate health security, not distant environmental risk.
  2. Procedural integration: Embed health impact assessments into energy, transport, and urban policies.
  3. Participatory implementation: Leverage ASHA workers, SHGs, Panchayats as health-climate advocates.

Why is this vision critical for the future?

  1. High stakes: Delinking climate and health crises leads to fragmented solutions with escalating costs.
  2. Transformative potential: An intersectoral, whole-of-society approach could position India as a global leader in climate-health governance.
  3. Clear choice: Continue piecemeal efforts or pioneer a bold model aligning welfare with planetary health.

Conclusion

India’s welfare architecture has shown that policies designed for social welfare can unintentionally become climate-health interventions. The challenge now is to make this synergy intentional and institutionalised, with robust political framing, procedural integration, and community mobilisation. At a time when the world is drafting a global climate-health action plan, India’s absence from the table is a wake-up call: to convert scattered lessons into a coherent model of governance that others can emulate.

Value Addition

Key Concepts

  1. Climate-Health Nexus: Environmental policies often have unintended health impacts; health policies also influence climate outcomes.
  2. Co-Benefits Approach: One intervention (e.g., PMUY for clean cooking fuel) yields multiple dividends (better health, women’s empowerment, reduced emissions).
  3. Whole-of-Society Approach: Intersectoral coordination between ministries, communities, and local bodies ensures impact.
  4. Output vs Outcome Gap: Many Indian schemes achieve outputs (LPG connections, toilets built) but outcomes (sustained use, cleaner air, health equity) remain weak.

Important Data / Reports

  1. WHO Report (2021): Air pollution causes 7 million premature deaths annually worldwide.
  2. Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change (2022): South Asia faces one of the highest global burdens of climate-related health risks.
  3. India’s National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2021): Despite welfare schemes, 35.5% of children under 5 are stunted and 32.1% are underweight, showing links between nutrition, climate resilience, and health.
  4. UNDP (2023): Every $1 invested in resilience and adaptation yields $4 in avoided losses.
  5. Global Conference on Climate & Health (Belém Plan, 2025): First global blueprint on climate-health integration.

PYQ Linkage:

[UPSC 2017] ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?

Linkage: India’s welfare schemes like PM POSHAN, PMUY, Swachh Bharat and MNREGA demonstrate that non-health interventions can mitigate climate impacts while improving public health. The Himalayan and coastal states, most vulnerable to warming, floods, and sea-level rise, can benefit from such intersectoral, resilience-building models. Thus, India’s climate-health vision provides practical pathways to address both regional vulnerabilities and national climate commitments.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Nepal

Turmoil, tragedy, and tenacity in Nepal

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Introduction

In early September 2025, Nepal was rocked by its most intense youth uprising since the end of monarchy in 2008. Peaceful demonstrations against corruption and inequality, largely organised online, escalated into violent clashes, leaving 73 dead and vital government institutions in flames. The resignation of Oli and the appointment of Sushila Karki as interim Prime Minister has opened a critical transition. The protests underscore the growing role of Gen Z digital activism in reshaping political landscapes.

Timeline of the protests

  1. 4 Sept 2025: Government orders registration/ban of 26 social media platforms (trigger).
  2. Early Sept (pre-8): Weeks of online organising; #NepoBabies and related trends circulate.
  3. 8 Sept 2025 (Day 1): Large peaceful gatherings at Maitighar Mandala; clashes erupt; official reports of first deaths (≈19 reported that night).
  4. 9 Sept 2025 (Day 2): Violence spreads; Parliament, Supreme Court, Singha Durbar attacked and some set on fire; casualty and injury figures climb.
  5. 10–12 Sept 2025: Army deployed to secure cities; Home Minister and Oli resign; negotiations with youth representatives begin.
  6. 12–14 Sept 2025: Sushila Karki sworn in as interim prime minister; Parliament dissolved; elections scheduled for March (caretaker mandate announced).

How did legal restraints on digital space ignite a national revolt?

  1. Trigger — Social Media Ban: On 4 September 2025, the government ordered the blocking/registration of 26 social media platforms, including X, Facebook, and Instagram.
  2. Impact: This cut off Gen-Z’s primary space for organisation, expression, and economic activity, seen as a direct assault on civic freedom.
  3. Outcome: Scattered anger was transformed into coordinated protests.
  4. Example: Youth groups used Discord and TikTok to plan assemblies at Maitighar Mandala and coordinate marches towards Parliament.

What were the structural grievances behind the uprising?

  1. Corruption & Elitism: Perceptions of elite capture, misuse of resources, and impunity fuelled resentment.
  2. Symbol of Rage: The #NepoKids / #NepoBabies campaign exposed politicians’ children flaunting luxury while ordinary youth faced precarity.
  3. Example: Viral clips contrasting lavish lifestyles with student unemployment intensified outrage.
  4. Data: Transparency International (2025): Nepal ranked 107/180 on the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI score: 34).

Why did peaceful protests become deadly and destructive?

  1. Escalation: Initially peaceful gatherings on 8 September were dispersed using tear gas and reportedly live ammunition.
  2. Violence: Retaliatory riots followed; demonstrators targeted symbols of state power.
  3. Example: On 9 September, Parliament, Supreme Court, and Singha Durbar were set ablaze; crucial judicial records were damaged.
  4. Data: 72–73 deaths reported, with hundreds injured, mostly between ages 19–24.

What immediate political fallout followed the unrest?

  1. Leadership Change: Home Minister resigned on 8 Sept; PM K.P. Sharma Oli stepped down on 9 Sept.
  2. Caretaker Transition: The Army mediated negotiations; Parliament was dissolved.
  3. Interim PM: Sushila Karki, former Chief Justice, sworn in on 12 Sept 2025, mandated to hold elections within six months.
    • Karki visited hospitals, assured investigations, and pledged accountability and timely polls.

How did digital tools shape both mobilisation and misinformation?

  1. Mobilisation: Platforms like Discord, TikTok, and hashtags enabled rapid outreach, meme-culture, and youth identity in protests.
  2. Creativity: Anime/manga flags and viral videos energised Gen-Z demonstrations.
  3. Misinformation: False reports and AI-generated images (e.g., Pashupati Temple “burning”) created panic and confusion.
  4. Example: Fake claims about a senior politician’s family being killed circulated widely before being disproved.

What are the main challenges facing Nepal’s interim rulers?

  1. Legitimacy Concerns: Traditional political parties, deposed MPs, and royalist factions question the constitutional mandate of the interim set-up.
  2. Balancing Act: The government must address youth expectations of anti-corruption and inclusivity while ensuring political buy-in from entrenched elites.
  3. Stability: Conducting free and fair elections by March 2026 without undermining the democratic spirit of Gen-Z protests remains the foremost task.
  4. Example: Political parties and royalists have already raised doubts over Karki’s legitimacy despite broad youth support.

Implications for Nepal (domestic)

  • Political Legitimacy and Party Renewal
    • The protests revealed a deep erosion of trust in established parties.
    • Unless political parties reform and integrate youth aspirations into institutional politics, cycles of protest could continue.
    • Revamping youth wings and embracing inclusivity may be crucial for long-term stability.
    • (Echoes analysts’ calls for parties to redefine themselves in light of 1990 and 2006 lessons.)
  • Rule of Law and Accountability
    • Strong demands exist for independent investigations into the use of excessive force and arson during protests.
    • The credibility of Nepal’s democracy depends on whether security forces and political elites are held accountable.
    • Sushila Karki’s pledge to investigate abuses and compensate victims sets both a legal and moral benchmark.
  • Economic and Social Policy Pressure
    • With youth unemployment at 20%, migration pressures, and widening inequality, socio-economic grievances remain central.
    • The interim government faces urgent pressure to deliver short-term relief (jobs, anti-corruption crackdowns) while laying the groundwork for structural reforms in education, employment, and inclusivity.
    • Failure to deliver may reignite unrest and deepen distrust in democratic institutions.

Implications for South Asia (regional)

  • Contagion Risk and Inspiration:
    • The Nepali uprising reflects a wider Gen-Z dissent pattern in Asia.
    • Similar youth-led movements in Sri Lanka (2022), Bangladesh, Indonesia, Philippines have challenged entrenched elites.
    • Nepal’s protests may inspire emulation across borders, intensifying regional instability.
  • Cross-Border Diplomacy & Stability:
    • Political turbulence in Kathmandu could strain bilateral relations with neighbours.
    • Instability may disrupt migration flows, remittances, and border trade.
    • Governments in South Asia may reassess youth policy, unemployment measures, and digital freedoms to preempt unrest.
  • Policy Lessons on Digital Platforms:
    • Nepal’s ban highlights the risks of hard regulation of social media.
    • Neighbouring states will closely observe whether bans quell dissent or provoke backlash.
    • The episode may shape future regional digital governance frameworks balancing free expression with misinformation control.

Conclusion

Nepal’s Gen Z uprising is both tragic and transformative. It highlights the power of digital natives to hold governments accountable, but also the dangers of violence and misinformation. The coming months will test whether Nepal can channel this energy into transparent, inclusive governance or relapse into instability.

PYQ Linkage:

[UPSC 2012] Discuss the contentious issues that have caused the prolonged

constitutional logjam in Nepal.

Linkage: The 2025 Gen Z protests in Nepal show that unresolved constitutional questions of inclusiveness, accountability, and representation remain central even after the 2015 Constitution. The uprising exposed youth anger at elite capture and exclusion of caste, ethnic, and gender groups — echoing the very fault lines that prolonged Nepal’s constitutional logjam post-2008 monarchy abolition. Thus, the recent turmoil is a continuation of the older struggle for a truly inclusive and accountable Nepali state.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

How the DeepSeek-R1 AI model was taught to teach itself to reason

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

Reasoning, the ability to reflect, verify, self-correct, and adapt, has historically been considered uniquely human. From mathematics to moral decision-making, reasoning shapes every facet of human civilisation. Large language models (LLMs) like GPT-4 have shown glimpses of reasoning, but these were achieved with human-provided examples, introducing cost, bias, and limits. In September 2024, researchers at DeepSeek unveiled their model R1, which demonstrated reasoning through reinforcement learning (trial and error with rewards), without supervised fine-tuning. This represents a paradigm shift in how machines may learn, reason, and potentially evolve intelligence.

Why is DeepSeek-R1 in the News?

For the first time, an AI model has taught itself to reason without human-crafted examples. The results were dramatic: DeepSeek-R1 improved from 15.6% to 86.7% accuracy in solving American Invitational Mathematics Examination (AIME) problems, even surpassing the average performance of top human students. It also demonstrated reflection (“wait… let’s try again”) and verification—human-like traits of reasoning. The scale and quality of progress mark this as a milestone in AI research, contrasting sharply with traditional methods that heavily relied on human-labelled data.

What is Reinforcement Learning in AI?

  1. Definition: Reinforcement learning (RL) is a trial-and-error method where a system receives rewards for correct answers and penalties for wrong ones.
  2. DeepSeek’s Application: Instead of providing reasoning steps, the model was only rewarded for correct final answers.
  3. Outcome: Over time, R1 developed reflective chains of reasoning, dynamically adjusting “thinking time” based on task complexity.

How Did DeepSeek-R1 Achieve Self-Reasoning?

  1. R1-Zero Phase: Started with solving maths/coding problems, producing reasoning inside <think> tags and answers in <answer> tags.
  2. Trial-and-Error Learning: Wrong reasoning paths were discouraged, correct ones reinforced.
  3. Emergence of Reflection: Model started using “wait” or “let’s try again,” indicating self-correction.

What Were the Major Successes?

  1. Mathematical Benchmarks: R1-Zero improved from 15.6% to 77.9%, and with fine-tuning, to 86.7% on AIME.
  2. General Knowledge & Instruction Following: 25% improvement on AlpacaEval 2.0 and 17% on Arena-Hard.
  3. Efficiency: Adaptive thinking chains—shorter for easy tasks, longer for difficult ones—conserving computational resources.
  4. Alignment: Improved readability, language consistency, and safety.

What Are the Limitations and Risks

  1. High Energy Costs: Reinforcement learning is computationally expensive.
  2. Human Role Not Fully Eliminated: Open-ended tasks (e.g., writing) still require human-labelled data for reward models.
  3. Ethical Concerns: Ability to “reflect” raises risks of generating manipulative or unsafe content.
  4. Need for Stronger Safeguards: As AI reasoning grows, so does the risk of misuse.

Why Does this Matter for the Future of AI?

  1. Reduces Dependence on Human Labour: Cuts costs and addresses exploitative conditions in data annotation.
  2. Potential for Creativity: If reasoning can emerge from incentives, could creativity and understanding follow?
  3. Shift in AI Training Paradigm: From “learning by example” to “learning by exploration.”
  4. Global Implications: Impacts education, coding, mathematics, governance, and ethics of AI.

Conclusion

DeepSeek-R1 marks a turning point in AI evolution. By demonstrating reasoning through reinforcement learning alone, it challenges the notion that human-labelled data is indispensable. Yet, this very capability opens new debates—about creativity, autonomy, and control. For policymakers and citizens alike, the task is to harness AI’s promise while ensuring safety, fairness, and ethical integrity.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2023] Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does Al help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of Al in healthcare?

Linkage: The breakthrough of DeepSeek-R1 shows how AI can now reason through reinforcement learning without human-labelled data, making it more efficient and adaptive. Such reasoning ability can enhance clinical diagnosis by enabling AI to self-correct and refine decision-making in complex medical cases. However, as with healthcare AI generally, the privacy threat persists if sensitive patient data is fed into models without strong safeguards.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-China

Should India overlook boundary issues while normalizing ties with China?

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Introduction

The India-China relationship has historically oscillated between cautious cooperation and sharp confrontation. The latest Modi–Xi meeting on the sidelines of the SCO Summit reopened bilateral trade, air connectivity, and emphasised peace at the border. Yet, the memory of the 2020 Galwan clashes looms large. At stake is the central question: Can India afford to set aside the boundary dispute for the sake of wider cooperation, or would that compromise its strategic autonomy and long-term security?

Why is this debate in the news?

Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s China visit marks the first high-level attempt in five years to restore normalcy after Galwan. The move is significant as it reflects India’s willingness to restart engagement despite recent military tensions and China’s continued strategic partnership with Pakistan. The revival of trade and connectivity signals pragmatism, but it raises the question of whether unresolved boundary tensions can remain compartmentalised. This sharp contrast with the hostility of recent years makes the issue both urgent and unprecedented.

Can India normalise ties without resolving the boundary issue?

  1. Historical Precedent (1988, 1990s): Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to Beijing in 1988 initiated the idea of cooperation in other domains while border talks continued separately. Both sides agreed to maintain peace and tranquility along the LAC despite unresolved sovereignty disputes.
  2. Galwan Disruption (2020): The deadly clash exposed the fragility of this arrangement and highlighted China’s aggressive posture, a setback far greater than earlier skirmishes.
  3. Current Diplomatic Push: Since 2020, both countries have restored disengagement through buffer zones, with the 2024 Border Patrol Agreement marking an important breakthrough, including restoration of patrol rights in Demchok and Depsang.

What explains China’s actions and insecurities?

  1. Article 370 Effect: Chinese analysts linked Galwan to India’s constitutional move in Jammu & Kashmir, which Beijing opposed.
  2. Economic Competition: During the U.S.-China trade war, Beijing feared India aligning with Washington to grab supply-chain opportunities.
  3. India’s Growth Factor: China increasingly perceives India’s demographic dividend and economic rise as a potential threat, at a time when its own population is shrinking.
  4. Manufacturing Prowess: Despite insecurities, China’s dominance is overwhelming—accounting for 45% of global manufacturing output, highlighted by India’s Economic Survey 2024-25.

How fragile is the current normalisation?

  1. Possibility of Galwan-2: Any fresh military clash could derail progress entirely, as mistrust remains deep-rooted.
  2. Chinese Perception of India: Beijing no longer treats India as a peer but as a regional player to be managed, often subordinated to its ties with Pakistan.
  3. Infrastructure Build-up: China continues rapid military expansion on the Tibetan plateau, forcing India to invest heavily in its own LAC infrastructure.
  4. Diplomatic Asymmetry: Even as dialogue continues, China shows little real interest in a final border settlement.

Can India-China cooperation coexist with China’s South Asia strategy?

  1. China’s Trilateral Mechanisms: Beijing is building frameworks like Pakistan-China-Afghanistan and Pakistan-China-Bangladesh, which aim to sideline India.
  2. Strategic Rivalry: China views India as a long-term competitor; India counters with its own diplomatic cards.
  3. Interdependence Factor: Despite rivalry, both economies remain connected—India dependent on China’s manufacturing, and China wary of India’s market potential.

Conclusion

India cannot afford to overlook the boundary issue entirely, as sovereignty and security form the bedrock of foreign policy. Yet, pragmatic engagement, through trade, connectivity, and multilateral platforms, remains equally important. A calibrated approach that safeguards territorial integrity while leveraging cooperation where possible may be the most realistic path forward.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2014] With respect to the South China Sea, maritime territorial disputes and rising tension affirm the need for safeguarding maritime security to ensure freedom of navigation and ever flight throughout the region. In this context, discuss the bilateral issues between India and China.

Linkage: The South China Sea tensions highlight China’s assertive behaviour in territorial disputes, which parallels its aggressive stance on the India-China boundary issue, especially after Galwan. Just as freedom of navigation is contested in the maritime domain, peace and tranquility along the LAC is fragile despite agreements like the 2024 Border Patrol pact. Thus, bilateral issues centre on sovereignty, security dilemmas, and China’s attempts to limit India’s strategic space in both continental and regional contexts.

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

The Hard Truth About Out-of-Pocket Health Expenditure

Explained | Social Justice | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Introduction

In India, healthcare financing is still heavily dependent on households directly paying for medical services. This out-of-pocket expenditure (OOPE) often pushes families into a vicious cycle of poverty and ill-health. The National Health Accounts (NHA) claims that OOPE as a share of total health expenditure has sharply declined, from 64% in 2013-14 to 39% in 2021-22. On the surface, this appears to be a major policy success. However, a closer look suggests that these numbers may be misleading, as they rely heavily on a single survey base (NSS 75th round, 2017-18) and ignore the lived realities of health shocks, especially during COVID-19.

Is OOPE in India Really Declining?

  1. NHA estimates: Show a steep decline in OOPE—from 64% in 2013-14 to 49% in 2017-18, and further to 39% in 2021-22.
  2. Basis of estimation: The 2017-18 NSS (75th round) forms the primary source, with later estimates extrapolated only for inflation.
  3. Question of accuracy: The decline may be linked to lower ailment reporting and reduced hospitalisation, not to falling medical costs.

How Do Other Data Sources Contradict NHA?

  1. Consumer Expenditure Survey (CES) 2022-23: OOPE as share of household consumption rose—from 5.5% to 5.9% in rural areas and 6.9% to 7.1% in urban areas (2011-12 to 2022-23).
  2. Longitudinal Ageing Study in India (LASI): Shows higher hospitalisation rates among the elderly, contrary to NSS-based decline.
  3. CPHS-CMIE Data: Reveals a V-shaped trend—steep fall in OOPE during COVID-19 due to under-utilisation, followed by a sharp rise. The NHA completely misses this fluctuation.
  4. National Income Accounts (NIA): Estimates show a steady rise in household health spending as a share of GDP, contradicting the NHA’s declining trend.

Why Are NHA Estimates Considered Flawed?

  1. Single-source dependency: NHA depends mainly on the NSS morbidity survey, which underreports ailments.
  2. Exclusion of COVID-19 impact: No NSS data during the pandemic, leading to an unrealistic secular decline in NHA series.
  3. Ignoring insurance and premiums: Even after including premiums, NHA still shows a steep, unexplained fall in OOPE.
  4. Political convenience: Numbers risk being used for policy propaganda without reflecting ground-level hardship.

What Are the Real Consequences of High OOPE?

  1. Poverty trap: Families borrow, sell assets, or cut consumption, leading to intergenerational poverty.
  2. Social impacts: Children drop out of school, women work longer hours, households skip meals.
  3. Rising health costs: Medicine prices and private care charges continue to rise, eroding household savings.
  4. COVID-19 experience: Families suffered catastrophic costs, which remain invisible in official accounts.

What Is the Way Forward?

  1. Diversified data sources: Use CES, LASI, CMIE, NFHS, and private medical sales databases alongside NSS.
  2. Regular, timely surveys: Health rounds of NSS must be more frequent to capture shocks like pandemics.
  3. Integration with NIA: Align NHA estimates with National Income Accounts for consistency.
  4. Transparent policymaking: Avoid over-reliance on selective data that paints a rosy picture.

Conclusion

The debate over out-of-pocket health expenditure in India highlights the gulf between official statistics and lived realities. While the National Health Accounts show a sharp decline in OOPE, independent surveys and household-level data point towards rising medical costs and deepening financial distress. Over-reliance on a single survey base not only distorts the picture but also risks misleading health policy. For a country aspiring to achieve Universal Health Coverage, credible, diversified, and transparent data must form the backbone of decision-making. Without this, India risks celebrating statistical success while millions continue to be pushed into poverty and ill-health by catastrophic healthcare expenses.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Besides being a moral imperative of a Welfare State, primary health structure is a necessary precondition for sustainable development. Analyse.

Linkage: The persistence of high out-of-pocket health expenditure (OOPE) despite claims of decline shows the weakness of India’s primary health structure, as families still bear catastrophic costs. A robust primary health system would reduce dependence on expensive hospitalisation and prevent poverty traps. Thus, strengthening primary health care is not just a welfare obligation, but essential for achieving sustainable and inclusive development.

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Iran’s Nuclear Program & Western Sanctions

Let Griger counters, not guesses, shape Iran Actions

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

Introduction

The nuclear question has once again moved to the forefront of global geopolitics. Following the U.S. strikes on Iran’s underground nuclear site at Fordow in June 2025, the E3 (Britain, France, Germany) invoked the “snapback” clause of the 2015 nuclear deal, citing Iranian violations. If diplomacy falters, UN sanctions on enrichment, arms transfers, finance, and shipping will return, escalating global risks. The crisis is magnified by the absence of verified facts after the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) staff withdrew from Iran. In this environment of speculation and heightened risks, verification, not guesswork, must anchor diplomacy.

Why is this news significant?

The crisis is not just another Middle Eastern standoff; it is unprecedented in multiple ways. For the first time since 2015, the snapback clause has been triggered, threatening the revival of stringent UN sanctions. The crisis has exposed the vacuum of verified facts, as IAEA inspectors have been expelled, leaving the world to act on rumors. The stakes are global from oil markets and shipping insurance to regional stability and nuclear proliferation. For India, the challenge is sharper: ensuring uninterrupted oil flows through the Strait of Hormuz, stability in its extended neighborhood, and the safety of 8 million Indian citizens in West Asia.

Why does the absence of IAEA verification matter?

  1. Verification as the hinge of diplomacy: IAEA access substitutes speculation with facts and provides baselines for negotiations.
  2. Market stability: Comparable IAEA presence in Ukraine’s Zaporizhzhia plant calmed global markets; similar oversight in Iran could reduce volatility.
  3. Iran’s sovereignty concerns: Iran argues that inspectors compromise sovereignty and risk enabling strikes — past Israeli and U.S. strikes followed IAEA disclosures.
  4. Parliamentary resistance: Such episodes have hardened Iranian domestic opposition to IAEA cooperation.

What are the risks if Iran withdraws from the NPT?

  1. Legal vacuum: Withdrawal strips the IAEA of legal authority to inspect Iranian sites.
  2. Escalation to uncharted territory: Harder sanctions, further isolation, and the military option returning to the table.
  3. Global instability: From oil prices to nuclear proliferation, the fallout would be worldwide.

How is India placed in this unfolding crisis?

  1. Bridge-builder role: As a long-standing IAEA Board member with ties across divides, India is well-positioned to facilitate consensus.
  2. SCO and BRICS engagement: India joined others in condemning U.S.-Israel strikes, supporting a multilateral call for technical IAEA access.
  3. Technical contribution: India’s IAEA-certified Tarapur facility could analyze samples under safeguards, providing credible support.
  4. Energy and diaspora stakes: Protecting oil supplies and ensuring the safety of Indians abroad makes stability in West Asia non-negotiable for New Delhi.

What are the choices before the global community?

  1. Diplomatic opening: Iran’s recent agreement with the IAEA in Cairo (Sept 9, 2025) and allowing inspectors at Bushehr offer small openings.
  2. Snapback pause: If Iran extends verification to bombed sites, E3 may pause the snapback, shifting momentum back to diplomacy.
  3. Alternative — escalation: Failure of diplomacy risks sanctions, military standoffs, and cycles of strike and counterstrike.

Conclusion

The Iran nuclear standoff represents a defining moment for global non-proliferation and regional stability. What the world requires today is not speculation, but credible verification, structured dialogue, and sustained diplomacy. For India, the stakes go beyond principles of international order to immediate concerns of energy security, diaspora protection, and regional peace. By using its credibility in multilateral forums and offering technical expertise, India can position itself as a constructive stakeholder. Ultimately, the crisis will test whether global powers can rise above unilateralism and competing interests to uphold collective security and prevent a slide into escalation.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact Controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?

Linkage: The ongoing U.S.-Iran nuclear pact controversy directly impacts India’s energy security, diaspora safety in West Asia, and regional stability. Escalation could disrupt oil supplies through the Strait of Hormuz and complicate India’s strategic balance between the U.S., Iran, and Gulf states. India must respond with measured diplomacy, supporting verification through the IAEA while safeguarding its vital national interests.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

Unseen labour, exploitation: the hidden human cost of Artificial Intelligence

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

The promise of AI as an automated, error-free technology often masks the unseen human labour that makes it possible. From labelling raw data to moderating harmful content, “ghost workers” form the backbone of AI ecosystems. Yet, their contributions remain invisible, underpaid, and unprotected. The debate on AI is incomplete without recognising the human cost of automation, a matter of global ethics, labour rights, and governance.

The Hidden Human Cost of AI

Why is AI’s invisible labour in the news?

AI companies, especially in Silicon Valley, outsource essential annotation and moderation work to low-paid workers in developing countries. Recent revelations of exploitative conditions, such as Kenyan workers earning less than $2 an hour for traumatic tasks like filtering violent content, have exposed the dark underbelly of AI. This has amplified global concerns about modern-day slavery, violation of labour rights, and the absence of legal safeguards in AI supply chains.

Areas of Human Involvement in AI

  1. Data Annotation: Machines cannot interpret meaning; humans label text, audio, video, and images to train AI models.
  2. Training LLMs: Models like ChatGPT and Gemini depend on supervised learning and reinforcement learning, requiring annotators to correct errors, jailbreaks, and refine responses.
  3. Subject Expertise Gap: Workers without domain knowledge label complex data, e.g., Kenyan annotators labelling medical scans, leading to inaccurate AI outputs.

Are Automated Features Truly Automated?

  1. Content Moderation: Social media “filters” rely on humans reviewing sensitive content (pornography, beheadings, bestiality). This causes severe mental health risks like PTSD, anxiety, and depression.
  2. AI-Generated Media: Voice actors, children, and performers record human sounds and actions for training datasets.
  3. Case Study (2024): Kenyan workers wrote to U.S. President Biden describing their labour as “modern-day slavery.”

What Challenges Do Workers Face?

  1. Poor Wages: Less than $2/hour compared to global standards.
  2. Harsh Conditions: Tight deadlines of a few seconds/minutes per task; strict surveillance; risk of instant termination.
  3. Union Busting: Workers raising concerns are dismissed, with collective bargaining actively suppressed.
  4. Fragmented Supply Chains: Work outsourced via intermediary digital platforms; lack of transparency about the actual employer.

Why Is This a Global Governance Issue:

  1. Exploitation in Developing Countries: Kenya, India, Pakistan, Philippines, and China host the bulk of annotators, highlighting global North-South labour inequities.
  2. Digital Labour Standards: Current international labour frameworks inadequately cover digital gig work.
  3. Ethical Responsibility: Big Tech profits from AI breakthroughs while invisibilising the labour behind them.
  4. Need for Regulation: Stricter global and national laws must ensure fair pay, transparency, and dignity at work.

Way Forward

  1. Transparency Mandates: Disclosure of supply chains by tech companies.
  2. Fair Labour Standards: Minimum wages, occupational safety norms, and psychological health safeguards.
  3. Recognition of Workers: From “ghost workers” to “digital labour force.”
  4. Global Collaboration: Similar to climate treaties, AI labour governance requires multilateral regulation.

Conclusion

Artificial Intelligence is not fully autonomous—it rests on millions of invisible workers whose exploitation challenges the ethics of the digital age. For India and the world, the future of AI must balance innovation with human dignity, equity, and justice. Without recognising and regulating this labour, the AI revolution risks deepening global inequalities.

Value Addition

Global Frameworks and Conventions

  1. ILO Convention 190 (2019): Addresses workplace violence and harassment — highly relevant to content moderators exposed to graphic/traumatic data.
  2. ILO Recommendation 204: Transition from informal to formal economy — ghost workers are currently informal, with no rights.
  3. UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (2011): Corporate duty to respect human rights across supply chains, including digital gig platforms.
  4. EU Artificial Intelligence Act (2025): First comprehensive law regulating AI systems; includes risk categories and human oversight.
  5. Santa Clara Principles (2018): Framework for transparency, accountability, and due process in online content moderation.

Conceptual Tools and Keywords

  1. Digital Colonialism: Global North exploits cheap digital labour in Global South for AI systems.
  2. Surveillance Capitalism (Shoshana Zuboff): Big Tech monetises personal data and labour while eroding privacy and dignity.
  3. Platform Precarity: Gig workers face algorithmic control, constant surveillance, and lack of social protection.
  4. Ghost Work (Mary Gray & Siddharth Suri, 2019): Term for invisible human labour powering AI systems.
  5. Cognitive Labour: Work that relies on human judgment, emotional resilience, and meaning-making (beyond physical labour).
  6. Algorithmic Management: Use of algorithms to allocate, monitor, and discipline workers—stripping them of agency.
  7. Ethics of Invisibility: Recognition gap when workers’ contributions are hidden, making justice claims difficult.

Reports and Studies

  1. Oxford Internet Institute (2019, “Ghost Work”): Estimated millions of hidden workers behind AI, mainly in developing countries.
  2. WEF Future of Jobs Report (2023): Warned of AI-induced job displacements alongside new digital gig work.
  3. ILO Report on Digital Labour Platforms (2021): Documented widespread exploitation, lack of contracts, and cross-border regulatory challenges.

Indian Context

  1. Code on Social Security, 2020: Recognises gig and platform workers, but still weak on implementation.
  2. NITI Aayog Report on “India’s Booming Gig and Platform Economy” (2022): Predicts 23.5 million gig workers by 2030.
  3. Personal Data Protection Act, 2023: Regulates data, but silent on labour rights of those who process AI data.
  4. India’s AI Mission (National Strategy for AI, NITI Aayog): Envisions “AI for All” but doesn’t sufficiently cover labour dimensions.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does Al help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of Al in healthcare?

Linkage: AI aids clinical diagnosis by analysing medical scans and predicting outcomes with high accuracy, but it relies on human annotators to label sensitive data. The article shows how even untrained workers in Kenya were tasked with labelling medical scans, raising concerns of reliability. Such outsourcing also heightens the risk of privacy violations in handling patient data across insecure global supply chains.

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Topography, climate change: Behind heavy rains in Himalayas

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

Extreme rainfall in Uttarakhand over the past week has triggered multiple landslides, swelling rivers and leading to the loss of at least 15 lives. While such events have always occurred in the Himalayan belt during the monsoon, the frequency, intensity, and unpredictability of these disasters have sharply increased in recent years. This phenomenon is closely linked to climate change, altered monsoon dynamics, and the fragile geology of the region.

Why in the News?

Uttarakhand and parts of Himachal Pradesh have witnessed back-to-back extreme rainfall events over the last month, leading to landslides, mudslides, flash floods, and large-scale disruption. The striking fact is not just the death toll, but the scale of surplus rainfall, 34% above normal in August and 67% above normal in early September. Such heavy rainfall, while common in coastal states like Kerala or Meghalaya, is catastrophic in the Himalayas where steep slopes, loose soil, and fragile ecosystems amplify the risks.

Why is rainfall unusually high in Uttarakhand this season?

  1. Active monsoon systems: Consecutive low-pressure systems from the Bay of Bengal have travelled farther north than usual, dumping large amounts of rain in the Himalayan belt.
  2. Surplus rainfall data: Northwestern India received 34% surplus rainfall in August and over 67% surplus rainfall in early September.
  3. Record-breaking events: Udhampur (J&K) recorded 630 mm in 24 hours, equivalent to a year’s rainfall in Rajkot, Gujarat; Leh recorded 59 mm in 48 hours, highest since 1973.

Why are hilly regions more vulnerable to disasters?

  1. Fragile geology: Extreme rainfall triggers landslides, mudslides, and flash floods as rainwater drags soil, rocks, and debris downhill.
  2. River choke-points: When streams are blocked, water gushes into settlements, destroying roads and bridges.
  3. Comparative impact: While 300 mm of rain in Goa or Kerala drains into the sea, the same amount in Uttarakhand leads to catastrophic slope failure.
  4. Recent examples: Landslides across Mandi, Kullu, Dharali, Tharali, and Jammu in the past two weeks illustrate cascading effects.

How is climate change altering monsoon dynamics?

  1. Southward shift of western disturbances: Once dominant in winters, these systems are increasingly interacting with the summer monsoon, intensifying rainfall events in the Himalayas.
  2. Global warming: Rising temperatures are linked to changing wind patterns and higher atmospheric moisture.
  3. Arctic connection: Melting Arctic sea ice may be influencing jet streams, further complicating rainfall behaviour.
  4. Future risks: Longer dry spells interspersed with intense rainfall events are likely to define Himalayan monsoons.

What does this mean for Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh?

  1. Human cost: Frequent deaths, loss of livelihoods, and displacement.
  2. Economic disruption: Road blockages, tourism losses, and damage to hydro projects.
  3. Policy challenge: Need for climate-resilient infrastructure, stricter land-use regulations, and predictive weather modelling.

Conclusion

The Uttarakhand landslides are a grim reminder that the Himalayas, often called the “third pole”, are at the frontline of climate change. Extreme rainfall patterns, when coupled with unregulated urbanization and fragile geology, amplify disaster risks. Building climate-resilient infrastructure, enhancing early warning systems, and ensuring ecological sensitivity in planning are essential for safeguarding lives and livelihoods in these vulnerable mountain states.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2017] ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?

Linkage: The Uttarakhand landslides highlight how Himalayan states are increasingly vulnerable to climate change–induced extreme rainfall, cloudbursts, and landslides due to fragile geology. Similarly, coastal states face rising sea levels, cyclones, and saline intrusion, threatening lives and livelihoods. Thus, climate change amplifies both mountain hazards and coastal vulnerabilities, making India’s geography uniquely exposed.

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Minority Issues – SC, ST, Dalits, OBC, Reservations, etc.

SC on amended Waqf Act: What has been stayed, what remains

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Introduction

The Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025, passed by Parliament earlier this year, faced widespread opposition from political leaders, religious organisations, and civil society. Over 65 petitions were filed, challenging its constitutional validity. On September 15, the Supreme Court issued an interim order staying several key provisions, particularly those expanding the powers of district collectors, imposing a five-year Islam practice condition for creating a waqf, and capping non-Muslim representation in Waqf boards. At the same time, the Court upheld other significant changes such as the removal of “waqf-by-user” and the applicability of the Limitation Act. This selective intervention reflects the judiciary’s cautious approach in balancing equity, religious freedom, and governance.

Waqf

Why is the Supreme Court’s interim stay significant?

  1. First major judicial intervention: The SC’s order is the first substantive check on the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025 since its passage.
  2. Large-scale impact: With nearly 65 petitions filed, the matter affects thousands of properties and the rights of the Muslim community across India.
  3. Balance of powers: The Court flagged violation of the separation of powers doctrine by preventing revenue officers from adjudicating property titles.
  4. Guardrails against misuse: While not striking down the Act, the Court has added interim safeguards to prevent dispossession and misuse of powers.

What powers of District Collectors were stayed?

  1. Section 3C inquiry power: District Collectors could declare that land claimed as waqf is government property. The SC stayed the clause that made waqf status cease immediately upon inquiry.
  2. Arbitrariness highlighted: Entrusting title determination to a revenue officer was held to be prima facie arbitrary.
  3. Safeguard applied: Waqf properties will retain their status until adjudicated by a Waqf Tribunal. However, no third-party rights can be created until final resolution.

How did the Court deal with non-Muslim representation in Waqf Boards?

  1. Capping membership: Central Waqf Council (22 members) shall not have more than 4 non-Muslims; State Waqf Boards (11 members) shall not have more than 3 non-Muslims.
  2. Community rights upheld: This ensures that the Muslim community’s right under Article 26 to manage religious affairs is not diluted.
  3. Avoiding ambiguity: The SC clarified numbers to prevent misinterpretation of the law.

What about the ‘five years of practising Islam’ rule?

  1. New definition of waqf: The 2025 Act required proof of practising Islam for five years to create a waqf.
  2. Provision stayed: SC stayed this rule until the government frames rules and mechanisms for proof.
  3. Judicial caution: The Court noted concerns of arbitrariness and discrimination, but also recognised historical misuse of waqf as a tool to evade creditors.

Which provisions were not stayed?

  1. Abolition of ‘waqf by user’: The Court upheld its removal, citing misuse to encroach upon government lands.
  2. Applicability of the Limitation Act: Waqfs must now act within statutory limitation periods. This was upheld as removing previous discrimination.
  3. Registration compliance: SC emphasised that waqfs had 102 years (since 1923) to register, hence claims of arbitrariness were weak.

What is the larger constitutional and governance context?

  1. Presumption of constitutionality: Laws passed by Parliament carry weight until struck down.
  2. Balancing equities: The SC avoided blanket suspension, staying only contentious clauses.
  3. Protection of minority rights: Ensures Article 26 freedoms are not eroded.
  4. Preventing property misuse: Legislative intent to protect government property and curb misuse was acknowledged.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s interim order on the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025 reflects a nuanced judicial approach—protecting religious freedoms while respecting legislative authority. By drawing constitutional boundaries for state power and emphasising procedural fairness, the Court has reinforced its role as a guardian of equity and minority rights. The final verdict will have long-lasting implications for governance of religious endowments and minority trust in legal institutions.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2019] What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of secularism.

Linkage: The Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025 has been challenged for allegedly curbing the Muslim community’s right under Article 26 to manage its religious endowments, showing how state intervention can threaten cultural practices. The Supreme Court’s interim stay on provisions like non-Muslim majority in Waqf Boards and “five years of practising Islam” directly reflects the tension between secular governance and religious autonomy. Thus, the case exemplifies the broader challenge of balancing secularism with protection of cultural practices, as asked in the 2019 question.

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Social Media: Prospect and Challenges

The conduct of social media companies amid political unrest

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Social Media Networks & Internal Security

Introduction

The insurrection in Nepal, which led to the fall of the K.P. Sharma Oli government after just two days, brought with it an immediate digital clampdown: a ban on 26 social media platforms. While such state actions are not unprecedented, what deserves scrutiny is the consistent passivity of social media companies in moments of political crisis. Despite marketing themselves as champions of free expression, Big Social firms often prioritise profit motives and regulatory compliance over defending user rights. The Nepal episode is not an isolated case but part of a global pattern spanning Russia, Myanmar, Nigeria, and Iran.

Why is this issue in the news?

The Nepal unrest marks the latest instance of governments weaponising internet shutdowns, but the bigger story is the role of social media platforms. Instead of resisting, they largely issued boilerplate statements, leaving millions of users disconnected. This sharp contrast between their claims of empowering citizens and their reluctance to act exposes the gap between rhetoric and responsibility. The scale of the problem is massive, bans disrupt civic life, cost economies billions, and exacerbate inequality in times of crisis.

The Conduct of Social Media Companies Amid Political Unrest

Why do social media companies stay passive?

  1. Profit Motives: Companies fear losing access to lucrative markets more than reputational harm.
  2. Government Pressure: Host states can fine, jail, or exclude companies, discouraging open resistance.
  3. Commercial Interests vs. Civic Responsibility: Platforms project neutrality but continue profiting while users bear risks.

How has this pattern unfolded globally?

  1. Russia (2018): Telegram fought bans technically but gave little political solidarity to users facing arrests.
  2. Myanmar (2021): Facebook ban cut off protestors from news and organising tools.
  3. Nigeria (2021): Twitter suspension cost the economy $26 million/day while the company stayed largely silent.
  4. Iran (2022): Instagram and WhatsApp issued generic appeals while small businesses collapsed.

What technological solutions exist but remain unused?

  1. Decentralised Networks: Tor, I2P, Mastodon, and Signal proxies allow traffic rerouting.
  2. Corporate Tools: Google’s Outline VPN, YouTube’s delivery networks, and WhatsApp piggybacking on HTTPS could bypass bans.
  3. Underdeployment: Companies avoid such measures due to fears of retaliation and loss of ad-driven surveillance models.

How does Big Social compare with other industries?

  1. Financial Sector: PayPal and Visa cut services in Russia citing ethics.
  2. Wikipedia: Won a legal battle against Turkey’s ban.
  3. Telecom Firms: Unlike them, SM companies market themselves as defenders of expression, making passivity starker.

What are the wider consequences of passivity?

  1. Digital Divide: Richer users bypass bans with VPNs, poorer citizens are excluded.
  2. Insecurity: Users shift to unsafe alternatives, scams rise, and access to trusted news collapses.
  3. Corporate Power Paradox: Meta’s revenue ($134 bn) and Alphabet’s ($300 bn) exceed GDPs of Nepal and Nigeria, yet they plead helplessness.

What could be the way forward?

  1. Transparency Mandates: Publish shutdown orders, legal justifications, and company responses.
  2. Technical Contingencies: Industry-wide standards for proxy modes, redundancy, and fallback networks.
  3. Regional Cooperation: Blocs like AU and SAARC can negotiate common demands.
  4. Moral Responsibility: Companies must balance profit motives with defending civic infrastructure.

Conclusion

The Nepal episode illustrates a broader global pattern where social media companies retreat into silence during political unrest. While they claim neutrality, their choices are deeply political, amplifying inequalities and weakening democratic resilience. Given their vast resources and influence, neutrality is no longer an option. Transparency, decentralisation, and moral responsibility must become cornerstones of their global operations, especially in the Global South where civic stakes are highest.

Value Addition
  • Santa Clara Principles (2018): 
    • Framework urging tech companies to publish government takedown requests, explain moderation decisions, and ensure due process in digital rights protection.
    • Highlights the need for transparency and accountability in content moderation.
  • UNHRC Resolution (2016):
    • Declared internet shutdowns as a violation of international law and an infringement on freedom of expression.
    • Recognises access to the internet as a fundamental enabler of human rights.
  • Economic Impact of Shutdowns:
    • Nigeria’s Twitter ban (2021) cost the economy nearly $26 million/day, showing how bans hurt not just civic spaces but also small businesses and livelihoods.
    • Similarly, India has often topped the list of internet shutdowns globally, costing billions annually.
  • Concept of Digital Authoritarianism:
    • Use of internet control, shutdowns, and surveillance by states to curb dissent. Seen in Myanmar (2021 coup), Iran (2022 protests), and Nepal (2025 unrest).
  • Surveillance Capitalism (Shoshana Zuboff):
    • Business model of Big Tech that monetises user data through targeted ads. Centralised control discourages adoption of decentralised, privacy-respecting technologies.
  • Civic Infrastructure at Risk:
    • Platforms are not neutral spaces but essential public utilities during crises. Their passivity undermines democratic resilience and widens the digital divide.
  • Technological Solutions & Precedents:
    • Signal Proxies (Iran, 2022) – volunteers hosted relays to bypass censorship.
    • Wikipedia vs. Turkey – fought a multi-year legal battle and restored access, unlike Big Social’s passivity.
    • Google’s Outline VPN – toolkit for journalists and activists, an example of proactive circumvention tools.
  • International Comparisons:
    • Financial Sector – PayPal & Visa cut ties with Russia citing ethics after Ukraine invasion.
    • Telecoms – forced into compliance immediately with shutdown orders, unlike Big Social which claims neutrality yet markets itself as pro-free expression.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2016] Use of internet and social media by non-state actors for subversive activities is a major security concern. How have these been misused in the recent past? Suggest Effective guidelines to curb the above threat.

Linkage: The Nepal case and similar crises show how governments misuse shutdowns while non-state actors exploit social media for mobilisation, misinformation, and violence. The passivity of Big Social aggravates risks by denying safe, transparent channels, widening the digital divide. Thus, effective guidelines must balance security imperatives with digital rights, corporate accountability, and technological safeguards.

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Cutting off online gaming with scissors of prohibition

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Introduction

In a surprising move at the end of the Monsoon Session 2025, the Parliament passed the Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act, 2025. The Act outlaws online real money games, citing societal harms such as addiction and financial ruin, while aiming to encourage e-sports. What makes this development significant is the abruptness of the ban, absence of stakeholder consultation, and the wiping out of a sunrise sector that had attracted heavy foreign investment and promised thousands of quality tech jobs.

The Fallout of the Ban

  1. Job Losses: The industry was projected to employ 1.5 lakh people by 2025 in programming, design, analytics, and customer support. The ban curtails these opportunities in a job-scarce economy.
  2. Revenue Sacrifice: Online real money games were expected to generate ₹17,000 crore in GST revenues, benefiting both Centre and States. The ban erases this fiscal opportunity.
  3. Investor Confidence: Sudden policy reversals discourage foreign direct investment (FDI), raising doubts about India’s policy stability.
  4. Innovation Slowdown: Online gaming sits at the intersection of technology, payments, and digital content, key drivers of Digital India. The ban risks stifling entrepreneurship and innovation.

Why Did the Government Ban Real Money Gaming?

  1. Societal Harm: The government argues online gaming has led to addiction, financial ruin, and behavioral issues comparable to drug dependence.
  2. Public Pressure: State-level cases of suicides and debt traps pushed policymakers to respond.
  3. Moral Positioning: The Centre framed the issue as a public health crisis requiring urgent intervention.

Could Regulation Have Been a Better Alternative?

  1. Responsible Gaming Tools: Platforms had developed age-gating, self-exclusion, deposit/time limits, KYC/AML checks, and bot-detection to promote safer gaming.
  2. International Practices: Globally, ethical advertising and technological safeguards regulate the sector rather than outright bans.
  3. State Frameworks: States like Tamil Nadu were experimenting with balanced regulatory frameworks, creating scope for a middle path.

Risks of the Ban

  1. Illegal Networks: Players may migrate to offshore and underground apps, which pay no taxes and are beyond Indian jurisdiction.
  2. Loss of Accountability: With regulated firms shut down, compulsive gamers are left vulnerable to fraud and unsafe practices.
  3. Federal Overreach: Betting and gambling fall under the State List; the Centre’s unilateral move undermines federalism.
  4. Constitutional Challenge: Article 19(1)(g) guarantees the Fundamental Right to practice any trade or business. The ban raises issues of proportionality and constitutional validity.

The Middle Ground

  1. Licensing System: Grant licenses to vetted firms with strict compliance norms.
  2. Clear Distinction: Differentiate between games of skill (legitimate) and games of chance (gambling).
  3. Taxation Regime: Ensure predictable and fair taxation, boosting both revenue and compliance.
  4. Capacity Building: Strengthen regulatory institutions instead of relying on prohibition.

Conclusion

The Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act, 2025, highlights the clash between state paternalism and economic freedom. While societal concerns around addiction are real, prohibition is a blunt instrument that risks pushing activity underground, sacrificing jobs, revenues, and investor trust. A regulatory middle path could have safeguarded both citizens and India’s economic interests.

Value Addition

Understanding the Online Gaming Sector

  1. E-sports: Organised competitive digital sports requiring strategy, coordination, decision-making; emerging as a legitimate sport.
  2. Online Social Games: Casual, skill-based games for recreation, learning, or social interaction; considered safe with minimal social risks.
  3. Online Money Games: Involve financial stakes (chance/skill/mixed); linked to addiction, financial losses, money laundering, and suicides.

Game of Skill vs Game of Chance in India

Game of Skill

  1. Outcome depends predominantly on knowledge, training, strategy, or judgment.
  2. Examples: Chess, Rummy, Fantasy sports (judicially recognised in some cases).
  3. Legal Status: Judicially upheld as legitimate business activity, not gambling. Protected under Article 19(1)(g) (right to trade/profession).

Game of Chance

  1. Outcome depends mainly on luck or randomness, not player skill.
  2. Examples: Lotteries, Roulette, Dice-based betting.
  3. Legal Status: Considered gambling; regulated/prohibited by States (as per State List, Entry 34 of 7th Schedule).

Regulation in India

Judicial Precedents:

  1. R.M.D. Chamarbaugwala v. Union of India (1957) – distinguished games of skill from gambling.
  2. K.R. Lakshmanan v. State of Tamil Nadu (1996) – horse racing recognised as a game of skill.

Federal Context: Betting & gambling are State subjects; hence regulation differs across states.

Digital Loophole: Many online games operate in a grey zone → recent legislation like the Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act, 2025 seeks to ban money games irrespective of skill/chance classification.

Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Acy, 2025

Why the Bill was Brought

  1. Addiction & Financial Ruin: 45 crore people affected; losses of over ₹20,000 crores due to online money games.
  2. Mental Health & Suicides: Financial distress linked to addiction resulted in suicides.
  3. Fraud & Money Laundering: Offshore platforms used for illegal financial flows.
  4. National Security Risks: Evidence of terror financing and illegal messaging.
  5. Closing Legal Loopholes: Existing gambling laws did not cover the digital domain.
  6. Balanced Approach: Distinguishes between exploitative money games and constructive e-sports/educational games.

Key Provisions of the Bill

  1. Applicability: Applies to all of India, including offshore platforms targeting Indian users.
  2. Promotion of E-Sports: Recognised as legitimate sport; guidelines by Ministry of Youth Affairs & Sports; incentives, training, research centres.
  3. Promotion of Social & Educational Games: Registration of safe, age-appropriate games; focus on skill-building, culture, education.
  4. Ban on Online Money Games: Complete prohibition on games involving stakes (chance/skill/mixed); advertising and transactions banned.
  5. Online Gaming Authority: National regulator to register/categorise games, issue guidelines, handle grievances.
  6. Strict Penalties:
    1. Offering money games → up to 3 years jail + ₹1 crore fine.
    2. Advertising → up to 2 years jail + ₹50 lakh fine.
    3. Repeat offences → up to 5 years jail + ₹2 crore fine.
  7. Corporate Liability: Company officers accountable; independent directors exempt if due diligence is shown.
  8. Powers of Enforcement: Search, seizure, and arrests without warrant under BNSS, 2023.

Complementary Measures Already in Place

  1. IT Act & Rules: Intermediaries must register; illegal platforms blocked (1,524 blocked between 2022–2025).
  2. Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023: Sections 111 & 112 criminalise unlawful betting/cyber fraud.
  3. IGST Act, 2017: Offshore suppliers must register; GST Intelligence empowered to block non-compliant platforms.
  4. Consumer Protection Act, 2019: CCPA cracks down on misleading ads and celebrity endorsements.
  5. Advisories: MoIB & Education Ministry issued guidelines on safe gaming practices.
  6. Cybercrime Portal & Helpline (1930): Citizens enabled to report fraud and financial scams.
  7. International Reference: WHO: Recognises gaming disorder in ICD classification – loss of control, neglect of daily activities, continuation despite harm.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2020] Recent amendments to the Right to Information Act will have profound impact on the autonomy and independence of the Information Commission. Discuss.

Linkage: Both the RTI Amendments (2020) and the Online Gaming Bill (2025) highlight rising executive control at the cost of autonomy and federal balance. In RTI, the independence of Information Commissions was weakened; in Gaming, sweeping central powers risk arbitrariness and undermine states’ jurisdiction. Both raise questions of transparency, proportionality, and constitutional freedoms, showing a trend of centralisation in governance.

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Waste Management – SWM Rules, EWM Rules, etc

How serious is the global plastic pollution crisis?

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

Plastic—once hailed as a symbol of modern convenience—has now become a global menace. Its non-biodegradable nature, rising consumption, and weak waste management systems have led to an unprecedented ecological and socio-economic challenge. This year’s World Environment Day theme, Ending Plastic Pollution, reflects the international recognition of the crisis. The issue cuts across dimensions of environment, economy, health, governance, and ethics, making it a critical topic for civil services preparation.

Why is Plastic Pollution Making Headlines?

Plastic consumption and waste generation are reaching historic highs. In 2024 alone, 500 million tonnes of plastic were produced, generating 400 million tonnes of waste. The OECD projects that if current trends persist, plastic waste could almost triple to 1.2 billion tonnes by 2060. Such data marks a tipping point in human-environment relations. For the first time, experts warn that by mid-century there may be more plastic in the ocean than fish, a striking reversal of natural balance.

How Severe is the Plastic Pollution Crisis?

  1. Rising consumption: Plastics production doubled between 2000 and 2019, reaching 460 million tonnes.
  2. Waste surge: Global plastic waste touched 353 million tonnes in 2019, with packaging alone contributing 40%.
  3. Recycling failure: Only 9% of waste is recycled; 50% ends up in landfills, and 22% escapes into open environments.
  4. Oceanic threat: About 11 million tonnes enter oceans annually, adding to the estimated 200 million tonnes already present.
  5. Climate connection: Plastics contribute 3.4% of global GHG emissions and could consume 19% of the global carbon budget by 2040.

Why is Plastic Pollution So Difficult to Manage?

  1. Non-biodegradability: Plastics fragment into micro- and nano-particles, contaminating soil, water, and even human bloodstreams.
  2. Global spread: From Mount Everest to ocean trenches, no ecosystem is spared.
  3. Health risks: Microplastics pose risks to food chains, water safety, and respiratory and cardiovascular health.
  4. Economic burden: Poorer nations, with weak waste management, face disproportionate costs of uncontrolled plastic dumping.

What Global Remedies Are Being Proposed?

  1. Legally binding agreement: In 2022, all 193 UN member states pledged at UNEA-5 to negotiate an international treaty to end plastic pollution.
  2. UNEP target: Ambition to cut plastic waste by 80% in two decades through innovation, design, and recycling.
  3. Reduce single-use plastics: Phasing out unnecessary items made from petrochemical feedstock is urgent.
  4. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Holding manufacturers accountable through deposit refunds, landfill taxes, and pay-as-you-throw systems.
  5. Recycling revolution: Currently, only 6% of plastics come from recycled sources. Scaling this up requires technology and market incentives.

What Role Do Individuals and Media Play?

  1. Greener alternatives: Shifting to traditional, reusable products and eco-friendly materials.
  2. Awareness campaigns: Media’s power in shaping consumer habits and pressuring governments is significant.
  3. Behavioural change: Collective reduction in consumption is as important as systemic reform.

Conclusion

Plastic pollution exemplifies the contradictions of modern development—where convenience has bred crisis. The data suggests humanity stands at a civilisational crossroads: either continue unsustainable consumption or pivot towards circular, sustainable economies. For India, with its population, coastline, and developmental challenges, the issue is not peripheral but central to environmental governance, climate action, and public health.

UPSC Relevance

[UPSC 2023] What is oil pollution? What are its impacts on the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil pollution particularly harmful for a country like India?

Linkage: Plastic and oil pollution are both marine pollutants of petrochemical origin, threatening biodiversity, fisheries, and coastal livelihoods. Like oil, plastics enter oceans in massive quantities (11 MT annually), fragmenting into microplastics that disrupt ecosystems. For India, with a long coastline and dependence on marine resources, the risks of livelihood loss, food insecurity, and ecological imbalance are particularly acute.

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Tribes in News

Property rights, tribals, and the gender parity gap

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Salient features of Indian Society

Introduction

Property ownership is not merely an economic question; it is fundamentally about power, dignity, and equality. For tribal women in India, exclusion from statutory inheritance rights has been one of the deepest forms of gender injustice. The Supreme Court’s July 2025 judgment striking down customary exclusions in tribal property rights represents both a historic corrective and a challenge: how to reconcile tribal customs with constitutional equality. The debate is timely, following International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples (August 9) and growing recognition of indigenous rights worldwide.

Why in the News

In Ram Charan and Ors. vs Sukhram and Ors. (July 17, 2025), the Supreme Court equated the exclusion of daughters from ancestral property in tribal communities with a violation of their fundamental right to equality. This is a landmark first, since earlier judgments such as Madhu Kishwar vs State of Bihar (1996) had refrained from striking down such customs. The judgment underscores the scale of injustice: as per the Agriculture Census 2015–16, only 16.7% of ST women own land compared to 83.3% of men. This ruling, therefore, marks a dramatic departure from precedent and could fundamentally reshape tribal women’s access to property, inheritance, and dignity.

Why are tribal women excluded from property rights?

  1. Customary laws: Tribals in Scheduled Areas follow customary laws on marriage, succession, and adoption, which largely exclude women from land inheritance.
  2. Economic contributions ignored: Despite tribal women contributing more to farms than men, they are legally excluded.
  3. Fear of land alienation: Communities argue that women marrying outside the tribe may lead to loss of tribal land to outsiders.
  4. Communitarian land ownership myth: Though land is termed “communitarian,” in practice, compensation from land sales rarely goes to gram sabhas; male members retain control.

How did the courts address this case?

  1. Trial and appellate courts: Initially dismissed the claim, holding that no Gond custom granted daughters property rights.
  2. High Court intervention: Rejected Hindu Succession Act application but granted equality, noting that denying women rights under “custom” entrenched discrimination.
  3. Supreme Court ruling: Declared exclusion of daughters unconstitutional, setting a precedent for gender justice in tribal inheritance.

What does the historical judicial background reveal?

  1. Madhu Kishwar (1996): SC upheld customary exclusions, citing possible chaos in existing law.
  2. Prabha Minz vs Martha Ekka (2022, Jharkhand HC): Recognized Oraon women’s inheritance rights, since defendants could not prove a valid exclusionary custom.
  3. Kamala Neti (2022, SC): Affirmed tribal women’s property rights in land acquisition compensation.

Why is codification or a new law necessary?

  1. Exclusion from Hindu Succession Act: Section 2(2) leaves tribal women outside its ambit.
  2. Proposal for Tribal Succession Act: A separate codified framework could balance equality with respect for indigenous identity.
  3. Precedent in Hindu & Christian laws: Their codification addressed similar issues of gender parity and succession, showing a workable model.

What makes this issue urgent and significant?

  1. Data on landholding: Only 16.7% ST women own land, highlighting systemic exclusion.
  2. Link to empowerment: Property rights directly determine women’s bargaining power, social security, and protection against violence.
  3. Constitutional mandate: Article 14 (equality), Article 15 (non-discrimination), and Article 21 (dignity) demand urgent correction.
  4. Global context: International Day of Indigenous Peoples (August 9) reaffirms focus on indigenous rights.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s July 2025 judgment marks a historic turning point in advancing gender justice for tribal women. Yet, lasting reform requires more than judicial intervention, it needs legislative codification, social sensitization, and integration of constitutional values into tribal governance frameworks. Recognizing tribal women as equal stakeholders in ancestral property is not just a matter of law, but of justice, dignity, and true nation-building.

Value Addition

Important Data & Reports

  1. Agriculture Census 2015–16: Only 16.7% of ST women own land vs. 83.3% of ST men.
  2. NITI Aayog Report on Women and Land (2020): Land ownership is key to reducing vulnerability and increasing empowerment.
  3. UNDP Gender Inequality Index (2023): India ranked 108/191, reflecting persistent gaps.
  4. FAO Report: Women with secure land rights invest more in family nutrition and education.

Judicial Landmarks on Tribal Women’s Property Rights

  1. Madhu Kishwar vs State of Bihar (1996):
    1. Petition challenged customary laws that excluded tribal women from inheritance.
    2. SC majority upheld exclusion, fearing “chaos” if customs were struck down.
    3. Significance: Reflected judicial conservatism, prioritizing customary law over equality.
  2. Prabha Minz vs Martha Ekka (2022, Jharkhand HC):
    1. Inheritance rights of Oraon tribal women upheld.
    2. Court said no proven custom showed continuous exclusion.
    3. Significance: Shift towards demanding evidentiary proof of discriminatory customs.
  3. Kamala Neti vs Special Land Acquisition Officer (2022, SC)
    1. Affirmed tribal women’s rights to compensation in land acquisition.
    2. Significance: Opened the door to gender equality in compensation and land rights.
  4. Ram Charan vs Sukhram (2025, SC):
    1. Landmark ruling equating exclusion of daughters in ancestral property to violation of fundamental right to equality.
    2. First time SC directly struck down discriminatory tribal custom.
    3. Significance: A watershed in gender-justice jurisprudence, aligning tribal customs with constitutional morality.

Committees & Commissions

  1. Xaxa Committee (2014): Noted that customary laws often disadvantage tribal women; recommended reforms.
  2. Law Commission of India (2008, 205th Report): Stressed codification of tribal customary laws to ensure women’s rights.

Schemes & Policies

  1. Forest Rights Act, 2006: Joint titles in land given to both spouses, but implementation remains skewed towards men.
  2. National Tribal Policy (Draft, 2006): Proposed codification of tribal laws and ensuring gender parity, but never fully adopted.
  3. Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao: Though focused on education, land inheritance could complement its goals.

International Conventions

  1. CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 1979): India is a signatory, obligating reforms against gender-based discrimination.
  2. UNDRIP (United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 2007): Recognizes indigenous women’s equal rights in land and property.

Analytical Enrichment

  1. Custom vs Constitutional Morality: As per Justice Chandrachud (Navtej Johar, 2018), customs must yield to constitutional morality when in conflict.
  2. Intersectionality: Tribal women face a double disadvantage: gender + tribal identity.
  3. Nation-building dimension: Empowering tribal women in land rights ensures inclusive growth, reduces poverty, and strengthens democratic justice.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Despite comprehensive policies for equity and social justice, underprivileged sections are not yet getting the full benefits of affirmative action envisaged by the Constitution. Comment.

Linkage: This 2025 Supreme Court judgment on tribal women’s property rights directly illustrates the gap between constitutional promises of equality (Articles 14 & 15) and the reality of customary exclusions. Despite decades of affirmative action, only 16.7% of ST women own land, showing underutilization of protective policies. The case highlights how judicial intervention is now bridging the gap left by incomplete legislative and policy measures

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Promoting Science and Technology – Missions,Policies & Schemes

Trumps’ crackdown on science gives India a great opportunity

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

Critical technologies are emerging as the new currency of global power. Yet India, despite ranking among the top five in 29 such domains, contributes only 2.5% of the world’s most highly cited papers and has just 2% of scientists in the global top 2% (Stanford–Elsevier). Meanwhile, China dominates 37 of 44 critical technologies (ASPI). A unique opening has now emerged: Donald Trump’s crackdown on US science funding has left many Indian-origin and global researchers stranded, while Europe and China are aggressively recruiting. India has announced large-scale mission-oriented funding for the first time in decades, but without a strategy to embed top-tier talent, the window may close.

Why is this in the news?

For the first time in decades, India faces a rare alignment of global and domestic factors: massive cuts in US federal science funding, visa restrictions, and declining tenure-track opportunities have created a glut of stranded researchers, while India has simultaneously launched the Anusandhan National Research Foundation and a ₹1 lakh crore R&D Innovation Fund. However, unless India builds mechanisms to absorb this talent as China did with its “Young Thousand Talents” programme  the opportunity will be lost. The stakes are enormous: missing this cohort could mean losing breakthroughs in semiconductors, quantum communication, synthetic biology, and propulsion for decades.

What is India’s current research imbalance?

  1. Low global presence: India accounts for only 2.5% of most cited papers and 2% of top researchers globally.
  2. China’s dominance: Controls 37 of 44 critical technologies, producing 4x more high-impact research than the US in advanced aircraft engines.
  3. Structural weakness: India ranks in the top five in 29 technologies but lacks the ecosystem for consistent breakthroughs.

Why does Trump’s crackdown matter for India?

  1. Massive US cuts: Trump has slashed 50%+ budgets of NSF and NASA.
  2. Bleak academic jobs: Only 15% of STEM PhDs in the US secure tenure-track jobs within 5 years (down from 25%).
  3. Visa restrictions: Many Indian-origin postdocs are stranded, creating a ready talent pool in critical technologies.

How are other countries responding?

  1. Europe’s push: The “Choose Europe for Science” initiative; Macron announced a €100 million France 2030 fund.
  2. China’s precedent: The Young Thousand Talents Program (2011–17) recruited 3,500 scientists, boosting China’s institutions to 8 of the top 10 in the Nature Index by 2024.

Why has India struggled to attract talent?

  1. Uncompetitive pay: Compensation not aligned with global benchmarks.
  2. Weak infrastructure: Lack of world-class labs and sustained grants.
  3. No clear pathways: Absence of long-term absorption and career progression.
  4. Fragmented recruitment: Not tied to mission-oriented streams, leading to scattered efforts.

What institutional reforms are proposed?

  1. Focused Research Organisations (FROs): Modeled on the India Urban Data Exchange at IISc.
  2. Target: Attract 500 top researchers in 5 years.
  3. Integration: Involve existing Indian academics via joint appointments, rotational leadership, and competitive entry.
  4. Public–private–academy model: FROs as Section 8 companies with 51% industry stake, ensuring long-term sustainability.
  5. Case study: IIT Delhi–DRDO’s milestone in quantum entanglement-based free-space secure communication (1 km) makes it a natural anchor for an FRO on quantum communication.

Conclusion

India cannot afford to miss this historic opportunity. With Trump’s cuts destabilising US science and Europe and China already acting, India must move beyond funding announcements to credible, permanent talent pathways. Focused Research Organisations, with industry participation and global integration, can build sovereign capabilities in critical domains. Delay would mean losing not just researchers, but also the future of India’s technological autonomy.

Value Addition

Data/Reports

  1. Stanford–Elsevier Citation Report (2024) → India accounts for only 2.5% of the most highly cited papers and has just 2% of scientists in the global top 2%, reflecting poor global presence.
  2. ASPI Tech Dominance Index → China dominates 37 of 44 critical technologies, showing how talent recruitment directly builds sovereign capability.
  3. NSF/NASA Budget Cuts (Trump Administration) → US federal science agencies face 50%+ cuts, creating a glut of displaced researchers — a historic opportunity for India.

Concepts

  1. Sovereign Capability → Building self-reliant strength in strategic domains (e.g., biotech, quantum communication) to reduce dependence on external powers.
  2. Mission-Oriented Research → Aligning R&D with national priorities like semiconductors, propulsion, synthetic biology, ensuring targeted breakthroughs rather than scattered efforts.
  3. Focused Research Organisations (FROs) → Permanent, Section 8 company–style entities with 51% industry stake, pooling government + private + academic resources to attract top scientists.

Comparative Models

  1. China’s Young Thousand Talents Programme (2011–17) → Attracted 3,500 early-career scientists, leading to China’s leap in research outputs (e.g., 8/10 top global institutions in Nature Index by 2024).
  2. Europe’s “Choose Europe for Science” Initiative → Macron announced a €100m France 2030 fund, signalling Europe’s urgency in talent recruitment post-US cuts.
  3. US Example → Despite strong universities, declining tenure-track jobs (from 25% → 15% in 20 years) and visa restrictions are pushing talent outward — India can tap this pool.

Schemes/Institutions (India)

  1. Anusandhan National Research Foundation (NRF) → India’s new umbrella funding agency for large-scale, mission-driven research.
  2. ₹1 Lakh Crore R&D Innovation Fund → First time in decades that India committed such large-scale funding to science, signalling intent to shift from incremental to transformational research.
  3. India Urban Data Exchange (IISc Model) → Early version of an FRO; shows how domain-specific research hubs can create national data/tech ecosystems.
  4. Ease of Doing Science Measures → Fast-tracked grants, simplified approvals, but missing element = talent attraction and long-term absorption pathways.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of society?

Linkage: India’s weak global research profile and failure to attract top talent have limited breakthroughs in applied biotechnology, despite its potential to revolutionise agriculture, health, and industry. The editorial stresses the need for mission-oriented research and Focused Research Organisations to ensure sovereign capability in biotech, much like China’s success in critical technologies. If harnessed effectively, such achievements can directly benefit the poorer sections by improving crop yields, affordable healthcare, and job creation.

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A Sense of Drift: Democracy at the Crossroads: Youth, Corruption and the New Global Malaise

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Introduction

Democracy, once celebrated as the ultimate safeguard of freedom and governance, is witnessing profound crises across continents. Nepal’s weak institutions, France’s protest-prone presidentialism, and America’s violent polarisation reveal that democratic malaise is not confined to one geography. The recurring theme is stark: young people feel robbed of their future.

Why is democracy back in crisis?

  1. Recurring crises: Democracies appear to follow cycles of expansion (40–50 years) followed by exhaustion.
  2. Current triggers: Corruption in Nepal, unsustainable economic models in France, and violent political divisions in the US.
  3. Historical echoes: Similar crises were witnessed in the 1920s–30s and the 1960s–70s, culminating in debates such as the Trilateral Commission’s 1975 report on “The Crisis of Democracy.”

What role does youth disillusionment play?

  1. Stolen future: Across Nepal, France, and the US, young people feel alienated and betrayed.
  2. Lack of consensus: Youth anger does not translate into youth unity; it produces anxiety but not collective solutions.
  3. Gerontocracy problem: Democracies like India and the US are led largely by older generations, deepening generational divides.

How does inequality and polarisation fuel the malaise?

  1. Different consensus: Unlike the 1970s when “excess participation” was blamed, today growing inequality is seen as the root of discontent.
  2. Dual polarisation: A clash of values coupled with diametrically opposed economic visions — Left demanding more state investment, Right fearing socialist excess.
  3. Jobless growth: Declining employment elasticity of capital threatens to erode trust even in well-designed policies.

Why does corruption persist as a democratic fault line?

  1. Structural vs transactional corruption: Elites monopolising power versus ostentatious lifestyles of politicians.
  2. Anti-corruption paradox: Movements rarely eliminate corruption and often fuel authoritarian turns, seen in Nepal’s staggering levels of rent extraction.
  3. Authoritarian co-option: Anti-corruption rhetoric is used to justify illiberal governance.

What is the role of war and misinformation?

  1. Historical corrosion: Vietnam and Iraq wars eroded democratic legitimacy in the US.
  2. Current crises: Gaza conflict risks corroding Western liberal legitimacy.
  3. Misinformation cycle: Radical democratisation of information through social media has dissolved authority and deepened adversarial suspicion.

Can democracies reinvent themselves?

  1. Past reinventions: Post-1930s depression and 1970s crises were followed by new waves of democratisation.
  2. Paradox of protest: While protests mobilise energy, they often breed drift, violence, or nihilism.

Way Forward for Democracies

  1. Institutional Reinvention: Strengthen checks and balances through judicial independence, parliamentary accountability, and free media — preventing democratic backsliding.
  2. Inclusive Growth: Address structural inequality and jobless growth by creating policies focused on employment elasticity and equitable redistribution.
  3. Youth Participation: Channel youth disillusionment into institutionalised participation (youth parliaments, policy fellowships, digital consultative platforms).
  4. Taming Polarisation: Build broad-based social coalitions that transcend Left–Right economic divides and cultural polarisation.
  5. Responsible Information Order: Regulate misinformation while protecting freedom of speech; strengthen media literacy to combat nihilism fuelled by social media.
  6. Corruption Reform: Focus on structural corruption (elite monopolisation of power) rather than episodic “anti-corruption crusades” that risk authoritarian capture.
  7. Global Learning: Draw lessons from past crises (1930s, 1970s) where institutional reinvention, new social contracts, and reform waves revitalised democracy.

Value Addition

Samuel P. Huntington’s Views and Theory on Democracy

Political Order and Institutionalisation

  • Book: Political Order in Changing Societies (1968).
  • Core Argument: The stability of a political system depends more on the strength of its institutions than on the level of modernisation.
  • Key Point: Modernisation without strong institutions leads to instability (e.g., corruption, coups, unrest).
  • Quote: “The most important political distinction among countries is not their form of government but their degree of government.”

The Third Wave of Democratisation

  • Book: The Third Wave: Democratisation in the Late Twentieth Century (1991).
  • Theory: Democracies emerge in “waves,” each followed by a possible “reverse wave.”
    • First Wave (1828–1926): Expansion in Western countries.
    • First Reverse Wave (1922–1942): Rise of fascism, military regimes.
    • Second Wave (1945–1962): Post-WWII, decolonisation.
    • Second Reverse Wave (1960–1975): Coups in Latin America, Africa, Asia.
    • Third Wave (1974 onwards): Started with Portugal’s Carnation Revolution, followed by democratisation in Latin America, Eastern Europe, parts of Asia and Africa.

Key Factors for Third Wave:

  • Declining legitimacy of authoritarian regimes.
  • Economic growth and rising middle class.
  • Religious changes (e.g., Catholic Church’s role in Latin America).
  • Global democratic norms (influence of EU, US).
  • “Snowballing effect” (success in one country inspired others).
  • Relevance: Many current democracies (including in Asia, Latin America, Eastern Europe) emerged in this wave

Clash of Civilisations (1993)

  • Book: The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.
  • Argument: Post-Cold War conflicts would be driven not by ideology or economics, but by cultural and civilisational differences.
  • Link to Democracy: Democracies rooted in Western civilisation may clash with non-Western civilisations (Islamic, Sinic/Chinese).

Relevant Quotes on Democracy 

On Cycles and Fragility

  • John Adams: “Democracy never lasts long. It soon wastes, exhausts, and murders itself.”
  • Samuel Huntington: “Democracy is the only political system that is self-correcting.”

On Reinvention

  • Winston Churchill: “Democracy is the worst form of government — except for all those other forms that have been tried from time to time.”
  • Amartya Sen: “No famine has ever taken place in the history of the world in a functioning democracy.”

On Corruption and Morality

  • Mahatma Gandhi: “Corruption and hypocrisy ought not to be inevitable products of democracy, as they undoubtedly are today.”
  • Alexis de Tocqueville: “The health of a democratic society may be measured by the quality of functions performed by private citizens.”

On Youth and Future

  • Jawaharlal Nehru: “The future belongs to those who can give to the next generation reasons for hope.”
  • Kofi Annan: “Young people should be at the forefront of global change and innovation.”

How to Use in UPSC Answers

  • Quote John Adams or Huntington when talking about cycles of democracy.
  • Quote Gandhi or Amartya Sen when linking democracy with corruption or development outcomes.
  • Quote Churchill when emphasising democracy’s resilience despite flaws.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2023] Constitutionally guaranteed judicial independence is a prerequisite of democracy. Comment.

Linkage: The current crisis of democracy, as highlighted in Nepal, France, and the US, shows that without robust and independent institutions, democratic legitimacy erodes. Judicial independence acts as a bulwark against corruption, elite capture, and authoritarian drift. Thus, safeguarding constitutional autonomy of the judiciary is indispensable for reinvigorating democracy.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Pakistan

Looking at India-Pak ties through prism of Indus Waters Treaty

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Introduction

For 65 years, the Indus Waters Treaty ensured the uninterrupted sharing of river waters between India and Pakistan despite wars and conflicts. Signed in 1960, with the World Bank as broker, it granted Pakistan control over nearly 80% of the Indus system waters while India retained rights over the eastern rivers. Yet, this arrangement, hailed by Nehru as a “gesture of peace,” was also criticized as appeasement. Today, the Treaty faces an existential challenge, as India, for the first time, suspends its obligations in response to cross-border terrorism. A fresh evaluation of the IWT reveals that Pakistan’s real concern is not water scarcity but the control of flows, a factor deeply tied to its obsession with Kashmir.

Why in the News

India, after decades of restraint, has finally exercised its strategic upper riparian advantage by suspending the Indus Waters Treaty following the April Pahalgam terror attack. This is a watershed moment: for the first time in 65 years, the Treaty, which survived four wars, terror attacks, and political turmoil, has been placed in abeyance. The move underscores a shift from India’s earlier magnanimity to a more assertive posture. It is significant because it challenges one of the few stable frameworks of India–Pakistan relations and introduces water as a core strategic lever, alongside terrorism and Kashmir.

Why was the Indus Waters Treaty so Significant?

  1. Historic endurance: The Treaty survived four wars, repeated terror attacks, and decades of hostility.
  2. Unique distribution: Pakistan received 80% of Indus waters (western rivers) despite being the lower riparian.
  3. Nehru’s vision: Seen as a stabilizing act of peace, prioritizing development over disputes.
  4. Pakistan’s insecurity: Never fully celebrated, fearing India’s control as upper riparian.

How Do India and Pakistan Perceive the Treaty Differently?

  1. India’s approach: Saw the Treaty as magnanimity; Nehru called it a “purchase of peace.”
  2. Criticism of India: S Jaishankar terms it appeasement, not peace.
  3. Pakistan’s strategy: Used Article IX dispute mechanism to obstruct Indian projects in J&K.
  4. Silent dissatisfaction: Despite receiving 80% waters, Pakistan avoided declaring victory to maintain a narrative of victimhood.

What Drives Pakistan’s Deep Insecurity?

  1. Not water, but control: Pakistan’s fear lies in disruption of flows, not absolute shortage.
  2. Kashmir link: To control rivers, Pakistan desires physical control of J&K.
  3. Historic evidence: Gen Ayub Khan soon after the Treaty linked water insecurity with demand for Kashmir.
  4. Perverse use of IWT: Constant attempts to delay Indian projects in J&K despite India’s limited use of western rivers.

Why Did the Treaty Survive for So Long?

  1. India’s responsibility: As the upper riparian, India ensured minimum flows and shared data.
  2. Asymmetry of burden: Pakistan had little responsibility upstream but leveraged dispute clauses downstream.
  3. Counterfactual concern: Survival of Treaty is doubtful if Pakistan had been upper riparian.
  4. Symbol of stability: Often cited globally as a model of cooperative water-sharing.

What Could the Future Hold for the IWT?

  1. Pakistan’s likely strategy: Stonewall renegotiations, fearing worse outcomes.
  2. India’s new stance: Seeks bilateral renegotiation without World Bank involvement.
  3. Regional dimension: Pakistan may attempt to involve China (8% basin) and Afghanistan (6% basin).
  4. Strategic uncertainty: India may not disrupt flows but could introduce uncertainty, forcing Pakistan to rethink its terror policy.
  5. J&K projects: India likely to push through delayed hydro and irrigation projects without Pakistani consent.

Conclusion

The IWT, once a symbol of cooperation, now mirrors the fault lines of India–Pakistan relations. For decades, India upheld its obligations even at strategic cost. But by suspending the Treaty, India has signaled that goodwill cannot be one-sided, especially in the face of relentless terrorism. Water, development, security, and Kashmir are now deeply intertwined. The Indus basin, instead of being a bridge, risks becoming another battlefield in South Asia’s fraught geopolitics.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2015] Terrorist activities and mutual distrust have clouded India–Pakistan relations. To what extent the use of soft power like sports and cultural exchanges could help generate goodwill between the two countries? Discuss with suitable examples.

Linkage: The Indus Waters Treaty itself was long considered a form of institutionalized soft power, surviving wars and terror. However, its suspension after the Pahalgam attack highlights how terrorism erodes even cooperative mechanisms. Just as cultural exchanges aim to build goodwill, water-sharing too depended on mutual trust — and both reveal how soft power collapses when hostility dominates.

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Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

To build Roads is to build peace: Developmet in tribal hinterlands affected by Maoist Insurgency

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Introduction

Roads in India’s Maoist-affected areas are more than physical infrastructure; they are symbols of the state itself. For communities long governed by neglect or non-state actors, the arrival of a road often marks the first visible sign of governance. Research and field evidence indicate that road development improves access to electricity, healthcare, education, and security while simultaneously displacing the influence of insurgents. Yet, roads alone cannot resolve conflict—they must be embedded in an ecosystem of justice, dignity, and inclusion.

Why is this in the news?

In regions affected by Maoist insurgency, particularly in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha, roads have emerged as a strategic instrument of peacebuilding. Recent studies (Jain & Biswas, 2023) show a correlation between road connectivity and reduced crime, while international evidence (Prieto-Curiel & Menezes, 2020) highlights how poor connectivity perpetuates violence globally. This marks a shift in governance strategy, from viewing infrastructure as purely developmental to recognizing it as a political and stabilising force.

How do roads reclaim governance from insurgents?

  1. Governance presence: Roads bring schools, clinics, and police stations, representing visible and accountable state authority.
  2. Displacement of parallel systems: Maoists often establish informal courts, taxation systems, and welfare activities in remote areas. Roads weaken these structures by enabling the state to reclaim legitimacy.
  3. Diego Gambetta’s insight: Like the Sicilian Mafia, insurgents thrive where the state withdraws. Infrastructure fills the governance vacuum.

What role do insurgent groups play in governance gaps?

  1. Informal welfare: Research by Alpa Shah (2018) and Human Rights Watch (2009) shows Maoists provide rudimentary health and welfare services in villages.
  2. Strategic legitimacy: As Zachariah Mampilly (2011) argues, such services are not altruistic but intended to gain legitimacy.
  3. Coercion with care: Maoist medical aid or welfare is tied to fear and control, not democratic accountability.

Why are extralegal institutions problematic?

  1. Absence of safeguards: Maoist-run “jan adalats” often issue punishments, even executions, without due process.
  2. Opaque justice: Decisions reflect entrenched hierarchies, patriarchy, and mob reprisals rather than rule of law.
  3. Comparison with khap panchayats: Like insurgent institutions, caste councils also deliver swift but exclusionary justice outside constitutional norms.

How do roads act as political infrastructure?

  1. Symbolic presence: Each road signals that “the state is here to stay,” as seen in Chhattisgarh under B.V.R. Subrahmanyam’s governance strategy.
  2. Crime reduction: Jain and Biswas (2023) show connectivity lowers rural crime rates.
  3. Global parallels: Prieto-Curiel & Menezes (2020) demonstrate that poor connectivity correlates with higher violence across contexts.

What safeguards are essential for success?

  1. Justice mechanisms: Roads must be accompanied by functioning courts and legal institutions to prevent arbitrary authority.
  2. Healthcare and welfare: Clinics, schools, and social infrastructure ensure that development is inclusive.
  3. Community participation: Roads must be built with the village, not just through the village, to ensure legitimacy and trust.

Conclusion

Roads in conflict-prone tribal regions represent more than mobility, they embody the arrival of governance and the possibility of peace. Yet, infrastructure without justice risks becoming a symbol of control rather than inclusion. For lasting impact, roads must be accompanied by democratic institutions, safeguards, and rights-based governance. To build roads, then, is indeed to build peace.

Value Addition

Naxalism: Definition & Origins

  • Definition: Left-Wing Extremism (LWE); armed, rural-based movement rooted in land alienation, poverty, displacement, forest rights, and state neglect.
  • Origins: Began with the 1967 Naxalbari peasant uprising in West Bengal; later consolidated under CPI (Maoist) formations.
  • Areas Most Affected — Historical Peak (late 2000s)
    • Spread: Nearly 180 districts across multiple states — the so-called Red Corridor.
    • Core states: Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh/Telangana, parts of Maharashtra & Madhya Pradesh.
  • Areas Most Affected — Recent (2024–25)
    • Reduced footprint: Down to ~38 districts (2024); further shrinking per 2025 statements.
    • Residual hotspots: Bastar (Chhattisgarh), Gadchiroli (Maharashtra), parts of Jharkhand & Odisha, and Chhattisgarh–Telangana border.
  • Why This Shift Matters 
    • Then: Widespread insurgency → blanket rural development response.
    • Now: Concentrated in forested pockets → targeted counter-insurgency + development (roads, police camps, rehabilitation).

What is Operation Black Forest?

  • What / where / when: Operation Black Forest (also reported as Operation Kagar in some outlets) was a focused anti-Maoist offensive launched along the Chhattisgarh–Telangana border in April–May 2025 targeting PLGA (People’s Liberation Guerrilla Army) units in hilly forest belts such as the Kareguttalu/Karegutta hills. 
  • Claimed outcomes (official account): The government/security forces announced significant results — arrests, large recoveries of IEDs, explosives and weapons and the neutralisation (killed/captured) of several Maoists; the Home Minister hailed the operation as a major success and linked it to the government’s goal of a “Naxal-free India.’’

India’s Current Strategy Against Naxalism

  • Security operations & coordination – Intensified offensives (e.g., Operation Black Forest), joint CRPF/state police actions, inter-state Unified Commands.
  • Connectivity first – Roads → schools → clinics → police camps; infrastructure as the entry point of governance.
  • Surrender & rehabilitation – Incentives for cadres to lay down arms, with livelihood and legal reintegration support.
  • Technology & intelligence – Use of UAVs, better signal interception, geolocation, and joint intel sharing.
  • Development & governance – Focus on PESA, land and forest rights, MGNREGA, social welfare schemes to address grievances.
  • Exam angle: India uses a mix of “hard” (security, tech) and “soft” (development, rights, rehab) measures — success lies in balancing both.

Way Forward (Practical + Scholarly Insights)

  • Consolidate gains, avoid militarised development – Pair operations with public-goods delivery to build trust.
  • Rights-based development – Implement PESA/FRA in spirit; ensure Gram Sabha consent and agency.
  • Build accountable institutions – Mobile courts, health camps, schools, and police with transparency; replace jan adalats with constitutional justice.
  • Credible rehabilitation – Beyond cash payouts, provide skills, jobs, and long-term livelihood security.
  • Address political economy – Regulate mining/plantation projects; enforce benefit-sharing and consent to prevent discontent.
  • Theoretical insights – Gambetta: extralegal actors thrive in governance vacuums → fill with state services. Mampilly: insurgent welfare is strategic → counter with accountable service delivery.
  • Human rights monitoring – Independent oversight of security and development efforts to ensure legitimacy.
  • One-liner synthesis for mains: Operational successes show improved reach, but a true “Naxal-free” India requires roads + rights + jobs anchored in constitutional justice and inclusive governance.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Naxalism is a social, economic and development issues manifesting as a violent internal security threat. In this context, discuss the emerging issues and suggest a multilayered strategy to tackle the menace of Naxalism.

Linkage: The article shows how roads act as instruments of governance, reducing isolation and weakening insurgent legitimacy, thereby addressing the socio-economic roots of Naxalism. Yet, it cautions that infrastructure alone cannot resolve conflict unless coupled with justice, healthcare, education, and community participation. This aligns with the PYQ’s call for a multi-layered strategy—combining development, security, and rights-based governance.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-SCO

A joint and new journey along the SCO pathway

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Introduction

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), now the largest regional grouping after 24 years of evolution, witnessed its biggest summit in Tianjin with 23 countries and 10 international organisations participating. The presence of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Chinese President Xi Jinping signalled a possible recalibration of bilateral ties amid a tense global order. This summit was not only about regional security but also about shaping global governance, fostering sustainable development, and exploring new pathways of cooperation.

Why in the News

The Tianjin SCO Summit is in the news because it marked the largest gathering in SCO’s history and produced high-yielding outcomes, such as the creation of security centres, a development bank, and long-term strategies in energy, green industry, and digital economy. Importantly, India and China engaged in dialogue during the diamond jubilee year of China-India diplomatic ties, projecting partnership rather than rivalry. This reflects a striking shift from the border tensions that have dominated headlines in recent years, positioning the summit as a turning point in regional cooperation and global governance.

High-Yield Outcomes of the Tianjin Summit

  1. Tianjin Declaration: Announced creation of four security centres, including an Anti-drug Center and a Universal Countering Security Challenges Center.
  2. SCO Development Bank: Decision to set up a regional bank to finance cooperative projects.
  3. Fair Stance on Trade: SCO states collectively defended multilateral trading systems and WWII legacy.
  4. 10-Year Strategy: Leaders adopted a development strategy for the next decade.
  5. China’s Initiatives: Xi announced three platforms for energy, green industry, and digital economy; and three centres for innovation, higher education, and vocational training.

How the Summit Shaped Global Governance

  1. Global Governance Initiative: Xi proposed principles such as sovereign equality, international rule of law, and multilateralism.
  2. People-Centered Approach: Emphasis on real actions for peace and justice.
  3. Leadership Platform: SCO positioned as a space to counter the “governance deficit” in world politics.

India’s Role in the SCO

  1. Active Member since 2017: India has advanced SCO’s development agenda.
  2. Support for Presidency: India extended full support to China’s SCO presidency.
  3. Areas of Cooperation: Security, energy, green industry, and digital economy identified as convergence points.

75 Years of India-China Ties

  1. Anniversary Diplomacy: Modi and Xi stressed partnership over rivalry.
  2. Dragon and Elephant Metaphor: Xi urged for “dragon and elephant to dance together.”
  3. Consensus vs Disagreement: Leaders agreed that consensus outweighs differences.

Road Ahead for Bilateral Cooperation

  1. Strategic Mutual Trust: Resume dialogue mechanisms, embrace peaceful coexistence, and mutual respect.
  2. Expanding Exchanges: Focus on trade, investment, technology, culture, and people-to-people bonds.
  3. Good-Neighbourliness: Reinforce Panchsheel principles, keep border differences from overshadowing wider relations.
  4. Global South Leadership: India and China to lead BRICS presidencies, resist hegemony, and promote fairness in world order.

Conclusion

The Tianjin Summit reflects a recalibration of SCO’s role as a platform for regional stability and global governance. For India, it marks a moment of balancing rivalry with cooperation in ties with China. If trust and exchanges are consolidated, India-China relations can shape the future of Asia and the Global South. The challenge lies in ensuring border disputes do not overshadow wider opportunities.

Value Addition

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) 

  • Establishment: Permanent intergovernmental organisation founded on 15 June 2001 in Shanghai by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan. Predecessor: Shanghai Five (1996).
  • Charter: Adopted in 2002 (St. Petersburg), in force since 2003, laying down goals, principles, and structure.
  • Goals:
    • Strengthen trust, friendship, good-neighbourliness.
    • Promote cooperation in politics, economy, science, culture, education, energy, environment, etc.
    • Maintain peace, security, stability in the region.
    • Promote a fair, democratic international order.
  • Principles (Shanghai Spirit): Mutual trust, benefit, equality, consultation, respect for civilizational diversity, common development; externally—non-alignment, openness, non-targeting others.
  • Structure:
    • Council of Heads of State (CHS) – supreme body (annual).
    • Council of Heads of Government (CHG) – economic strategy, budget (annual).
    • Numerous sectoral mechanisms.
  • Permanent Bodies: Secretariat (Beijing) & Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS, Tashkent).
  • Membership:
    • 10 Members – India, China, Russia, Pakistan, Iran, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan.
    • 2 Observers – Afghanistan, Mongolia.
    • 14 Dialogue Partners – incl. Nepal, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Egypt, Qatar, Maldives, etc.

Key Takeaways from SCO Summit 2025

  • 24 Documents Approved – including Tianjin Declaration and SCO Development Strategy till 2035.
  • Security Cooperation – agreement on SCO Anti-Drug Center and Universal Center for Countering Challenges & Threats.
  • Counter-Terrorism – joint declaration condemned Pahalgam (India), Jaffer Express & Khuzdar (Pakistan) terrorist attacks – significant as Pahalgam was earlier omitted.
  • Membership Expansion – Lao PDR granted Dialogue Partner status; CIS given Observer status.
  • Cultural Capital – Cholpon-Ata (Kyrgyzstan) designated SCO Tourist & Cultural Capital (2025–26).
  • Civilisation Dialogue Forum – proposed by PM Modi to strengthen people-to-people ties & civilizational exchange.
  • Global Governance Initiative – proposed by Xi Jinping for multilateralism, just & equitable order, Global South leadership.
  • SCO Chairmanship – passed to Kyrgyz Republic (2025–26) with theme: “25 years of SCO: together for a stable world, development, prosperity.”

What SCO Means for India’s Global and Regional Interests

  1. Strategic Pillars – PM Modi outlined India’s SCO vision as S–Security, C–Connectivity, O–Opportunity.
  2. Central Asia Engagement – SCO provides a rare forum to deepen ties with resource-rich Central Asia and expand India’s role as a pan-Asian player beyond the South Asian paradigm.
  3. Counter-Terrorism – Access to the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) helps India with intelligence-sharing against the “three evils” (terrorism, separatism, extremism), beyond Pakistan-centric frameworks.
  4. India–Russia Cooperation – SCO strengthens Delhi’s strategic proximity with Moscow, which backed India’s full membership in 2016.
  5. Balancing China – India’s presence acts as a countervailing force to Chinese dominance in Eurasia, supported by Russia.
  6. BRI Opposition – India continues to reject the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) as it passes through Pakistan-occupied territory, asserting sovereignty concerns.
  7. Diplomatic Battlefield – While enabling multilateral engagement, SCO also reflects great-power rivalries, making it both an opportunity and a challenge for India.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] ‘Virus of Conflict is affecting the functioning of the SCO.’ In the light of the above statement, point out the role of India in mitigating the problems.

Linkage: The SCO faces internal strains due to rivalries among major members, including China-Pakistan ties and regional security tensions. India has sought to mitigate these by emphasizing its three-pillared approach of Security, Connectivity, and Opportunity, pushing for counter-terrorism cooperation through RATS, and resisting divisive projects like BRI while promoting dialogue, civilizational exchange, and balanced economic engagement. Thus, India positions itself as a stabilizing force to preserve SCO’s collective agenda despite conflicts.

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Aadhaar Card Issues

Decisive step (Including Aadhar as 12th document for voter verification)

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Introduction

The right to vote is one of the most fundamental expressions of citizenship in a democracy. However, procedural rigidity in electoral roll revisions often results in the exclusion of genuine electors. Recently, the Supreme Court intervened decisively in Bihar’s Special Intensive Revision (SIR) exercise, directing the inclusion of Aadhaar as one of the 12 valid documents for voter verification. With over 65 lakh voters already struck off from Bihar’s draft rolls, this judgment is a crucial corrective step ensuring that the processes of democracy do not become instruments of exclusion.

Significance of the Supreme Court’s Decision

  1. Judicial clarity: The Supreme Court dismantled the ECI’s argument that Aadhaar is proof of residency, not citizenship, by highlighting that most other accepted documents (e.g., ration card, driving license) also do not conclusively establish citizenship.
  2. Preventing mass exclusion: With nearly 90% of Bihar’s population holding Aadhaar versus only 2% holding passports, excluding Aadhaar would have disenfranchised a vast number of eligible voters, especially the poor and marginalised.
  3. Correcting anomalies: The Hindu’s statistical analysis of the exclusion revealed disproportionate impacts and that women were removed in large numbers, death rates appeared statistically improbable, and questionable “permanent shifts” particularly affected migrants and married women.

Implications of the Judgment for Voter Inclusivity

  1. Lifeline for excluded electors: Over 65 lakh voters struck off the draft rolls now have a viable route back through Aadhaar verification.
  2. Support for existing electors: Even those already on the rolls needing document verification benefit from Aadhaar’s inclusion.
  3. Validation of civil society concerns: The Court’s order vindicates activists and political groups who warned that excluding Aadhaar contradicted earlier judicial guidance and created practical hurdles.

Challenges Exposed in the Election Commission’s Process

  1. Questionable reasoning: The ECI insisted Aadhaar was inadmissible, despite its wide acceptance in governance systems.
  2. Haste over accuracy: The rushed SIR process compromised diligence, undermining the credibility of voter rolls.
  3. Patterns of exclusion: Disproportionate impact on marginalised groups like migrant workers and married women reveals systemic flaws.

National Precedent Established by the Ruling

  1. Uniform standards: This ruling is not limited to Bihar but extends to future electoral revisions across India.
  2. Balance between accuracy and inclusivity: It forces the ECI to reorient its approach towards humane, diligent verification.
  3. Strengthening democracy: Electoral rolls form the foundation of free and fair elections; inclusivity ensures democratic legitimacy.

Future Expectations from the Election Commission of India

  1. House-to-house verification: A more thorough, grassroots-level approach to ensure accuracy.
  2. Inclusive procedures: Processes must prevent the disenfranchisement of genuine voters, especially the vulnerable.
  3. Aligning with practical realities: Aadhaar, as the most widely held identity document, should be part of India’s democratic processes.

Way Forward

  • Strengthening Verification Mechanisms
    1. Conduct comprehensive house-to-house verification to avoid wrongful deletions.
    2. Use technology-enabled checks (biometric authentication with Aadhaar, but with strong safeguards for privacy).
  • Ensuring Inclusivity
    1. Simplify documentation requirements for vulnerable groups (migrants, women, senior citizens).
    2. Provide doorstep assistance for voter registration in rural and marginalised areas.
  • Institutional Strengthening of ECI
    1. Enhance independence, transparency, and accountability of the Election Commission.
    2. Establish an independent audit mechanism to regularly review voter roll revisions.
  • Legal and Policy Reforms
    1. Consider amendments to the Representation of People Act to clarify permissible use of Aadhaar and protect against misuse.
    2. Align electoral processes with Supreme Court jurisprudence on Aadhaar to balance convenience with rights.
  • Public Awareness and Participation
    1. Encourage civil society participation in monitoring electoral rolls.
    2. Launch mass awareness campaigns to educate voters on their rights and available documentation.
  • Long-Term Electoral Reform Agenda
    1. Explore remote voting mechanisms for migrant workers.
    2. Move towards integrated digital electoral rolls across states for consistency.
    3. Institutionalise regular, transparent consultations between ECI, political parties, and judiciary.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s directive to include Aadhaar in voter verification is more than a legal clarification; it is a democratic safeguard. By preventing procedural exclusion and ensuring accessibility, the judgment reaffirms India’s commitment to universal suffrage. For the ECI, the challenge now lies in balancing diligence with inclusivity, creating an electoral roll that truly reflects India’s diverse citizenry.

Value Addition

Constitutional & Legal Dimensions:

  • Article 326: Guarantees universal adult suffrage, forming the foundation of electoral democracy.
  • Article 14 & 21: Ensure equality and due process — mass exclusion from voter rolls would violate these.
  • Representation of People Act, 1951: Governs electoral rolls, voter eligibility, and disqualification.

Case Laws:

  1. PUCL v. Union of India (2003) – Recognised “right to know” of voters.
  2. Kuldip Nayar v. Union of India (2006) – Stressed on the principle of electoral integrity.
  3. Supreme Court Aadhaar Judgments (2018) – Aadhaar can be used for welfare and verification, but cannot be made mandatory for all purposes.

Committees & Reports:

  1. Indrajit Gupta Committee (1998): Highlighted need for free and fair elections as cornerstone of democracy.
  2. Second Administrative Reforms Commission (2008): Stressed inclusivity and transparency in voter registration.
  3. Law Commission of India (255th Report, 2015): Recommended linkage of voter databases with Aadhaar for accuracy, subject to safeguards.

Democratic Governance & Inclusivity:

  1. Inclusivity vs. Accuracy: Electoral reforms must balance weeding out bogus voters with preventing disenfranchisement of genuine citizens.
  2. Marginalised Communities: Migrants, women, and the poor are disproportionately affected by procedural rigidity — their access must be prioritised.

Comparative Insight:

  1. USA: Struggles with strict voter ID laws that disproportionately affect minorities.
  2. Canada: Allows multiple identification options to avoid disenfranchisement.
  3. India’s Aadhaar: A unique digital identity tool with near-universal coverage (~90%), giving India an advantage in inclusive electoral reforms.

Ethical Perspective (GS 4 angle)

  1. Principle of Justice: Fair opportunity for every citizen to vote.
  2. Procedural Fairness: Electoral rules must not arbitrarily exclude individuals.
  3. Democratic Accountability: ECI must uphold public trust by ensuring inclusivity in its procedures.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2017] To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful?

Linkage: The Supreme Court’s directive on including Aadhaar as a valid voter verification document directly relates to the broader debate on electoral reforms. Just as the ECI’s 2016 reform proposals sought to strengthen inclusivity and transparency, this judgment ensures that procedural rigidity does not erode democratic participation. Both highlight the evolving role of the ECI in balancing accuracy, accessibility, and fairness in India’s electoral process.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Nepal

Why is Kathmandu Burning

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Introduction

On September 8–9, 2025, Nepal plunged into chaos as protests led by Generation Z escalated into violent clashes with security forces. What began as outrage against corruption and a controversial ban on 26 social media platforms quickly spiraled into a mass uprising that engulfed Kathmandu in flames. Former Prime Ministers’ homes were torched, ministers stripped and paraded, and jails broken open. With PM K P Sharma Oli’s resignation and President Ram Chandra Poudel in hiding, the nation faced a constitutional vacuum, raising concerns about the Army’s role and India’s strategic interests. This is the first major political uprising in Nepal led entirely by Gen Z — teenagers and youth born between 1996–2012. Unlike the Maoist insurgency of the past, this revolt was spontaneous, digitally mobilized, and directed against all senior political leaders.

Generation Z and the Rise of Political Discontent

  1. Generation Z Mobilisation: The uprising was driven by youth anger at corruption, lack of jobs, and entrenched political elites since 2008.
  2. Digital Trigger: Outrage exploded after the government banned 26 social media platforms (Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, YouTube, X, etc.), cutting off their main channel of solidarity.
  3. Symbolic Rage: Anger was also directed at “Nepo Kids” — the privileged lifestyles of politicians’ children.
  4. Immediate Demands: Reinstatement of social media (achieved), broader demand for accountability and jobs.

The Escalation of Protests into Violence

  1. State Response: Security forces fired on protesters, killing 19 young people, triggering mass fury.
  2. Attack on Leaders: Houses of five former Prime Ministers were torched (Oli, Prachanda, Madhav Kumar Nepal, Jhala Nath Khanal, Sher Bahadur Deuba).
  3. Fatalities: Rajyalaxmi Chitrakar (wife of ex-PM Khanal) died from burns; former PM Deuba and his wife (Foreign Minister Arzu Deuba) were assaulted.
  4. Dramatic Incidents: Protesters freed Rabi Lamichhane, a jailed critic of Oli, by burning Nakkhu Jail.
  5. Humiliation of Ministers: Finance Minister Bishnu Prasad Paudel and MP Eknath Dhakal were stripped and paraded.

Leadership Vacuum and Constitutional Crisis

  1. PM’s Resignation: K P Sharma Oli resigned; President Poudel went into hiding.
  2. Army’s Stance: Army Chief Gen. Ashok Raj Sigdel urged calm, took charge of security, but avoided assuming political power.
  3. Possibility of Interim Government: Likely after negotiations with figures like Kathmandu Mayor Balen Shah, a Gen Z icon.
  4. Constitutional Crisis: Possibility of Parliament dissolution and collapse of 2015 Constitution.

The Expanding Role of the Nepal Army

  1. Security Role: The Army has assumed charge of law and order.
  2. Political Caution: Unlike in past coups, the Army seems hesitant to directly seize political power.
  3. Facilitator Role: Likely to mediate between political leaders, ensure reconciliation, and protect civilian lives.

Opposition in Disarray Amidst Youth Revolt

  1. Targeted Equally: All senior leaders, across party lines, faced wrath of protesters.
  2. Rising Leaders: Balen Shah (Mayor of Kathmandu, ex-rapper) and Rabi Lamichhane (RSP leader, ex-TV anchor) emerged as youth-backed alternatives.
  3. Monarchy Revival?: Former King Gyanendra Shah offered condolences, appealed for dialogue, subtly signaling a willingness to return to relevance.

India’s Strategic Concerns Amidst Nepal’s Crisis

  1. Strategic Concern: India is deeply worried, given historical ties, open border, and Nepali diaspora in India.
  2. Delicate Position: India is seen as partisan since it backed Maoists and republicanism in 2008.
  3. Official Statement: PM Narendra Modi chaired the CCS meeting, stressing “stability, peace, and prosperity of Nepal” as vital for India.

Conclusion

Nepal’s Gen Z uprising marks the collapse of public trust in traditional politics and signals a generational shift. The combination of digital mobilization, corruption fatigue, and joblessness has produced an explosion that could reshape Nepal’s political order. For India, the crisis is both a challenge and an opportunity, a chance to rebuild goodwill through balanced diplomacy, while avoiding the mistakes of the past. The coming weeks will determine whether Nepal stabilizes through reconciliation or descends into prolonged instability.

Value Addition

Similarities between the recent Nepal Gen Z uprising (2025) and the Bangladesh student–youth revolution (July 2024) that toppled Sheikh Hasina’s government

  • Youth at the Centre
    1. Nepal: Led by Gen Z (born 1996–2012), angry at corruption, nepotism, and joblessness.
    2. Bangladesh: Led by students and young professionals, who launched protests against the quota system in government jobs, symbolising a deeper anger at authoritarianism.
    3. Similarity: In both, young people with no political baggage spearheaded the movement, showing a generational rejection of “old guard” politics.
  • Trigger through State Suppression
    1. Nepal: Anger exploded after government banned 26 social media platforms, silencing digital expression. Police firing killed 19 protesters, escalating violence.
    2. Bangladesh: Crackdowns on student protests with police brutality, tear gas, and arrests deepened the rage, leading to street battles.
    3. Similarity: In both cases, excessive state repression transformed peaceful protests into mass uprisings.
  • Anti-Elite and Anti-Nepotism Sentiment
    1. Nepal: Rage directed at “Nepo Kids”, children of politicians flaunting wealth and privilege.
    2. Bangladesh: Rage at the dynastic, 15-year-long rule of Sheikh Hasina, seen as nepotistic and authoritarian.
    3. Similarity: Both were anti-nepotism revolts, targeting corruption and political entrenchment.
  • Use of Digital Platforms for Mobilisation
    1. Nepal: Movement grew around Facebook pages like Next Generation Nepal, until banned.
    2. Bangladesh: Students used Facebook, X, and YouTube to coordinate protests, live-stream crackdowns, and rally global support.
    3. Similarity: Social media was the fuel of mobilisation, and attempts to suppress it only intensified anger.
  • Collapse of Established Order
    1. Nepal: PM K P Sharma Oli resigned, President went into hiding, houses of former PMs burned, Parliament dysfunctional.
    2. Bangladesh: PM Sheikh Hasina fled the country, Awami League leaders attacked, and Parliament dissolved.
    3. Similarity: Both witnessed a sudden collapse of political order, with leadership vacuum and uncertainty about interim arrangements.
  • Regional & International Concerns
    1. Nepal: India held a CCS meeting, worried about instability on its borders; China also watching closely.
    2. Bangladesh: India was concerned due to historic ties with Hasina, while the West pushed for democratic restoration.
    3. Similarity: In both, India was caught in a delicate diplomatic dilemma — balancing neutrality while protecting its strategic interests.

Conclusion

Both revolutions represent a South Asian pattern of youth-led, anti-elite uprisings, where corruption, joblessness, authoritarianism, and digital repression pushed Gen Z to revolt. They show that in fragile democracies, youth disillusionment can quickly destabilize entrenched regimes. For India, these crises in its immediate neighbourhood are warnings: political stability next door is fragile, and managing relations requires delicate, balanced diplomacy.

Value Addition (II)

  • Comparative Lens: Similar to Arab Spring (2011) — youth-led, social media-driven protests.
  • Theory: Youth Bulge Hypothesis — large unemployed youth populations often drive political instability.
  • Reports: UNDP South Asia Human Development Report highlights youth aspirations and governance deficits.
  • Ethics (GS4): Crisis of legitimacy in governance when corruption and inequality erode public trust.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2012] Discuss the contentious issues that have caused the prolonged constitutional logjam in Nepal.

Linkage: The 2012 question on Nepal’s constitutional logjam highlighted elite disputes over federalism and governance. The 2025 Gen Z uprising reflects how these unresolved issues have now spilled onto the streets, creating a constitutional vacuum. What was once a parliamentary deadlock has transformed into a popular revolt against the entire political class, deepening Nepal’s democratic fragility.

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