From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Coronal Holes
Mains level: Not Much
Recently, NASA tweeted an image of the sun seemingly ‘smiling’. NASA explained that the patches are called coronal holes, which can be seen in ultraviolet light but are typically invisible to our eyes.
What are Coronal Holes?
Coronal holes are regions on the sun’s surface from where fast solar wind gushes out into space.
Because they contain little solar material, they have lower temperatures and thus appear much darker than their surroundings.
Here, the magnetic field is open to interplanetary space, sending solar material out in a high-speed stream of solar wind.
They can last between a few weeks to months.
The holes are not a unique phenomenon, appearing throughout the sun’s approximately 11-year solar cycle.
They can last much longer during solar minimum – a period of time when activity on the Sun is substantially diminished.
How are they formed?
It is unclear what causes coronal holes.
They correlate to areas on the sun where magnetic fields soar up and away, without looping back down to the surface as they do elsewhere.
What do they tell us?
These ‘coronal holes’ are important to understanding the space environment around the earth through which our technology and astronauts travel.
In 2016 coronal holes covering “six-eight per cent of the total solar surface” were spotted.
Scientists study these fast solar wind streams because they sometimes interact with earth’s magnetic field, creating what’s called a geomagnetic storm.
These storms can expose satellites to radiation and interfere with communications signals.
Back2Basics: Geomagnetic Storms
Geomagnetic storms relate to earth’s magnetosphere – the space around a planet that is influenced by its magnetic field.
When a high-speed solar stream arrives at the earth, in certain circumstances it can allow energetic solar wind particles to hit the atmosphere over the poles.
Such geomagnetic storms cause a major disturbance of the magnetosphere as there is a very efficient exchange of energy from the solar wind into the space environment surrounding earth.
In cases of a strong solar wind reaching the earth, the resulting geomagnetic storm can cause changes in the ionosphere, part of the earth’s upper atmosphere.
Radio and GPS signals travel through this layer of the atmosphere, and so communications can get disrupted.
Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Paharai tribes
Mains level: Not Much
The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) has now cleared the way for the inclusion of the ‘Pahari ethnic group’ on the Scheduled Tribes list of the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir.
Who are the Scheduled Tribes?
The term ‘Scheduled Tribes’ first appeared in the Constitution of India.
Article 366 (25) defined scheduled tribes as “such tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of this constitution”.
Article 342 prescribes procedure to be followed in the matter of specification of scheduled tribes.
Among the tribal groups, several have adapted to modern life but there are tribal groups who are more vulnerable.
The Dhebar Commission (1973) created a separate category “Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs)” which was renamed in 2006 as “Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)”.
How are STs notified?
The first specification of Scheduled Tribes in relation to a particular State/ Union Territory is by a notified order of the President, after consultation with the State governments concerned.
These orders can be modified subsequently only through an Act of Parliament.
Status of STs in India
The Census 2011 has revealed that there are said to be 705 ethnic groups notified as Scheduled Tribes (STs).
Over 10 crore Indians are notified as STs, of which 1.04 crore live in urban areas.
The STs constitute 8.6% of the population and 11.3% of the rural population.
Who are the Paharis referred to in this article?
The proposal called for the inclusion of the “Paddari tribe”, “Koli” and “Gadda Brahman” communities to be included on the ST list of J&K.
The suggestion for the inclusion had come from the commission set up for socially and educationally backward classes in the UT.
The J&K delimitation commission has reserved six of the nine Assembly segments in the Pir Panjal Valley for STs.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: C-295
Mains level: Aerospace industry in India
Recently, PM laid the foundation stone for the C-295 transport aircraft manufacturing facility in Vadodara to be set up by Airbus Defence and Space and Tata Advanced Systems Limited (TASL).
Why is it making headlines?
This is the first time a private sector company would be manufacturing a full aircraft in the country.
This is a huge step forward for India in the global aircraft manufacturing domain.
What is the C-295MW transporter?
The C-295MW is a transport aircraft of 5-10 tonne capacity which will replace the legacy Avro aircraft in the Indian Air Force (IAF) procured in the 1960s.
It was originally produced by a Spanish aircraft manufacturer.
This company is now part of Airbus and the aircraft’s manufacturing takes place at Airbus’s plant in Spain.
Why c-295MW?
The C-295 has very good fuel efficiency and can take off and land from short as well as unprepared runways.
As a tactical transport aircraft, the C295 can carry troops and logistical supplies from main airfields to forward operating airfields of the country.
It can operate from short airstrips just 2,200 feet long and can fly low-level operations for tactical missions flying at a low speed of 110 knots.
The aircraft can additionally be used for casualty or medical evacuation, performing special missions, disaster response and maritime patrol duties.
A boost to domestic aircraft manufacturing
Over the last two decades, Indian companies, both public and private, have steadily expanded their footprint in the global supply chains of major defence and aerospace manufacturers.
They do supply a range of components, systems and sub-systems.
India’s collaboration with top firm
Boeing’s sourcing from India stands at $1 billion annually, of which over 60% is in manufacturing, through a growing network of 300+ supplier partners of which over 25% are MSME.
Tata in a joint venture (JV) with Boeing, manufactures aero-structures for its AH-64 Apache helicopter, including fuselages, etc.
It also makes Crown and Tail-cones for Boeing’s CH-47 Chinook helicopters.
Similarly, Lockheed Martin has joint ventures with TASL in Hyderabad which has manufactured crucial components for the C-130J Super Hercules transport aircraft.
How this has become possible?
The US is simplifying its export regulations for India, through a series of measures.
As US and India together pursue the Indo-Pacific strategy and are enhancing technology prowess.
Boost to India’s civil aviation sector
India has a much bigger footprint in civil aviation manufacturing than defence, in addition to being a major market itself.
Both Airbus and Boeing do significant sourcing from India for their civil programmes.
According to Airbus every commercial aircraft manufactured by them today is partly designed and made in India.
India now has world’s fastest-growing aviation sector and it is about to reach the top three countries in the world in terms of air traffic.
Another major growing area is Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO) for which India can emerge as the regional hub.
Conclusion
The private defence sector is still nascent and a conducive and stable regulatory and policy environment will be an important enabler.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Glyphosate
Mains level: Not Much
The Union Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare has restricted the use of glyphosate, a widely used herbicide, citing health hazards for humans and animals.
What is Glyphosate?
Glyphosate is an herbicide. It is applied to the leaves of plants to kill both broadleaf plants and grasses.
The sodium salt form of glyphosate is used to regulate plant growth and ripen specific crops.
Glyphosate is one of the most widely used herbicide.
In India, glyphosate has been approved for use only in tea plantations and non-plantation areas accompanying the tea crop.
Use of the substance anywhere else is illegal.
How does glyphosate work?
Glyphosate is a non-selective herbicide, meaning it will kill most plants.
It prevents the plants from making certain proteins that are needed for plant growth.
Glyphosate stops a specific enzyme pathway, the shikimic acid
The shikimic acid pathway is necessary for plants and some microorganisms.
What is the recent ban?
Only authorized Pest Control Operators are allowed to use it.
Earlier, state governments of Maharashtra, Telangana, Punjab and Andhra Pradesh have tried similar steps but failed.
The ban notification was based on a 2019 report by the Government of Kerala on prohibiting the distribution, sale and use of glyphosate and its derivatives.
Is it banned elsewhere?
Some 35 countries have banned or restricted the use of glyphosate.
These include Sri Lanka, Netherlands, France, Colombia, Canada, Israel and Argentina.
Hazards of Glyphosate
Health impacts of glyphosate range from cancer, and reproductive and developmental toxicity to neurotoxicity and immune toxicity.
Symptoms include irritation, swelling, burning of the skin, oral and nasal discomfort, unpleasant taste and blurred vision.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kashmir Saffron
Mains level: Not Much
The Directorate of Tourism, Kashmir has organised a saffron festival in the Karewa of Pampore.
Saffron
Saffron is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the “saffron crocus”.
The vivid crimson stigma and styles, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent in food.
Kashmir Saffron
It is cultivated and harvested in the Karewa (highlands) in some regions of Kashmir, including Pulwama, Budgam, Kishtwar and Srinagar.
It has been associated with traditional Kashmiri cuisine and represents the rich cultural heritage of the region.
Its cultivation is believed to have been introduced in Kashmir by Central Asian immigrants around 1st Century BCE. In ancient Sanskrit literature, saffron is referred to as ‘bahukam’.
In 2020, the Centre issued a certificate of Geographical Indication (GI) registration for Saffron grown in the Kashmir Valley.
Major types
The saffron available in Kashmir is of three types —
‘Lachha Saffron’, with stigmas just separated from the flowers and dried without further processing;
‘Mongra Saffron’, in which stigmas are detached from the flower, dried in the sun and processed traditionally; and
‘Guchhi Saffron’, which is the same as Lachha, except that the latter’s dried stigmas are packed loosely in air-tight containers while the former has stigmas joined together in a bundle tied with a cloth thread
Whats’ so special about Kashmir Saffron?
The unique characteristics of Kashmir saffron are its longer and thicker stigmas, natural deep-red colour, high aroma, bitter flavour, chemical-free processing, and high quantity of crocin (colouring strength), safranal (flavour) and picrocrocin (bitterness).
It is the only saffron in the world grown at an altitude of 1,600 m to 1,800 m AMSL (above mean sea level), which adds to its uniqueness and differentiates it from other saffron varieties available the world over.
Policy moves
The National Saffron Mission (launched as a part of Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana) was sanctioned by the central government in the year 2010 in order to extend support for creation of irrigation facilities.
It seeks to facilitate farmers with tube wells and sprinkler sets which would help in production of better crops in the area of saffron production.
North East Centre for Technology Application and Reach (NECTAR) under Saffron Bowl Project has identified few locations in Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya for saffron cultivation.
Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Doctrine of Pleasure
Mains level: Not Much
The Kerala Governor has sought dismissal of a minister from the Cabinet, declaring that he has withdrawn the pleasure of having him in the Council of Ministers.
Doctrine of Pleasure: The concept behind
The pleasure doctrine is a concept derived from English common law.
It says is that a civil servant of the Crown holds office during the pleasure of the Crown.
This means his services can be terminated at any time by the Crown, without assigning any reason.
How is it practised in India?
In India, Article 310 of the Constitution says every person in the defence or civil service of the Union holds office during the pleasure of the President.
Similarly, every member of the civil service in the States holds office during the pleasure of the Governor.
However, Article 311imposes restrictions on the removal of a civil servant.
How arbitrary is this doctrine?
It provides for civil servants being given a reasonable opportunity for a hearing on the charges against them.
There is also a provision to dispense with the inquiry if it is not practicable to hold one, or if it is not expedient to do so in the interest of national security.
In practical terms, the pleasure of the President referred to here is that of the Union government, and the Governor’s pleasure is that of the State government.
Is the governor entitled to exercise his/her displeasure?
Under Article 164, the Chief Minister is appointed by the Governor; and the other Ministers are appointed by the Governor on the CM’s advice.
It adds that Ministers hold office during the pleasure of the Governor.
In a constitutional scheme in which they are appointed solely on the CM’s advice, the ‘pleasure’ referred to is also taken to mean the right of the CM to dismiss a Minister, and not that of the Governor.
Why in news now?
Ans. Issue over appointment of Vice-Chancellor
The latest controversy has arisen after the Governor sought the resignation of several vice-chancellors following a Supreme Court judgment.
The V-C’s appointment of a technical university was contrary to the regulations of the University Grants Commission (UGC).
The appointment Committee had identified only one candidate and recommended the name to the Chancellor for appointment.
However, under UGC regulations, a panel of three to five names should be recommended so that the Chancellor has a number of options to choose from.
How is Governor involved in this?
The Governor, in his capacity as Chancellor of universities, responded by directing the V-Cs of nine universities to resign the very next day.
He contended that the infirmities pointed out by the Supreme Court in one case also vitiated their appointments.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kalanamak Rice
Mains level: NA
Kalanamak, a traditional variety of paddy is all set to get a new look and name.
Kalanamak Rice
Kalanamak rice is a paddy with black husk and strong fragrance, which is considered a gift from Lord Buddha to the people of Sravasti when he visited the region after enlightenment,
It is grown in 11 districts of the Terai region of northeastern Uttar Pradesh and in Nepal.
It’s recorded in the GI application that Lord Budhha gifted Kalanamak paddy to the people of Sravasti so that they remembered him by its fragrance.
What is the upgrade?
The traditional paddy has been prone to ‘lodging’, a reason for its low yield.
Lodging is a condition in which the top of the plant becomes heavy because of grain formation, the stem becomes weak, and the plant falls on the ground.
Addressing the problem, the Indian Agriculture Research Institute (IARI) has successfully developed two dwarf varieties of Kalanamak rice.
They have been named Pusa Narendra Kalanamak 1638 and Pusa Narendra Kalanamak 1652.
Back2Basics: Geographical Indication
A GI is a sign used on products that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities or a reputation that are due to that origin.
Nodal Agency: Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry
India, as a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), enacted the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 w.e.f. September 2003.
GIs have been defined under Article 22 (1) of the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement.
GI is granted for a term of 10 years in India. As of today, more than 300 GI tags has been allocated so far in India (*Wikipedia).
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Air Quality Index
Mains level: Not Much
Air Quality Index (AQI)
AQI measures how safe the air around you is for breathing. Organizations that report AQI measure the density of various pollutants in the air (such as PM2.5, PM10, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, etc) at different monitoring stations.
The widely-used National Air Quality Index (NAQI) given by the Central Pollution Control Board is a 24-hour average.
Its unit is micrograms per cubic meter.
A particular amount of one pollutant may not be as harmful as the same amount of another pollutant.
So, each pollutant’s quantity in the air is adjusted to a common scale (say, 0 to 500) that works for all pollutants.
Finally, the pollutant with the worst sub-index determines the AQI for that time and location.
What are NAAQ standards?
The mandate provided to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act empowers it to set standards for the quality of air.
Hence the current National Ambient Air Quality Standards were notified in November 2009 by the CPCB.
Prior to this, India had set Air Quality standards in 1994, and this was later revised in 1998.
The 2009 standards further lowered the maximum permissible limits for pollutants and made the standards uniform across the nation.
Earlier, less stringent standards were prescribed for industrial zones as compared to residential areas.
Pollutants covered:
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2),
Particulate Matter (size less than 10 µm) or PM 10
Particulate Matter (size less than 2.5 µm) or PM2.5
Ozone (O3)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Ammonia (NH3)
(Air Pollutants that most of us NEVER heard of)
Lead
Benzene (C6H6)
Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP)
Arsenic(As)
Nickel (Ni)
What are Initiatives taken by India for Controlling Air Pollution?
System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and Research (SAFAR) Portal
Air Quality Index: AQI has been developed for eight pollutants viz. PM2.5, PM10, Ammonia, Lead, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, ozone, and carbon monoxide.
Graded Response Action Plan
For Reducing Vehicular Pollution: BS-VI Vehicles, Push for Electric Vehicles (EVs),Odd-Even Policy as an emergency measure
New Commission for Air Quality Management
Subsidy to farmers for buying Turbo Happy Seeder (THS) Machine
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Blue Flag Certification
Mains level: Not Much
The globally recognised and coveted international eco-label ‘Blue Flag’ has been accorded to two new Indian beaches — Minicoy Thundi Beach and Kadmat Beach, both in Lakshadweep.
What is Blue Flag?
The Blue Flag is an exclusive eco-label or certification that is given to coastal locations around the world as a badge of environmental honour.
The programme is run by the Copenhagen, Denmark-headquartered Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE), a non-profit organization.
It seeks to contribute to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations.
It started in France in 1985 and has been implemented in Europe since 1987, and in areas outside Europe since 2001 when South Africa joined.
Certification is awarded annually. A total 5,042 beaches, marinas, and tourism boats in 48 countries have been awarded the label so far.
Criteria for certification
It has 33 stringent criteria under four major heads for the beaches, that is-
Environmental Education and Information
Bathing Water Quality
Environment Management and Conservation and
Safety and Services
Total blue beaches in India
India now has 12 blue beaches. The other 10 Indian beaches on the list, according to the FEE site, are-
Shivrajpur in Gujarat’s Devbhumi Dwarka district
Ghogla beach in Diu
Kasarkod (Uttara Kannada) and
Padubidri (Udupi) in Karnataka;
Kappad (Kozhikode) in Kerala
Eden beach in Puducherry
Kovalam (Chennai) in Tamil Nadu
Rushikonda (Visakhapatnam) in Andhra Pradesh
Golden beach in Puri, Odisha; and
Radhanagar Swarajdeep in Andaman and Nicobar
About the Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE)
The FEE is headquartered in Copenhagen, Denmark.
It was founded in 1981 as the Foundation for Environmental Education in Europe (FEEE).
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Overhauser Magnetometers
Mains level: Not Much
Indian scientists have developed an indigenous Overhauser Magnetometer, one of the most accurate magnetometers extensively used by all magnetic observatories around the world.
What are Overhauser Magnetometers?
A magnetometer is a scientific instrument used to measure the strength and direction of the magnetic field.
OVH magnetometers are known for their higher accuracy, higher sensitivity, and efficient power consumption.
They find applications in all magnetic observatories worldwide as well as in international space programs.
It has so far been imported for such purposes in India.
Feats achieved
The performance of this indigenously made magnetometer is at par with a commercial OVH sensor that is currently installed at the magnetic observatories of IIG.
The Indian OVH sensor reproduced the geomagnetic diurnal variations accurately and precisely.
It showed the signatures of various space weather events such as geomagnetic storms, sudden impulses, etc.
It would also be of potential help to develop a sensitive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) instrument.
Benefits of OVH magnetometers
OVH magnetometers reduce the cost of sampling and sensing experiments essential for geomagnetic sampling.
It can reduce India’s dependence on commercial OVH magnetometers for performing geomagnetic field measurements.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mangarh Massacre of 1913
Mains level: Tribal revolts in India
Ahead of PM Modi’s visit to Mangarh Dham in Banswara district, Rajasthan CM has sought the declaration of the memorial for tribals as a monument of national importance.
About Mangarh Massacre
Mangarh Dham is known for the massacre of tribals by the British Indian Army in 1913.
This place is widely referred to as Adivasi Jallianwala.
About 1,500 Bhil tribals and forest dwellers were killed at Mangarh on November 17, 1913, when the British Indian Army opened fire on the protesters.
The people were gathered to demand abolition of bonded labour system and relaxation in heavy agricultural taxes imposed by the rulers of princely states.
The tribals in the southern Rajasthan region were led by social reformer Govind Guru.
Course of events
Govind Guru started his movement among Bhils in the early 1890s.
The movement had, as its religious centrepiece, the concept of a fire god, which required his followers to raise sacred hearths in front of which Bhils pray while performing the purifying havan called dhuni.
In 1903, the guru set up his main dhuni on Mangadh Hill.
Mobilised by him, the Bhils placed a charter of 33 demands before the British by 1910 primarily relating to forced labour, high tax imposed on Bhils and harassment of the guru’s followers by the princely states.
The Bhil struggle for justice under Govind Guru took a serious turn after the British and local rulers refused to accept the demands and tried to break the Bhagat movement in 1913.
Try this PYQ:
Q. Which amongst the following provided a common factor for tribal insurrection in India in the 19th century?
(a) Introduction of a new system of land revenue and taxation of tribal products.
(b) Influence of foreign religious missionaries in tribal areas.
(c) Rise of a large number of money lenders, traders and revenue farmers as middlemen in tribal areas.
(d) The complete disruption of the old agrarian order of the tribal communities.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PDNA
Mains level: Not Much
Post-Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) is now being done simultaneously in Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Odisha and Meghalaya.
Why in news?
PDNA is now being used to evaluate the financial and social cost of local disasters in eight states in India.
These states all experienced severe flooding in the last few months.
The results of these assessments are likely to come out next month.
What is PDNA?
PDNA is an internationally accepted methodology for determining the physical damages, economic losses, and costs of meeting recovery needs after a natural disaster through a government-led process.
It is an international framework for assessing losses and damages in the aftermath of a disaster.
The framework helps get recovery and reconstruction efforts right following a disaster.
Globally, of the 55 PDNAs conducted worldwide since 2008, only two droughts — one in Malawi and the other Marshall Islands in 2016 — were of slow-onset disasters.
Components of PDNA
PDNA includes a calculation of the disaster’s impact on Gross Domestic Product, the balance of payment and fiscal budget.
Secondly, how this affects the flow of revenue to multiple sectors is evaluated.
For example, the number of farmers’ income affected per damaged acre of land and the livelihoods lost.
Overall, a quantitative assessment is additionally done on the social and environmental impact of the disaster.
History of PDNA in India
This is not the first time PDNA has been conducted in India.
It was first adopted during the Kerala floods of 2018 and again during the cyclone in Odisha in 2019, both unprecedented disasters.
Until now, the assessment was only limited to massive disasters that required international funding from the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank and the United Nations.
15th Finance Commission provision
The 15th finance commission report of 2021, for the first time, made a provision for recovery and reconstruction in the national disaster management budget, which is at the core of the PDNA.
The states did not receive international funding to do the current ongoing PDNAs, as they are expected to take the money from the budget.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Eclipses
Mains level: Read the attached story
India recently witnessed a partial solar eclipse. Let’s take a look over all dynamics of Eclipses.
What are Eclipses?
An eclipse takes place when one heavenly body such as a moon or planet moves into the shadow of another heavenly body.
There are two types of eclipses on Earth: an eclipse of the Moon and an eclipse of the Sun.
[I] A Lunar Eclipse
The moon moves in an orbit around Earth, and at the same time, Earth orbits the sun. Sometimes Earth moves between the sun and the moon.
When this happens, Earth blocks the sunlight that normally is reflected by the moon. (This sunlight is what causes the moon to shine.)
Instead of light hitting the moon’s surface, Earth’s shadow falls on it. This is an eclipse of the moon — a lunar eclipse.
A lunar eclipse can occur only when the moon is full. (But not every full moon is also a lunar eclipse. Can you guess why?)
Observing a Lunar Eclipse
A lunar eclipse can be seen from Earth at night.
A lunar eclipse usually lasts for a few hours.
At least two partial lunar eclipses happen every year, but total lunar eclipses are rare.
There are two types of lunar eclipses: total lunar eclipses and partial lunar eclipses.
A total lunareclipse occurs when the moon and the sun are on exact opposite sides of Earth. Although the moon is in Earth’s shadow, some sunlight reaches the moon. The sunlight passes through Earth’s atmosphere, which causes Earth’s atmosphere to filter out most of the blue light. This makes the moon appear red to people on Earth.
A partial lunareclipse happens when only a part of the moon enters Earth’s shadow. In a partial eclipse, Earth’s shadow appears very dark on the side of the moon facing Earth. What people see from Earth during a partial lunar eclipse depends on how the sun, Earth and moon are lined up.
In a penumbral lunar eclipse, only the more diffuse outer shadow of Earth – the penumbra – falls on the moon’s face. This third kind of lunar eclipse is much more subtle, and much more difficult to observe than either a total or partial eclipse of the moon.
[II] A Solar Eclipse
Sometimes when the moon orbits Earth, it moves between the sun and Earth.
When this happens, the moon blocks the light of the sun from reaching Earth.
This causes an eclipse of the sun or solar eclipse.
During a solar eclipse, the moon casts a shadow onto Earth.
There are three types of solar eclipses.
The first is a Total Solar Eclipse
A total solar eclipse is only visible from a small area on Earth.
The people who see the total eclipse are in the centre of the moon’s shadow when it hits Earth.
The sky becomes very dark as if it were night. For a total eclipse to take place, the sun, moon and Earth must be in a direct line.
The second type is a Partial Solar Eclipse
This happens when the sun, moon and Earth are not exactly lined up.
The sun appears to have a dark shadow on only a small part of its surface.
The third type is an Annular Solar Eclipse
An annular eclipse happens when the moon is farthest from Earth. Because the moon is farther away from Earth, it seems smaller. It does not block the entire view of the sun. The moon in front of the sun looks like a dark disk on top of a larger sun-coloured disk. This creates what looks like a ring around the moon.
During a solar eclipse, the moon casts two shadows on Earth. The first shadow is called the Umbra. This shadow gets smaller as it reaches Earth. It is the dark centre of the moon’s shadow.
The second shadow is called the Penumbra. The penumbra gets larger as it reaches Earth. People standing in the penumbra will see a partial eclipse. People standing in the umbra will see a total eclipse.
Observing a Solar Eclipse
Solar eclipses happen once every 18 months.
Unlike lunar eclipses, solar eclipses only last for a few minutes.
Why don’t solar eclipses happen at every New Moon?
The reason is that the Moon’s orbit tilts 5° to Earth’s orbit around the Sun.
Astronomers call the two intersections of these paths nodes.
Eclipses only occur when the Sun lies at one node and the Moon is at its New (for solar eclipses) or Full (for lunar eclipses) phase.
During most (lunar) months, the Sun lies either above or below one of the nodes, and no eclipse happens.
[III] Planet Transits
When a planet comes between Earth and the Sun, it is called a transit.
The only 2 planets that can be seen transiting the Sun from Earth are Venus and Mercury because they are the only planets that orbit inside Earth’s orbit.
From 2000–2199, there will be 14 transits of Mercury.
However, Venus transits are even rarer with only 2 this century, in 2004 and 2012.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CAR, Basel Norms
Mains level: Not Much
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has placed a private bank under tight monitoring and greater public scrutiny.
What is the news?
The XYZ Bank’s capital to risk weighted assets ratio (CRAR) dropped to around 13% at the end of March this year from 14.5% a year ago.
This has dropped below the Basel III in the past and it has even been placed under the prompt corrective action framework (PCA) by the RBI to deal with serious deteriorations in its financial position.
Under Basel-III norms banks are supposed to maintain their CRAR at 9% or above.
What is Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR)?
Capital adequacy ratio is an indicator of the ability of a bank to survive as a going business entity in case it suffers significant losses on its loan book.
The CRAR is a ratio that compares the value of a bank’s capital (or net worth) against the value of its various assets weighted according to how risky each asset is.
It is used to gauge the risk of insolvency faced by a bank.
How do it affects bank functioning?
A bank cannot continue to operate if the total value of its assets drops below the total value of its liabilities as it would wipe out its capital (or net worth) and render the bank insolvent.
So, banking regulations such as the Basel-III norms try to closely monitor changes in the capital adequacy of banks in order to prevent major bank failures which could have a severe impact on the wider economy.
The capital position of a bank should not be confused with cash held by a bank in its vaults to make good on its commitment to depositors.
Alternatives for bank
The said Bank has been trying to issue additional shares in the open market through a rights issue in order to deal with its capital adequacy woes.
Through a rights issue, the bank will be able to raise more equity capital from existing shareholders.
This is in contrast to an initial public offering where shares are issued to new shareholders.
Back2Basics: Basel Norms
Basel is a city in Switzerland. It is the headquarters of the Bureau of International Settlement (BIS), which fosters co-operation among central banks with a common goal of financial stability and common standards of banking regulations.
Basel guidelines refer to broad supervisory standards formulated by this group of central banks – called the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS).
The set of the agreement by the BCBS, which mainly focuses on risks to banks and the financial system is called Basel accord.
The purpose of the accord is to ensure that financial institutions have enough capital on account to meet obligations and absorb unexpected losses.
India has accepted Basel accords for the banking system.
Basel I
In 1988, BCBS introduced a capital measurement system called Basel capital accord, also called as Basel 1.
It focused almost entirely on credit risk. It defined capital and structure of risk weights for banks.
The minimum capital requirement was fixed at 8% of risk-weighted assets (RWA).
RWA means assets with different risk profiles.
For example, an asset-backed by collateral would carry lesser risks as compared to personal loans, which have no collateral. India adopted Basel 1 guidelines in 1999.
Basel II
In June ’04, Basel II guidelines were published by BCBS, which were considered to be the refined and reformed versions of Basel I accord.
The guidelines were based on three parameters, which the committee calls it as pillars:
Capital Adequacy Requirements: Banks should maintain a minimum capital adequacy requirement of 8% of risk assets.
Supervisory Review: According to this, banks were needed to develop and use better risk management techniques in monitoring and managing all the three types of risks that a bank faces, viz. credit, market and operational risks.
Market Discipline: This needs increased disclosure requirements. Banks need to mandatorily disclose their CAR, risk exposure, etc to the central bank. Basel II norms in India and overseas are yet to be fully implemented.
Basel III
In 2010, Basel III guidelines were released. These guidelines were introduced in response to the financial crisis of 2008.
A need was felt to further strengthen the system as banks in the developed economies were under-capitalized, over-leveraged and had a greater reliance on short-term funding.
Also, the quantity and quality of capital under Basel II were deemed insufficient to contain any further risk.
Basel III norms aim at making most banking activities such as their trading book activities more capital-intensive.
The guidelines aim to promote a more resilient banking system by focusing on four vital banking parameters viz. capital, leverage, funding and liquidity.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bhoota Kola
Mains level: NA
There has been a controversy over the folk art of Bhoota Kola recently depicted in a famous Kannada movie.
What is Bhoota Kola?
Bhoota Kola is an animistic ritual dance performance where local spirits or deities are worshipped.
It is believed that a person performing the ritual has temporarily become a god himself.
This performer is both feared and respected in the community and is believed to give answers to people’s problems, on behalf of the god.
There are several ‘Bhootas’ who are worshipped in the Tulu-speaking belt of Dakshina Kannada, Uttara Kannada and Udupi districts.
It is usually performed in small local communities and rural areas.
How is it performed?
The Kola (or dance performance for the Gods) is basically performed in an area near the temple of the village deity which is usually close to large open fields.
The ritual involves music, dance, recital, and elaborate costumes.
Recitals in Old Tulu recount the origins of the deity and tell the story of how it came to the present location.
The divine medium start their traditional performances as the local folklore called ‘paddanas’ are recited.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sukapaika River
Mains level: Rejuvenation of River
Sukapaika, a small river that stopped flowing 70 years ago in Odisha’s Cuttack district is set to be rejuvenated.
Sukapaika River
The Suka-paika (the dead) River originated from another river, the Mahanadi, near Ayatpur village.
It flowed 27.5 km before meeting the Mahanadi again at Bankala.
In the 1950s, the State’s water resource engineers had in their wisdom closed the Sukapaika river mouth enabling development of the Taladanda Canal System, a major canal of the State.
This led to the river mostly drying up.
The process was aggravated by agricultural encroachments that had sprung up on the riverbanks.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Basmati Rice
Mains level: Not Much
Five new Basmati varieties, developed by a group of scientists from Indian Agriculture Research Institute (IARI), in 2020 and 2021 are all set to bring revolutionary changes in the way this type of paddy is cultivated in the country.
About Basmati Rice
Basmati, pronounced is a variety of long, slender-grained aromatic rice which is traditionally grown in India, Pakistan, and Nepal.
As of 2019, India accounted for 65% of the international trade in basmati rice, while Pakistan accounted for the remaining 35%.
Many countries use domestically grown basmati rice crops; however, basmati is geographically exclusive to certain districts of India and Pakistan.
India accounts for over 70% of the world’s basmati rice production.
The areas which have a geographical indication are in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Western Uttar Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir
Export potential of Basmati
Basmati rice has a market abroad and brings about ₹30,000 crore in foreign exchange every year.
While 75% of the export is to West Asian countries, European Union countries also import Indian Basmati.
However, recently, the export to EU countries faced certain hurdles due to the increase in the pesticide residue levels in the rice from India.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Agni Missiles
Mains level: Not Much
India has successfully test-fired indigenously-developed new generation medium-range ballistic missile Agni Prime from the Odisha coast.
Agni-Prime Missile
Agni-P is a new generation advanced variant of the Agni class of missiles.
It is the sixth missile in the Agni series of ballistic missile.
It is a two-staged canisterised missile with a range capability between 1,000 and 2,000 km.
Many advanced technologies including composites, propulsion systems, innovative guidance and control mechanisms and state-of-the-art navigation systems have been introduced.
Significantly, it weighs 50 per cent less than the Agni 3 missile and has new guidance and propulsion systems
The missile strengthens India’s credible deterrence capabilities.
Back2Basics: Agni Missiles
Agni missiles are long range, nuclear weapons capable surface to surface ballistic missile.
The first missile of the series, Agni-I was developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP) and tested in 1989.
After its success, Agni missile program was separated from the IGMDP upon realizing its strategic importance.
It was designated as a special program in India’s defence budget and provided adequate funds for subsequent development.
Variants of Agni missiles
Agni I: It is a Medium Range Ballistic Missile with a Range of 700-800 km.
Agni II: It is also a Medium Range Ballistic Missile with a Range more than 2000 km.
Agni III: It is also an Inter-Medium Range Ballistic Missile with Range of more than 2,500 Km
Agni IV: It is also an Inter-Medium Range Ballistic Missile with Range is more than 3,500 km and can fire from a road mobile launcher.
Agni-V: Currently it is the longest of Agni series, an Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) with a range of over 5,000 km.
Agni- VI: The longest of the Agni series, an Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) with a range of ICBM 11,000–12,000 km.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Great Indian Bustard
Mains level: NA
The recent sighting of three Great Indian Bustards (GIBs) deep in Pakistan’s Cholistan desert has given rise to speculation that the endangered birds might have flown across the international border from India.
Great Indian Bustards
GIBs are the largest among the four bustard species found in India, the other three being MacQueen’s bustard, lesser florican, and the Bengal florican.
GIBs’ historic range included much of the Indian sub-continent but it has now shrunken to just 10 percent of it. Among the heaviest birds with flight, GIBs prefer grasslands as their habitats.
GIBs are considered the flagship bird species of grassland.
Protection accorded
Birdlife International: uplisted from Endangered to Critically Endangered (2011)
Protection under CITES: Appendix I
IUCN status: Critically Endangered
Protection under Wildlife (Protection) Act: Schedule I
Threats
Overhead power transmission: This has resulted in the electrocution of the bustards.
Poor vision: Due to their poor frontal vision, can’t detect powerlines in time and their weight makes in-flight quick maneuvers difficult.
Windmills: Coincidentally, Kutch and Thar desert are the places that have witnessed the creation of huge renewable energy infrastructure.
Noise pollution: Noise affects the mating and courtship practices of the GIB.
Changes in the landscape: by way of farmers cultivating their land, which otherwise used to remain fallow due to frequent droughts in Kutch.
Cultivation changes: Cultivation of cotton and wheat instead of pulses and fodder are also cited as reasons for falling GIB numbers.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Consider the following pairs:
Protected Area: Well-known for
Bhitarkanika, Odisha — Salt Water Crocodile
Desert National Park, Rajasthan — Great Indian Bustard
Eravikulam, Kerala — Hoolock Gibbon
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (CSP 2014)
