Why in the News?
Union Minister of State for Science & Technology has launched ‘Bharat Gen’, India’s first indigenously developed AI-based Large Language Model (LLM) tailored for Indian languages.
About Bharat Gen:
- What is it: Bharat Gen is India’s first homegrown AI-based multimodal large language model (LLM) supporting 22 Indian languages.
- Developed By: Created under the National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS) and implemented by the TIH Foundation for IoT and IoE at IIT Bombay.
- Key Features:
- Understands text, speech, and image inputs.
- Works across India’s diverse languages and cultures.
- Designed to be ethical, inclusive, and culturally rooted.
- Support and Collaboration: Backed by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and developed in collaboration with top academic and AI institutions.
- Bharat Data Sagar: A national effort to collect language data for lesser-known Indian languages to train future AI tools.
- Real-World Use: In places like Udhampur, an AI doctor powered by Bharat Gen is helping patients in their native language.
What are Large Language Models (LLMs)?
- LLMs are computer programs that can read, understand, and write language like humans. They can answer questions, explain topics, write stories, translate languages, and more.
- Why are they called “large”?
- They are trained using a huge amount of text from books, websites, newspapers, etc.
- They also have billions of settings (called parameters) that help them understand words and sentences better.
- How do they work?
- LLMs break your sentence into small parts (called tokens).
- They guess the next word in the sentence, one by one, using what they’ve learned.
- This is how they create full and meaningful answers.
- How are they trained?
-
- Step 1 – Pre-training: The LLM reads lots of text and learns how language works.
- Step 2 – Fine-tuning: It is then taught how to do specific tasks like summarising or translating.
- Step 3 – Human Help: People check the answers and give feedback, so the LLM learns to give better responses.
- How do LLMs understand language so well? They use a special model called a transformer, which has tools to:
- Focus on important words in a sentence (self-attention).
- Understand the order of words (positional encoding).
- Learn patterns and meaning using neural networks (like a brain made of computer code).
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| [UPSC 2020] With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?
(1) Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units (2) Create meaningful short stories and songs (3) Disease diagnosis (4) Text-to-Speech Conversion (5) Wireless transmission of electrical energy Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only* (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 |
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Why in the News?
The recent terror attack in Pahalgam has led to lower turnout at the annual Jyestha Ashtami festival at the Kheer Bhawani temple in Kashmir.
About the Kheer Bhawani Festival:
- What is it: The Kheer Bhawani Festival, also called Mela Kheer Bhawani, is celebrated every year on Jyestha Ashtami by the Kashmiri Pandit community.
- Location of Celebration: It takes place at the Kheer Bhawani Temple in Tulmulla village, Ganderbal district, Jammu and Kashmir.
- Deity Worshipped: The temple is dedicated to Goddess Ragnya Devi, an important deity in the Kashmiri Hindu tradition.
- Sacred Spring and Ritual: The temple sits over a natural spring. Devotees offer kheer (rice and milk pudding) as a sacred offering.
- Largest Kashmiri Hindu Gathering: It is the biggest Hindu religious gathering in the Kashmir Valley after the Amarnath Yatra.
- Beliefs about Water Color: Devotees believe that the spring’s color changes based on the region’s condition:
- Light colors mean good times.
- Black water is a warning sign (reportedly turned black in 1990, just before the Kashmiri Pandit Massacre).
- Historical Legacy: The temple structure was built by Maharaja Pratap Singh and later renovated by Maharaja Hari Singh in the early 1900s.
- Ancient Mentions: References to the site are found in Kalhana’s Rajtarangini, Bhrigu Samhita, and Abu’l-Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari, which also mentions flooding in Tula Mula.
Significance of the Festival and Temple:
- Cultural Importance: The temple serves as a symbol of faith and identity for Kashmiri Pandits, especially those displaced.
- Communal Harmony: Local Muslim communities assist in festival arrangements, showcasing communal unity and harmony.
- Spiritual Symbolism: The temple spring, called Syandh, holds spiritual meaning and is not connected to the Sindhu (Indus) River.
| [UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs:
Tradition – State
1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram
2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur
3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim
Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Flowering plants appeared around 130 million years ago and rapidly diversified, puzzling scientists including Charles Darwin, who called it an “abominable mystery”.
A new study by CSIR-CCMB, Hyderabad, has identified the SHUKR gene, which controls pollen development in flowering plants.
About the SHUKR Gene in Flowering Plants
- What is SHUKR? It is a newly discovered gene found in flowering plants like Arabidopsis thaliana. It plays a key role in forming pollen, which plants need to reproduce.
- Function in the Plant Life Cycle: SHUKR is active during the sporophyte phase (the main plant body stage) and helps in producing healthy, viable pollen.
- Effect of Gene Loss: If SHUKR is missing or not working, the plant fails to make good pollen, leading to poor or no reproduction.
- How SHUKR Works: It controls F-box genes, which remove old proteins and replace them with new ones to help pollen grow well.
- Adaptive Advantage: SHUKR and F-box genes evolve quickly, allowing plants to adjust to harsh conditions like heat, cold, or drought.
- Evolutionary Origin: This gene first appeared 125 million years ago in eudicots, a plant group that now includes three-fourths of all flowering plants.
- Why it matters: SHUKR shows that pollen-making is closely linked with the rest of the plant, challenging the earlier belief that these processes were separate.
- Significance: Climate change causes heat-induced pollen damage in flowering plants, but genes like SHUKR could help develop climate-resilient crops.
Back2Basics: Darwin’s “Abominable Mystery”
- Darwin’s Confusion: Charles Darwin was puzzled by the sudden appearance and rapid spread of flowering plants about 130 million years ago — calling it an “abominable mystery”.
- Mismatch with Evolutionary Pace: According to standard evolution theory, species change slowly over time, but flowering plants diversified very quickly, showing great variety.
- Genetic Explanation: The SHUKR gene may solve this mystery by showing how flowering plants gained molecular tools to adapt and reproduce faster.
- New Insight: This discovery offers a genetic explanation for the rapid rise of flowering plants and helps clarify Darwin’s long-standing puzzle.
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| [UPSC 2017] Consider the following statements:
1. Genome sequencing can be used to identify genetic markers for disease resistance and drought tolerance in various crop plants.
2. This technique helps in reducing the time required to develop new varieties of crop plants.
3. It can be used to decipher the host-pathogen relationships in crops.
Select the correct- answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
Assam CM Himanta Biswa Sarma dismissed Pakistan’s claim about China blocking the Brahmaputra’s water as a baseless panic tactic with no scientific substance.
Sarma’s Clarification on the Brahmaputra Issue:
- Brahmaputra is an Indian river and not fully controlled by China.
- Only about 30–35% of the river’s flow comes from China, mainly through glacial melt and rainfall on the Tibetan Plateau.
- A major 65–70% of the river’s volume is generated within India, especially from monsoon rains and Indian tributaries.
- He explained that the river’s flow increases from 2,000–3,000 cubic metres/second at the Indo-China border to 15,000–20,000 m³/s in Assam during the monsoon.
- This proves that India plays a dominant role in sustaining the river, not China.
- Even if China tried to restrict the river’s flow, it could help reduce annual floods in Assam that displace thousands of people.
- He confirmed that China has never threatened to weaponize the Brahmaputra.
|
About Brahmaputra River System:
- The Brahmaputra River System is one of the major Himalayan drainage systems, along with the Ganga and Indus.
- Stretch: It stretches over 2,900 kilometres, making it one of the longest rivers in Asia.
- Origin: It originates in the Chemayungdung glacier in southwestern Tibet, where it is known as the Tsangpo River.
-
- The river flows through Tibet, India (Arunachal Pradesh and Assam), and Bangladesh.
- In Tibet, the river flows slowly with a wide, navigable channel for about 640 km.
- Upon entering India through Arunachal Pradesh, it becomes the Dihang, and later merges with Lohit and Dibang rivers to be called the Brahmaputra.
- In Bangladesh, it is called the Jamuna, which merges with the Ganga (Padma) and Meghna before flowing into the Bay of Bengal.
- The world’s largest and smallest river islands, Majuli and Umananda, are located on the Brahmaputra in Assam.
- Important Tributaries:
- Left-bank tributaries: Lhasa, Nyang, Parlung Zangbo, Lohit, Dhanashri, Kolong
- Right-bank tributaries: Kameng, Manas, Beki, Raidak, Jaldhaka, Teesta, Subansiri
- States the River Flows Through in India: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, West Bengal, and Sikkim.
- Major Cities on the River: Dibrugarh, Pasighat, Neamati, Tezpur, and Guwahati.
- Major Hydel Projects:
- Arunachal Pradesh: Subansiri, Kameng, Ranganadi, etc.
- Assam: Kopili
- Sikkim: Teesta, Rangit
- Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram: Multiple local hydropower stations
| [UPSC 2016] With reference to the Brahmaputra River, which of the following is/are tributary/ tributaries of Brahmaputra?
1. Dibang
2. Kameng
3. Lohit
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d)1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
D Gukesh, the reigning World Chess Champion, achieved a milestone by defeating world No. 1 Magnus Carlsen for the first time in a classical game during Round 6 of Norway Chess.
Who is D. Gukesh?
- About: D Gukesh is an Indian chess grandmaster (born on May 29, 2006) and the current World Chess Champion.
- Early Start: He started playing chess at the age of seven and quickly rose to fame due to his extraordinary skill.
- Topmost Indian Player: In September 2023, he became India’s highest-rated chess player, ending Viswanathan Anand’s 37-year reign.
- Global Recognition: He is considered one of the most talented chess prodigies in the world today.
His Accomplishments:
- FIDE Master Title: In 2015, he became a FIDE Master after winning the Under-9 Asian School Chess Championship.
- International Master: In March 2018, he became an International Master at the age of 11.
- Grandmaster Milestone: At 12 years and 7 months, he became the second-youngest Grandmaster in history.
- World Youth Champion: He won the Under-12 World Youth Chess Championship in 2018.
- Asian Youth Success: He won five gold medals at the 2018 Asian Youth Championships in classical, rapid, blitz, and team events.
- Chess Olympiad 2022: In the 44th Chess Olympiad, he won individual gold on board one and helped India win team bronze.
- Victory Over Carlsen: In 2022, he defeated Magnus Carlsen in rapid chess at the Aimchess Rapid tournament.
- Crossed 2700 Elo: He crossed the 2700 Elo rating in 2022, becoming the third-youngest to achieve it.
- Broke Carlsen’s Record: In August 2023, he crossed 2750 Elo, becoming the youngest ever to do so.
- Candidates Tournament: He won the 2024 Candidates Tournament, becoming the youngest player to ever win it.
- World Champion Title: On December 12, 2024, at 18 years and 195 days, he defeated Ding Liren to become the youngest undisputed World Chess Champion.
- Indian Chess Legacy: He became only the second Indian after Viswanathan Anand to win the world title.
- Chess Olympiad 2024: At the 45th Chess Olympiad, he helped India win team gold and secured individual gold.
- National Honour: In January 2025, he received the Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award, India’s highest sporting honour.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. In the finals of the 45th Chess Olympiad held in 2024, Gukesh Dommaraju became the world’s youngest winner after defeating the Russian player Ian Nepomniachtchi.
II. Abhimanyu Mishra, an American chess player, holds the record of becoming world’s youngest ever Grandmaster.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: a) I only b) II only* c) Both I and II d) Neither I nor II |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2021] What is Cryptocurrency? How does it affect global society? Has it been affecting Indian society also?
Linkage: India’s leadership in grassroots crypto adoption and the significant investment by retail investors, indicating its presence and potential impact on Indian society. Understanding this impact is a foundational aspect of the broader discussion on regulating VDAs. |
Mentor’s Comment: The Supreme Court’s recent observation questioning the absence of comprehensive crypto regulation highlights the urgent need for India to replace punitive taxation with structured oversight. Between December 2023 and October 2024, Indian investors traded over ₹2.63 trillion worth of crypto on offshore platforms, causing the country to miss out on substantial tax revenues and governance control. The article emphasizes this contradiction—a rapidly growing industry at the grassroots level and a fragmented, reactionary policy at the top.
Today’s editorial will talk about the comprehensive crypto regulation. This content would help in GS Paper II ( Governance) and GS Paper III (Science & Technology).
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
India has kept its top position in grassroots crypto adoption for the second year in a row, according to the 2024 Chainalysis Geography of Crypto report. But this achievement comes at a time when clear regulations are missingand government policies on crypto remain confusing and inconsistent.
What drives India’s lead in grassroots crypto adoption?
- High Retail Investor Participation: Indian retail investors have shown strong enthusiasm, investing $6.6 billion into crypto assets (NASSCOM report). Eg: A large number of small-ticket retail trades contribute to India topping Chainalysis’ 2024 grassroots crypto adoption index.
- Growing Web3 Developer Ecosystem: India hosts one of the fastest-growing Web3 developer communities, driving innovation and ecosystem engagement. Eg: Startups and developers building decentralized apps (dApps) and blockchain solutions across Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities.
- Youthful Demographic and Digital Penetration: A young, tech-savvy population, high smartphone usage, and digital literacy foster wide crypto experimentation. Eg: College students and freelancers using stablecoins and crypto wallets for micro-transactions and cross-border payments.
- Lack of Traditional Investment Access and Inflation Hedge: Limited access to formal investment channels and search for inflation-resistant assets prompt people to explore crypto. Eg: Young earners in semi-urban areas using crypto as an alternative to gold or fixed deposits for wealth storage.
Why did the Supreme Court flag regulatory gaps in 2025?
- Absence of a Comprehensive Legal Framework: The Court noted the lack of clear and cohesive legislation for Virtual Digital Assets (VDAs), which hampers effective regulation and enforcement. Eg: In May 2025, the Supreme Court remarked, “Banning may be shutting your eyes to ground reality,” highlighting the disconnect between policy and practice.
- Overreliance on Prohibitive Taxation Instead of Regulation: India imposed heavy taxes (30% capital gains, 1% TDS) as a stop-gap, without establishing regulatory clarity or investor safeguards. Eg: Despite taxation, crypto users shifted to offshore platforms, leading to over ₹60 billion in uncollected TDSand loss of oversight.
- Risk of Pushing Activity Underground: The absence of regulation combined with enforcement gaps drove users towards non-compliant and unregulated exchanges, increasing systemic risk. Eg: The Court observed that without enabling regulation, users bypassed restrictions via VPNs and mirror sites, undermining regulatory intent.
Who ensures compliance in India’s crypto ecosystem?
- Reserve Bank of India (RBI): As the monetary authority, RBI oversees the impact of crypto on financial stability, capital controls, and payment systems. Eg: RBI issued circulars in 2013 and 2018 warning financial institutions against dealing with crypto-related entities.
- Financial Intelligence Unit-India (FIU-IND): FIU-IND monitors suspicious transactions, enforces anti-money laundering (AML) and counter-terror financing (CFT) norms. Eg: Indian Virtual Asset Service Providers (VASPs) collaborated with FIU-IND to strengthen AML/CFT compliance, gaining positive feedback from FATF.
- Virtual Asset Service Providers (VASPs): VASPs act as domestic intermediaries ensuring KYC norms, reporting standards, and overall ecosystem transparency. Eg: After the 2024 crypto hack ($230 million loss), Indian VASPs enhanced cybersecurity, created insurance funds, and implemented industry-wide security guidelines.
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Where are most Indian crypto assets traded?
- Offshore, Non-Compliant Platforms: A significant portion of Indian crypto trading happens on offshore exchanges that do not comply with Indian regulations. Eg: Between July 2022 and December 2023, Indians traded over ₹1.03 trillion worth of VDAs on such platforms.
- Limited Domestic Exchange Usage: Only about 9% of India’s estimated ₹1.12 trillion worth of crypto assets are held or traded on domestic exchanges. Eg: This limited use reflects investor preference for platforms with broader asset choices or less stringent controls.
How have Indian Virtual Asset Service Providers (VASPs) improved security and compliance?
- Strengthened Anti-Money Laundering (AML): Indian VASPs have collaborated closely with the Financial Intelligence Unit-India (FIU-IND) to enhance monitoring and reporting standards. Eg: This cooperation earned positive feedback from the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) for improved compliance.
- Enhanced Cybersecurity Measures: After the 2024 crypto hack that resulted in a $230 million loss, many Indian exchanges implemented stronger security protocols and real-time risk monitoring. Eg: Exchanges set up dedicated insurance funds to protect users against future thefts.
- Industry-Wide Standardization and Collaboration: Indian VASPs united to create and enforce common cybersecurity guidelines and best practices across the ecosystem. Eg: This collective effort has improved overall trust and resilience of India’s crypto platforms.
Way forward:
- Formulate a Comprehensive, Risk-Based Regulatory Framework: India must develop clear, future-ready legislation that classifies, governs, and monitors Virtual Digital Assets (VDAs) in alignment with global standards (like FATF, IMF). Eg: A dedicated VDA Regulatory Authority or inclusion under SEBI/RBI oversight can ensure investor protection, AML enforcement, and innovation support.
- Strengthen Domestic VASP Ecosystem Through Incentives and Integration: Encourage onshore compliance by lowering tax burdens, supporting innovation sandboxes, and integrating VASPs into India’s formal financial ecosystem. Eg: Offering tax rebates or compliance credits to VASPs adopting stringent KYC/CFT and cybersecurity norms can enhance trust and reduce offshore migration.
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Why in the News?
India’s economic data for 2024–25 shows a mixed picture: the economy grew strongly by 7.4% in the last quarter, which was better than expected, but the overall yearly growth dropped to 6.5% — the lowest in four years since the pandemic.
What led to the higher-than-expected GDP growth in Q4 2024-25?
- Robust Growth in Construction and Agriculture Sectors: The construction sector returned to double-digit growth, and agriculture performed strongly, both of which are key employment generators. Eg: Infrastructure expansion and favourable harvests boosted rural incomes and demand.
- Strong Performance of Services Sector: The services sector maintained steady and strong growth, contributing significantly to the GDP rise. Eg: IT, finance, and hospitality services saw sustained recovery post-pandemic.
- Statistical Boost from Higher Net Taxes: A 12.7% increase in net tax collections inflated the GDP figure, even though underlying economic activity was slower. Eg: Higher indirect tax revenues during the quarter pushed headline growth from ~6.8% to 7.4%.
Why is 6.5% annual GDP growth seen as inadequate despite being the highest globally?
- Below the Required Rate for ‘Viksit Bharat 2047’ Vision: To achieve the developed nation goal by 2047, India needs sustained annual growth of around 8% or more. Eg: The Economic Survey states that consistent 8% growth is essential to meet infrastructure, employment, and welfare needs by 2047.
- Mismatch with India’s Domestic Demands and Aspirations: India’s population growth and development needs demand faster economic expansion, regardless of how the rest of the world is performing. Eg: Even though India outpaces global peers, a 6.5% rate may not create enough jobs or uplift per capita incomes sufficiently.
- Limited Acceleration Potential Under Stable Growth Phase: While 6.5% reflects stability, it also signals a plateau, with low inflation but no signs of rapid acceleration in the near future. Eg: Chief Economic Adviser V. Anantha Nageswaran indicated India may not see major growth spurts soon, making it harder to catch up with long-term development targets.
How do net taxes affect the true picture of GDP growth?
- Artificial Boost to Headline GDP: A significant rise in net taxes (taxes minus subsidies) can inflate GDP figures without a corresponding increase in real economic activity. Eg: In Q4 2024–25, GDP growth was 7.4%, but without the 12.7% surge in net taxes, real growth would have been around 6.8%.
- Distorts Sector-Wise Contribution Assessment: High net tax contributions may overshadow sluggish performance in core sectors like manufacturing or consumption, giving a misleading impression of overall health. Eg: Despite weak private consumption, GDP looked robust due to the statistical impact of increased tax revenue.
Is stable growth enough for India’s transition?
- Stability Reduces Risk but Limits Acceleration: While stable growth ensures low inflation and reduced economic volatility, it may not generate the momentum needed to transform India into a developed economy. Eg: As per the Chief Economic Adviser, India has entered a phase of low inflation and stable growth, but such stability might cap faster economic acceleration.
- Inadequate for Meeting Rising Aspirations: India’s growing population and developmental needs require higher employment, infrastructure, and productivity, which stable but slow growth may not adequately support. Eg: A 6.5% GDP growth may not create enough jobs or income levels to match the goals of schemes like ‘Viksit Bharat 2047’.
- Missed Opportunity in a Global Slowdown: In a “growth-scarce” global environment, India has the chance to become a key economic engine. Relying on stable growth without pushing for higher gains may lead to missed strategic opportunities. Eg: Despite outperforming other major economies, India’s slow capital investment pace until late FY25 indicates underutilization of its potential.
Way forward:
- Accelerate Structural Reforms and Investments: India must boost productivity by investing in infrastructure, manufacturing, skilling, and digitalisation, while simplifying regulations to attract both domestic and foreign investment. Eg: Fast-tracking initiatives like Gati Shakti and PLI schemes can unlock higher economic momentum.
- Enhance Domestic Demand and Job Creation: Policies should focus on reviving rural consumption, supporting MSMEs, and expanding labour-intensive sectors to ensure inclusive growth. Eg: Increasing public expenditure on health, education, and affordable housing can stimulate demand and generate employment.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent this has been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth?
Linkage: Inclusive growth is a core objective for a “transitioning economy” like India aiming for goals such as ‘Viksit Bharat’, and challenges in achieving it represent “growing pains”.
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Why in the News?
A groundbreaking study by Microsoft and WSP Global, published in Nature, shows major progress in making data centres more environmentally friendly.
What are Data centres?
Data centres are specialized facilities used to store, process, and manage data for organizations. They house large numbers of computer servers, network equipment, storage systems, and cooling systems, and form the backbone of the digital infrastructure that powers the internet, cloud computing, and various IT services. |
What are the environmental benefits of using cold plates and immersion cooling in data centres?
- Lower Greenhouse Gas Emissions: These methods reduce emissions by 15–21% compared to traditional air cooling. Eg: Microsoft’s study showed that using immersion cooling in their data centres significantly reduced carbon emissions during peak operations.
- Reduced Energy Consumption: They use 15–20% less energy, as liquid coolants transfer heat more efficiently than air. Eg: Alibaba’s deployment of cold plate cooling led to lower power usage effectiveness (PUE), cutting energy bills and environmental impact.
- Significant Water Conservation: Water usage drops by 31–52%, helping conserve freshwater resources Eg: In water-stressed regions like Arizona, using cold plate cooling helps tech firms operate data centres without heavy reliance on water-based air conditioning systems.
How does life cycle assessment aid in evaluating cooling technologies?
- Measures Full Environmental Impact (Cradle to Grave): LCA evaluates emissions, energy use, and water consumption across a product’s entire lifecycle — from manufacturing to disposal. Eg: The Microsoft-WSP study assessed cold plates and immersion cooling from production to end-of-life, revealing their overall environmental benefits.
- Identifies Trade-offs Between Technologies: LCA highlights sustainability trade-offs, helping compare the true impact of different cooling methods. Eg: It showed that while immersion cooling reduces emissions, the type of coolant used may raise separate ecological concerns.
- Supports Informed Decision-Making for Climate Goals: LCA provides data-driven insights for industry and policymakers to adopt greener technologies that align with emissions targets. Eg: The ICT sector can use LCA results to choose cooling systems that help cut emissions by 42% by 2030, as per global climate goals.
Why is renewable energy essential for sustainable data centre cooling?
- Drastically Reduces Carbon Emissions: Using renewable energy like solar or wind can cut emissions by 85–90%, regardless of the cooling technology used. Eg: A data centre powered by wind energy in Sweden showed near-zero emissions even with traditional air cooling.
- Enhances the Impact of Green Cooling Technologies: When combined with cold plates or immersion cooling, renewables amplify environmental benefits by further lowering energy and water use. Eg: The Microsoft-WSP study found that with 100% renewables, water savings could increase up to 50%.
- Ensures True Sustainability Across the System: Cooling innovations alone aren’t enough if the electricity source is polluting; renewables make the entire system eco-friendly. Eg: A server cooled efficiently but powered by coal-based electricity still carries a high carbon footprint.
In what ways are liquid-cooling methods superior to air cooling?
- Higher Cooling Efficiency and Performance: Liquid-cooling systems like cold plates and immersion cooling transfer heat more efficiently than air, reducing the risk of overheating and improving hardware performance. Eg: In Microsoft’s data centres, cold plate cooling reduced component temperatures significantly compared to air-cooled setups, boosting system reliability.
- Lower Energy and Water Consumption: Liquid methods use 15–20% less energy and up to 52% less water, making them more sustainable and cost-effective in the long run. Eg: Alibaba’s immersion-cooled servers showed reduced electricity bills and water usage in high-demand operations.
To what extent can cooling innovations help meet ICT emission targets by 2030?
- Significant Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Advanced cooling technologies like cold plates and immersion cooling can reduce ICT data centre emissions by 15–21%, directly contributing to the 42% emission cut target set for 2030 (from 2015 levels). Eg: Microsoft’s deployment of cold plate systems showed measurable emissions drops in large-scale data operations.
- Supports Scalable, Energy-Efficient Data Centre Growth: As demand for cloud services increases, liquid cooling enables high-performance computing without a corresponding rise in energy and carbon footprint, helping the sector scale sustainably. Eg: Alibaba’s use of immersion cooling enabled expansion of AI and cloud infrastructure while keeping energy use in check.
Way forward:
- Promote Policy Incentives for Green Cooling Technologies: Governments should provide tax breaks, capital subsidies, and faster approvals for data centres that adopt liquid-cooling systems and renewable energy integration. Eg: Extending schemes like India’s PLI (Production-Linked Incentive) to green tech in data centres can fast-track low-emission infrastructure adoption.
- Mandate Life Cycle Assessments and Emission Reporting: Introduce mandatory Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) and carbon disclosure norms for large-scale data centres to encourage transparent, science-based decisions. Eg: Requiring firms to report environmental impact from cooling systems can guide smarter industry shifts aligned with ICT sector’s 2030 emission targets.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] How will India achieve the target of 50% of its installed capacity from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above objective? Explain.
Linkage: Switching to renewable energy is a more effective way for the tech industry to run energy-hungry data centers in a cleaner, more sustainable way. This helps them meet climate goals and support national environmental targets.
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Why in the News?
The aftermath of Operation Sindoor highlights India’s strategic concerns over the proposed Zangezur Corridor in Armenia backed by Azerbaijan and Turkiye.
About the Zangezur Corridor:
- What it is: The Zangezur Corridor is a proposed land route through Armenia’s Syunik Province that would connect Azerbaijan to its Nakhchivan region, cutting across Armenian land.
- Who supports it: Azerbaijan and Turkiye back the project. They want a direct link without Armenian border checks or customs interference.
- Route Details: The corridor would be about 43–44 km long and pass near the Iran-Armenia border, giving it high geopolitical value.
- Why it’s controversial:
- Azerbaijan sees it as a post-war right after its win in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
- Armenia insists it must have full control and sovereignty over any transport through its territory.
- Turkiye’s Interest: It wants to use this corridor as part of its Middle Corridor project to connect with Central Asia and Europe via land routes.
- Opposition: Iran and Armenia oppose the corridor, fearing it could:
- Isolate Armenia,
- Weaken Iranian access, and
- Threaten Armenia’s territorial integrity.
How it concerns India?
- Strategic Ties: India is a key defence partner for Armenia and supports regional stability in the South Caucasus.
- Trade Ambitions: India is:
- Developing Chabahar Port in Iran,
- Working on a transport route via Iran–Armenia–Georgia to Europe, bypassing Pakistan and the Suez Canal.
- Concerns: If the Zangezur Corridor bypasses Armenian control, it could:
-
- Disrupt India’s land trade route to Europe,
- Reduce Iran’s regional access,
- Weaken India’s strategic reach.
- Larger Geo-Politics: Turkiye and Azerbaijan’s growing influence in the region is worrying for India, especially since Turkiye opposes India’s IMEC (India-Middle East-Europe Corridor).
- India’s Stand: India supports Armenia’s sovereignty and opposes unilateral moves, aiming to:
- Protect its trade routes,
- Preserve strategic balance, and
- Counter regional encirclement.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following pairs:
Regions often mentioned in news : Reason for being in news
1. North Kivu and Ituri : War between Armenia an Azerbaijan
2. Nagorno-Karabakh : Insurgency in Mozambique
3. Kherson and Zaporizhzhia : Dispute between Israel and Lebanon How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None * |
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Why in the news?
As of May 17, Iran holds 408.6 kg of enriched uranium (near to the weapons-grade level) up to 60%, up sharply from 274.8 kg in February 2024, according to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
About the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA):
- What it is: The IAEA is an international organization that promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy and ensures it is not used for making nuclear weapons.
- Establishment: It was created in 1957 following U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower’s “Atoms for Peace” speech. It is autonomous but reports to the UN General Assembly and Security Council.
- Where it is based: Its headquarters is in Vienna, Austria, at the UN Office.
- Members: The IAEA has 178 member countries, including India, which was a founding member.
-
- Promote peaceful nuclear technology use.
- Prevent nuclear weapon development through safeguards.
- Set safety and security standards for nuclear plants and materials.
-
- It monitors the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) to make sure countries don’t misuse nuclear materials.
- It performs inspections, gives training, and supports countries in nuclear emergencies.
- Recognition: In 2005, the IAEA won the Nobel Peace Prize for stopping the spread of nuclear weapons.
IAEA and India:
- India is a founding member: It supports the IAEA’s mission for peaceful nuclear development.
- Nuclear Reactors Monitoring: Out of 22 nuclear reactors, 14 are monitored by the IAEA. These reactors use imported uranium from Russia, Kazakhstan, and Canada.
- Obligations imposed: In 2014, under the Indo-U.S. Civil Nuclear Agreement, India accepted IAEA safeguards to show transparency.
| [UPSC 2020] In India, why are some nuclear reactors kept “IAEA Safeguards” while others are not?
Options: (a) Some use uranium and others use thorium (b) Some use imported uranium, and others use domestic supplies* (c) Some are operated by foreign enterprises and others are operated by domestic (d) Some are State-owned and others are privately-owned |
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Why in the News?
A recent archaeological survey has confirmed that Daojali Hading, located in Assam’s Dima Hasao district, was a Neolithic habitation zone over 2,700 years ago.
About Daojali Hading Neolithic Site:
- Location: It is an important Neolithic archaeological site located in Dima Hasao district, Assam, within the Langting-Mupa Reserve Forest.
- How old is it: Recent surveys by a multidisciplinary team have confirmed the site as a settled Neolithic habitation zone, over 2,700 years old.
- Key discoveries:
- Furnace remains and iron slag, indicating early metallurgical activity.
- Cord-marked pottery, grinding stones, mortars and pestles, and polished stone tools such as arrowheads, celts, and adzes.
- Significance: These findings suggest that Daojali Hading was not just a tool-making site, but a functioning settlement where people lived, cooked, crafted tools, and worked with metals.
Back2Basics: Neolithic Period in India
- The Neolithic Age in India began around 7,000 B.C. and lasted until 1,000 B.C. It is the final phase of the Stone Age, following the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Ages.
- This period is marked by:
- The beginning of settled agriculture andthe domestication of animals.
- Use of polished stone tools like axes, celts, and chisels.
- Construction of mud and reed houses, sometimes using mud bricks.
- Introduction of pottery in forms like grey ware, black burnished ware, and mat-impressed ware.
- A community lifestyle with shared ownership of land and tools.
- Neolithic people in India grew wheat, barley, rice, cotton, horse gram, and ragi, and domesticated cattle, goats, and sheep.
- They lived in circular or rectangular houses, near rivers and lakes, and relied on hunting, fishing, and early farming.
Major Neolithic Sites in India:
| Region |
Site |
Key Features |
| North-Western India |
Burzahom (Kashmir) |
Pit dwellings, stone tools, and animal domestication |
| Gufkral (Kashmir) |
Early agriculture and handmade pottery |
| North India |
Chirand (Bihar) |
Polished tools, fishing economy |
| North-East India |
Daojali Hading (Assam) |
Discussed above. |
| South India |
Utnur (Andhra Pradesh) |
Large stone structures, farming tools |
| Pakistan (Indian Subcontinent) |
Mehrgarh (Balochistan) |
Earliest Neolithic site, settled farming, and granaries |
| [UPSC 2021] Question: Consider the following pairs:
Historical place: Well known for
1. Burzahom : Rock cut shrines
2. Chandraketugarh : Terracotta art
3. Ganeshwar: Copper artefacts
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
The Valley of Flowers in Uttarakhand opened to tourists on June 1 for its annual four-month window.
About the Valley of Flowers National Park:
- Location: The park is in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, within the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve.
- Altitude and Size: It covers 87 square kilometres and lies at 3,352 to 3,658 metres above sea level.
- Protected Status: Declared a National Park in 1980 and became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988.
- Natural Features: Known for its colourful meadows, dense forests, waterfalls, and snow-capped mountains.
- Mountain Range: Lies in the transition zone between the Zanskar and Great Himalaya ranges.
- River System: The Pushpawati River, from the Tipra Glacier, flows through the valley into the Alaknanda River.
- Ecosystem: It is part of the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, which was named a UNESCO Man and Biosphere (MAB) Reserve in 2004.
Flora and Fauna of the Valley:
- Plant Diversity: The valley has over 520–650 species of flowers like orchids, primulas, poppies, daisies, and the sacred brahmakamal.
- Flora by Altitude Zones:
-
- Sub-alpine (3,200–3,500 m): Trees like maple, fir, birch, and rhododendron.
- Lower alpine (3,500–3,700 m): Shrubs like junipers, willows, and geraniums.
- Higher alpine (above 3,700 m): Mosses, lichens, and the blue Himalayan poppy.
- Animal Life: Includes rare species like the Asiatic black bear, snow leopard, musk deer, brown bear, red fox, and the Himalayan monal bird.
| [UPSC 2019] Which one of the following National Parks lies completely in the temperate alpine zone?
Options: (a) Manas National Park (b) Namdapha National Park (c) Neora Valley National Park (d) Valley of Flowers National Park* |
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Why in the News?
The Jharkhand government has announced to establish its first tiger safari in the fringe area of the Barwadih Western Forest Range in Latehar district, which is part of the Palamau Tiger Reserve (PTR).
What is a Tiger Safari?
- About: A tiger safari is a tourist activity where visitors observe tigers in natural-like habitats, usually around tiger reserves.
- Legal Status: The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 does NOT define tiger safaris but restricts construction in protected areas unless approved by the National Board for Wildlife.
- Policy Origin: The idea was formally introduced in 2012 by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) under its tourism guidelines.
- Rules on Tiger Inclusion (2016): Initially, safaris were allowed only in buffer or fringe zones and could host rescued or conflict tigers, not zoo-bred ones.
- Amended Rules (2019): The NTCA later allowed even zoo-bred tigers, with Central Zoo Authority (CZA) in charge of animal welfare.
- Supreme Court Ruling (2024): The court ordered that safaris must be built outside core and buffer zones to protect wild habitats.
About Jharkhand’s Tiger Safari Project:
- Location: Planned in the Barwadih Western Range, outside core and buffer zones of Palamau Tiger Reserve (PTR), in line with the Supreme Court’s order.
- Animal Inclusion: Will house only rescued, injured, or orphaned tigers from various reserves and zoos — not wild tigers from PTR.
- Tourism and Employment: The project aims to boost tourism and create jobs for around 200 locals as guides and staff.
- Approval Process: The plan is still in early stages. After state Forest Department approval, a Detailed Project Report (DPR) will go to NTCA and CZA.
Back2Basics: Palamu Tiger Reserve
- It is located in Jharkhand’s Latehar and Garhwa districts, is one of India’s oldest tiger reserves, established under Project Tiger in 1973.
- Spanning over 1,014 sq. km, it features a diverse landscape of valleys, hills, plains and is nourished by rivers like the North Koel, Auranga, and Burha.
- The reserve is rich in moist and dry deciduous forests, dominated by Sal and bamboo.
- It is home to key wildlife species, including tigers, Asiatic elephants, leopards, and sloth bears.
|
| [UPSC 2020] Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger Habitat”?
Options: (a) Corbett (b) Ranthambore (c) Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam* (d) Sunderbans |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2016] Increasing cross-border terrorist attacks in India and growing interference in the internal affairs of several member-states by Pakistan are not conducive for the future of SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation). Explain with suitable examples.
Linkage: Pakistan is “continually finding ways and means every few years to provoke a conflict” and seeks to “bleed India by a thousand cuts”. These actions are often manifested as cross-border attacks and interference, making this question highly relevant to the conflict dynamic described in the article. This question directly addresses “cross-border terrorist attacks in India” and “interference in the internal affairs… by Pakistan”. |
Mentor’s Comment: India’s recent clash with Pakistan highlights a troubling and ongoing pattern — Pakistan’s military-led and radicalised government keeps trying to destabilise India. Even though India has a clear advantage in technology and strategy, the risk of future conflict remains high. This is due to Pakistan’s lowering nuclear threshold, rising religious nationalism, and growing ties with powerful allies. The clash also showed how modern warfare now relies heavily on technology like drones, radar, and advanced missiles. It exposed India’s weak spots, especially in space-based defence — a major concern if India faces a two-front war with both China and Pakistan.
Today’s editorial will talk about the ongoing pattern — Pakistan’s military-led and radicalised government keeps trying to destabilise India. This content would help in GS Paper II ( IR) and GS Paper III (Defence).
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The recent conflict shows that Pakistan’s military-led leadership keeps trying to find ways to disrupt or hold back India’s progress.
What drives Pakistan to provoke India repeatedly?
- Military Mindset Seeking to Undermine India’s Progress: Pakistan’s military-dominated leadership aims to weaken India continuously despite past defeats, pursuing a strategy to “bleed India by a thousand cuts.” Eg: Recurrent cross-border skirmishes and proxy insurgencies in Kashmir.
- Ideological and Religious Nationalism: Pakistan’s identity is deeply rooted in religious nationalism, seeing India’s secular democracy as its ideological enemy. Kashmir is viewed as a “jugular vein” essential to Pakistan’s national ambition. Eg: Statements by Pakistan’s army chief emphasizing Pakistan as a religious state based on the ‘Kalima’.
- Political Instability and Military Control: The military controls Pakistan’s politics, using conflict with India to legitimize its authority and distract from internal issues. Eg: Military interference in elections and sidelining of civilian leaders like Imran Khan.
Why is Pakistan’s military leadership crucial to regional peace?
- Military Dominance Over Political Power: Pakistan’s military controls key decisions, often overriding civilian government, making it the primary actor in India-Pakistan relations. Eg: The military’s role in disqualifying Imran Khan from elections and influencing the civilian leadership.
- Driver of Conflict and Peace Prospects: The military’s stance determines whether Pakistan pursues conflict or peace with India, as it often promotes hostility to maintain its influence. Eg: Recent provocations and cross-border attacks orchestrated under military leadership despite diplomatic efforts.
- Influence on Regional Stability: As a nuclear-armed force, the military’s policies significantly impact regional security and peace, especially given Pakistan’s alliance with China and involvement in proxy wars. Eg: Pakistan’s military endorsement of religious nationalism and hardline Kashmir policies increases tensions in South Asia.
How did the conflict show the role of drones and tech in warfare?
- Rise of Drone Warfare: The conflict highlighted the increased use of drones for reconnaissance and strikes, making warfare more precise and cost-effective. Eg: Pakistan deployed Turkish Songer drones, while India used Kamikaze drones for targeted responses.
- Airborne Systems & Escalation Dominance: Advanced airborne early warning systems and electronic warfare tools played a key role in gaining escalation dominance quickly. Eg: India’s use of Rafale jets supported by multi-layered air defence systems like Aakash, S-400, and Barak ensured superior aerial control.
- Integration of Tech in Modern Combat: The conflict revealed the importance of system integration, electronic countermeasures, and kill chain efficiency in tech-driven warfare. Eg: Speculation on whether a Chinese J-10C could use Pakistani radar guidance underscored interest in interoperability and tech collaboration in proxy conflicts.
Who controls Pakistan’s key decisions today?
- Pakistan’s military, specifically the Chief of Army Staff (now Field Marshal) Asim Munir, controls the country. The civilian government, led by Shehbaz Sharif, is a puppet government subordinate to the military.
- The military interferes with elections, denies political rights (e.g., to Imran Khan), and shapes Pakistan’s strategic outlook.
|
Where are the gaps in India’s defence readiness?
- Lack of Space-Based Surveillance: India lacks a dedicated satellite system for real-time surveillance, early warning, and secure communication, which is critical for modern warfare. Eg: India must improve its satellite-based reconnaissance to prepare for a two-front warscenario involving Pakistan and China.
- Limited Preparedness for Two-Front War: While India’s strength is sufficient against Pakistan alone, a simultaneous conflict with China would strain resources and expose strategic vulnerabilities. Eg: The need to balance the combined capabilities of both adversaries highlights the absence of a cohesive dual-front strategy.
Way forward:
- Boost Indigenous Space and Surveillance Capabilities: India must rapidly invest in and deploy a dedicated constellation of military satellites for real-time reconnaissance, early warning, and secure communication to ensure situational awareness across borders. Eg: Collaboration between ISRO, DRDO, and private players can fast-track satellite-based surveillance systemsto monitor threats from both Pakistan and China.
- Formulate a Coherent Two-Front War Doctrine: India should develop a comprehensive dual-front military strategy, including integrated theatre commands, logistics readiness, and joint force training, to ensure faster, coordinated responses. Eg: Establishing Integrated Battle Groups (IBGs) and enhancing border infrastructure can increase India’s mobility and readiness for high-intensity, multi-front warfare.
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Why in the News?
India’s industrial output grew by only 2.7% in April 2025, the slowest pace in 8 months, showing a clear slowdown at the start of the new financial year (FY26).
What are the key reasons behind the slowdown in India’s factory output and IIP growth in April 2026?
- Weak Performance of Core Sectors: The eight core industries, which have a 40% weight in the IIP, grew by just 0.5% in April 2026, the lowest in eight months. Eg: Refinery products, steel, and cement showed subdued output, dragging overall industrial growth.
- Contraction in Mining Activity: Mining output shrank by 0.2%, marking its first contraction since August 2024, adversely affecting raw material availability for other industries. Eg: Reduced coal and mineral extraction hit electricity generation and steel production.
- Slowdown in Manufacturing and Electricity Generation: Manufacturing grew only by 3.4% (down from 4.2%) and power generation by 1.1% (down from 10.2%). Eg: Weak electricity demand and reduced industrial usage reflected sluggish overall economic activity.
- Trade and Tariff-Related Uncertainties: Global trade volatility, tariffs, and supply chain disruptions have reduced demand for export-oriented goods. Eg: Decline in orders from U.S. and EU markets affected electronics and textile manufacturing.
- Persistently Low Rural Demand: Consumer non-durables contracted for the third consecutive month, indicating weak rural consumption despite low inflation. Eg: Low sales of food and hygiene products in rural markets signal demand compression in the FMCG sector.
Why is the contraction in consumer non-durables output a concern for rural consumption trends?
- Indicates Weak Rural Demand: Consumer non-durables, such as food and hygiene products, form a major part of rural consumption. A contraction suggests low purchasing power and reduced rural spending. Eg: Declining sales of items like cooking oil, soap, and packaged food in rural areas reflect demand stagnation.
- Signals Broader Economic Distress in Agriculture-Dependent Households: Despite low inflation, rural incomes haven’t risen due to falling crop prices and below-MSP realizations. This affects demand for basic goods. Eg: Farmers selling wheat and pulses below MSP in mandis earn less, reducing their ability to buy essential goods.
- Affects Industrial and FMCG Sector Recovery: Sustained low rural consumption weakens demand for consumer non-durables, impacting production and profits in the FMCG and small-scale industries. Eg: Companies like Hindustan Unilever or Dabur see lower rural sales, leading to reduced factory output and job cuts.
How can implementing MSPs more systematically help boost rural incomes and demand?
- Ensures Price Stability and Income Security for Farmers: A guaranteed MSP reduces the risk of distress sales and provides a stable income floor for farmers, encouraging spending. Eg: If paddy is procured at the MSP instead of below-market rates, farmers are assured of fair returns, enabling them to spend on consumption and inputs.
- Enhances Rural Purchasing Power and Consumption Demand: Higher farm incomes lead to greater spending on goods and services, especially consumer non-durables, which form a bulk of rural consumption. Eg: A farmer earning better returns on wheat is more likely to purchase goods like clothing, packaged food, and household items.
- Stimulates Local Economies and Industrial Output: With higher rural demand, local businesses and FMCG industries see increased sales, encouraging higher production and employment. Eg: Higher MSP-based procurement leads to better incomes in Punjab, increasing demand for tractors, fertilizers, and daily-use goods, boosting factory output.
Who should drive capital expenditure to revive demand?
- Private Sector as the Primary Driver: The private sector must lead CapEx to create productive assets, jobs, and income, especially in manufacturing and infrastructure. Eg: Large firms investing in semiconductor plants or logistics hubs generate employment and boost demand for allied sectors.
- Government as a Catalyst through Public Investment: The government should maintain strong capital spending on infrastructure, rural development, and connectivity to crowd in private investment. Eg: Projects like Bharatmala or PM Gati Shakti improve transport networks, encouraging private factories and warehousing units to set up nearby.
- Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) to Leverage Resources and Efficiency: PPPs can combine government support with private expertise and funding, especially in sectors like renewable energy, urban transport, and health. Eg: Hybrid Annuity Model (HAM) in road construction allows private players to build highways with shared investment risk, boosting economic activity.
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Way forward:
- Boost Rural Demand through Targeted MSP Implementation and Welfare Schemes: Ensure systematic MSP procurement and expand rural employment and income support to revive consumption of consumer non-durables and support FMCG growth.
- Accelerate CapEx through Private Investment and Strategic Public Spending: Encourage private sector-led capital expenditure in manufacturing and infrastructure, complemented by government investments in connectivity and logistics to stimulate industrial output and job creation.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2016] The nature of economic growth in India in recent times is often described as a jobless growth. Do you agree with this view? Give arguments in favour of your answer.
Linkage: The concept of “jobless growth” is highly relevant in a scenario where economic expansion, or lack thereof, is debated in relation to employment generation. A slowdown in industrial output could exacerbate concerns about job creation.
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Why in the News?
A huge 600-million-year-old group of stromatolites was found in Chambaghat, Himachal Pradesh, sparking new interest in India’s ancient rocks and the early history of life on Earth.
What are Stromatolites?
Stromatolites are layered, reef-like structures formed by ancient blue-green algae called cyanobacteria. These tiny microbes trapped and bound sediments in shallow seas, creating mineral mounds over millions of years. They are some of the oldest evidence of life on Earth. |
How do they contribute to understanding Earth’s early history?
- Earliest Evidence of Life: Stromatolites, built by cyanobacteria over 3.5 billion years ago, are among the oldest records of life on Earth. Eg: Stromatolites in Australia date back to 3.6 billion years, showing microbial activity long before complex life existed.
- Oxygen Production and Atmospheric Change: Cyanobacteria in stromatolites performed photosynthesis, releasing oxygen and leading to the Great Oxidation Event(~2.4 billion years ago). Eg: This oxygenation made the atmosphere suitable for the evolution of multicellular organisms.
- Tectonic and Environmental Insights: Their presence in now-mountainous regions like Chambaghat in Himachal Pradesh, originally shallow seas, reveals tectonic shifts and lost oceans. Eg: The Chambaghat stromatolites formed in the Tethys Sea, later uplifted to the Himalayas by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.
Where was the recent significant stromatolite outcrop discovered?
A large outcrop was discovered in Chambaghat, Solan district, Himachal Pradesh. It is located in the pine-clad ridges at around 5,000–6,000 feet above sea level. It belongs to the Krol Group, sedimentary rocks formed in the ancient Tethys Sea.
Why is it unique?
- Large and Well-Preserved Outcrop: The Chambaghat site features an extensive hill covered with stromatolites, not just a few isolated samples. Eg: Unlike other Indian sites where stromatolites are scattered or small, Chambaghat has a whole hill full of these structures, making it exceptional in scale and preservation.
- Relatively Young Stromatolites in a High-Altitude Location: These stromatolites date back about 600 million years and are found at an altitude of 5,000–6,000 feet above sea level. Eg: Their presence so high in the Himalayas tells a story of tectonic uplift, where ancient shallow marine depositswere pushed up from the Tethys Sea due to India’s collision with Eurasia.
- Accessible and Visible Geological Heritage: The site is easily accessible and visible to researchers, locals, and tourists, making it a prime candidate for preservationand education. Eg: Many stromatolite sites in India are obscure or hard to reach, but Chambaghat offers a natural exhibit that could help raise public awareness about Earth’s early history.
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Why is there scientific disagreement about the importance of the Chambaghat stromatolites?
- Not True Fossils but Biosedimentary Structures: Some scientists argue that stromatolites are organo-sedimentary structures, formed by trapped sediments and calcium carbonate, rather than preserved fossils of organisms. Eg: fossils are inaccurate because the original organisms are not preserved, only the structures formed by cyanobacteria.
- Common and Widespread Geological Features: Stromatolites are found all over India and globally, so some experts feel the Chambaghat stromatolites are not a rare or unique discovery. Eg: The oldest stromatolites in India, like those in Dharwad, Karnataka (2,500 million years old), and worldwide (3.6 billion years old in Australia) are much older and more significant.
- Not the Oldest or Most Unique Evidence of Life: While Chambaghat stromatolites are impressive, they are relatively young compared to other sites and not the earliest proof of life. Eg: Dr Arun Deep Ahluwalia notes that stromatolites in the Krol Belt are the youngest stromatolites, making them less important for studying the very earliest life forms.
What is the significance of preserving stromatolite sites like Chambaghat?
- Educational and Scientific Value: Preserving stromatolite sites helps in studying Earth’s early life and geological history, providing valuable insights into how oxygenation of the atmosphere led to complex life. Eg: Chambaghat’s stromatolites can be used as an exhibit for students and researchers to understand the origin of life and ancient marine environments.
- Cultural and Geoheritage Importance: Protecting these sites promotes public awareness and tourism, fostering a sense of pride and responsibility towards India’s unique geological heritage. Eg: Creating a Geoheritage Park at Chambaghat can engage locals, tourists, and schools, preserving the site while boosting local economy and education.
Way forward:
- Formal Protection and Geoheritage Park Development: Declare Chambaghat stromatolite site a protected geological monument and develop it into a Geoheritage Park to ensure conservation, promote scientific research, and boost geo-tourism.
- Public Awareness and Educational Outreach: Launch educational programs and community engagement initiatives involving schools, researchers, and local stakeholders to increase awareness about the site’s scientific and cultural significance.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] What is Cryptocurrency? How does it affect global society? Has it been affecting Indian society also?
Linkage: The growing importance of cryptocurrency, its disruptive potential in global finance, and its implications for India, specifically mentioning India’s significant number of crypto users. This PYQ demonstrates the UPSC’s interest in the fundamental understanding and societal effects of this technology.
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Why in the News?
Prime Minister paid tributes to Lokmata Ahilyabai Holkar on her 300th birth anniversary.
About Ahilyabai Holkar:
- Early Life: Born on May 31, 1725, in Chondi village, (in erstwhile Ahilyanagar District) Maharashtra, Ahilyabai belonged to the Shephard community. Her father, a village head, taught her to read and write—rare for girls then.
- Marriage and Loss: Married to Khande Rao Holkar in 1733, she was widowed in 1754. Her father-in-law, Malhar Rao Holkar, saw her potential and stopped her from committing sati.
- Rise to power: After the deaths of her husband, father-in-law, and son, she became ruler of Malwa in 1765 with support from the Peshwa and her army.
- Capital and Leadership: She moved the capital to Maheshwar, making it a centre of culture, governance, and trade.
- Military and Administration: Ahilyabai personally led armies and appointed Tukoji Rao Holkar as military commander. She promoted justice, welfare, and agricultural growth.
Legacy and Contributions:
- Temple Restoration: Rebuilt presend-day Kashi Vishwanath Temple in 1780 and renovated shrines across India, including in Somnath, Haridwar, Pushkar, and Rameswaram.
- Pilgrim Support: Built rest houses, pilgrim shelters, and ghats to support religious travellers.
- Maheshwari Sari and Weavers: Promoted the handloom industry, empowering local weavers and women economically.
- Social Reforms: Protected widows’ rights, supported tribal communities, and ran a secular and inclusive administration.
- Cultural Patronage: Her court welcomed poets and scholars, including Moropant and Khushali Ram, making Maheshwar an intellectual hub.
- Peaceful Rule: Her 30-year reign was free from war, making Malwa a rare place of peace and prosperity in a chaotic era.
- Recognition: Jawaharlal Nehru called her an able ruler; British historian John Keay called her “The Philosopher Queen”.
- Ongoing Honour: A proposal exists to rename Ahmednagar in Maharashtra as Punyashlok Ahilyadevi Nagar in her memory.
| [UPSC 2009] With reference to Stree Shakti Puraskar, for which of the following is ‘Devi Ahilya Bai Holkar Award’ given?
Options: (a) Administrative skills (b) Achievements in Scientific Research (c) Achievements in Sports and Games (d) Courage and valour* |
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Why in the News?
Scientists at Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bengaluru have developed a super-fast charging Sodium-ion battery.
About Sodium-Ion Battery and Its Working:
- What it is: Sodium-ion batteries are rechargeable batteries that use sodium (Na⁺) ions to carry electric charge, instead of lithium.
- How it works: During charging and discharging, sodium ions move between the anode (negative) and cathode (positive) — similar to how lithium-ion batteries function.
- Innovation: A sodium-ion battery developed by JNCASR uses NASICON-type chemistry, a special material structure that ensures fast ion movement and stability.
- Performance Boost: The team used nano-particles, added a carbon coating, and used aluminium doping to improve charging speed and battery life.
- Fast Charging & Long Life: The battery can charge up to 80% in 6 minutes and last over 3,000 charge-discharge cycles.
- Tested for Safety: The battery passed tests using electrochemical cycling and quantum simulations, proving it is safe and durable.
Advantages over Lithium-Ion Batteries:
- Sodium is abundant and cheaper than lithium, and it can be extracted from seawater.
- Sodium-ion batteries are safer, as they can be transported at zero voltage and used in high temperatures without risk of fire.
- They are more eco-friendly, with less environmental damage during extraction compared to lithium.
- Material costs are lower because they use aluminium instead of copper.
- India can reduce its dependence on China, which controls much of the lithium battery supply chain.
- These batteries are ideal for renewable energy applications, such as solar grids, electric vehicles, drones, and rural electrification in extreme climates.
| [UPSC 2025] In the context of electric vehicles, consider the following elements:
I. Cobalt II. Graphite III. Lithium IV. Nickel
How many of the above usually make up battery cathodes?
(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three * (d) All the four |
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Why in the News?
The Minister of State for Commerce and Industry inaugurated the new unified headquarters of the Quality Council of India (QCI) at the World Trade Centre in New Delhi.
About Quality Council of India (QCI):
- Establishment: QCI was set up in 1997 as an autonomous, non-profit body through a public-private partnership between the GoI and industry associations ASSOCHAM, CII, and FICCI.
- Legal Status: It is registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
- Leadership: Ratan Tata was QCI’s first Chairman; the current chairman is appointed by Prime Minister.
- Parent Department: QCI works under the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
- Role: Acts as India’s national accreditation body, offering independent assessments of products, services, and processes.
- Mission: To improve quality standards in key areas like education, healthcare, environment, governance, and infrastructure.
- Financial Model: It is a self-sustaining organisation, generating its own revenue without regular government funding.
Structure, Divisions, and Key Functions:
- Governing Council: A 38-member council with equal representation from government, industry, and stakeholders oversees QCI.
- Key Divisions: QCI operates through 5 major boards, each focusing on a different sector:
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- National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories
- National Accreditation Board for Hospitals and Healthcare Providers
- National Accreditation Board for Education and Training
- National Accreditation Board for Certification Bodies
- National Board for Quality Promotion
- Core Activities:
- Develops accreditation systems and quality frameworks.
- Conducts third-party audits for schemes like Swachh Bharat Abhiyan and Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana.
- Runs the National Quality Campaign to build a culture of quality across sectors.
- Helps boost India’s global competitiveness through quality certification and awareness initiatives.
| [UPSC 2017] With reference to Quality Council of India (QCI), consider the following statements:
1. QCI was set up jointly by the Government of India and the Indian Industry.
2. Chairman of QCI is appointed by the Prime Minister on the recommendations of the industry to the Government.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The 17th edition of the India–Mongolia Joint Military Exercise NOMADIC ELEPHANT is being held in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia from May 31 to June 13, 2025.
About Exercise NOMADIC ELEPHANT:
- About: It is a bilateral military exercise between the Indian Army and the Mongolian Armed Forces.
- Launch Year: It was first conducted in 2004 in Mongolia, followed by the second edition in 2005 in Vairengte, Mizoram.
- Frequency and Hosting: The exercise is held annually, with India and Mongolia alternating as hosts.
- Recent Editions: The 15th edition was conducted in Ulaanbaatar in July 2023, and the 16th edition was held at Umroi, Meghalaya in July 2024.
Objectives and Focus:
- Interoperability: The main goal is to improve joint operational coordination between the two-armed forces.
- Terrain Focus: It trains troops for task force operations in semi-urban and mountainous regions under a UN peacekeeping mandate.
- Counter-Terrorism Training: The exercise enhances capabilities in counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency operations.
- Regional Cooperation: It helps build mutual trust, encourages regional peace, and supports strategic cooperation.
| [UPSC 2008] ‘Hand-in-Hand 2007’, a joint anti-terrorism military training was held by the officers of the Indian Army and officers of the Army of which one of the following countries?
Options: (a) China (b) Japan (c) Russia (d) USA* |
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