Why in the News?
Recently a volcano erupted in south-west Iceland, continuing a pattern of recurring geological activity on the Reykjanes Peninsula.
About the Reykjanes Peninsula:
- Location: Situated in southwest Iceland along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where tectonic plates diverge.
- Volcanic Reawakening: Dormant for centuries until 2021; now sees recurring eruptions.
- Eruption Type: Known for fissure eruptions—lava flows from cracks, not a central crater.
- Key Sites: Includes Grindavik (evacuated), Blue Lagoon spa, and Svartsengi power plant.
- Volcanic Importance: Part of Iceland’s 30+ active volcanic zones.
Key Features:
- Eruption Style: Produces steady lava flows with minimal ash output.
- Flight Safety: Air traffic remains unaffected due to lack of stratospheric ash.
- Evacuation Impact: Grindavik largely abandoned after 2023 lava threat.
- Long-Term Activity: Eruptions may persist for decades or longer.
- Iceland Snapshot: Population ~400,000; similar in size to Kentucky.
- Tourism Appeal: Attracts visitors like other volcanic hotspots—Mexico, Indonesia, Sicily, and New Zealand.
| [UPSC 2014] Consider the following geological phenomena:
1. Development of a fault 2. Movement along a fault
3. Impact produced by a volcanic eruption 4. Folding of rocks
Which of the above cause earthquakes?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4* |
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) is preparing for India’s 8th Economic Census by integrating it with the upcoming 16th Population Census.
About the Economic Census:
- Conducting Body: Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI).
- Purpose: Creates a detailed database of non-agricultural economic establishments in India.
- Key Data Captured: Covers location, clustering, ownership, employment size, and type of economic activity.
- Unorganised Sector Inclusion: Includes informal units, vital for understanding employment dynamics.
- Historical Background:
- Economic Enquiry Committee: Proposed by Visvesvaraya Committee (1925); Setup by Bowley-Robertson Committee (1934).
- Outcome: Led to the creation of the Central Statistical Office (CSO) in 1951 and national statistical systems.
- First Census: Conducted in 1977 (excluding Lakshadweep), targeting non-agricultural units with at least one hired worker.
- Timeline of Economic Censuses:
- Years Conducted: 1980, 1990, 1998, 2005, 2013, and 2019–21 (7th Census).
- Integration with Population Census: 2nd and 3rd rounds were aligned with the 1981 and 1991 Population Censuses.
- 7th Census Status: Completed in 2021, but results pending due to COVID-related data quality issues.
- Execution Support: MoSPI partnered with the CSC (Common Service Centre) network for grassroots-level implementation.
Integration with the 16th Population Census:
- Objective: Improve efficiency and reduce costs by leveraging shared field operations.
- Data Collection: Enumerators will note household-based economic activity for MoSPI processing.
- Census Schedule:
- Oct 1, 2026: Snow-bound and remote regions (e.g., Ladakh, J&K, HP, Uttarakhand).
- Mar 1, 2027: Rest of the country.
- Preparatory Work: State and district committees have been formed to plan the 8th Census.
| [UPSC 2018] As per the NSSO 70th Round “Situation Assessment Survey of Agriculture Households”, consider the following statements:
1.Rajasthan has the highest percentage share of agriculture households among its rural households.
2.Out of the total households in the country, a little over 60 percent being to OBCs.
3.In Kerala, a little over 60 percent of agriculture households reported to have received maximum income from sources other than agriculture activities.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
A team of Indian scientists has discovered a new species of lichen, Allographa effusosoredica, in the Western Ghats, a global biodiversity hotspot.
What are Lichens?
- Lichens are symbiotic organisms, composed of a fungus (mycobiont) and a photosynthetic partner (photobiont)—either a green alga or a cyanobacterium.
- The fungus provides structure and protection, while the photobiont produces food through photosynthesis.
- Lichens are key ecological contributors:
- They build soil by breaking down rocks.
- Serve as bioindicators of environmental and air quality.
- Provide food for insects and small animals.
- Despite being often overlooked, lichens are vital to ecosystem stability and resilience.
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About the Newly Discovered Lichen Species:
- Discovery: Allographa effusosoredica was discovered in the Western Ghats by MACS-Agarkar Research Institute, Pune.
- First of Its Kind: First Indian Allographa species confirmed using molecular data.
- Biodiversity Addition: 53rd Allographa species in India; 22nd from the Western Ghats.
- Funding Support: Research funded by Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) under a lichen symbiosis project.
Key Features Revealed:
- Morphology: Crustose body with effuse soredia; Contains norstictic acid—rare among related species.
- Algal Partner: Photobiont identified as Trentepohlia, expanding understanding of tropical lichen symbiosis.
- Molecular Markers: Analysis used fungal markers (mtSSU, LSU, RPB2) and algal marker (ITS).
- Phylogenetic Placement: Closely related to Allographa xanthospora; visually similar to Graphis glaucescens.
| [UPSC 2014] Lichens, which are capable of initiating ecological succession even on a bare rock, are actually a symbiotic association of:
Options: (a) algae and bacteria (b) algae and fungi* (c) bacteria and fungi (d) fungi and mosses |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2015] To what factors can be the recent dramatic fall in equipment cost and tariff of solar energy be attributed? What implications does the trend have for thermal power producers and related industry?
Linkage: The articles talks about the how China has effectively led and transformed the global green energy market, particularly through cost reduction and market control. This question directly addresses the factors behind the fall in solar energy costs, which is directly related to article. |
Mentor’s Comment: In 2024, China installed more wind turbines and solar panels than the rest of the world combined, demonstrating its dominance in renewable energy manufacturing and supply chains. With a $940 billion investment in renewables in a single year, China has strategically leveraged state-owned enterprises (SOEs), policy backing, and supply chain control to become a clean-energy superpower.
Today’s editorial analyses China’s dominance in Green Energy. This topic is important for GS Paper II (International Relations) and GS Paper III (Energy Sector) in the UPSC mains exam.
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, China has gained attention for investing a huge amount of money and taking the lead in the global green energy sector.
Why is China a global leader in renewable energy?
- Installed Capacity: China has the largest installed base of solar and wind energy in the world. Eg: By 2024, China added 300 GW of solar power, more than the rest of the world combined.
- Supply Chain Control: China dominates the entire renewable energy supply chain, from raw materials to finished products. Eg: It produces over 80% of global solar panels and a major share of battery components like lithium and cobalt.
- Massive Green Investments: China leads in clean energy investments, supported by government incentives and green bonds. Eg: In 2024, China invested $940 billion in clean energy, nearly triple that of the U.S.
- State-Led Policies: The government uses State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) and policy mandates to drive green growth. Eg: SOEs like Huaneng and State Grid built large-scale wind and solar farms across the country.
- Export of Green Technology: Through the Belt and Road Initiative, China exports renewable energy infrastructure globally. Eg: Chinese firms are setting up solar projects in Africa and wind parks in Latin America.
How did domestic issues drive China’s green strategy?
- Severe Air Pollution: China faced toxic air quality, especially in industrial cities like Beijing, causing public health crises and unrest. Eg: The 2013 “Airpocalypse” led to mass protests, pushing the government to launch the Air Pollution Action Plan.
- Energy Insecurity: Heavy dependence on coal and imported oil created vulnerability in energy supply and pricing. Eg: China increased solar and wind deployment to reduce reliance on fossil fuel imports and enhance energy self-sufficiency.
- Economic Rebalancing Needs: China needed to shift from heavy industry to innovation-driven growth and green jobs. Eg: The government promoted green industries under the 13th and 14th Five-Year Plans to support sustainable development and tech leadership.
What role do SOEs play in China’s energy transition?
- Leading Renewable Deployment: State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) are the primary drivers of solar, wind, and hydro projects, benefiting from state financing and land access. Eg: China Three Gorges Corporation built massive hydropower plants, including the Three Gorges Dam, aiding low-carbon electricity supply.
- R&D and Technology Innovation: SOEs invest in clean energy R&D, fostering breakthroughs in battery storage, grid tech, and EVs. Eg: State Grid Corporation of China has led innovations in ultra-high-voltage transmission to integrate renewables across vast regions.
- Policy Implementation and Scaling: SOEs act as instruments of the central government’s green policy, enabling fast scaling of infrastructure and meeting national climate goals. Eg: China Energy Investment Corporation rapidly expanded wind farms under the 14th Five-Year Plan.
What can India learn from China?
- Scale and Speed of Deployment: India can emulate China’s rapid infrastructure development in renewables by simplifying land acquisition and faster clearances.Eg: China added over 230 GW of renewable capacity in 2023, nearly 3 times India’s total renewable addition.
- Strong Role of Public Sector: India should empower its public sector undertakings (PSUs) to take a leadership role in clean energy, similar to China’s state-owned enterprises (SOEs). Eg: China’s SOEs like State Power Investment Corporation lead massive solar and wind projects, while India can enhance NTPC and SECI’s role.
- Domestic Manufacturing Push: China’s dominance is rooted in its robust clean tech manufacturing ecosystem. India should focus on R&D, incentives, and supply chains.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- National Solar Mission: Launched under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), this mission promotes solar power generation with a target of 280 GW by 2030. Eg: India has already crossed 81 GW of solar capacity as of 2024.
- Green Hydrogen Mission: The government launched the National Green Hydrogen Mission to make India a global hub for green hydrogen production and export. Eg: Target of 5 MMT green hydrogen production annually by 2030.
- PLI Scheme for Renewable Manufacturing: To reduce import dependence, the government introduced Production Linked Incentive (PLI) schemes for solar PV modules, batteries, and wind components. Eg: Over ₹24,000 crore allocated to boost domestic solar manufacturing.
What are the challenges in India?
- Intermittent Energy Supply: Renewable energy like solar and wind is non-continuous, making it hard to meet demand consistently. Eg: In 2022–23, India’s solar power capacity was ~70 GW, but actual generation was only ~110 billion units, implying an average capacity utilization of ~18%.
- Inadequate Energy Storage: India lacks robust battery storage infrastructure to balance supply-demand fluctuations. Eg: As of 2023, India had only ~4.6 GW of battery storage, while the estimated need by 2030 is over 40 GW(CEA).
- Low Private Investment in Renewables: High risks and policy uncertainty reduce private sector participation. Eg: In FY 2022–23, investment in India’s renewable sector fell by 25%, from $14.5 billion in 2021 to $10.9 billion (IEEFA).
Way forward:
- Strengthen Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Encourage collaboration between government, industry, and startups to accelerate clean energy innovation and deployment.
- Invest in Skill Development and R&D: Promote training in green technologies and boost research in storage, hydrogen, and grid integration to build long-term capacity.
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Why in the News?
On June 16, 2025, J&K Lieutenant Governor Manoj Sinha declared that eradicating terrorism from Jammu & Kashmir is the government’s foremost priority, during the passing-out parade at Sher-e-Kashmir Police Academy, Udhampur.
What limits central forces in handling terrorism in J&K?
- Lack of Local Intelligence: Central forces often lack deep familiarity with local terrain, dialects, and community networks, which limits their real-time response and prevention capability. Eg: In 2022, a CRPF convoy in Pulwama district was attacked despite heavy deployment, partly due to lack of localized inputs.
- Limited Civil Engagement: Being outsiders, central forces struggle to build community trust and rapport, which is crucial in identifying radical elements or suspicious activity. Eg: In Shopian, several villages refused to cooperate during a combing operation, affecting the credibility of the forces.
- Operational Dependence on Local Police: Central forces depend on J&K police for actionable intelligence, language support, and legal procedures. Without local coordination, operations falter. Eg: A planned raid in Anantnag in 2023 failed due to miscommunication between central teams and local law enforcement.
Why is the local police important in counter-terrorism in J&K?
- Deep Local Knowledge: The J&K Police understand the terrain, dialects, and social dynamics far better than external forces, enabling precise operations. Eg: In 2020, the local police identified and neutralised a Hizbul Mujahideen module in Kulgam using ground-level intel.
- Strong Community Links: Their trust-based relationship with local residents helps in gathering timely human intelligence (HUMINT) against militant activities. Eg: Tip-offs from locals helped prevent a planned terror strike in Pulwama in 2022.
- Proven Operational Experience: The J&K Police have decades of counter-terrorism experience, including intelligence gathering, search operations, and deradicalisation efforts. Eg: The Special Operations Group (SOG) of JAKP has led several successful anti-terror raids in Anantnag and Baramulla.
How does excluding elected leaders affect security in J&K?
- Weakens Grassroots Intelligence: Elected leaders act as a bridge between citizens and security forces, providing local insights into suspicious movements. Their exclusion disrupts this intelligence flow. Eg: After the dilution of Article 370, the absence of panchayat leaders in parts of South Kashmir reduced early warnings of militant regrouping.
- Erodes Public Trust: Marginalising elected representatives creates a governance vacuum, leading to alienation and making youth more vulnerable to radicalisation. Eg: In 2021, areas with fewer active local leaders saw a spike in recruitment by terror groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba.
- Hampers Local Problem-Solving: Without democratic leadership, local issues like unemployment or land disputes remain unaddressed, creating fertile ground for terrorist narratives. Eg: In Kupwara, lack of local mediation escalated minor disputes into violent protests, exploited by separatist elements.
Why is democratic governance key to counter-terrorism in J&K?
- Enhances Local Legitimacy: Democratic governance empowers elected representatives who enjoy public trust, making it easier to mobilize communities against terrorism.
- Improves Intelligence Gathering: Leaders at the grassroots level, like panchayat members, act as the eyes and ears of the state, helping identify suspicious activities early.
- Counters Alienation: Political inclusion addresses grievances, reducing the appeal of extremist ideologies and promoting peaceful participation in governance.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- Abrogation of Article 370: Revoked the special status of J&K in 2019 to fully integrate the region with the Indian Union and ensure uniform application of laws.
- Increased Security Deployment: Strengthened the presence of central paramilitary forces, enhanced surveillance, and improved infrastructure to curb terrorism.
- Development Initiatives: Launched major schemes like PMDP (Prime Minister’s Development Package) and back-to-village programmes to boost infrastructure, education, and employment.
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What reforms are needed for better governance and security in J&K? (Way forward)
- Strengthening Local Bodies: Empowering Panchayati Raj institutions with real authority and resources ensures decentralized governance and community involvement. In 2020, delays in fund disbursal to panchayats led to poor development outcomes, hampering trust in state mechanisms.
- Police Reforms: Investing in modern training, surveillance tech, and better coordination between local and central forces improves counter-terror operations. During a 2021 operation in Baramulla, timely tech-driven coordination between police and intel units led to the arrest of a top militant.
- Restoring Electoral Processes: Holding timely Assembly elections boosts political engagement, giving people a voice and reducing radicalization risks. The absence of an elected government since 2018 has widened the disconnect between administration and public sentiment.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] Winning of ‘Hearts and Minds’ in terrorism-affected areas is an essential step in restoring the trust of the population. Discuss the measures adopted by the Government in this respect as part of the conflict resolution in Jammu and Kashmir.
Linkage: The article talks about the emphasizes that the eradication of terrorism in J&K is a top priority, and that the J&K Police (JAKP) should utilize strategies like community engagement, intelligence, and inter-agency collaboration. This directly relates to the PYQ’s theme of “winning of ‘Hearts and Minds’” and “restoring the trust of the population” in terrorism-affected areas.
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Why in the News?
India has cautioned against “double standards” in response to a U.S. Bill, the Russian Sanctions Act of 2025, which proposes 500% duties on countries, including India, that buy Russian oil.
Why has India opposed the proposed U.S.-Russia Sanctions Act, 2025?
- Energy Security: India opposes the Act as it threatens its access to affordable energy from Russia, which is crucial for domestic needs. India imports a significant portion of its crude oil from Russia at discounted rates, helping stabilize fuel prices.
- Strategic Autonomy: India defends its foreign policy independence and rejects external pressure on sovereign decisions.
- Selective Sanctions: India criticizes the Act for reflecting geopolitical double standards, where some nations are penalized while others are exempt. Eg: While India faces scrutiny, European countries continue importing Russian gas without facing similar sanctions.
What are the implications of the U.S. Act on India’s energy security and oil imports?
- Disruption of Oil Supplies: The Act may lead to restrictions on Indian companies dealing with Russian energy firms, affecting oil flow. Eg: Indian refiners like Indian Oil Corporation may face hurdles in continuing long-term contracts with Rosneft.
- Rising Energy Costs: Reduced access to discounted Russian oil can increase India’s energy import bills and domestic fuel prices. Eg: Without Russian discounts, India may rely more on Middle Eastern oil, which is often costlier.
- Supply Chain Uncertainty: The Act creates geopolitical instability, making energy supply chains more volatile for India. Eg: Any secondary sanctions could deter shipping firms or insurers from facilitating India-Russia oil trade.
How has India diversified its crude oil sources in response to geopolitical pressures?
- Increased Imports from the U.S. and Latin America: India has strengthened ties with non-traditional suppliers to reduce overdependence on West Asia or Russia. Eg: Crude oil imports from the U.S. rose from 0.9 million tonnes (2017) to over 10 million tonnes (2023).
- Use of Spot Markets and Diversified Contracts: India leverages spot purchases and signs long-term deals with diverse countries to ensure supply security. Eg: Indian Oil and BPCL have signed deals with Brazil’s Petrobras and Mexico to broaden sourcing.
- Investments in Overseas Oil Assets: India is acquiring stakes in oil fields abroad to ensure equity oil and reduce market vulnerability. Eg: ONGC Videsh holds stakes in projects in Sudan, Mozambique, and Venezuela, ensuring strategic access.
Why has India not resumed oil imports from Iran despite Tehran’s requests?
- U.S. Sanctions on Iran: India halted Iranian oil imports after the U.S. withdrew from the JCPOA in 2018 and reimposed sanctions. Eg: In 2017-18, Iran was India’s third-largest oil supplier, but imports dropped to zero by mid-2019 due to U.S. pressure.
- Risk of Secondary Sanctions: Engaging with Iran could expose Indian companies to secondary sanctions, disrupting financial transactions and insurance cover. Eg: Indian refiners like IOC and MRPL stopped imports fearing blocked dollar transactions and shipping challenges.
- Awaiting Nuclear Deal Revival: India prefers to wait for revival of the Iran nuclear deal to restore oil trade under an international framework. Eg: Talks on JCPOA revival have stalled, making Indian policymakers cautious despite Iran’s open invitation.
How are deportations of Indian nationals affecting India-U.S. diplomatic relations?
- Strain on Bilateral Relations: Frequent deportations of Indian nationals without adequate communication cause diplomatic tension. Eg: In 2023, over 2,500 Indians were deported from the U.S., prompting MEA to seek clarification over due procedures.
- Concerns over Human Rights: Reports of poor detention conditions and lack of consular access raise human rights concerns. Eg: Indian consulates in the U.S. flagged cases where detainees were held in unsanitary facilities, leading to formal protests.
- Impact on Consular Cooperation: Large-scale deportations increase the burden on India’s consular services, affecting coordination and trust. Eg: The sudden deportation of 60 Indians in early 2024 led to delays in documentation and reintegration, requiring urgent diplomatic intervention.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Consular Coordination: Enhance real-time communication between Indian missions and U.S. authorities to ensure due process and humane treatment of deportees.
- Negotiate a Bilateral Framework: Establish a formal agreement on deportation procedures, ensuring transparency, timely consular access, and respect for individual rights.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact Controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?
Linkage: The article highlights that the U.S. is considering imposing a 500% ad valorem duty on countries, including India, that purchase Russian oil, uranium, natural gas, or petroleum products through the proposed Russian Sanctions Act, 2025. This question is highly relevant as it directly parallels the geopolitical dynamic and dilemma faced by India regarding its energy imports amidst external pressure and sanctions, which is the core theme of the article.
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Why in the News?
The new NCERT Class 8 Social Science textbook omits Tipu Sultan, Haidar Ali, and the Anglo-Mysore Wars from its chapter on India’s colonial era.
Legend of Tipu Sultan and Haidar Ali:
- Rise of Haidar Ali: Started as a horseman in the Mysore army and became de facto ruler by 1761 through military skill.
- Military Reforms: Introduced Western training, built arms factories with French help, and strengthened cavalry and artillery.
- Tipu Sultan: Born in 1751, trained by French officers and well-versed in Islamic law, Persian, Arabic, and science.
- Administrative Innovations: Introduced a new calendar, land revenue reforms, and coins in gold, silver, and copper with Persian inscriptions.
- Governance and Industry: Created seven departments, promoted silk industry, and envisioned the future Kannambadi Dam.
- French Alliance: Maintained strong ties with France, alarming the British amid global Anglo-French rivalry.
- Technological Advancement: Deployed iron-cased Mysorean rockets, which inspired British Congreve rockets.
- Moral Governance: Banned liquor, gambling, and prostitution to enforce discipline.
- Religious Policy: Though devoutly Islamic, he patronized temples and mathas, but faced criticism for intolerance in annexed regions.
About the Anglo-Mysore Wars:
First Anglo-Mysore War (1767–69)
- Alliance Against Mysore: British, Marathas, and Nizam formed a coalition against Haidar Ali.
- Diplomatic Victory: Haidar neutralized the Marathas and secured Nizam’s support.
- Outcome: Treaty of Madras (1769) restored the status quo and mutual restitution of territories.
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–84)
- Trigger: British violation of the Treaty of Madras and occupation of French port Mahe.
- Coalition Formation: Haidar allied with Marathas and Nizam against the British.
- Major Battle: Captured Arcot and defeated Col. Baillie; Haidar died in 1782.
- Conclusion: Tipu continued the fight; Treaty of Mangalore (1784) was the last time an Indian power dictated terms to the British.
Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–92)
- Cause: Tipu’s attack on Travancore, a British ally.
- British Response: Cornwallis led a coordinated campaign with Maratha and Nizam support.
- Result: Tipu ceded half his territory and paid ₹3 crore under the Treaty of Seringapatam (1792).
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)
- British Strategy: Wellesley isolated Tipu diplomatically over his French ties.
- Final Battle: Tipu was killed defending Seringapatam on May 4, 1799, ending native resistance in South India.
Aftermath of the Wars:
- Fall of Resistance: Tipu’s death marked the end of organized native military opposition in the South.
- British Control: Wodeyars reinstated as puppet rulers under Subsidiary Alliance; key territories annexed by the British.
- Territorial Division: Nizam received Gooty and Gurramkonda; Marathas declined British land offer.
- Administrative Changes: Mysore came under direct British rule in 1831 due to alleged misrule; restored to Wodeyars in 1881 by Lord Ripon under a constitutional monarchy.
- Legacy: Anglo-Mysore Wars showed how native resistance could challenge colonial power through modernization, alliances, and tactical innovation.
- Rocketry Influence: Tipu’s military rocketry was studied and adapted by the British into European warfare.
| [UPSC 2014] With reference to the Anglo-Mysore Wars, consider the following statements:
1. In the Third Battle of Panipat, Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated Ibrahim Lodi.
2. Tipu Sultan was killed in the Third Anglo-Mysore War.
3. Mir Jafar entered in a conspiracy with the English for the defeat of Nawab Siraj-ud-daulah in the Battle of Plassey.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 3 only* (c) 2 and 3 (d) None |
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Why in the News?
India successfully tested the Akash Prime Missile System in Ladakh, neutralizing two high-speed aerial targets at high altitude.
About Akash Prime:
- What It Is: Akash Prime is an upgraded version of the Akash Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) system.
- High-Altitude Capability: Designed to operate effectively above 4,500 metres.
- Development: Developed by DRDO with BDL, BEL, and Army Air Defence.
- Operational Use: Proven in Operation Sindoor against aerial threats.
- Production Trials: Validated through First of Production Model (FoPM) firing trials.
- Deployment: Already in use at IAF bases and forward posts along the LAC in Ladakh.
Key Features:
- Seeker Upgrade: Equipped with an indigenous active Radio Frequency (RF) seeker for better accuracy.
- Altitude Adaptability: Engineered for high-altitude, cold-climate operations.
- Multi-Target Engagement: Capable of engaging multiple aerial threats at once.
- Speed & Accuracy: Travels at Mach 2.5 with up to 90% kill probability.
- Electronic Warfare: Equipped with ECCM features to resist electronic jamming.
- Radar Integration: Uses Rajendra radar for detection, targeting, and tracking.
- Operational Range: Effective engagement range of 25–30 km.
Other Variants of Akash:
- Akash Mark-I (1990–2005): First version under IGMDP; achieved successful dual-target intercepts by 2005.
- Akash-1S (2019): Enhanced version with 30 km range and 60 kg warhead; effective against aircraft and drones; tested successfully in May 2019.
- Akash Prime (2021 onwards): Added active RF seeker and altitude/weather resistance; tested on September 27, 2021.
- Akash-NG (Next Generation): Approved in 2016 with ₹470 crore funding; offers faster response and improved aerial threat protection.
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| [UPSC 2009] In the context of Indian defence, consider the following statements:
1. The Shourya missile flies with a speed of more than 8 Mach. 2. The range of Shourya missile is more than 1600 km. Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2* |
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Why in the News?
Researchers at the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) has detected radio emissions with circular polarisation near a massive young protostar, IRAS 18162-2048.
About Protostars:
- Definition: Early-stage stars formed by the gravitational collapse of dense regions in molecular clouds.
- Accretion Phase: They actively gather gas and dust but have not yet begun sustained nuclear fusion.
- Jet Ejection: Bipolar jets—high-speed streams of particles—are commonly emitted from their poles.
- Massive Protostars: Expected to evolve into stars with masses over 8–10 times that of the Sun.
- Role of Magnetism: Magnetic fields likely influence both jet formation and ejection mechanisms.
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About the Protostar IRAS 18162-2048:
- Overview: Situated about 4,500 light years away in the Milky Way.
- Jet Feature: Powers the HH80-81 jet—one of the galaxy’s largest and brightest protostellar jets.
- Magnetic Detection: First direct evidence of magnetic fields from the protostar itself, not just its jet.
- Observation Challenges: Heavily shrouded in dense gas and dust, making traditional observation difficult.
- Jet Dynamics: Suggests that magnetic fields and rotational energy drive its development.
Recent Observations:
- Detection Method: Observed circular polarisation in radio waves—where electromagnetic fields rotate along their path.
- Rarity: Circular polarisation is extremely faint and seldom detected, even in intense sources like active galactic nuclei.
- Scientific Milestone: First-ever estimation of magnetic field strength near a massive protostar using circular polarisation.
- Magnetic Field Strength: Estimated to be 100 times stronger than Earth’s magnetic field.
- Theoretical Support: Findings reinforce the theory that magnetic fields power jets from both stars and black holes.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following pairs:
Objects in space :: Description
1. Cepheids : Giant clouds of dust and gas in space
2. Nebulae : Stars which brighten and dim periodically
3. Pulsars : Neutron stars that are formed when massive stars run out of fuel and collapse How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
Options: (a) Only one* (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None |
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Why in the News?
Machilipatnam, once a flourishing ancient port city on India’s east coast, is witnessing a major transformation with the construction of a modern Greenfield port.
About Machilipatnam:
- Alternate Names: Also known as Masulipatnam, Maisolia, or Manjarika.
- Geographic Location: Located in Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh, on the southeastern Coromandel Coast, at the mouth of River Krishna, ~70 km east of Amaravati.
- Historical Importance:
- One of the most significant east coast port cities for ~1,700 years.
- Played a key role in maritime trade across ancient, medieval, and early modern periods.
- Global Trade Connections:
- Attracted traders from Rome, Arabia, Persia, Southeast Asia, and Europe.
- Known for exporting high-quality Muslin textiles prized in Roman markets.
- The term “muslin” likely derives from “Maisolia,” an ancient name of the city.
- Cultural Contributions:
- Known for Kalamkari art, a traditional textile art featuring hand-painted or block-printed designs.
- Dynastic Port Usage:
- Satavahanas (1st BCE – 2nd CE): Used as a major trade gateway.
- Vishnukundins (4th–6th CE): Trade wealth supported Buddhist monument construction (e.g., Nagarjunakonda).
- Qutb Shahis (16th–17th CE): Transformed it into a global hub for diamonds, muslin, and Kalamkari.
- Nizams of Hyderabad (18th century): Controlled the port until partial cession to the British.
- Mentions in Ancient Texts:
- Appears as Maisolia in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
- Listed as Maisolos in Ptolemy’s Geographia.
- Colonial Involvement:
- Dutch built a fort in the 17th century.
- British East India Company established its first Bay of Bengal factory here in 1611.
- Between 1686–1759, it changed hands among French, Dutch, and British; seized by British from the French in 1759.
- Decline of the Port:
- Anchorage Issue: Unsuitable for large ships, with anchorage 5 miles offshore.
- Cyclone Damage: A severe cyclone in 1779 killed ~20,000 and destroyed Dutch structures.
- Trade Shift: Decline due to growing prominence of Madras (Chennai) and Visakhapatnam under British rule.
- Post-Independence Claim:
- In 1947, 7th Nizam of Hyderabad attempted to reclaim it for sea access to an independent Hyderabad state.
- Modern Revival:
- A Greenfield port at Manginapudi is under construction, expected to be operational by 2026.
- Aims to restore Machilipatnam’s historical maritime legacy.
| [UPSC 2023] With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar and Muchiri were well known as:
(a) capital cities (b) ports* (c) centres of iron and steel making (d) shrines of Jain Tirthankaras |
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Why in the News?
The Behdienkhlam Festival of Pnar (Jaintia) community in Meghalaya was recently celebrated.
About Behdienkhlam Festival:
- Cultural Role: Major religious and cultural festival of the Pnar (Jaintia) community in Meghalaya.
- Location: Four-day festival held in Jowai, West Jaintia Hills.
- Meaning: Means driving away the plague or evil.
- Timing: Celebrated in mid-July after sowing season.
- Purpose: Prayers for a good harvest and community cleansing.
- Faith: Observed mainly by followers of the Niamtre religion.
- Women’s Role: Women offer food to ancestors but do not dance in rituals.
Key Features:
- Rituals: Dolois perform rites to drive away disease and evil.
- Symbolic Act: Youth beat rooftops with bamboo sticks to expel evil.
- Rots: 30–40 ft decorated bamboo structures with social themes.
- Khnong Ritual: Teams pull a large wooden beam and immerse it in mud.
- Dad-Lawakor: Traditional football-like game predicting harvest success.
- Celebrations: Mass dancing at Wah Aitnar pool with drums and pipes.
| [UPSC 2012] Chapchar Kut is a festival celebrated in the state of:
Options: (a) Arunachal Pradesh (b) Assam (c) Mizoram* (d) Sikkim |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2015] Earthquakes along the plate margins are still a cause of concern. India’s preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps. Discuss various aspects.
Linkage: The article emphasizes that India’s seismic risk is rooted in the northward drift of the Indian Plate colliding with the Eurasian Plate, which shaped the Himalayas and makes the region “overdue for a ‘Great Himalayan Earthquake’. The question specifically mentions “earthquakes along the plate margins” and critically highlights “India’s preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps. |
Mentor’s Comment: The 4.4 magnitude tremor in Delhi on July 10, 2025, though moderate, exposed the critical fragility of India’s infrastructure, especially in Delhi, where over 80% of buildings violate seismic safety norms. This event is part of a wider pattern of seismic activity across Asia, underlining the urgent need for earthquake preparedness. India, particularly northern and northeastern regions, lies in high-risk seismic zones (IV & V) due to the collision of tectonic plates, making a massive quake imminent. Urbanisation, outdated construction, and poor enforcement of seismic codes like IS 1893:2016 worsen the risk.
Today’s editorial analyses the vulnerability to earthquakes in India. This topic is important for GS Paper I (Geography) and GS Paper III (Disaster Management) in the UPSC mains exam.
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
On July 10, 2025, a 4.4 magnitude earthquake struck near Delhi, exposing the fragile state of infrastructure.
Why is Delhi vulnerable to earthquakes?
- High Seismic Risk Zone: Delhi lies in Seismic Zone IV, indicating a severe seismic hazard with a peak ground acceleration (PGA) of around 0.24g. Eg: Similar Zone IV cities like Srinagar and Patna have experienced strong tremors in the past.
- Poor Structural Compliance: Over 80% of buildings in Delhi, especially those constructed before 2000, do not comply with seismic safety codes. Eg: Unregulated high-rise apartments in East Delhi lack ductile detailing or shear walls, making them prone to collapse.
- Liquefaction-Prone Areas: Areas like East Delhi and Yamuna floodplains are built on soft alluvial soils, which are susceptible to liquefaction during earthquakes. Eg: In the 2001 Bhuj earthquake, structures on soft soil experienced severe tilting and collapse.
- Rapid Urbanisation Without Planning: Delhi’s urban sprawl and dense population (over 33 million) have led to haphazard construction, often violating zoning and structural norms. Eg: Many illegal colonies like those in outer Delhi lack any seismic design considerations.
What are the vulnerable areas in India?
- Himalayan Region: The Himalayan belt is highly prone to earthquakes due to the collision of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates. Eg: Regions like Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and parts of Northeast India fall under Seismic Zone V.
- Indo-Gangetic Plain: This region experiences significant seismic activity due to the tectonic stress transfer from the Himalayan region. Eg: Parts of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, and West Bengal lie in Seismic Zones III and IV.
- Peninsular India Fault Zones: Though considered geologically stable, intraplate faults in Peninsular India can still trigger strong earthquakes. Eg: Areas like Latur (Maharashtra), Koyna (Maharashtra), and Bhuj (Gujarat) have witnessed major quakes in the past.
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What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- Building Code Reforms: The government enforces Earthquake-Resistant Building Codes to ensure structural safety in seismic zones. Eg: The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) revised IS 1893 and IS 4326 to include updated seismic design norms across construction sectors.
- National Seismic Zoning: India has been zoned into seismic risk areas to guide planning and construction based on earthquake vulnerability. Eg: The country is divided into Zone II to Zone V, with Zone V (like parts of Uttarakhand, Kashmir) being most earthquake-prone.
- Disaster Management Framework: The government has established a dedicated institutional framework to coordinate disaster preparedness and response. Eg: The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) issues guidelines for earthquake risk mitigation and conducts regular mock drills and capacity-building programs.
What are the steps taken at the international level?
- Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030): The United Nations adopted this global framework to strengthen disaster preparedness, promote resilient infrastructure, and reduce disaster losses. Eg: Countries like Japan and Chile have aligned their national disaster policies with Sendai priorities, emphasizing risk governance and early warning.
- Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program (GSHAP): Led by the International Lithosphere Program, this initiative provides seismic hazard maps to help countries plan safer infrastructure. Eg: Italy and other European nations use GSHAP data to revise building codes and zoning laws in earthquake-prone zones.
- Early Warning Systems and Technology Sharing: Countries are collaborating to develop earthquake early warning systems and share real-time seismic data across borders. Eg: The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center and Japan’s Earthquake Early Warning System help neighbouring nations prepare faster for seismic events.
What global lessons can India adopt from other countries? (Way forward)
- Building Code Enforcement: Strong and regularly updated building codes ensure that infrastructure can withstand seismic shocks, reducing casualties and damage. Eg: After the 1995 Kobe earthquake, Japan revised its seismic building codes, which helped limit destruction during the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake.
- Early Warning Systems: Timely alerts enable people to take quick protective actions, such as evacuation or shutting down utilities, before the shaking begins. Eg: In 2017, Mexico City’s SASMEX system gave a 20-second alert before the quake struck, allowing residents to prepare.
- Retrofitting Incentives: Providing financial support for retrofitting older buildings motivates citizens to strengthen structures against earthquakes. Eg: The Earthquake Brace + Bolt program in California offers funds to homeowners, promoting structural safety in vulnerable areas.
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Why in the News?
Recently, India has achieved 50% of its installed power capacity from non-fossil sources, five years ahead of its Paris Agreement target. However, clean energy contributes under 30% of actual electricity supply due to low capacity utilisation rates.
Why is clean energy generation lower than installed capacity?
- Low Capacity Utilisation Factor (CUF): Clean energy sources operate at lower efficiency. For example, solar power has a CUF of ~20% and wind ~25–30%, while coal operates at ~60% CUF and nuclear at ~80%. Eg: As of June 2025, India’s installed non-fossil fuel capacity was 50% of 484 GW, but the actual electricity supplied from clean sources was only 28% of the total.
- Intermittent Generation and Time Dependence: Renewable energy depends on natural conditions — solar is only available during daylight hours, and wind is seasonal. Eg: In 2014-15, clean energy contributed 17% to total generation; despite reaching 50% installed capacity by 2025, generation rose only to 28%, reflecting the limitations of time-bound output.
- Lack of Energy Storage and Grid Flexibility: India lacks sufficient battery storage and smart grid infrastructure to store and distribute excess renewable energy. Eg: During daytime in summer, solar plants reduce coal dependence, but in the evening, coal still supplies 75% of the energy mix, due to the absence of stored solar power.
How does coal still dominate India’s energy mix?
- High Reliability and Base Load Supply: Coal provides consistent, round-the-clock electricity, making it ideal for base load demand that must be met continuously. Eg: Thermal power plants in Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand run 24/7 to supply power to industrial zones in eastern India.
- Established Infrastructure: India has a vast network of coal-based plants, railways for coal transport, and supply chains, making coal a readily usable resource. Eg: The Singrauli region in Madhya Pradesh has integrated coal mines and thermal plants that supply electricity to multiple states.
- Lower Initial Costs for Generation: Coal-based plants are already built and operational, allowing them to generate electricity at a lower short-term marginal cost than new renewable setups. Eg: NTPC’s older thermal plants continue operating profitably with sunk capital costs.
- Policy and Economic Dependence: Coal is a major contributor to government revenue and employment, especially in coal-rich states like Odisha and Jharkhand. Eg: The Mahanadi Coalfields Limited (MCL) contributes significantly to Odisha’s economy and supports thousands of livelihoods.
What can improve renewable energy reliability?
- Expansion of Renewable Energy Targets: India set a target of achieving 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030, in line with its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.
- Promotion of Solar Energy (PM-KUSUM & Rooftop Solar): Schemes like PM-KUSUM promote solar pumps for agriculture, while the Rooftop Solar Programme aims to increase solar adoption in residential and commercial sectors.
- Green Energy Corridor Development: The government is investing in Green Energy Corridors to enable the smooth transmission of renewable power from generation points to demand centres. Eg Under Green Energy Corridor Phase-I, over 9700 circuit km of transmission lines and 220 substations were planned.
- Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme for Solar Manufacturing: Under the PLI scheme, the government provides financial incentives to boost domestic manufacturing of solar PV modules, reducing import dependence.
- Push for Energy Storage and Hybrid Projects: Promotion of battery storage, pumped hydro projects, and hybrid renewable energy parks (solar + wind + storage) to ensure round-the-clock clean energy supply.
Case studies:
- Germany – Battery Storage and Smart Grids: Germany has invested heavily in battery storage systems and smart grid technology under its Energiewende (energy transition) policy. This enables better integration of solar and wind energy, helping maintain grid stability even during peak renewable generation hours.
- Australia – Hybrid and Community-Based Renewable Projects: Australia has developed hybrid power plants that combine solar, wind, and battery storage (e.g., the Hornsdale Power Reserve in South Australia). It also supports community-led microgrids, improving reliability in remote areas with limited access to conventional grids.
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What can improve renewable energy reliability?
- Energy Storage Systems: Deploying large-scale battery storage and pumped hydro storage can store surplus energy from solar and wind sources and release it during periods of high demand or low generation.
- Smart Grid Infrastructure: Implementing smart grids enables real-time demand-supply balancing, better integration of variable renewables, and supports differential pricing to shift demand to renewable-rich hours.
- Hybrid Renewable Projects: Promoting hybrid systems that combine solar, wind, and storage ensures more consistent power output by compensating for the variability of individual sources.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] How much of India’s energy requirements are met by renewable energy by 2030 ? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above objective? Explain.
Linkage: The article talks about the India has achieved a significant milestone with 50% of its total electric power capacity sourced from non-fossil fuels (solar, wind, biomass, hydro, and nuclear power), the actual share of clean energy in the electricity supplied is below 30%. This question directly related to the India’s energy requirements are met by renewable energy.
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Why in the News?
Recently, a 20-year-old student in Odisha died after setting herself ablaze over ignored sexual harassment complaints, spotlighting the failure of redressal systems like Internal Complaint Committees (ICCs).
Why are crimes against women still rising despite strict laws?
- Inadequate Implementation of Legal Mechanisms: Institutions may not establish ICCs, or form them without independent or trained members, rendering them ineffective. Eg: The University Grants Commission (UGC) in 2022 reported that over 150 colleges across India had not constituted ICCs despite mandatory provisions under the 2013 POSH Act.
- Institutional Apathy and Lack of Accountability: Internal Complaint Committees (ICCs), mandated under the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act, 2013, are either non-functional or reactive rather than preventive. Eg: Following the Odisha incident, the State government had to direct all colleges to form ICCs within 24 hours, a reactionary step rather than proactive enforcement.
- Underreporting and Social Stigma: Many women do not report crimes due to fear of social backlash, victim-blaming, or lack of faith in the justice system. Eg: According to NCRB 2022, 4,45,256 crimes against women were registered, a 4% increase over 2021, with experts noting that many cases still go unreported, masking the real extent of violence.
- Lack of Awareness and Sensitisation: Many students and staff are unaware of their rights or how to report harassment, leading to silence and inaction. Eg: A 2023 survey by the All India Democratic Women’s Association (AIDWA) found that over 60% of women students in rural colleges were unaware of the existence of Internal Complaint Committees (ICCs).
How effective are Internal Complaint Committees?
- Effectiveness Varies Across Institutions: While ICCs are mandated under the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act, 2013, their effectiveness depends on proper constitution, independence, and stakeholder awareness. In many cases, ICCs exist only on paper.
- Lack of Training and Sensitisation Hampers Functioning: ICC members often lack training, legal knowledge, and sensitivity in handling cases, leading to mistrust and poor case resolution.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- Legal Reforms: Enacted the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 post-Nirbhaya case, which introduced stricter punishments for rape, stalking, acid attacks, and voyeurism.
- Institutional Mechanisms: Made it mandatory to form Internal Complaint Committees (ICCs) under the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 in all workplaces and educational institutions.
- Technology and Support Initiatives: Launched measures like the One Stop Centres, Women Helpline (181), and Nirbhaya Fund for setting up CCTV, panic buttons in public transport, and support for survivors of violence.
What steps can improve institutional accountability? (Way forward)
- Strict Enforcement of ICC Guidelines: Ensure timely formation, training, and functioning of Internal Complaint Committees (ICCs) with regular audits and penalties for non-compliance.
- Transparent Grievance Redressal Systems: Establish time-bound complaint resolution mechanisms, publicly accessible reporting channels, and third-party oversight to reduce bias.
- Protection and Support for Victims: Guarantee anonymity, non-retaliation, and access to counselling/legal aid for complainants to build trust in the system.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2017] Is the National Commission for Women able to strategize and tackle the problems that women face at both public and private spheres? Give reasons in support of your answer.
Linkage: The articles highlights the worrying trend of sexual violence occurring in spaces often considered safe, such as school and college campuses or workplaces. This PYQ directly addresses the effectiveness of institutional mechanisms by asking about the ability of the National Commission for Women (NCW) to tackle “problems that women face at both public and private spheres.
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Why in the News?
The Union Cabinet has approved the Prime Minister Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana (PMDDKY), aimed at enhancing agricultural productivity, promoting sustainable practices, and improving rural livelihoods.
About Prime Minister Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana (PMDDKY)
- Objective: Aims to transform agriculture in 100 low-performing districts by addressing productivity gaps.
- Inspiration: Modelled on NITI Aayog’s Aspirational Districts Programme; first scheme focused solely on agriculture and allied sectors.
- Launch: Announced in Union Budget 2025–26 and approved by the Union Cabinet chaired by PM Narendra Modi.
- Approach: Driven by convergence of schemes, collaboration across stakeholders, and healthy competition among districts.
Key Features:
- Scheme Integration: Merges 36 schemes from 11 ministries into one unified framework.
- Budget & Duration: ₹24,000 crore annual outlay for six years (starting 2025–26).
- District Selection:
- 100 districts with low productivity, cropping intensity, and credit access
- At least one district from each state/UT
- Focus Areas:
- Boosting productivity
- Promoting crop diversification and sustainability
- Improving irrigation and water efficiency
- Expanding post-harvest storage
- Enhancing credit access
- Performance Monitoring: Monthly ranking on 117 Key Performance Indicators (KPI) via centralized dashboard.
- Support Mechanism: NITI Aayog to provide capacity-building and reviews.
- Expert Note: Credit-based selection criteria may require refinement.
Implementation:
- District Planning: Each district to prepare an Agriculture and Allied Activities Plan.
- Plan Approval: Handled by District Dhan Dhaanya Samiti, chaired by the Collector and including progressive farmers.
- National Alignment:
- Agricultural self-sufficiency
- Soil and water conservation
- Promotion of organic/natural farming
- Governance: Committees at district, state, and national levels to guide execution.
- Monitoring: Central Nodal Officers (CNOs) to conduct field visits and track progress.
- Technical Support: Agricultural universities to serve as knowledge partners.
- Expected Outcomes: Boost farm income, create local livelihoods, and support Atmanirbhar Bharat through enhanced agri-productivity.
| [UPSC 2020] Under the Kisan Credit Card scheme, short-term credit support is given to farmers for which of the following purposes?
1. Working capital for maintenance of farm assets
2. Purchase of combine harvesters, tractors and mini truck
3. Consumption requirements of farm households
4. Post-harvest expenses
5. Construction of family house and setting up of village cold storage facility
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only* (c) 2, 3, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 |
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Why in the News?
Researchers have reported the detection of an exceptionally massive black hole merger, labelled GW231123.
About Black Holes and Black Hole Merger:
- Overview: Black holes are extremely dense celestial objects whose gravitational pull is so strong that even light cannot escape.
- Types of Black Holes:
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- Stellar-mass: Around 20 times the mass of the Sun or more.
- Intermediate-mass: Between 100 and 100,000 times the mass of the Sun.
- Supermassive: From 100,000 to several billion times the mass of the Sun.
- Black Hole Merger:
- Occurs when two black holes orbit each other, lose energy via gravitational waves, and merge into a larger black hole.
- The GW231123 event involved black holes of approximately 140 and 100 solar masses, forming a final black hole of 225 solar masses — the largest detected through gravitational waves.
- Scientists suggest such massive black holes may form via hierarchical mergers (successive black hole mergers).
- Supports theories on the formation of supermassive black holes, often found at galactic centers.
Recent Observations:
- Event Timing: The GW231123 event was detected on November 23, 2023, though it occurred billions of years ago.
- Signal Characteristics:
- Lasted only a tenth of a second but matched Einstein’s predictions under General Relativity.
- Both black holes were rapidly spinning, hinting at a complex formation history.
- Scientific Significance:
- Involved intermediate-mass black holes, rarely observed in nature.
- Challenges existing models of black hole formation via stellar collapse.
- Indicates the presence of black holes in the so-called “forbidden mass gap”.
- Conference Presentation:
- Findings to be presented at the 24th International Conference on General Relativity and Gravitation (GR24) and the 16th Edoardo Amaldi Conference on Gravitational Waves, held in Glasgow, UK (July 14–18, 2025).
- Broader Implications:
- Opens new questions about the origin of massive black holes.
- Offers insights into gravitational physics, cosmology, astrophysics, and potentially particle physics or cosmic string theory.
- Model refinements are ongoing to better understand such extreme cosmic phenomena.
Gravitational Wave Detection Network:
- Nature of Gravitational Waves: Invisible ripples in spacetime caused by cataclysmic cosmic events like black hole collisions; predicted by Einstein in 1916.
- Global Detection Network (LIGO–Virgo–KAGRA):
- Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO):
- Operates two detectors in the United States (in the states of Louisiana and Washington).
- First detected gravitational waves in 2015, leading to a Nobel Prize in Physics in 2017.
- Virgo Observatory: Located near Pisa, Italy and operated by the European Gravitational Observatory.
- Kamioka Gravitational Wave Detector (KAGRA): Located underground in the Kamioka mine, Japan, and notable for its cryogenic mirror technology.
- LIGO-India:
- Under construction in Hingoli, Maharashtra in partnership with the US National Science Foundation.
- Involves scientists from 17 Indian institutions.
| [UPSC 2019] Recently, scientists observed the merger of giant ‘blackholes’ billions of light-years away from the Earth.
What is the significance of this observation?
Options: (a) Higgs boson particles’ were detected. (b) Gravitational waves’ were detected * (c) Possibility of inter-galactic space travel through ‘wormhole’ was confirmed. (d) It enabled the scientists to understand ‘singularity’. |
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Why in the News?
Scientists at the National Institute of Plant Genome Research (NIPGR), Delhi, have successfully used CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology to enhance phosphate uptake and utilization in japonica rice.
Back2Basics: CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing
- What It Is: A powerful gene-editing tool that allows targeted changes to DNA sequences.
- Full Form: Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9.
- Nobel Prize: Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna won the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this discovery.
- Key Components:
- Cas9 Enzyme: Acts as molecular scissors to cut DNA at a specific location.
- Guide RNA (gRNA): Directs Cas9 to the exact DNA sequence to be edited.
- How It Works?
-
- A gRNA is designed to match the target DNA.
- Cas9 and gRNA form a complex inside the cell.
- The complex binds to the target and cuts the DNA.
- The cell’s repair system modifies the DNA—adding, deleting, or changing genetic material.
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About Japonica Rice:
- Overview: Japonica is one of the two major cultivated rice subspecies, the other being Indica.
- Research Use: The Nipponbare variety of Japonica was used in recent gene-editing experiments.
- Why Japonica is Preferred in Studies:
- High regeneration potential in tissue culture
- Easier genetic transformation and faster growth in lab conditions
- Relevance to India: While not widely cultivated in India, Japonica acts as a model variety for testing before applying results to Indian Indica varieties.
Key Features of the Japonica Rice Study:
- Gene Editing Technique: Used CRISPR-Cas9 to edit a 30 base-pair repressor binding site on the promoter of the OsPHO1;2 gene.
- Outcomes of the Edit:
- Enhanced phosphate uptake from the soil
- Improved phosphate transport from root to shoot
- Yield increased by up to 40% using only 10% of the usual phosphate fertilizer
- Normal seed traits retained: size, shape, starch, and phosphate levels
- Significance: Demonstrated precise, minimal gene editing as a proof-of-concept that can be adapted to Indian rice varieties.
| [UPSC 2018] With reference to the Genetically Modified mustard (GM mustard) developed in India, consider the following statements:
1. GM mustard has the genes of a soil bacterium that give the plant the property of pest-resistance to a wide variety of pests.
2. GM mustard has the genes that allow the plant cross-pollination and hybridization.
3. GM mustard has been developed jointly by the IARI and Punjab Agricultural University.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only * (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
To bridge the research capability gap in India’s state universities, the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) has launched the Prime Minister Professorships.
What is PM Professorships?
- Objective: A program to leverage retired experts and professionals to mentor emerging state universities.
- Relocation: Selected Professors must shift to host universities and offer sustained support.
- Goal: Democratize quality research across all regions and institutions.
- Eligibility:
Key Features:
- Host Institution Requirement
-
- Placement: At Category A “spoke” institutions under ANRF’s PAIR programme
- Type: Mainly state universities with limited research capacity
-
- Mentor faculty and students; Promote interdisciplinary collaboration.
- Enable 6-month internships in top institutions.
-
- ₹30 lakh annual fellowship
- ₹24 lakh annual research grant
- ₹1 lakh overhead to host university
-
- Tenure: Up to 5 years based on performance
- Full-time presence required
- No dual fellowship/salary
- IP rights per host institution norms
| [UPSC 2015] Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding National Innovation Foundation-India (NIF)?
1. NIF is an autonomous body of the Department of Science and Technology under the Central Government.
2. NIF is an initiative to strengthen the highly advanced scientific research in India’s premier scientific institutions in collaboration with highly advanced foreign scientific institutions.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 Only * b) 2 Only c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The National Institute of Epidemiology (ICMR-NIE) has launched a community-driven initiative to promote awareness and encourage the adoption of low-sodium salt substitutes.
About the Silent Salt Consumption Epidemic:
- What is it: The epidemic refers to the widespread, unmonitored intake of excess salt leading to chronic diseases.
- Silent Nature of the Problem: It remains “silent” as its health impacts like hypertension and heart ailments develop gradually over time.
- Cultural and Behavioral Factors: Cultural dietary habits and low public awareness contribute to its persistence.
- Public Health Recognition: ICMR-NIE has termed it a public health crisis, prompting intervention projects in selected states.
Salt Consumption in India:
- Urban-Rural Disparity: Urban Indians consume about 9.2 grams of salt per day, while rural populations consume around 5.6 grams—both above safe limits.
- Gender-Based Consumption Data: A national survey (2023) revealed men consume 8.9 grams and women 7.1 grams daily.
- Dietary Practices and Salt Intake: The excessive intake is tied to Indian cooking styles, snack consumption, and processed food habits.
WHO Directives on Salt Consumption:
- Recommended Salt Intake: WHO recommends a maximum daily salt intake of 5 grams per person.
- Global Average Consumption: The global average salt consumption stands at 10.8 grams/day, highlighting a universal public health challenge.
- Suggested Interventions: WHO encourages the use of low-sodium salt substitutes and public education campaigns to reduce consumption.
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Issues with High Salt Consumption:
- Health Impact: Linked to kidney stones, osteoporosis, high blood pressure, cardiovascular diseases, and strokes.
- Mortality Burden: Globally, excess salt intake is responsible for around 5 million deaths annually.
- Limited Access to Low-Sodium Salt: Only 28% of retail outlets in Chennai had low-sodium salt; just 4% availability in small grocery shops.
| [UPSC 2005] Assertion (A): The person with diabetes insipidus feels thirsty. Reason (R): A person with diabetes insipidus suffers from excess secretion of vasopressin.
Options: (a) A is true but R is false* (b) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A (c) A is false but R is true
(d) A is false but R is false |
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Why in the News?
CERN scientists have detected a tiny but significant difference in how matter and antimatter versions of baryons behave — offering clues to why matter dominates the universe, despite both being created equally after the Big Bang.
What is CERN’s LHCb Experiment?
- Location: At the Large Hadron Collider near Geneva, on the France–Switzerland border.
- Name: LHCb = Large Hadron Collider beauty; focuses on beauty (bottom) quarks.
- Started: Built in early 2000s; began collecting data in 2009.
- Purpose: Studies particle decay, especially of beauty quark-containing particles, to test the Standard Model and search for small anomalies.
Matter vs Antimatter – The Big Puzzle:
- Matter: Everything around us is made of it.
- Antimatter: Mirror image of matter, with opposite charges.
- Big Bang Theory: Both should have been produced equally — and destroyed each other.
- But…: Only matter remains — a mystery science is still trying to solve.
- CP Symmetry: Physics expects matter and antimatter to behave identically (Charge-Parity symmetry).
- CP Violation: When this symmetry breaks — possibly explaining why matter survived.
What did Scientists Discover?
- Focus: Lambda-b baryons and their antimatter versions.
- Finding: A small but clear CP violation — they decayed differently.
- Significance: First such discovery in baryons (previously seen only in mesons).
- Certainty: Highly reliable — only 1 in 3.5 million chance it’s random.
Why is this Important?
- Helps explain why the universe is made of matter.
- Expands discovery of CP violation to heavier particles.
- Could hint at physics beyond the Standard Model.
- Moves us closer to solving one of the universe’s biggest mysteries.
| [UPSC 2013] The efforts to detect the existence of Higgs boson particle have become frequent news in the recent past. What is/are the importance/importances of discovering this particle?
1. It will enable us to under-stand as to why elementary particles have mass. 2. It will enable us in the near future to develop the technology of transferring matter from one point to another without traversing the physical space between them. 3. It will enable us to create better fuels for nuclear fission.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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