From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Popocatepetl Volcano
Mains level: NA
In the news
Popocatepetl, Mexico’s most dangerous active volcano has erupted 13 times in the past day, hurling columns of ash and smoke into the sky.
AboutPopocatepetl Volcano
Popocatepetl — which means “Smoking Mountain” in the Aztec Nahuatl language — is located in central Mexico roughly 72 km southeast of Mexico City.
Popocatepetl is situated in the eastern half of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, in Central Mexico.
It lies on the border between the states of Puebla and Morelos.
The summit of Popocatepetl stands at an elevation of about 5,426 meters above sea level, making it the second-highest peak in Mexico after Citlaltepetl (Pico de Orizaba).
Geological Details
Popocatepetl is a stratovolcano (composite volcano) characterized by its steep, conical shape built up by successive layers of volcanic ash, lava flows, and pyroclastic materials.
It is one of Mexico’s most active volcanoes, with documented eruptions dating back to the 14th century.
In the modern era, significant eruptions have occurred in 1947, 1994, 2000, 2005, and ongoing activity since 2013.
The volcano’s eruptions are primarily andesitic to dacitic in composition, characterized by the eruption of viscous lava flows and explosive eruptions producing ash clouds, pyroclastic flows, and lahars (mudflows).
Try this PYQ from CSE Mains 2021
Q. Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in 2021 and their impact on regional environment.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Agalega Island
Mains level: Read the attached story
In the news
PM Modi in collaboration with his Mauritian counterpart Pravind Jugnauth, inaugurated a series of projects on Mauritius’ Agalega Island.
Agalega Island: A Strategic Location
Agaléga are two outer islands of Mauritius located in the Indian Ocean, about 1,000 kilometers north of Mauritius island.
The islands have a total area of 2,600 ha (6,400 acres).
Notable settlements include Vingt Cinq on the North Island and Sainte Rita on the South Island, serving as primary hubs for residents and economic activities.
Significance of New Airstrip and the Base
India’s Strategic Presence: The inauguration of a new airstrip and jetty underscores India’s commitment to strengthening its influence in the southwestern Indian Ocean, aligning with its broader strategic objectives.
Economic Impetus: Agalega Island’s strategic location facilitates trade and connectivity in the Indian Ocean region, enhancing economic opportunities for Mauritius and neighboring countries.
Trade Security: With a significant portion of India’s trade traversing the Indian Ocean, the development of infrastructure on Agalega Island contributes to safeguarding trade routes and ensuring maritime security.
Benefits for Mauritius
Developmental support: Historically a slave plantation, North Agalega Island reflects the legacy of colonial exploitation, with its main town, Vingt Cinq, evoking the brutality of slavery.
Strategic boost: India’s development initiatives aim to ameliorate conditions for the island’s inhabitants, alongside bolstering Mauritian Defence Force operations.
India’s Strategic Imperative
Counterbalancing Chinese Influence: India’s developmental endeavors on Agalega Island serve as a proactive measure to counter China’s expanding ‘String of Pearls’ strategy, safeguarding its regional interests and sovereignty.
Enhanced Security Infrastructure: By upgrading security infrastructure, including facilities for surveillance and monitoring, Mauritius strengthens its security apparatus, contributing to overall regional stability and resilience.
Regional Cooperation: The projects on Agalega Island are aligned with India’s Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR) policy initiative, aimed at fostering regional development and security cooperation among Indian Ocean Rim countries.
Places in news | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mayor in ULBs, Powers and functions
Mains level: NA
PC: Hindustan Times
Introduction
The Supreme Court has nullified the outcome of the mayoral election held on January 30 in Chandigarh.
Who is a Mayor?
In India, the mayor is the head of an urban local body, which is responsible for providing essential services and infrastructure to the residents of a city or town.
The mayor is usually elected by the membersof the Municipal Corporation or Council.
He/She serves as the ceremonial head of the local government.
History of Mayor’s elections in India
Municipal corporation mechanisms in India was introduced during British Rule with formation of municipal corporation in Madras (Chennai) in 1688, later followed by municipal corporations in Bombay (Mumbai) and Calcutta (Kolkata) by 1762.
However the process of introduction for an elected President in the municipalities was made in Lord Mayo’s Resolution of 1870.
Since then the current formand structure of municipal bodies followed is similar to Lord Ripon’s Resolution adopted in 1882 on local self-governance.
The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992 was introduced providing for the transfer of 18 different powers to urban local bodies, including the election of a mayor and to recognise them which included Municipal Corporations, Nagar Panchayats, and Municipal Councils.
Elections and tenure
The method of electing mayor and their tenure varies for each city in India.
In Bengaluru (Karnataka) the election process is indirect with a tenure being for one year.
In Mumbai (Maharashtra) it follows indirect elections with tenure for 2.5 years and Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) follows a directly elected mayor with a term for 5 years.
Roles and Responsibilities
Governs the local civic body.
Fixed tenure varying in different towns.
First citizen of city.
Has two varied roles:
Representation and upholding of the dignity of the city during ceremonial times and
Presiding over discussions of the civic house with elected representatives in functional capacity.
The Mayor’s role is confined to the corporation hall of presiding authority at various meetings relating to corporation.
The Mayor’s role extends much beyond the local city and country as the presiding authority at corporation meetings during visits of a foreign dignitary to the city as he is invited by the state government to receive and represent the citizens to the guest of honour.
At government, civic and other social functions he is given prominence.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ramsar Wetlands
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
Five more Indian wetlands have been added to the global list of wetlands of international importance under the Ramsar Convention, taking the total number of such highly recognised waterlogged ecosystems in the country to 80.
India is now the fourth-largest nation on the Ramsar map, trailing only behind the UK (175), Mexico (144), and China (82).
Tamil Nadu continues to have the maximum number of Ramsar sites (16) followed by Uttar Pradesh (10).
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lakshadweep
Mains level: Tourism potential of Lakshadweep
Introduction
PM’s recent trip to Lakshadweep has brought the islands into the national conversation.
About Lakshadweep
Details
Location
In the Arabian Sea, off the southwestern coast of India.
Geographical Formation
Formed by coral activities and have a coral atoll structure.
Formation as UT
Formed as a Union Territory of India in 1956.
Total Islands
Comprises 36 islands, including atolls, coral reefs, and submerged banks.
Inhibition
10 of the 36 islands are inhabited.
Capital
Kavaratti is the capital of the Union Territory.
Area
Total area of 32 sq km.
Cultural Uniqueness of Lakshadweep
Diverse Influences: The islands exhibit a unique blend of cultural influences from Malayalis, Arabs, Tamils, and Kannadigas.
Distinct Islamic Practice: The form of Islam practiced here is distinct from the rest of India, reflecting the islands’ diverse ethnic and linguistic heritage.
Historical Roots: A Pre-Islamic Hindu Society
Early Settlers: Scholar Andrew W Forbes suggests that the first settlers were likely Malabari sailors, possibly castaways.
Hindu Influence: Evidence points to a pre-Islamic Hindu society, with remnants like buried idols and traditional songs hinting at past Hindu practices.
Conversion to Islam: A Gradual Transition
Arab Influence: Regular contact with Arab merchants and sailors led to the gradual conversion of islanders to Islam, distinct from the Islamic practices in mainland India.
Peaceful Introduction of Islam: Historian Mahmood Kooria notes that Islam’s introduction in the region, including Lakshadweep, was marked by minimal political conflict, primarily through commercial interactions.
Cultural Development: Insulation from Mainland Influences
Control by the Arakkal Kingdom: In the 16th century, the islands fell under the Arakkal kingdom of Kannur, Kerala’s only Muslim dynasty.
European Interactions: Despite conflicts with European powers, the islands maintained a degree of protection and isolation.
British Era: The British rule further insulated Lakshadweep, allowing its culture to evolve distinctly from mainland India.
Linguistic Diversity: The islands’ isolation is reflected in their linguistic diversity, with Malayalam, Jazari, and Mahl being the main languages.
Matrilineal Society: A Unique Aspect of Lakshadweep’s Islam
Matriliny in Islamic Society: Lakshadweep’s Islamic society is characterized by matriliny, tracing descent and property through the mother’s line.
Anthropological Perspectives: Anthropologist Leela Dube highlights the compatibility of matriliny with Islam in Lakshadweep, contrary to conventional Islamic practices.
Kerala’s Influence: Historian Manu Pillai links the matrilineal tradition to Kerala’s cultural patterns, where Nairs and Namboodiris practised matriliny.
Broader Indian Ocean Context: Kooria points out that matriliny is common among Muslims in the Indian Ocean region, suggesting a broader cultural context.
Religious and Sociological Interpretations
Islamic Justification for Matriliny: Islanders believe their matrilineal practice aligns with Islam, citing Prophet Muhammad’s life with his first wife, Khadija.
Sociological Viewpoint: Dr. N P Hafiz Mohamad emphasizes that the islanders see matriliny as integral to their Islamic practice.
Conclusion
Preservation of Unique Traditions: Lakshadweep’s relative isolation has helped preserve its unique cultural and religious practices.
Integration of Diverse Influences: The islands represent a remarkable integration of various cultural and religious influences, forming a distinct identity within the Indian subcontinent.
Significance in Broader Indian Ocean Culture: Lakshadweep’s cultural practices, particularly its matrilineal society, highlight the interconnectedness and diversity of cultures across the Indian Ocean region.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sultanpur National Park
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
The Sultanpur National Park has observed a 20-30% decrease in the number of migratory birds this season, as reported by forest department officials.
Estimates show a reduction in bird numbers, with current figures ranging between 8,000 to 10,000, compared to the expected 15,000.
About Sultanpur National Park
Sultanpur NP is located at Sultanpur village on Gurugram-Jhajjar highway, 15 km from Gurugram, Haryana and 50 km from Delhi.
It was a bird sanctuary, ideal for birding and bird lookers. Its area covers approximately 142.52 hectares.
Migratory birds start arriving in the park in September. Birds use the park as a resting place till the following March-April.
During summer and monsoon months the park is inhabited by many local bird species.
In April 1971, the Sultanpur Jheel inside the park (an area of 1.21 sq. km.) was accorded Sanctuary status under section 8 of the Punjab Wildlife Preservation Act of 1959.
The status of the park was upgraded to National Park in July 1991 under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
Significance of the NP
Spanning 1.42 sq km, it is recognized as a national park, wildlife sanctuary, and a Ramsar site since 2021.
It is one of the few NPs in the small state of Haryana.
Another NP in Haryana is Kalesar National Park.
Important Fauna at the Park
Mammals: Blackbuck, Nilgai, Hog deer, Sambar, Leopard etc.
Birds: Siberian Cranes, Greater Flamingo, Demoiselle Crane etc.
Annual Migratory Patterns
Typical Arrival: Migratory birds usually begin arriving in the first week of October.
Annual Visitation: By the end of January each year, around 22,000 birds visit Sultanpur Park. However, this year’s numbers are anticipated to be much lower.
Possible Reasons for Reduced Migration
Temperature Changes: Wildlife experts suggests that milder winters in regions like Siberia, Central Asia, and Europe might be influencing migration patterns.
Food Availability: If migratory birds continue to find sufficient food in their native regions, they may not feel compelled to migrate.
Local Climate Impact: The local temperature at Sultanpur Park has not dropped significantly to align with the birds’ migratory patterns.
Effect of Smog: Smog and air pollution could also be contributing factors to the altered migratory behavior.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kambalakonda WLS
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
The Eastern Ghats Biodiversity Centre situated along the Kambalakonda Wildlife Sanctuary’s periphery, near PM Palem in Visakhapatnam, features a new Nature Interpretation Centre.
AboutKambalakonda WLS
Details
Location
Visakhapatnam district, Andhra Pradesh, India
Establishment
Declared in 1970 under the Wildlife Protection Act of India
Area
Approximately 71 square kilometers (27 square miles)
Ecosystem
Dry evergreen forests and scrubland
Biodiversity
Home to Indian leopards, deer species, wild boar, jackals, reptiles, birds, and medicinal plants
Flora
Predominantly dry evergreen forests with moist deciduous patches
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Asola Bhatti WLS
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
The Delhi High Court is considering staying a forest department ‘Walkathon’ event in the Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary.
About Asola Bhatti WLS
Location: Situated in the southern part of Delhi and extends into Faridabad and Gurugram districts of Haryana.
Spread: Occupies 32.71 sq. km on the Aravalli hill range’s Southern Delhi Ridge, bordering Delhi and Haryana.
Connectivity: Forms a part of Rajasthan’s Sariska Tiger Reserve to the Delhi Ridge.
Vegetation: Classified under Northern Tropical Thorn Forests.
Plant Adaptations: Features plants with xerophytic characteristics like thorns, wax-coated and succulent leaves.
Flora: Characterized by the presence of the exotic Prosopis juliflora and the native Diospyros montana.
Wildlife Diversity: Home to species such as Golden Jackals, Striped-Hyenas, Indian Crested-Porcupines, Civets, Jungle Cats, various snakes, Monitor Lizards, and Mongoose.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kadalundi Mudflats
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Kadalundi’s mudflats are shrinking drastically with sands cover.
These mudflats have been a vital source of sustenance for thousands of migrant shorebirds, offering abundant prey like polychaetes and crustaceans.
About Kadalundi Mudflats
Kadalundi Mudflats are situated in the Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary, which is located in the Kozhikode district of Kerala, along the southwestern coast of India. The sanctuary encompasses estuarine wetlands, mudflats, and mangrove forests.
The mudflats are part of the estuarine ecosystem formed at the confluence of the Kadalundi River and the Arabian Sea.
This unique environment is influenced by both freshwater from the river and saline water from the sea, creating a diverse habitat.
Ecological significance
Kadalundi Mudflats are renowned for their rich biodiversity, especially in terms of avian species.
The Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary and the mudflats are protected under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
The mudflats serve as a critical habitat for various resident and migratory birds.
It is estimated that over 100 species of resident and migratory birds visit the area, making it a paradise for birdwatchers and ornithologists.
They are a crucial stopover point for migratory birds travelling along the East Asia-Australasia Flyway.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mount Etna
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Volcanic eruptions often make headlines only when iconic volcanoes like Etna, Kilauea, or Eyjafjallajokull erupt.
However, throughout any given year, our planet witnessed numerous volcanic eruptions, with as many as 50 to 80 occurring worldwide.
About Mount Etna
Mount Etna, located in Italy, holds the title of Europe’s most active volcano and ranks among the world’s largest.
Its recorded volcanic activity dates back to 1500 B.C., with over 200 eruptions documented since then.
Etna’s recent eruptions have disrupted air travel, leading to flight cancellations at the nearby Catania airport.
Additionally, the accumulation of volcanic ash on roads prompted authorities to temporarily ban the use of cars and motorbikes due to safety concerns.
Volcanic Eruptions this Year
Many of the world’s most active volcanoes are concentrated in the Pacific Ring of Fire, encompassing regions like New Zealand, Southeast Asia, Japan, and the western coast of the Americas. This volatile area also experiences about 90% of all earthquakes globally.
Kilauea, Hawaii: The Kilauea volcano in Hawaii captivated the world with a nearly nonstop eruption that began in 1983 and continued for an astonishing 35 years until 2018. Remarkably, it rekindled in 2021, with the eruption still ongoing.
Dukono, Indonesia: Erupting since August 1933, Dukono volcano in Indonesia stands as a testament to long-term volcanic activity, defying the passage of time.
Santa Maria, Guatemala: The eruption of Santa Maria in Guatemala commenced in June 1922 and persists to this day, underscoring the enduring nature of certain volcanic phenomena.
Yasur, Vanuatu: Yasur in Vanuatu first erupted around 1270 and has maintained its volcanic activity, continuing as of June 9, 2023.
Understanding Volcanoes
Volcanoes are geological features characterized by openings or vents through which lava, tephra (small rocks), and steam erupt onto the Earth’s surface.
They result from both their own eruptions and the broader processes of tectonic plate movement.
Volcanic eruptions are essentially the result of magma, or molten rock, beneath the Earth’s surface rising, bubbling, and ultimately overflowing, much like boiling milk spilling out of a pot on a stove.
The magma seeks pathways to vents within the volcano, where it erupts and is expelled across the land and into the atmosphere, a phenomenon referred to as lava.
Types of Volcanoes
Appearance
Formation
Eruption Style
Notable Examples
Cinder Cones
Small, steep, conical
Formed from basaltic magma with high gas content
Often explosive eruptions with cinders/scoria
Paricutin (Mexico), Sunset Crater (USA)
Composite/Stratovolcanoes
Tall and symmetrical
Result from alternating layers of lava, ash, etc.
Both explosive and effusive eruptions
Mount St. Helens (USA), Mount Fuji (Japan)
Shield Volcanoes
Broad and gently sloping
Primarily formed from basaltic magma
Primarily non-explosive with extensive lava flows
Mauna Loa, Mauna Kea (Hawaii)
Lava Domes
Rounded dome-like shape
Formed from slow extrusion of viscous magma
Typically non-explosive but can be dangerous
Novarupta Dome (Alaska), Mount St. Helens’ Lava Dome (USA)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
The Goa bench of the Bombay High Court issued directives to the Goa government, compelling the establishment of a tiger reserve within Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS).
The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) had identified Goa’s Cotigao-Mhadei forest complex, which encompasses several protected areas, as an ideal habitat for tigers.
About Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary
Location
Western Ghats, spanning Goa, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.
Establishment
Designated as a wildlife sanctuary in 1999.
Area
Approximately 208.5 square kilometers.
Ecological Significance
Located within the UNESCO World Heritage-listed Sahyadri mountain range. Comprises various forest types and grasslands, supporting diverse flora and fauna.
Flora
Rich in plant species, including medicinal plants and endemic flora.
Fauna
Home to Tigers, Indian gaur, sambar deer, leopards, barking deer, wild boars, reptiles, amphibians, and birds.
Conservation Importance
Crucial for conserving endangered species and maintaining biodiversity in the Western Ghats. Promotes genetic diversity through wildlife corridors.
Legal Dispute
Ongoing disagreement between Goa and Karnataka regarding Mhadei/Mahadayi (Mandowi) River water diversion, with concerns about its impact on the sanctuary’s ecology.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dagestan
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
A recent incident involving anti-Israel protesters storming an airport in Makhachkala, Dagestan, has drawn international attention.
This incident highlights the unique position of Dagestan, which, while sounding like a country, is actually a province within Russia.
About Dagestan
Dagestan, officially known as the Republic of Dagestan, is a province within the Russian Federation, dispelling any confusion arising from its name.
Situated in the southernmost part of Russia, it holds strategic importance for the country.
Geographical Location
Land of Mountains: Dagestan’s name translates to “land of the mountains,” emphasizing its mountainous terrain.
North Caucasus: Located in the eastern part of the North Caucasus, it shares borders with Georgia and Chechnya to the west and Azerbaijan to the south. To the east lies the Caspian Sea.
Inaccessible Terrain: Some areas within Dagestan’s mountains are so remote that reaching them requires helicopters.
Ethnic Diversity
Over 40 Ethnicities: The province is home to at least 40 different ethnic groups.
30+ Languages: More than 30 languages are spoken in this region.
Prominent Ethnic Groups: The largest ethnic group in Dagestan is the Avars, comprising approximately one-fifth of the population. Other significant groups include Dargins, Kumyks, and Lezgins.
Ethnic Russian Presence: Despite the ethnic diversity, around 10% of Dagestan’s population is ethnically Russian.
Capital: Makhachkala
Strategic Coastal City: Makhachkala, the capital of Dagestan, is situated along the Caspian Sea coast.
Historical Significance: Once a major trading port, Makhachkala was conquered by the Russian Imperial Army in the 19th century.
Oil and Gas Hub: Today, Dagestan serves as a crucial conduit for oil and gas pipelines connecting the Caspian Sea to Russia’s heartland, possessing its own reserves of these resources.
Challenges: The region has grappled with organized crime and instability, with Russian security forces combating armed insurgencies and militant groups in Dagestan and neighboring areas.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rafah Crossing
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Palestinians have been gathering at the Rafah border crossing with Egypt in the southern Gaza Strip.
Meanwhile, Egypt has opened the borders for UN humanitarian aid for Palestinians.
What is Rafah Crossing?
The Rafah Crossing is a border crossing point between the Gaza Strip and Egypt, located in the southern Gaza Strip.
It serves as one of the few access points for people and goods to enter or exit the Gaza Strip, which is a Palestinian territory along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
Egypt has maintained strict movement restrictions at the Rafah crossing for years, raising concerns that it indirectly supports Israel’s Gaza blockade, which began in 2007 after Hamas took control.
Egypt’s Role and Restrictions
Security Concerns: Security concerns in North Sinai, where Egypt has battled jihadists linked to Al Qaeda, have largely justified these restrictions.
Avoiding Exodus: Egypt may be reluctant to open the crossing without clear conditions and guarantees to avoid a mass exodus of Palestinians from Gaza.
Responsibility Concerns: Egypt is concerned about being responsible for a large influx of Gazans if the crossing is opened indefinitely.
Permanent Resettlement: Egypt is reluctant to facilitate a permanent resettlement of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians from Gaza.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dhanauri Wetland
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
The National Green Tribunal has given the UP government four weeks to inform it about the status of the Ramsar tag for Dhanauri wetlands.
Dhanauri Wetland
The Dhanauri Wetlands is a bird-watching area located in Dhanauri village near Dankaur in Uttar Pradesh.
It is home to over 120 Sarus cranes (Sarus Cranes is the state bird of Uttar Pradesh).
It is a sanctuary for 23 species of endangered, critically endangered, and threatened birds, with special significance as a habitat for the majestic Sarus crane.
Ecological Significance
Dhanauri is a natural wetland that hosts more than 217 bird species, including over 150 Sarus cranes, and serves as a vital birding and nesting site.
It has received recognition as an Important Bird Area by Bird Life International and has been documented by the BNHS (Bombay Natural History Society).
During peak migratory seasons (November to March), the wetland hosts over 50,000 waterfowls.
Why in news?
Dhanauri plays a crucial role in supporting the vulnerable Sarus crane population.
The wetland fulfills two key Ramsar site criteria out of nine:
It hosts over 1% of the biogeographic Sarus crane population.
The area serves as a congregation site for 20,000+ waterfowls and various other species.
Ramsar Wetlands
The Ramsar Convention, also known as the ‘Convention on Wetlands,’ is an intergovernmental environmental treaty founded by UNESCO in 1971.
It derives its name from the city of Ramsar in Iran, where it was initially signed.
Ramsar sites are wetlands of global significance recognized under this treaty.
The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the brink of ecological changes and in need of close monitoring under the Ramsar Convention.
Ramsar Site Designation Criteria:
Ramsar site designation hinges on several factors:
Representing rare or unique natural wetland types.
Supporting endangered species or threatened ecological communities.
Maintaining biodiversity in specific biogeographic regions.
Offering refuge during adverse conditions.
Regularly accommodating 20,000 or more waterbirds.
Sustaining 1% of a population of a single water-bird species.
Serving as a critical source of food, spawning grounds, nurseries, and migration paths for fish.
Regularly supporting 1% of a population of non-avian wetland-dependent animal species.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: India-Sri Lanka Ferry
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
PM Modi inaugurated an international, high-speed passenger ferry service in Palk Strait between Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu, India, and Kankesanthurai, near Jaffna in Sri Lanka.
India-Sri Lanka Ferry
The service is operated by the Tamil Nadu Maritime Board and Shipping Corporation of India.
It will operate daily, covering the 60-nautical mile (110-km) journey in approximately 3.5 hours.
Passengers are entitled to a 50kg free baggage allowance.
The Indo-Ceylon Express or Board Mail used to operate between Chennai and Colombo via Thoothukudi port.
However, this was stopped in 1982 due to the civil war in the island country.
About Palk Strait
Location
Narrow water body separating Tamil Nadu, India, and Sri Lanka.
Name Origin
Named after Robert Palk, a British Raj-era governor of Madras Presidency (1755-1763).
Geographic Boundaries
Southern boundaries include Pamban Island (India), Adam’s Bridge (shoals), Gulf of Mannar, and Mannar Island (Sri Lanka).
Connection
Connects the Bay of Bengal in the northeast with the Gulf of Mannar in the southwest.
Alternate Name
Southwestern part of the strait is known as Palk Bay.
Dimensions
Width varies from 40 to 85 miles (64 to 137 km), length is approximately 85 miles, and depth is less than 330 feet (100 meters).
River Inflows
Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu flow into the Palk Strait.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kanwar Lake
Central Idea
Kawar Lake, Bihar’s only Ramsar Site, is experiencing a significant decrease in water levels and degradation.
However, it is drying up due to negligence.
About Kanwar Lake/ Kabartal Wetland
The Kanwar Lake is Asia’s largest oxbow lake situated in the Begusarai district of Bihar.
It is a residual oxbow lake, formed due to the meandering of Gandak River, a tributary of Ganga.
It was declared a Ramsar site in 2020, making it the first wetland in Bihar to be included in the Ramsar convention.
This lake draws water from the confluence of the Gandak, the Bia and the Kareh river – is situated near Manjhaul, 22 km northwest of Begusarai, the district headquarters.
Various threats to Kanwar Lake
Challenges include migratory bird hunting, agricultural activities around wetland areas, and government policies related to wetland management and conservation.
This decline has negatively impacted the livelihoods of around 20,000 Nishad community members in nearby villages who depend on fishing.
Bihar’s Wetland Potential
Bihar possesses a substantial area of wetlands, covering around 4.4% of its total geographical area, according to data from ISRO.
Despite its wetland potential, Bihar has only one recognized Ramsar site out of a total of 75 in India.
Potential Wetlands
Bihar has proposed several wetlands for Ramsar designation, including Kusheshwarsthan, Barela, Goga Bil, Nagiand Nakti dams, Udaipur Lake, Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, and Gokul Reservoir.
These wetlands are home to a range of wildlife, including migratory birds and endangered species like dolphins.
Back2Basics:
Ramsar Convention
Purpose
International treaty aimed at conserving and promoting the sustainable use of wetlands.
Establishment
Established on February 2, 1971, in Ramsar, Iran.
Participating Countries
171 contracting parties (countries) as of September 2021.
India and Ramsar Convention
The first Ramsar Site in India, the Chilika Lake in Odisha, was designated in 1981.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gurez Valley
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
The high-altitude passes within the Gurez valley, located in northern Kashmir, are now linked to the Mushkoh valley in the Drass Sector of Kargil, Ladakh. This region was a significant site during the 1999 war.
The newly established 130-kilometer road has been opened to tourists, and one of its highest passes, Kaobal Gali, situated at an elevation of 4,166.9 meters in Gurez, serves as the vital link connecting these two valleys.
About Gurez Valley
Found in the Kashmir valley, Gurez is positioned near the Line of Control, which separates it from Pakistan-administered Kashmir’s Astore and Neelum districts.
The local inhabitants are primarily ethnic Dards/Shins who speak the Shina language and share similar dress and cultural traditions with their counterparts in Pakistani-administered Gilgit-Baltistan.
The Buduaab village within Gurez valley is known for its Zumba yak, a smaller breed compared to other yaks.
Gurez valley played a significant role in the Kargil war.
It is closely situated to the Line of Control (LoC), with the Kishanganga river delineating the border in multiple areas.
Unique to the Gurez valley is the presence of villages constructed entirely of log houses, devoid of modern urban construction materials.
The region boasts diverse fauna and wildlife, including species such as the Himalayan brown bear, snow leopard, ibex, musk deer, and marmots.
With approximately 38,000 inhabitants, the Gurez valley has already welcomed an impressive 50,000 tourists this year.
Back2Basisc: Mushkoh Valley
Located in Dras, Ladakh, the Mushkoh valley is also renowned as the “valley of wild tulips.”
The valley gained notoriety due to the fierce battle at Tiger Hill during a conflict between India and Pakistan, resulting in numerous casualties on both sides.
Mushkoh valley’s meadows are adorned with vibrant wild tulip flowers, and it is home to the endangered Himalayan yew.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Azerbaijan-Armenia Conflict
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
Azerbaijan announced the continuation of military actions in Nagorno-Karabakh for the second consecutive day, describing it as “anti-terror” operations.
The government asserts that these operations will persist until ethnic-Armenian separatists’ surrender.
Azerbaijan-Armenia Conflict
Persistent Tensions: The South Caucasus region has experienced prolonged tensions over the disputed enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh, which is internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan.
Lachin Corridor Blockade: Over the past nine months, Azerbaijan has effectively imposed a blockade on the Lachin Corridor, the sole route from Armenia into Nagorno-Karabakh.
Nagorno-Karabakh: The Epicenter
Historical Conflict: Nagorno-Karabakh broke away from Azerbaijan during the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Ceasefire in 1994: A ceasefire was established in 1994 after significant casualties and displacement occurred.
Frequent Accusations: Azerbaijan and Armenia frequently accuse each other of attacks around Nagorno-Karabakh and along the separate Azeri-Armenian frontier.
Economic Implications of Conflict
Global Diplomacy: The clashes have spurred diplomatic efforts to prevent a new outbreak of a long-standing conflict between Christian-majority Armenia and mainly Muslim Azerbaijan.
Energy Pipelines: Pipelines transporting Caspian oil and natural gas from Azerbaijan to global markets pass near Nagorno-Karabakh.
Regional Instability: The conflict raises concerns about instability in the South Caucasus, a vital corridor for pipelines facilitating the transport of oil and gas to international markets.
India’s Role: Interests and Challenges
Asymmetric Relations: India maintains a friendship and cooperation treaty with Armenia (signed in 1995), which restricts India from providing military or any other assistance to Azerbaijan.
Investments in Azerbaijan: Indian companies, such as ONGC/OVL and GAIL, have made investments in oilfield projects and LNG exploration in Azerbaijan.
Connectivity Potential: Azerbaijan lies on the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC), linking India to Russia via Central Asia. It also offers connectivity to Turkey through the Baku-Tbilisi-Kars rail link.
Kashmir Dynamics: While Armenia unequivocally supports India’s stance on the Kashmir issue, Azerbaijan opposes it and aligns with Pakistan’s narrative.
India’s South Caucasus Policy: India lacks a publicly articulated policy for the South Caucasus, and the region remains on the periphery of its foreign policy focus.
Balancing Act for India
Conflict of Principles: The conflict centers on two international principles: territorial integrity, advocated by Azerbaijan, and the right to self-determination, supported by Nagorno-Karabakh and Armenia.
India’s Dilemma: India faces a dilemma as it cannot openly endorse Azerbaijan’s territorial integrity, considering Azerbaijan’s disregard for India’s territorial integrity in Jammu and Kashmir.
Avoiding Misuse: However, India must be cautious not to publicly support Nagorno-Karabakh’s right to self-determination, as it could have implications for India’s territorial integrity and be exploited by adversaries like Pakistan.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Liptako-Gourma , Sahel Region
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
Military leaders from Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger signed a significant mutual defense pact known as the Liptako-Gourma Charter, marking a crucial step in addressing the security challenges plaguing the Sahel region.
Liptako-Gourma Charter
This pact establishes the Alliance of Sahel States (AES) and aims to create a framework for collective defense and mutual assistance among these nations.
The Liptako-Gourma region, where the borders of Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger converge, has been severely affected by jihadist activities and instability in recent years.
The AES seeks to combine military and economic efforts to confront common security threats and advance the well-being of their populations.
Liptako-Gourma Charter: Key Provisions
Mutual Assistance: The charter binds signatory nations to provide mutual assistance, including military support, in the event of an attack on any one of them.
Security Restoration: It specifically allows the use of armed force to restore and ensure security in the face of aggression.
Rebellion Prevention: The agreement also commits the 3 countries to collaborate on preventing or resolving armed rebellions within their borders.
Need for such alliance
Shared Objective: The primary focus of the alliance is to combat terrorism within the three member countries.
Jihadist Insurgency: The Sahel region has grappled with a jihadist insurgency that initially emerged in northern Mali in 2012 and later spread to Burkina Faso and Niger in 2015.
Back2Basics: Sahel Region
The Sahel is the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition in Africa between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south.
Having a semi-arid climate, it stretches across the south-central latitudes of Northern Africa between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea.
The name is derived from the Arabic term for “coast, shore”; this is explained as being used in a figurative sense in reference to the southern edge of the vast Sahara.
The Sahel part includes from west to east parts of northern Senegal, southern Mauritania, central Mali, northern Burkina Faso, the extreme south of Algeria, Niger, the extreme north of Nigeria, the extreme north of Cameroon and the Central African Republic, central Chad, central and southern Sudan, the extreme north of South Sudan, Eritrea and the extreme north of Ethiopia.
