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Type: Prelims Only

  • Governor vs. State

    Appointment of Vice Chancellors by Governor

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

    Why in the News?

    A recent controversy arose in Kerala, where the Governor (ex-officio Chancellor of State Universities) urged the Supreme Court to exclude the Chief Minister from the process of selecting Vice-Chancellors (VCs).

    Who is the Vice-Chancellor?

    • Position: Serves as Principal Academic and Executive Officer of the university.
    • Functions: Bridges executive and academic wings; ensures compliance with Acts, Statutes, and Regulations.
    • Authority: Chairs key bodies such as the Executive Council, Academic Council, Finance Committee, and Selection Committees.
    • Qualities Emphasized: Historical commissions (Radhakrishnan 1948, Kothari 1964–66, Gnanam 1990, Ramlal Parikh 1993) stressed academic excellence, administrative skill, integrity, and vision.
    • Significance: Maintains quality, relevance, and reform in higher education.

    About the Role of Governor and President in Universities:

    1. State Universities:
      1. Chancellor’s Position: The Governor is ex-officio Chancellor, functioning independently of the State Cabinet in university matters.
      2. VC Appointment: As per UGC Regulations, 2018, the Chancellor appoints Vice-Chancellors from a panel recommended by a Search-cum-Selection Committee.
      3. Legal Supremacy: In conflicts between UGC regulations and State laws, UGC norms prevail under Article 254 of the Constitution.
    2. Central Universities:
      1. Visitor Role: The President of India is the Visitor under the Central Universities Act, 2009.
      2. Chancellor: A ceremonial head, appointed by the President.
      3. VC Appointment: The President selects from a panel suggested by a Search Committee and can demand a fresh panel if unsatisfied.
      4. Oversight Powers: The President can authorize inspections and inquiries into universities.
    [UPSC 2014] Which of the following are the discretionary powers given to the Governor of a State?

    1. Sending a report to the President of India for imposing the President’s rule

    2. Appointing the Ministers

    3. Reserving certain bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President of India

    4. Making the rules to conduct the business of the State Government

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) a) 1 and 2 only (b) b) 1 and 3 only (c) c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

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  • Electronic System Design and Manufacturing Sector – M-SIPS, National Policy on Electronics, etc.

    Vikram 32-Bit Processor

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Indigenization Of Technology

    Why in the News?

    Union Minister for Electronics & IT has presented PM with a memento containing the first ‘Made in India’ Vikram 32-bit Launch Vehicle Grade Processor (VIKRAM3201).

    About Vikram 32-bit Processor (VIKRAM3201):

    • Overview: India’s first fully indigenous 32-bit space-grade microprocessor, developed by VSSC–ISRO with Semiconductor Laboratory (SCL), Chandigarh.
    • Lineage: Successor of 16-bit VIKRAM1601 (used since 2009 in ISRO launch vehicles), designed for avionics, navigation, guidance, and mission control.
    • Launch & Validation: Unveiled at Semicon India 2025 as a symbol of India’s semiconductor self-reliance. Validated in space during PSLV-C60 (2025) via POEM-4 experiments.
    • Applications: Primarily for space missions, but also suited for defence, automotive, and energy systems due to its rugged reliability.
    • Policy Support: Developed under India Semiconductor Mission and Design Linked Incentive (DLI) scheme, reflecting policy thrust on indigenous chip design and manufacturing.

    Key Technical Features:

    • Architecture: 32-bit design with support for 16/32-bit fixed-point and 64-bit floating-point (IEEE754) operations, essential for trajectory precision.
    • Registers & Memory: 32 registers (32-bit wide), capable of addressing up to 4096M words of memory.
    • Instruction Set: 152 instructions with microprogrammed control for flexibility in aerospace computations.
    • Performance: Operates at 100 MHz, single 3.3V supply, consumes <500 mW power, with <10 mA quiescent current.
    • Environmental Tolerance: Functions between –55°C to +125°C, fit for space and military conditions.
    • Interfaces: Equipped with four 32-bit timers, 256 software interrupts, and dual on-chip 1553B bus interfaces for avionics communication.
    • Software Compatibility: Optimised for Ada language (aerospace standard); C compiler support under development by ISRO.
    • Packaging & Fabrication: Built in a 181-pin ceramic PGA package, fabricated on 180 nm CMOS process at SCL, Mohali.
    [UPSC 2008] Which one of the following laser types is used in a laser printer?

    Options: (a) Dye laser  (b) Gas laser (c) Semiconductor laser  (d) Excimer laser

     

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  • Judicial Reforms

    Recusal of Judges

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Seperation Of Power

    Why in the News?

    A Madhya Pradesh High Court judge has recused himself from hearing a petition in an alleged illegal mining case, saying that a MLA had “attempted to call him” to have a discussion regarding the matter.

    About Recusal:

    • Overview: Recusal is the act of a judge or official abstaining from a case due to conflict of interest or a possible perception of bias.
    • Legal Basis:
      • There are no codified laws, but multiple Supreme Court rulings provide guiding principles.
      • In Ranjit Thakur v. Union of India (1987), SC held that the test of bias is the reasonableness of the apprehension in the mind of the affected party.
    • Grounds for Recusal:
      • Prior personal/professional association with a party.
      • Having appeared for a party in the case earlier.
      • Ex parte communications with parties involved.
      • Cases where a judge may be reviewing his own earlier judgment (e.g., SC appeals against HC orders delivered by the same judge earlier).
      • Financial or personal interests (e.g., shareholding in a company party to the case).
    • Underlying Principle: Rooted in the maxim “nemo judex in causa sua” — no one should be a judge in their own cause.

    Process of Recusal:

    • Judge’s Discretion:
      • Decision usually rests with the judge’s conscience and discretion.
      • Judges may orally inform the parties, record it in the order, or sometimes recuse silently without explanation.
    • On Request:
      • Lawyers or parties may request recusal; final decision still rests with the judge.
      • Some judges have recused even without conflict, merely to avoid doubt. Others refuse if no genuine bias exists.
    • Procedure: Once recusal is declared, the case is placed before the Chief Justice for reassignment to another Bench.

    Concerns Related to Recusal:

    • Judicial Independence at Risk: Can be misused by litigants to bench hunt (cherry-pick a judge), undermining judicial impartiality.
    • Lack of Uniform Standards: Absence of formal rules might lead to inconsistent approaches by different judges.
    • Potential for Abuse:
      • Requests for recusal may be used to delay proceedings, intimidate judges, or obstruct justice.
      • This undermines both the integrity of courts and timely justice delivery.
    [UPSC 2019] With reference to the Constitution of India, prohibitions or limitations or provisions contained in ordinary laws cannot act as prohibitions or limitations on the constitutional powers under Article 142. It could mean which one of the following?

    Options:

    (a) The decisions taken by the. Election Commission of India while discharging its duties cannot be challenged in any court of law.

    (b) The Supreme Court of India is not constrained in the exercise of its powers by the laws made by Parliament.

    (c) In the event of grave financial crisis in the country, the President of India can declare Financial Emergency without the counsel from the Cabinet.

    (d) State Legislatures cannot make laws on certain matters without the concurrence of Union Legislature.

     

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    The NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission has recently traced the origin of Solar Energetic Electrons (SEE), advancing knowledge of solar activity and space weather.

    NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission

    About NASA–ESA Solar Orbiter Mission:

    • Launch & Cost: Launched in Feb 2020 on an Atlas V from Cape Canaveral; joint ESA–NASA mission worth $1.5 billion.
    • Duration: Primary mission till 2026, extendable to 2030.
    • Orbit: Highly eccentric, approaching 0.28 AU (inside Mercury’s orbit); gradually tilts to image Sun’s poles.
    • Payload: 10 instruments — both in-situ (solar wind, magnetic fields, particles) and remote sensing (imaging, spectroscopy).
    • Firsts & Objectives: First to image solar poles; aims to study solar wind origin, solar cycle dynamics, causes of flares/CMEs, and their impact on heliosphere & space weather.

    What are Solar Energetic Electrons (SEE)?

    • What are they: Streams of high-energy electrons released into space, travelling across the heliosphere.
    • Sources: Emerge from solar flares (sudden surface bursts) and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) (plasma + magnetic eruptions).
    • Patterns: Release not always immediate; often delayed by hours due to turbulence/scattering in interplanetary medium.
    • Solar Orbiter Observations: Detected 300+ bursts (2020–22), clearly linking SEE to solar flares/CMEs for the first time.

    Significance of the recent findings:

    • Science: Clarifies Sun’s particle acceleration mechanisms.
    • Space Weather: CMEs are the main drivers of severe events — affecting satellites, GPS, communication, power grids, and astronaut safety.
    • Practical Utility: Improves solar storm forecasting and early-warning systems for infrastructure & human spaceflight.
    • Long Term Implications: Expected to revolutionise solar physics and our predictive capacity of Sun–Earth interactions.
    [UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?

    1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.

    2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.

    3. Power grids could be damaged.

    4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.

    5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.

    6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.

    7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only (b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only (c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7* only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

     

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  • Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

    Dongar Cultivation of Odisha

    Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

    Why in the News?

    The Dongar cultivation, a hill-slope mixed cropping system of the Kondh tribals in Odisha’s Rayagada is now under decline due to eucalyptus monoculture.

    What is Dongar Cultivation?

    • Overview: A traditional shifting/mixed cropping system practised on hill slopes (uplands) by the Kondh tribal community in Odisha.
    • Crops grown: Millets (finger millet, foxtail millet), pulses, oilseeds, and even uncultivated foods like wild tubers.
    • Benefits offered: Provides nutritional diversity, supports birds and biodiversity, and maintains soil fertility without chemical inputs.
    • Cultural practice: Linked to seed conservation, labour exchange, and community-based farming traditions, reflecting a holistic tribal food system.
    • Significance: Its poly-cropping nature makes it more resilient to rainfall variability and climate shocks, unlike monocultures.

    Other Traditional Cultivation Practices in India:

    Type Key Features
    Bewar / Dahiya (Madhya Pradesh Baiga & Gond tribes, Dindori district) Shifting cultivation; mixed cropping of millets, pulses, oilseeds; similar to Dongar; sustainable tribal food system.
    Poonam Krishi (Western Ghats, Maharashtra & Karnataka) Traditional multi-cropping around rice fields; ensures year-round food and fodder security.
    Pamlou (Manipur) Form of jhum (slash-and-burn) cultivation; rotational clearing of forests; crops include cereals, pulses, vegetables; supports subsistence farming.
    Kuruma / Podu (Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh) Hill-slope shifting cultivation; millets and pulses dominant; threatened by monoculture plantations and forest restrictions.
    Apatanis’ Wet Rice Cultivation – Arunachal Pradesh Intensive valley wetland system; combines paddy farming with fish rearing; highly sustainable and productive.

     

    [UPSC 2018] With reference to the circumstances in Indian agriculture, the concept of “Conservation Agriculture” assumes significance.  Which of the following fall under the Conservation Agriculture?

    1. Avoiding the monoculture practices

    2. Adopting minimum tillage

    3. Avoiding the cultivation of plantation crops

    4. Using crop residues to cover soil surface

    5. Adopting spatial and temporal rop sequencing/crop rotations.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3, 4 and 5 (c) 2, 4 and 5 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 5*

     

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  • ISRO Missions and Discoveries

    Jarosite in Kutch: India’s Mars Analogue Site

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Matanomadh in Kutch, Gujarat, with jarosite deposits like those on Mars, is being considered by ISRO as a test site for future Mars missions.

    What is Jarosite?

    • Composition: A yellow, iron-rich sulphate mineral containing iron, sulphur, oxygen, and potassium.
    • Formation: Develops when volcanic ash or sulphur-bearing minerals chemically react with water, making it a marker of past water–rock interaction.
    • Discovery in India: Reported in 2016 at Matanomadh, Kutch (Gujarat) by ISRO’s Space Applications Centre; also found at Varkala cliffs, Kerala. Kutch is more suitable for planetary research.
    • Martian Link: Detected in 2004 by NASA’s Opportunity Rover. This referred as terrestrial clone of Martian surface.
    • Global Occurrence: Found in Mexico, Spain, Canada, Japan, and the USA (Utah, California), all serving as Mars analogue sites.

    Matanomadh’s Significance for Mars Study:

    • Mars Analogue Value: Geological dating shows deposits about 55 million years old (Paleocene period), resembling early Martian conditions.
    • Test Bed for ISRO: Provides ground for testing rover mobility, drilling systems, geochemical studies, and remote sensing for Mangalyaan-2 and future missions.
    • Astrobiology Potential: Since jarosite can trap organic molecules, it helps in shaping strategies to search for signs of past life on Mars.
    • Complement to Ladakh: While Ladakh sites simulate Martian climate, Matanomadh represents Martian geology and mineralogy, creating a comprehensive Mars-analogue ecosystem in India.
    • Conservation Importance: Facing threats from waterlogging and coal mining; scientists urge its declaration as a Planetary Geo-heritage Site.
    • Strategic Edge: Strengthens India’s role in planetary exploration, astrobiology research, and international collaborations.
    [UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO

    2. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission

    3. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA

    4. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only   (b) 2 and 3 only   (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    Deadly Earthquake in Afghanistan

    Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the News?

    A powerful earthquake in Afghanistan killed at least 800 people and injured thousands, highlighting the country’s extreme vulnerability to seismic hazards.

    Deadly Earthquake in Afghanistan

    Why is Afghanistan so prone to Earthquakes?

    • Geological Setting: Afghanistan lies in the Hindu Kush mountains, part of the Alpide Belt, the world’s second most seismically active belt after the Circum-Pacific.
    • Tectonic Origin: The Alpide Belt was formed by the closure of the Tethys Ocean, following the collision of the African, Arabian, and Indian Plates with the Eurasian Plate.
    • Ongoing Collision: The Indian Plate’s continued movement into the Eurasian Plate builds mountain ranges (Himalayas, Hindu Kush) and drives strong seismic activity.
    • Seismic Characteristics: Afghanistan experiences both shallow-focus earthquakes (0–70 km depth) causing major destruction and rare deep-focus quakes (up to 200 km) unique to the Hindu Kush.
    • Fault Structures: Major faults occur where the Indian and Eurasian Plates meet, making Afghanistan heavily fractured and highly vulnerable to tremors.

    Where do Afghanistan’s Earthquakes occur?

    • Hindu Kush Region (Northern Afghanistan): Produces both shallow and deep-focus quakes due to the Indian Plate’s lithosphere sinking into the mantle, making it one of the world’s most unique seismic zones.
    • Sulaiman Range (SE Afghanistan & Western Pakistan): Known for shallow, thrust fault quakes, often destructive at the surface.
    • Main Pamir Thrust Zone: Another hotspot for shallow, surface-level earthquakes that cause high damage.
    • Overall Vulnerability: These regions together make Afghanistan one of the most earthquake-prone countries, with repeated deadly events since the 1990s.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. In a seismograph, P waves are recorded earlier than S waves.

    2. In P waves, the individual particles vibrate to and fro in the direction of waves propogation whereas in S waves, the particles vibrate up and down at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a)  1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 * (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

    RTE Act and Minority Educational Institutions

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court has referred to a larger Bench the question of whether Minority Educational Institutions (MEIs) are completely exempt from the purview of the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009.

    About Minority Educational Institutions (MEIs):

    • Constitutional Basis:
      • Article 30(1) grants religious and linguistic minorities the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
      • Article 29 protects their cultural and educational rights.
    • Legal Framework:
      • Defined under the National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions (NCMEI) Act, 2004.
      • The NCMEI adjudicates disputes, grants recognition, and safeguards the autonomy of such institutions.
    • Recognized Minority Communities: Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, and Zoroastrians (Parsis) are notified as minorities by the Government of India.
    • Judicial Principles:
      • In T.M.A. Pai Foundation vs. State of Karnataka (2002), SC held that minority status is determined state-wise, not nationally.
      • Minority institutions can reserve seats for their community and enjoy greater control over administration and recruitment.
    • Purpose and Role:
      • Preserve the cultural, linguistic, and religious heritage of minority groups.
      • Provide quality education with constitutional protection from excessive state interference.

    What is the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009?

    • Genesis: Stemming from Unnikrishnan vs. State of Andhra Pradesh (1993), where SC declared education as a Fundamental Right under Article 21.
      • Later given constitutional backing through the 86th Amendment Act (2002), which inserted Article 21A – free and compulsory education for children aged 6–14 years.
    • Enactment: To operationalize Article 21A, Parliament passed the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009.
    • Key Provisions:
      • Free and compulsory education for all children aged 6–14 in a neighbourhood school.
      • 25% reservation in private schools for children from disadvantaged groups and weaker sections.
      • No detention, expulsion, or board exams up to Class VIII (amended in 2019 to allow states discretion).
      • Teacher norms: TET (Teachers Eligibility Test) qualification mandatory; ban on private tuitions by teachers.
      • School Management Committees (SMCs): Parents, local authority reps, and teachers oversee school functioning.
      • Curriculum & Standards: Developed by an academic authority (often NCERT/SCERT).
    • Amendments:
      • 2012: Included children with disabilities; exempted minority/religious institutions.
      • 2019: Abolished uniform “no-detention policy,” left to states’ choice.

     

    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

    1. As per the Right to Education (RTE) Act, to be eligible for appointment as a teacher in a State, a person would be required to possess the minimum qualification laid down by the concerned State Council of Teacher Education.

    2. As per the RTE Act, for teaching primary classes, a candidate is required to pass a Teacher Eligibility Test conducted in accordance with the National Council of Teacher Education guidelines.

    3. In India, more than 90% of teacher education institutions are directly under the State Governments

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only

     

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  • Nobel and other Prizes

    NGO ‘Educate Girls’ wins Ramon Magsaysay Award 2025

    Prelims Only | Trivia | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    The Ramon Magsaysay Award 2025 has been awarded to Educate Girls, an Indian NGO working to promote girls’ education in rural and disadvantaged regions.

    Other winners include:

    • Shaahina Ali (Maldives): A noted environmental activist.
    • Fr. Flaviano Antonio L. Villanueva (Philippines): A human rights defender, critic of Duterte’s drug war.

    About Educate Girls:

    • Founded as: Foundation to Educate Girls Globally; CEO: Gayatri Nair Lobo.
    • Mission: Address gender inequality in education and uplift rural communities through girls’ schooling.
    • Impact:
      • Operates in India’s most rural and remote regions.
      • Employs community workers (preraks, team balikas) to mobilise enrollment and retention.
      • Creates ripple effects: education empowers girls → uplifts families → strengthens communities.
    • Significance: It is the first Indian organisation to win the award since its inception in 1958.

    About Ramon Magsaysay Award:

    • “Nobel Prize of Asia”: Awarded annually since 1958.
    • Purpose: Celebrate “greatness of spirit and transformative leadership” in Asia.
    • Recognition: Individuals/organisations showing integrity in governance, service, and idealism in democracy.
    • Origin:
      • Established April 1957 by Rockefeller Brothers Fund trustees with support of the Philippines govt.
      • Named in honour of Ramon Magsaysay, former Philippine President (1953–57), noted for administrative and military leadership.
    • Original Categories (1958–2008): Govt Service, Public Service, Community Leadership, Journalism & Arts, Peace & International Understanding, and later Emergent Leadership (2001).
    • Since 2009: Fixed categories dropped (except Emergent Leadership), award now honours diverse forms of excellence.
    • Notable Indian Recipients:
      • Vinoba Bhave (1958): Bhoodan movement.
      • Mother Teresa (1962): humanitarian service.
      • Satyajit Ray (1967): cinema.
      • M.S. Subbulakshmi (1974): music.
      • Arvind Kejriwal (2006): anti-corruption work.
      • Ravish Kumar (2019): journalism.
      • Sonam Wangchuk (2018): educational innovation.
      • Educate Girls (2025): first Indian organisation to be honoured.
    [UPSC 2004] Sandeep Pandey, the winner of Ramon Magsaysay Award, is mainly an activist in:

    Options: (a) a campaigner for urban sanitation (b) an anti-child labour activist (c) Environmental protection (d) Education and livelihood projects for Dalits*

     

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    Collapse of Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    A new study warned that the collapse of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is no longer a low-likelihood scenario.

    What is AMOC?

    • Overview: It is a large system of ocean currents, part of the thermohaline circulation (THC) or global ocean conveyor belt.
    • Function: Moves warm tropical surface waters northward.
    • Deep Currents: In the North Atlantic, cooled water sinks and flows back south as deep currents.
    • Global Link: Connected to the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, making it part of a worldwide circulation system.
    • Key Role: Distributes heat and nutrients across the world’s oceans.

    Collapse of Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)

    Why is AMOC slowing down?

    • Melting Ice Sheets: Greenland and Arctic ice melt releases freshwater, lowering seawater density, preventing sinking, and weakening circulation.
    • Indian Ocean Warming (2019 Study): Extra rainfall in the Indian Ocean reduces rainfall in the Atlantic.
    • Temporary Boost: Atlantic water becomes saltier, sinks faster, giving AMOC short-term strengthening.
    • Future Outlook: Effect fades once Pacific and other oceans catch up in warming.
    • Climate Models: Predict a 34–45% weakening of AMOC by 2100 under continued global warming.

    What happens if AMOC collapses?

    • Severe Cooling: Europe and the North Atlantic would face strong cooling.
    • Rainfall Reduction: Decline in rainfall over Europe.
    • ENSO Impact: Altered El Niño–Southern Oscillation patterns.
    • Sea Ice Expansion: Increase in Greenland–Iceland–Norwegian seas.
    • Rain-belt Shift: Southward movement over the tropical Atlantic.
    • Long-term Impact: Global climate instability with regional extremes.
    [UPSC 2012] Consider the following factors:

    1. Rotation of the Earth 2. Air pressure and wind 3. Density of ocean water 4. Revolution of the Earth

    Which of the above factors influence the ocean currents?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 Only (b) 1, 2 and 3* (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

     

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