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Type: Prelims Only

  • Sugar Industry – FRP, SAP, Rangarajan Committee, EBP, MIEQ, etc.

    Centre hikes Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of Sugarcane for 2025-26

    Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Issues Related To Farm Subsidies & Msp

    Why in the News?

    The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs has approved an increase in the Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane for the 2025-26 sugar season, raising it from ₹340 per quintal to ₹355 per quintal.

    About Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP):

    • The FRP for sugarcane is set under the Sugarcane Control Order, 1966.
    • It replaced the Statutory Minimum Price (SMP) in 2009-10 to better align with economic conditions and improve farmers’ welfare.
    • It represents the minimum price sugar mills must pay to farmers for sugarcane.
    • It is determined by the central government based on Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommendations, with discussions involving state authorities and sugar industry associations.
    • Factors Influencing FRP:
      1. Cost of production: ₹173 per quintal for 2025-26.
      2. Return from alternative crops: Comparison of potential earnings from other crops.
      3. Consumer sugar prices: Affects sugar production costs.
      4. Sale price of sugar: Influences the FRP.
      5. Sugarcane-to-sugar recovery rate: Efficiency of conversion.
      6. Income from by-products: Including molasses and bagasse.
      7. Profit margins for farmers: Ensures financial viability.
    • State Agreed Price (SAP): States can set SAP, often higher than the FRP, based on local conditions.
    • Minimum Selling Price (MSP) for sugar was introduced in 2018 to protect farmers, including FRP and conversion costs.

    Sugarcane Cultivation in India:

    • Sugarcane is India’s highest production-value crop, key for producing sugar, jaggery, and khan sari.
    • Major states: Uttar Pradesh (contributes 50% of total production), Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.  
    • Sugarcane thrives in a tropical climate (21°C – 27°C), with 75cm-150cm rainfall. It needs well-drained soil and a cool, dry winter for ripening.
    • India has the largest global sugarcane cultivation area after Brazil.
    • The ratooning method reduces costs by allowing a second crop from the same roots.
    [UPSC 2015] The Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane is approved by the:

    Options: (a) Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs* (b) Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (c) Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture (d) Agricultural Produce Market Committee

     

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  • Digital Access a FR under Right to Life and Liberty: Supreme Court

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court has ruled that inclusive and meaningful Digital Access to e-governance and welfare systems is a part of the Fundamental Right to Life and Liberty under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.

    Key Highlights of the Judgment:

    • Inclusive Digital Access: The Court ruled on April 30, 2025, that access to e-governance and welfare systems is a fundamental right under Article 21, requiring inclusive digital ecosystems, especially for marginalised groups.
    • Focus on KYC Processes: It issued 20 directions to make digital KYC processes more accessible for acid attack survivors and the visually impaired.
    • Digital Divide: It recognised the digital divide as a constitutional issue, emphasising the need for equal access to digital platforms for essential services and opportunities.

    About Article 21 of the Indian Constitution and its Scope:

    • Article 21 reads: “No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.”
    • Initially focused on protecting life from arbitrary state action, it has been expanded to include living with dignity.
    • Key Judicial Expansions:
      • Maneka Gandhi vs. Union of India (1978): Right to live with dignity, requiring a fair, just, and reasonable procedure.
      • Sunil Batra vs. Delhi Administration (1978): Right to live a healthy life and preserve cultural heritage.
      • Bandhua Mukti Morcha vs. Union of India (1984): Linking Article 21 with the Directive Principles of State Policy, ensuring abolition of forced labour.
      • Subramaniam Swamy vs. Union of India (2016): Recognized right to reputation as part of Article 21.
      • Olga Tellis vs. Bombay Municipal Corporation (1985): Recognized right to livelihood as part of Article 21.
      • Aruna Shanbaug case (2011): Recognized the right to die with dignity as part of Article 21.
      • K.S. Puttaswamy vs. Union of India (2017): Right to privacy recognized as an essential part of Article 21.

    Other Judgments Related to Digital Empowerment

    • Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978): Laid the foundation for inclusive digital rights, stating that procedures restricting fundamental rights must be fair, just, and reasonable.
    • Faheema Shirin RK v. State of Kerala (2019): Recognized right to access the internet as part of Article 21 and Article 21A (Right to Education). Denying students internet access in hostels was held unconstitutional.
    • Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India (2020): SC held that Article 19(1)(a) protects the freedom of speech and expression via the internet, and Article 19(1)(g) safeguards the right to trade online. Restrictions on these rights must meet the tests of reasonableness and proportionality.

     

    [UPSC 2024] Under which of the following Articles of the Constitution of India, has the Supreme Court of India placed the Right to Privacy?

    Options: (a) Article 15 (b) Article 16 (c) Article 19 (d) Article 21*

     

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    ITER Tokamak Reactor

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Why in the News?

    Scientists working on the world’s largest nuclear fusion project ITER has completed its main magnet system with India playing a key role in building critical infrastructure.

    About ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor):

    • ITER is the world’s largest nuclear fusion research project, aimed at demonstrating that nuclear fusion can be a safe, carbon-free, and sustainable energy source.
    • It involves 35 nations, including the EU, US, China, India, Japan, South Korea, and Russia.
    • It uses deuterium and tritium (hydrogen isotopes) to undergo fusion at temperatures over 150 million °C, 10 times hotter than the sun’s core, producing large amounts of energy.
    • Its goal is to achieve a fusion gain (Q) of 10, producing 500 megawatts of fusion power from just 50 megawatts of input heating power, a 10x gain.
    • Launched in 1985 and officially founded in 2006, the project began construction in 2007 and is expected to start its operations in 2033.
    • The tokamak is a doughnut-shaped magnetic fusion device used to contain the hot plasma required for nuclear fusion.
    • It uses powerful superconducting magnets to confine plasma and prevent it from touching the reactor walls.

    India’s Role in ITER/Tokamak:

    • India has been a full partner in ITER since 2005, contributing expertise and technology to key aspects of the project.
    • It has designed and manufactured the cryostat, a 30-meter-high, 30-meter-diameter vacuum shell made of stainless steel that houses the ITER tokamak and maintains the ultra-cold environment needed for superconducting magnets.
    • It has developed in-wall shielding to protect ITER’s components from heat generated during fusion reactions.
    • It provides cryogenic systems to cool the superconducting magnets and RF heating systems to heat the plasma to fusion temperatures.
    • It has contributed to developing the superconducting magnets, which are essential for plasma confinement inside the tokamak.

    Note:

    • India manages ITER-India, a project under the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), overseeing key contributions, including diagnostics, power supplies, and other infrastructure.
    • It is also working on the development of a tritium breeding module for future fusion reactors, ensuring self-sufficiency in this critical fuel.

     

    [UPSC 2016] India is an important member of the ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor’. If this experiment succeeds, what is the immediate advantage for India?

    Options: (a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power generation (b) It attain a global role in satellite-navigation (c) It can drastically improve the efficiency of its fission reactors in power generation (d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation*

     

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  • Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

    Satavahana Inscriptions found in Telangana

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    A recent survey by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) uncovered eleven inscriptions in Telangana’s Gundaram Reserve Forest, offering key insights into the region’s ancient history, particularly during the Satavahana period.

    Key Findings about the Inscriptions:

    • One inscription mentions a person from the Haritiputra lineage, indicating a connection between the Satavahanas and Chutu dynasty.
    • The site includes religious symbols such as a trident and damaru, marking the first known religious iconography in early inscriptions of South India.
    • The inscriptions reinforce findings from Mukkutraopet and Kotilingala, identifying Telangana as part of the Asmaka Mahajanapada.

    Satavahana Inscriptions found in Telangana

    About the Satavahana Dynasty: 

    • The Satavahana dynasty emerged after the fall of the Mauryan Empire around 60 BCE, ruling over Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh.
    • Simuka, the founding king, reigned from 60 BC to 37 BC and was succeeded by his brother Kanha.
    • Notable Rulers:
      • Satakarni I (70–60 BC) conquered western Malwa from the Shungas.
      • Gautamiputra Satakarni (106–130 AD) expanded the empire and patronized Brahmanism and Buddhism.
      • Vashishtaputra Pulamayi (130–154 AD) extended his reign to the mouth of the Krishna River.
      • Yajna Sri Satakarni (165–194 AD) was the last great ruler, expanding the empire to Kokan and Malwa.
    • Art and Architecture: The Amaravati School of Art flourished during this period, with marble sculptures depicting Buddhist narratives. The Satavahanas promoted rock-cut architecture, including Chaityas and Viharas (e.g., Karle Caves, Ajanta Caves).
    • Economic and Administrative Contributions: The Satavahanas fostered trade with the Romans, promoted agriculture, and implemented a mixed revenue system. They also introduced tax-free villages for Brahmins and Buddhist monks.
    • Religious and Social Structure: The Satavahanas promoted Brahmanism and Vedic sacrifices and supported Buddhism. The Varna system governed social structure.
    • Decline of the Satavahana Dynasty: The empire weakened due to weak rulers after Yajna Sri Satakarni and was eventually fragmented by feudatories and invasions from the Shakas.
    • Military Organization: The Satavahanas maintained a large military with 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, and 1,000 elephants.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha was assassinated by his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Sunga. 2. The last Sunga king, Devabhuti was assassinated by his Brahmana minister Vasudeva Kanva who usurped the throne. 3. The last ruler of the Kanva dynasty was deposed by the Andhras.

    Which of these statements is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 2 (c) Only 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

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  • Minority Issues – SC, ST, Dalits, OBC, Reservations, etc.

    Govt. approves ‘Caste Census’

    Prelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Salient features of Indian Society

    Why in the News?

    In a landmark move, the Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs (CCPA) has approved the inclusion of caste enumeration in the 2025 population census for the first time since India’s independence.

    What is Caste Census?

    • A caste census is the process of recording individuals’ caste identities during a national census.
    • It aims to gather data on the distribution and socio-economic status of different caste groups, helping inform policies related to affirmative action, social justice, and welfare programs in India.
    • Caste plays a significant role in the country’s social, economic, and political life.
    • History of Caste Census:
      • British India (1881–1931): Caste enumeration was part of the decennial census under British rule, used for administrative purposes.
      • Post-Independence (1951): After independence, the Indian government, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, discontinued caste enumeration to promote national unity and avoid social divisions.
      • 1961 Directive: States were allowed to collect their own data on Other Backward Classes (OBCs), leading to fragmented caste data collection at the state level.
      • 1980 Mandal Commission: The commission recommended 27% reservation for OBCs in government jobs, fuelling the demand for caste-based data. The lack of national caste data made the implementation of such policies contentious.
      • 2011 Socio-Economic Caste Census (SECC): The SECC collected caste data, but it was not officially integrated into the census, and its findings were not fully released, drawing criticism for lack of transparency and application.

    Implications of Caste Census:

    • Political: It can help improve representation for marginalized groups and ensure better-targeted welfare programs.
    • Social: Unveils intersectional disparities, helping identify gaps in services like education, healthcare, and social protection.
    • Policy: Aids in shaping reservation policies and resource allocation for poverty alleviation.
    • Opposition and Concerns: Some worry it may reinforce caste-based divisions, particularly among upper-caste groups and certain political factions.
    • Electoral and Governance: Accurate data influences electoral strategies, helping parties address community-specific needs.
    • Legal and Administrative Impact: The 2025 caste enumeration raises issues regarding data collection, classification, and use, ensuring it is applied effectively without reinforcing caste-based disparities.
    [UPSC 2008] Amongst the following States, which one has the highest percentage of rural population (on the basis of the Census, 2001)?

    Options: (a) Himachal Pradesh* (b) Bihar (c) Odisha (d) Uttar Pradesh

     

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  • Defence Sector – DPP, Missions, Schemes, Security Forces, etc.

    Government revamps National Security Advisory Board (NSAB)

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Why in the News?

    The Union Government has reconstituted the National Security Advisory Board (NSAB), appointing Alok Joshi, former chief of the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), as its new chairman.

    About National Security Advisory Board (NSAB):

    • The NSAB is a high-level advisory body to the National Security Council (NSC).
    • It plays a crucial role in shaping national security policies and responses to both internal and external threats.
    • Composition: The NSAB includes eminent individuals from sectors like the armed forces, IPS, IFS, academia, and civil society, selected for expertise in areas such as defense, foreign affairs, internal security, economic affairs, and science & technology.
    • Key Functions:
      • Provide expert analysis on long-term security issues to the NSC.
      • Recommend solutions and policies on matters referred by the NSC.
      • Contribute significantly to India’s Nuclear Doctrine, Strategic Defence Reviews, and other critical policy frameworks.

    Back2Basics: National Security Council (NSC)

    • The NSC is the apex body advising the Prime Minister on national security and foreign policy matters, coordinating the government’s efforts to ensure the nation’s security.
    • It was established on 19 November 1998 by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
    • Members: National Security Advisor (NSA), Chief of Defence Staff (CDS), Ministers of Defence, External Affairs, Home, and Finance, Deputy NSA, Additional NSAs, and the Vice Chairman of NITI Aayog.
    • Three-Tier Structure:
      • Strategic Policy Group (SPG): Highest decision-making body.
      • NSAB: Provides advisory support.
      • NSCS: Implements NSC decisions.
    • In July 2024, the NSCS was revamped to fill the Additional NSA post, delegating internal security management and threat analysis to enhance the NSA’s focus on broader challenges.

     

    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. According to the Constitution of India, the Central Government has a duty to protect States from internal disturbances. 2. The Constitution of India exempts the States from providing legal counsel to person being held for preventive detention 3. According to the Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002, confession of the accused before the police cannot be used as evidence.

    How many of the above statements are correct?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

     

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  • Cosmic Clumpiness and the S8 Tension

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    New research suggests that understanding the “clumpiness” of matter, measured by Sigma-8 (S8) Tension, could unlock key insights into the universe’s structure and complexity.

    What is S8?

    • S8 is a measure used by scientists to understand the distribution of matter across the universe, indicating how “clumpy” or evenly spread out the matter (like galaxies, stars, and dark matter) is.
    • High S8 tension means matter is clumped together in certain regions, while low S8 means it’s evenly distributed.
    • Scientists use S8 to study matter, including dark matter, which is invisible but makes up most of the universe.
    • The measurement of S8 helps explain how the universe fits together and has evolved since the Big Bang.
    • Recently, conflicting measurements of S8 have caused confusion, raising questions about our understanding of the universe.

    Implications for the ΛCDM Model:

    • The ΛCDM model (Lambda Cold Dark Matter) is the standard model explaining the universe’s structure, suggesting it’s mainly composed of dark matter and dark energy.
    • This model assumes that dark energy is causing the universe’s accelerating expansion.
    • S8 discrepancies may challenge the ΛCDM model, indicating a potential gap in our understanding of dark energy or dark matter.
    • Possible Implications:
      • Revised Theories: Scientists may need to adjust their model of the universe due to conflicting S8 values.
      • Re-thinking Dark Energy: If S8 measurements don’t align with predictions, dark energy might not behave as expected.
      • New Discoveries: The S8 tension could suggest undiscovered forces or particles influencing matter behavior.
      • Better Observations: Improved telescopes and surveys, like the Rubin Legacy Survey, may help clarify why S8 measurements conflict with predictions.
    [UPSC 2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:

    (1) It is he world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic km of ice. (2) It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter. (3) It is buried deep in the ice. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    What is AIM4NatuRe Initiative?

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    On Earth Day, April 22, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) launched the Accelerating Innovative Monitoring for Nature Restoration (AIM4NatuRe) Initiative aimed at accelerating nature restoration.

    About the AIM4NatuRe Initiative:

    • AIM4NatuRe is a global initiative launched by the FAO aimed at enhancing countries’ ability to monitor and report ecosystem restoration efforts.
    • With £7 million (approximately USD 9.38 million) from the United Kingdom, the initiative will run from 2025 to 2028, focusing on restoring 30% of degraded ecosystems globally by 2030, in alignment with the Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF).
    • Key aspects:
      • Utilizes advanced technology and data frameworks for ecosystem restoration monitoring.
      • Targets restoration across forests, wetlands, grasslands, marine ecosystems, and agricultural landscapes.
      • Integrates Indigenous knowledge in restoration efforts.
      • Develops tools like the Framework for Ecosystem Restoration Monitoring (FERM) and builds a unified global dataset for transparency.

    Key Stakeholders:

    • FAO: Leads the initiative, providing tools, data, and frameworks to support restoration.
    • UK: Provides financial backing and focuses on helping countries achieve the 30×30 target.
    • Indigenous Communities: Contribute traditional knowledge and participate in restoration efforts.
    • World Resources Institute (WRI): Supports global restoration initiatives, including the Kham River Restoration Mission in India.
    • Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Shapes the biodiversity framework for monitoring progress on 30% ecosystem restoration by 2030.
    • World Bank: Provides funding and technical expertise for financing and implementing ecosystem restoration.
    [UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:

    1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. 2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. 3. The World Heritage Convention.

    Which of the above has/have a bearing on the biodiversity?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 *

     

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  • How Locusts form massive Swarms?

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    A recent study by the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior suggests that locusts do not behave like gas particles but instead make cognitive decisions based on their perception of nearby motion.

    Locust

    About Locust Swarms  

    • Locusts are large grasshoppers capable of forming massive swarms, consuming up to their body weight in food daily, and traveling 150 km/day with favourable winds.
    • They are highly destructive, stripping crops and threatening food security. A single swarm can consume food equivalent to the daily needs of 35,000 people.
    • In India, Locust Control and Research (LC&R) oversees locust management.
    • The Locust Warning Organisation (LWO), established in 1939, monitors and controls locust activity in states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana.
    • The 2019-2022 desert locust outbreak was one of the worst in decades, devastating India, Pakistan, and East Africa, destroying over 200,000 hectares of crops.
    • Despite existing control measures, locust outbreaks remain difficult to manage due to their rapid breeding capabilities.

    Key Highlights of New Research:

    • Traditional models assumed locusts moved collectively by aligning with neighbours.
    • However Max Planck Institute reveals that locusts make cognitive decisions based on visual cues.
    • The study introduced a new mathematical model using neural ring attractor networks, showing that locusts decide on movement based on multiple visual cues, leading to coordinated swarms through decentralised decision-making.
    • This understanding provides a more accurate model for predicting locust swarm behaviour, crucial for early intervention.
    [UPSC 2023] Which of the following organisms perform waggle dance for others of their kin to indicate the direction and the distance to a source of their food?

    Options: (a) Butterflies (b) Dragonflies (c) Honeybees* (d) Wasps

     

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  • Nobel and other Prizes

    Hon’ble President confers Padma Awards, 2025

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    Padma Awards 2025 recognised 139 individuals for their exceptional contributions across various fields. Notable awardees include actor S. Ajith Kumar, singer Pankaj Udhas, and cricketer Ravichandran Ashwin.

    About Padma Awards:

    • The Padma Awards are among India’s most prestigious civilian honors, announced annually on Republic Day’s eve.
    • These awards recognize outstanding achievements in various fields, particularly public service.
    • The GoI introduced the Bharat Ratna and Padma Vibhushan in 1954, with the three classes (Pahela Varg, Dusra Varg, and Tisra Varg) renamed in 1955 as Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri.
    • The awards are not titles and cannot be used as prefixes or suffixes to names.
    • The number of awards given annually is capped at 120 (excluding posthumous awards and awards to NRIs/foreigners/OCIs).

    Award Categories:

    1. Padma Vibhushan: For ‘exceptional and distinguished service.’
    2. Padma Bhushan: For ‘distinguished service of a high order.’
    3. Padma Shri: For ‘distinguished service.’

    Eligibility and Nomination:

    • Nominations are reviewed by the Padma Awards Committee, formed annually by the Prime Minister, with final approval from the President.
    • Eligibility Criteria:
      • Open to all individuals, regardless of race, occupation, position, or gender.
      • Government employees, except doctors and scientists, are generally ineligible.
      • Awards are generally not given posthumously, with exceptions in extraordinary cases.
      • A recipient can be considered for a higher category only after five years since their last Padma award.
    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements in respect of Bharat Ratna and Padma Awards:

    1. Bharat Ratna and Padma Awards are titles under Article 18(1) of the Constitution of India.

    2. Padma Awards, which were instituted in the year 1954, were suspended only once.

    3. The number of Bharat Ratna Awards is restricted to a maximum of five in a particular year.

    Which of the above statements are not correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3*

     

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